Development Psychology

7-9% of AP Exam

Adolescence
Adolescence is the transitional stage between late childhood and the beginning of adulthood

Adolescence
Physical and Sexual Development
Puberty is the stage of adolescence in which an individual reaches sexual maturity and becomes physiologically capable of sexual reproduction. Although there is great individual variation in timing, puberty tends to follow a predictable sequence for each sex.

Adolescence
Primary and secondary sex characteristics
Internally, puberty involves the development of the primary sex characteristics, which are the sexual organs that are directly involved in reproduction, such as the uterus and testes. Externally, development of the secondary sex characteristics, which are not directly involved in reproduction, signal increasing sexual maturity. These include changes in height, weight, and body shape; appearance of body hair; voice changes; and, in girls, breast development

Adolescence
The period of marked acceleration in weight and height gains, called the adolescent growth spurt, occurs about two years earlier in females than in males A females first menstrual period, termed menarche, typically occurs around age 12 or 13.

Adolescence
Factors affecting the timing of puberty
Both genetics and environmental factors play a role in the timing of puberty
Girls often experience menarche at about the same age as their mothers did Generally, well-nourished and healthy children begin puberty earlier than do children who have experienced serious health problems or inadequate nutrition In general, heavy children begin puberty earlier than do lean children, and girls involved in physically demanding athletic activity can experience delays in menarche

Adolescence
The absence of the biological father in the home environment is linked to accelerated physical development Negative and stressful family environments are associated with an earlier onset of puberty, while positive family environments are associated with later physical development

Adolescence
Early versus late maturation
Most adolescents are on time maturational changes are occurring at roughly the same time for them as for others in their peer group For girls, early maturation is associated with a greater risk for a variety of negative health and psychological outcomes, such as poor body image, higher rates of teenage pregnancy, and unhealthy weight gain later in life

Adolescence
Early maturing boys tend to be popular with their peers, but they are also more susceptible to behaviors that put their health at risk. They are aso more prone to symptoms of depression, problems at school, and drug and alcohol use.

Adolescence
Social Development
As a general rule, when parent-child relationships have been good before adolescence, they continue to be relatively smooth during adolescence
Relationships with friends and peers become increasingly important Peer relationships tend to reinforce the traits and goals that parents fostered during childhood

Adolescence
Conflict between adolescents and their parents
Many developmental psychologists view the increased conflict in early and middle adolescence as healthy, a necessary stage in the adolescents development of increased independence and autonomy. Cross-cultural research suggests that parentadolescent conflict is a common dimension of family life in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures Even within cultural and ethnic groups that traditionally emphasize parental authority, adolescents are motivated to assert their independence and developing autonomy

Adolescence
Identity formation: Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development
Identity is a persons definition or description of himself or herself, including the values, beliefs, and ideals that guide the individuals behavior Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson proposed a theory of psychosocial development consisting of 8 stages of life, each associated with a particular psychosocial conflict that can be solved in either a positive or negative direction

Adolescence
According to Erikson, the key psychosocial conflict facing adolescents is identity versus role confusion
The adolescents path to successful identity achievement begins with role confusion. This is followed by a moratorium period. Gradually, the adolescent arrives at an integrated identity. Research has generally supported Eriksons description of the process of identity formation

Adolescence
The Development of Moral Reasoning
Moral Reasoning is the aspect of cognitive development that has to do with how an individual reasons about moral decisions

Adolescence
In his influential theory of moral development, psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards of society Each level has 2 stages that represent different degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning

Adolescence
Kohlberg and his colleagues found that
The responses of children under the age of 10 reflected preconventional moral reasoning based on selfinterest avoiding punishment and maximizing personal gain Beginning in late childhood and continuing through adolescence and adulthood, responses typically reflected conventional moral reasoning, which emphasizes social roles, rules, and obligations. Postconventional moral reasoning is guided by internalized legal and moral principles that protect the rights of all members of society

Adolescence
Criticisms of Kohlbergs theory
Research has not supported Kohlbergs belief that the development of abstract thinking in adolescence invariably leads people to the formation of idealistic moral principles Kohlbergs early research was conducted entirely with male subjects, yet it became the basis for a theory applied to both males and females

Adolescence
To Carol Gilligan, Kohlbergs model is based on an ethic of individual rights and justice, which is a more common perspective for males Gilligan has developed a model of womens moral development that is based on an ethic of care and responsibility Although men and women may approach moral matters from slightly different perspectives, when subjects are carefully matched on critical factors, such as level of education, there do not seem to be systematic gender differences in moral reasoning

Adolescence
Some cross-cultural psychologists argue that Kohlbergs stories and scoring system reflect a Western emphasis on individual rights, harm, and justice that is not shared in many cultures

Adult Development
Physical Changes
Your unique genetic blueprint greatly influences the unfolding of certain physical changes during adulthood. For example, menopause, the cessation of menstruation that signals the end of reproductive capacity in women, may occur anywhere from the late thirties to the early fifties Staying mentally and physically active and eating a proper diet can both slow and minimize the degree of physical decline associated with aging

Adult Development
Physical strength typically peaks in early adulthood, the 20s and 30s; by middle adulthood, roughly from the 40s to mid-60s, physical strength and endurance gradually decline; and during late adulthood, from the mid-60s on, physical stamina and reaction time tend to decline further and faster

Adult Development
Social Development
In his theory of psychosocial development, Erik Erikson described 2 fundamental themes that dominate adulthood: love and work
According to Erikson, the primary psychosocial task of early adulthood is to form a committed, mutually enhancing, intimate relationship with another person During middle adulthood, the primary psychosocial task becomes one of generativity, to contribute to future generations through your children, your career, and other meaningful activities

Adult Development
Friends and lovers in adulthood
Female friends tend to confide in one another about their feelings, problems, and interpersonal relationships Male friends typically minimize discussions about relationships or personal feelings or problems; instead, male friends tend to do things together that they find mutually interesting, such as activities related to sports or hobbies Today, many young adults postpone marriage so they can finish their education and establish a career. In 2000, the median age for first marriage was 27 for men and 25 for women.

Adult Development
As a general rule, we tend to be attracted to and marry people who are similar to us on a variety of dimensions, including physical attractiveness, social and educational status, ethnic background, attitudes, values, and beliefs

The transition to parenthood: Kids R us?

Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the birth of the first child and rise again after the children leave home Becoming a parent at an older age and waiting longer after marriage to start a family help ease the adjustment to parenthood

Adult Development
Variations in the paths of adult social development
In the 1990s, well over 3 million unmarried couples were living together More than 30% of children are being raised by a single parent More than of all first marriages end in divorce, so remarrying and starting a second family later in life is not unusual There are also gay and lesbian couples in committed, longterm monogamous relationships In the final analysis, any relationship that promotes the overall sense of happiness and well-being of the people involved is a successful one

Adult Development
Careers in adulthood
Researchers have found that close to a 1/3 of people in their late 20s and early 30s do not just change jobs within a particular field they completely switch occupational fields Dual-career families have become increasingly common Although many fathers are actively involved in child rearing, women still tend to have primary responsibility for child care

Adult Development
Multiple roles seem to provide both men and women with a greater potential for increased feelings of selfesteem, happiness, and competence. The critical factor is not the number of roles that people take on but the quality of their experiences on the job, in the marriage, and as a parent.

Late Adulthood and Aging

Health in Late Adulthood
The average life expectancy for men in the US is about 74 years; for women, it is about 79 years. The majority of older adults live healthy, active, and self-sufficient lives. Only 4.5% of those age 65 and over live in nursing homes; among those age 85 and over, it is fewer than 20% The number of older adults in the US has been gradually increasing over the past several decades. Today, 1 in 8 Americans is 65 or older

Late Adulthood and Aging

Cognitive Changes
Psychologist K. Warner Schaie and his colleagues have found that general intellectual abilities gradually increase until ones early forties, then become relatively stable until about age 60, when a small but steadily increasing percentage of older adults experience slight declines on tests of general intellectual abilities. Schaie found that those who were better educated and engaged in physical and mental activities throughout older adulthood showed the smallest declines in mental abilities

Late Adulthood and Aging

Social Development
According to the activity theory of aging, life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when peole maintain their pervious level of activity. For many older adults, care giving responsibilities (for grandchildren or other older adults) can persist well into late adulthood. The social support provided by a confidant yields important psychological benefits, such as higher morale, better mental healthy, and better psychological well-being

Late Adulthood and Aging

Along with satisfying social relationships, the prescription for psychological well being in old age includes achieving what Erik Erikson called ego integrity- the feeling that ones life has been meaningful. In contrast, those who are filled with regrets or bitterness about past mistakes, missed opportunities, or bad decisions experience despair. Often the theme of ego integrity vs. despair emerges as older adults engage in a life review

The Final Chapter: Dying and Death

Attitudes toward dying and death are as diverse in late adulthood as they are throughout the lifespan. In general, anxiety about death tends to peak in middle adulthood, then to decrease in late adulthood

The Final Chapter: Dying and Death

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross proposed that they dying go through 5 stages. They:
Deny that death is imminent Fell and express anger that they are dying Bargain (try to make a deal with doctors, relatives, or God) Become depressed Accept their fate

Further research indicates that dying individuals so not necessarily progress through a predictable sequence of stages. Dying is as individual a process as is living. People cope with the prospect of dying much as they have coped with other stresses in their lives

Application: Raising Psychologically Healthy Children

Basic Parenting Styles
Parents with an authoritarian parenting style are demanding and unresponsive toward their childrens needs and wishes Parents with a permissive parenting style may be permissive-indulgent (responsive, warm, and accepting, but impose few rules and rarely punish) or permissive-indifferent (unresponsive and uncontrolling)

Application: Raising Psychologically Healthy Children

Parents with an authoritative parenting style set clear standards for their childrens behavior but are warm, responsive, and involved with their children

Effects on Children
Authoritarian- parents are likely to be moody, unhappy, fearful, withdrawn, unspontaneous, and irritable; this style promotes resentment and rebellion

Application: Raising Psychologically Healthy Children

Permissive- parents tend to be immature, impulsive, and aggressive, and they may never learn self-control Authoritative- parents tend to be cheerful, socially competent, energetic, and friendly. They show high levels of self-esteem; self-reliance, and self-control

Application: Raising Psychologically Healthy Children

How to be an Authoritative Parent: Some Practical Suggestions
Let your children know that you love them Listen to your children Use induction to teach as you discipline Work with your childs temperamental qualities Understand your childs age-related cognitive abilities and limitations Dont expect perfection, and learn to go with the flow