Dari Wikipedia, ensiklopedi gratis In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands

that sit atop the kidneys; in humans, the right suprarenal gland is triangular shaped, while the left suprarenal gland is semilunar shaped. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as epinephrine. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, a hormone involved in regulating the osmolarity of blood plasma. Anatomy and Physiology Anatomically, the adrenal glands are located in the retroperitoneum situated atop the kidneys, one on each side. They are surrounded by an adipose capsule and renal fascia. In humans, the adrenal glands are found at the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra. Each adrenal gland has two distinct structures, the adrenal cortex and the medulla, both of which produce hormones. The cortex mainly produces cortisol, aldosterone and androgens, while the medulla chiefly produces epinephrine and norepinephrine. The combined weight of the adrenal glands in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. Suprarenal capsule, a ductless gland secreting epinephrine, norepinephrine, and steroid hormones, on the upper end of each kidney. It is also called the adrenal gland, glandula suprarenalis, suprarenal gland, epinephros, atrabiliary capsule, and adrenal capsule. [1913 Webster +PJC] ||

adrenal gland Triangular endocrine gland situated on top of the kidney. (The name derives from the Latin word for kidney ad-renal and supra-renal meaning next to and above the kidney, respectively). The adrenals are soft and yellow, and consist of two parts: the cortex and medulla. The cortex (outer part) secretes various steroid hormones and other hormones that control salt and water metabolism and regulate the use of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The medulla (inner part) secretes the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline which, during times of stress, cause the heart to beat faster and harder, increase blood flow to the heart and muscle cells, and dilate airways in the lungs, thereby delivering more

oxygen to cells throughout the body and in general preparing the body for fight or flight. The hormones produced by the cortex can be divided into three main classes according to their function. 1. Adrenal androgens These are basically sex hormones. Their functions include the normal development of male sex organs, the growth of axillary and pubic hair at puberty, the stimulation of sebum (grease) production in skin, and the development of greater muscular power seen in men. This latter property of the adrenal androgens, the so-called anabolic effect, has led to searches for synthetic steroids that have the muscle-building power of the natural products without the side effects. Many weightlifters and bodybuilders (and perhaps some female shot-putters) have contributed to their success by careful use of synthetic adrenal androgens. 2. Mineralocorticoids The principal hormone in this group is aldosterone, and its function is to maintain the sodium and potassium ions (the minerals) in the body at a steady level. The hormone does this by influencing the kidney; when aldosterone is at a high concentration in the blood, the kidney retains more sodium and loses more potassium than normal. Removal of the adrenal glands in humans causes death through lack of aldosterone, for without aldosterone the body's sodium rapidly disappears via the urine, and sodium is essential for maintaining the volume of circulating blood. Failure of the adrenal glands is called hypoadrenalism or Addison's disease. 3. Glucocorticoids The most important in this class of hormones is cortisol (hydrocortisone). The glucocorticoids have a wide range of effects which include the maintenance of normal blood pressure, the ability to respond to stress, and the maintenance of normal levels of blood glucose. When present in excess, the glucocorticoids inhibit the body's inflammatory responses, and the successful treatment of chronic inflammatory disease (for example, rheumatoid arthritis) with steroid drugs bears this out. Overproduction of glucocorticoids can occur

spontaneously, and is known as Cushing's disease.

adrenal gland (drn`l) or suprarenal gland (s prrn`l), endocrine gland (see endocrine system ) about 2 in. (5.1 cm) long situated atop each kidney. The outer yellowish layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland secretes about 30 steroid hormones, the most important of which are aldosterone and cortisol . Cortisol regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism, and its secretion is controlled by the output of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland. Aldosterone regulates water and salt balance in the body; its secretion is only slightly influenced by the pituitary. Steroid hormones also counteract inflammation and allergies and influence the secondary sex characteristics to a limited degree. The adrenal cortex controls metabolic processes that are essential to life and if it ceases to function death ensues within a few days. Artificial synthesis of the steroid hormones has made it possible to treat many conditions related to underactivity of the adrenal cortex, e.g., Addison's disease . The inner reddish portion (medulla) of the adrenal gland, which is not functionally related to the adrenal cortex, secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine. The release of these hormones is stimulated when an animal is excited or frightened, causing increased heart rate, increased blood flow to the muscles, elevated blood sugar, dilation of the pupils of the eyes, and other changes that increase the body's ability to meet sudden emergencies. Either of two small triangular endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys. In humans, each gland weighs about 0.18 oz (5 g) and consists of an inner medulla, which produces the catecholamine hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, and an outer cortex (about 90% of the gland), which secretes the steroid hormones aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens (the last two in response to ACTH from the pituitary gland). Diseases of the adrenal glands include pheochromocytoma (a tumour of the medulla) and the cortical disorders Addison disease, adrenal hypertrophy, Cushing syndrome, and primary aldosteronism. An endocrine organ located close to the kidneys of vertebrates and consisting of two morphologically distinct components, the cortex and medulla. Also known as suprarenal gland. A complex endocrine organ in proximity to the kidney. Adrenal gland tissue is present in all vertebrates. The adrenal consists of two functionally distinct tissues: steroidogenic cells and catecholamine-secreting cells. While adrenal refers to the gland's proximity to the kidney, significant variation exists among vertebrates in its anatomic location as well as the relationship of the two endocrine tissues which make up the gland. In mammals, steroidogenic cells are separated into distinct zones that together form a cortex. This cortical tissue surrounds the catecholaminesecreting cells, constituting the medulla. In most other vertebrates, this unique anatomic corticalmedullary relationship is not present. In species of amphibians and fish, adrenal cells are found intermingling with kidney tissue, and the steroidogenic cells are often termed interrenal tissue. Development

The adrenal gland forms from two primordia: cells of mesodermal origin which give rise to the steroid-secreting cells, and neural cells of ectodermal origin which develop into the

catecholamine-secreting tissue (also known as chromaffin tissue). In higher vertebrates, mesenchymal cells originating from the coelomic cavity near the genital ridge proliferate to form a cluster of cells destined to be the adrenal cortex. During the second month of human development, cells of the neural crest migrate to the region of the developing adrenal and begin to proliferate on its surface. The expanding cortical tissue encapsulates the neural cells forming the cortex and medulla. In mammals, three distinct zones form within the cortex: the outermost zona glomerulosa, the middle zona fasiculata, and the inner zona reticularis. The glomerulosa cells contain an enzyme, aldosterone synthase, which converts corticosterone to aldosterone, the principal steroid (mineralocorticoid) secreted from this zone. The inner zones (fasiculata and reticularis) primarily secrete glucocorticoids and large amounts of sex steroid precursors. In many lower vertebrates, the two tissues form from similar primordia but migrate and associate in different ways to the extent that in some cases the two tissues develop in isolation from each other.
Comparative anatomy

While the paired adrenals in mammals have a characteristic cortical-medullary arrangement with distinct zonation present in the cortex, such distinctions are lacking in nonmammalian species. In more primitive fishes, chromaffin cells form in isolation from steroidogenic tissue. A general trend is present, however, throughout vertebrates for a closer association of chromaffin and steroidogenic tissues. Zonation in steroidogenic tissue is largely confined to mammals, although suggestions of separate cell types have been postulated in birds and in some other species.
Comparative endocrinology

Hormones are secreted from the cells of both the medulla and the cortex.
Chromaffin cells

In all vertebrates, chromaffin cells secrete catecholamines into circulation. In most species, the major catecholamine secreted is epinephrine, although significant amounts of norepinephrine are released by many animals. Some dopamine is also secreted. No phylogenetic trend is obvious to explain or predict the ratio of epinephrine to norepinephrine secreted in a given species. A given species may release the two catecholamines in different ratios, depending on the nature of the stimulus. The great majority of the norepinephrine in circulation actually originates from that which is released from non-adrenal sympathetic nerve endings and leaks into the bloodstream. In addition to catecholamines, chromaffin cells secrete an array of other substances, including proteins such as chromogranin A and opioid peptides. See Epinephrine Biologic effects of catecholamines are mediated through their binding to two receptor classes, - and -adrenergic receptors. Further examination of these receptors has revealed that subclasses of each type exist and likely account for the responses on different target tissues. In general, biologic responses to catecholamines include mobilization of glucose from liver and muscle, increased alertness, increased heart rate, and stimulation of metabolic rate.
Steroid hormones

In broad terms, most steroids secreted by adrenal steroidogenic cells are glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, or sex hormone precursors. However, these classes have been established largely on the basis of differential actions in mammals. The principal glucocorticoids are cortisol and corticosterone, while the main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone. This division of action holds for mammalian species and likely for reptiles and birds. In other vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, steroids from the interrenal tissue do not show such specialized actions; instead, most show activities of both glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid type. Mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians secrete cortisol, corticosterone, and aldosterone. The ratios of the two glucocorticoids vary across species; in general, corticosterone is the more important product in nonmammalian species. Even within mammals, a large variation exists across species, due to the relative ratio of cortisol to corticosterone from the adrenal cortex. Effects of adrenal-derived steroids in lower vertebrates involve a diverse array of actions, including control of distribution and availability of metabolic fuels such as glucose, and regulation of sodium and extracellular fluid volume. In nonmammalian vertebrates, corticosterone, cortisol, and aldosterone possess mineralocorticoid effects. Other areas where adrenal steroids likely contribute to biologic processes include control of protein, fat, and carbohydrate balance; reproduction; and growth and development. See Steroid

Classes 1 and 3 of the adrenal cortical hormones are released from the gland under the influence of another hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH, adrenal-cortex-growth hormone), which is released from the pituitary gland under the influence of the hypothalamus; without ACTH the adrenal cortex shrivels up (atrophies). It is clear that disease of the adrenal cortex can result from disordered function of the adrenal gland itself or of the pituitary gland.