India Transport Sector

Indias transport sector is large and diverse; it caters to the needs of 1.1 billion people. In 2007, the sector contributed about 5.5 percent to the nations GDP, with road transportation contributing the lions share. Good physical connectivity in the urban and rural areas is essential for economic growth. Since the early 1990s, India's growing economy has witnessed a rise in demand for transport infrastructure and services. However, the sector has not been able to keep pace with rising demand and is proving to be a drag on the economy. Major improvements in the sector are required to support the country's continued economic growth and to reduce poverty. Railways. Indian Railways is one of the largest railways under single management. It carries some 17 million passengers and 2 million tonnes of freight a day in year 2007 and is one of the worlds largest employers. The railways play a leading role in carrying passengers and cargo across India's vast territory. However, most of its major corridors have capacity constraint requiring capacity enhancement plans. Roads. Roads are the dominant mode of transportation in India today. They carry almost 90 percent of the countrys passenger traffic and 65 percent of its freight. The density of Indias highway network -- at 0.66 km of highway per square kilometer of land is similar to that of the United States (0.65) and much greater than China's (0.16) or Brazil's (0.20). However, most highways in India are narrow and congested with poor surface quality, and 40 percent of Indias villages do not have access to all-weather roads. Rural Roads- A Lifeline for Villages in India: Connecting Hinterland to Social Services and markets Ports. India has 12 major and 187 minor and intermediate ports along its more than 7500 km long coastline. These ports serve the countrys growing foreign trade in petroleum products, iron ore, and coal, as well as the increasing movement of containers. Inland water transportation remains largely undeveloped despite India's 14,000 kilometers of navigable rivers and canals. Aviation. India has 125 airports, including 11 international airports. TIndian airports handled 96 million passengers and 1.5 million tonnes of cargo in year 2006-2007, an increase of 31.4% for passenger and 10.6% for cargo traffic over previous year. The dramatic increase in air traffic for both passengers and cargo in recent years has placed a heavy strain on the country's major airports. Passenger traffic is projected to cross 100 million and cargo to cross 3.3 million tonnes by year 2010. Transport infrastructure in India is better developed in the southern and southwestern parts of the country.
Following are the major functions of the Transport Division: A. Transport

Addressing policy issues concerning railways, roads, road transport, shipping, ports, inland water transport and civil aviation for improving efficiency and making these sectors more responsive to the present and future requirements of the country. Addressing inter-modal issues for improving coordination among different transport sectors and ensuring that each sector works according to its comparative advantage and efficiency. Organizing Quarterly Performance Review Meetings for different transport sectors to monitor progress of transport sector projects according to Plan priorities and targets. Carrying out zero-based budgeting in consultation with various transport sector Ministries to improve efficiency and utilization of resources according to Plan priorities and objectives. Work relating to Parliamentary Committees for different transport sectors. Examining Five Year and Annual Plan proposals received from the States, Union Territories and North Eastern Council in respect of transport sectors. Discussions with the representatives of the State Governments and Union Territories to review physical targets, programmes and outlays of Five Year and Annual Plans of States and Union Territories. Examining the proposals of State Governments for provision of Additional Central Assistance. Participation in various workshops and seminars relating to the transport sector. Formulation, appraisal and monitoring of Five Year and Annual Plans. Mid-term review of Five Year Plans. Providing inputs for the Working Group Reports on the various transport sectors; preparing Steering Committee Report on Transport Sector.

Specific sector-wise responsibilities are as under: I. Railways

Study of Railways Resources position. Integrating and coordinating development plans for Railway transport with plans in related sectors such as industry, mining and ports. Examination and appraisal of railway projects relating to new lines, gauge conversions, doubling, metropolitan transport projects, electrification for clearance. Monitoring of traffic handled by railways Determination of traffic targets based on inter-sector linkages.

II. Roads

Evaluation of project reports/feasibility studies for consideration of Public Investment Board, Expenditure Finance Committee/Standing Finance Committee. Examination of schemes received from the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways for clearance of the Planning Commission relating to National Highways, Strategic roads, Roads of Economic and Inter-State importance, road development in sensitive border areas and tribal roads. Review and Monitoring of National Highway Development Project comprising Golden Quadrilateral and North-South, East-West corridor projects. Examination of proposals from various States in the North- Eastern region for providing assistance through Non-lapsable Central Pool of Resources. Examining proposals received for the consideration of High Powered Committee on BOT projects. Examining proposals relating to National Highway Development Project for consideration of National Highways Authority of India Board.

III. Road Transport

Analytical review of operations and assessment of financial resources of Road Transport Corporations of various States. Preparation of Review notes of functioning of State Road Transport Undertakings/Corporations for improving efficiency.

IV. Shipping

V. Ports

Analytical review of operations and assessment of financial resources of Public Sector Undertakings. Coordinating investment programme with a view to ensuring integrated development of ports, shipping and railways. Reviewing and assessing the performance of Indian shipping industry with regard to traffic carried and productivity improvement. Requirement of the Indian Shipping sector is assessed taking into account traffic mix, technological development and port facilities available. Assessment of financial performance of shipping industry, role of Government/financial institutions in financing acquisition and suggesting alternative measures of financing and resource mobilisation.

Evaluation of Project Reports/Feasibility Studies for consideration of Public Investment Board/Expenditure Finance Committee/Standing Finance Committee. 2.Assessing port capacities and the traffic requirements at individual ports. 3.Port productivity indicators such as equipment, cargo-handling system, labour productivity monitored so that norms of productivity laid down should be fulfilled and improved. Reviewing the working of major ports with particular reference to their development programmes, financial resources, projection of traffic.

VI. Inland Water Transport.

Examination of Project/Reports/Feasibility Studies for consideration of Public Investment Board/Expenditure Finance Committee.

VII. Civil Aviation

Reviewing the Working of Public Sector Corporations like Air India, Indian Airlines, International Airports Authority of India with particular reference to growth of traffic and financial results. Evaluation of Project Reports/Feasibility Studies for acquisition of aircrafts, development of airports and associated programmes for consideration of Public Investment Boards/EFC/SFC. Matters relating to restructuring of metro air ports to make them world class.

The advantages and disadvantages of air transport. Air transport is of recent origin in the development of transport system of a country. It is the gift of 20th century to the world. The second world ware has stimulated the growth of air transport and it has made progress in the recent years because it is the fastest way of transporting of goods. The transport of goods through airways is costly and therefore it is designated to carry costly goods of small quantity. When goods or passengers are carried by air, certain documents are issued because the carriage of Air Act, 1972 has made it obligatory. The documents issued when goods or passengers are carried are: 1. Passenger Ticket 2. Luggage Ticket 3. Air Consignment Note. In India two nationalized airways operate which help in the conduct of air transport. These airways are the Indian Air Lines and the Air India International. The former is concerned for domestic operation whereas the later is concerned for international operation.

Advantages The following are some of the advantages of air transport: I. High Speed: Air transport is the fastest mode of transport and therefore suitable carriage of goods over a long distance requiring less time. There is no substitute for air transport when the transport of goods is required urgently. II. Quick Service: Air transport provides comfortable, efficient and quick transport service. It is regarded as best mode of transport for transporting perishable goods. III. No Infrastructure Investment: Air transport does not give emphasis on construction of tracks like railways. As no capital investment in surface track is needed, it is a less costly mode of transport. IV. Easy Access: Air transport is regarded as the only means of transport in those areas which are not easily accessible to other modes of transport. It is therefore accessible to all areas regardless the obstruction of land. V. No Physical Barrier: Air transport is free from physical barriers because it follows the shortest and direct routes where seas, mountains and forests do not obstruct. VI. Natural Route: Aircrafts travels to any place without any natural obstacles or barriers. Because the custom formalities are compiled very quickly. It avoids delay in obtaining clearance. VII. National Defence: It plays a significant role in the national defense of the country because modern wars are conducted with the help of aero planes. Airways has a upper hand a destroying the enemy in a short period. Disadvantages Inspite of many advantages air transport has a number of disadvantages. These disadvantages are: I. Risky: Air transport is the most risky form of transport because a minor accident may put a substantial loss to the goods, passengers and the crew. The chances of accidents are greater in comparison to other modes of transport. II. Very Costly: Air transport is regarded as the costliest mode of transport. The operating cost of aero-planes are higher and it involves a great deal of expenditure on the construction of aerodromes and aircraft. Because of this reason the fare of air transport are so high that it becomes beyond the reach the common people. III. Small Carrying Capacity: The aircrafts have small carrying capacity and therefore these are not suitable for carrying bulky and cheaper goods. the load capacity cannot be increased as it is found in case of rails. IV. Unreliable: Most of the air transport are uncertain and the unreliable because these are controlled by weather condition. It is seriously affected by adverse weather conditions. Fog, snow and heavy rain weather may cause cancellation of some flights. V. Huge Investment: Air transport requires huge investment for construction and maintenance of aerodromes. It also requires trained, experienced and skilled personnel which involves a substantial investment.

Flexibility in Highway Design

Chapter 4: Design Controls
In addition to functional classification, there are a number of design controls that affect the geometry of a highway. (Rt. 71, IL)
Refer to Chapter II of the AASHTO Green Book

BACKGROUND In order to design the basic elements of a highwayincluding its alinement and cross sectionthe designer must have an understanding of the basic design controls and criteria associated with the highway. One of the most important, highway functional classification, was discussed in Chapter 3. Other important design controls include, but are not limited to the following:
The design speed of the facility The acceptable degree of congestion (i.e., the designyear peakhour level of

service) on the facility

The physical characteristics of the "design vehicle" (i.e., the largest vehicle

that is likely to use the facility with considerable frequency); in virtually all instances, the highway design vehicle is an overtheroad tractortrailer The performance of the design vehicle (particularly important in terms of accommodating heavy trucks in mountainous terrain or buses and recreational vehicles in areas subject to high levels of tourist activity)
The capabilities of the typical driver along the facility (i.e., local residents using

lowspeed neighborhood streets versus interstate travelers on rural freeways)

The existing and designyear traffic demands to be placed on the facility (e.g.,

daily and peakhour traffic volumes, the mix of passenger cars and trucks on the facility)

Two of the most important of these factors are design speed and peakhour level of service. This chapter will focus on these two important criteria. The peakhour level of service, however, only serves as a controlling factor for a small number of highways. For most highways, after the functional classification and associated design speed for a particular highway facility have been established, the degree of flexibility available to the designer is significantly limited.

Speed limits are not the same as the design speed. They are regulatory limits enforceable by law.

Design Speed Design speed is defined by the AASHTO Green Book as: ...the maximum safe

speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern. Table 4.1 Relationship Between Design Controls and Design Features
Design Features Lane width, rural Lane width, urban Rural shoulder width, type Urban shoulder width, type Guiderail offset Degree of curve Grades Bridge clearances (horizontal & vertical) Stopping sight distance Superelevation Widening on curves Rural design speeds Urban design speeds X X X X X X X Functional Classification X X Design Controls Traffic Data X X Terrain Locale Design Speed X

X X X

X X

Source: Location and Design Manual, Vol. 1, Roadway Design, Ohio DOT. All geometric design elements of the highway are affected in some way by the selected design speed. Some roadway design elements are related directly to and vary appreciably with design speed. These include horizontal curvature, superelevation, sight distance, and gradient (see Table 4.1). Other elements are less related to design speed, such as pavement and shoulder width and clearances to walls and traffic barriers. The design of these features can, however, affect vehicle operating speeds significantly. As a result, more stringent criteria for these features are generally recommended for highways with higher design speeds. Conversely, less stringent criteria for these features may be more appropriate on roadways with lower design speeds. The selection of a particular design speed is influenced by the following:
The functional classification of the highway The character of the terrain

 The density and character of adjacent land uses The traffic volumes expected to use the highway The economic and environmental considerations.

Typically, an arterial highway warrants a higher design speed than a local road; a highway located in level terrain warrants a higher design speed than one in mountainous terrain; a highway in a rural area warrants a higher design speed than one in an urban area; and a highvolume highway warrants a higher design speed than one carrying low traffic volumes.

(Left) Lower design speeds are appropriate for city streets.

(Right) Higher volume rural highway facilities should use higher design speeds.

As discussed in Chapter 3, most States and localities have adopted a range of acceptable design speeds for each of the major classes of highways and streets (i.e., freeway, other arterial, collector, and local). Table 4.2 illustrates typical minimum design speeds for various types of highways located in level, rolling, and mountainous terrain.
Freeways Terrain Flat Rolling Design Speeds Rural 70-80 60-70 Urban 70 60-70 50-60

Table 4.2 Typical Minimum Design Speeds for Various Types of Highways (in mph)

Mountainous 50-60

Arterial Highways Terrain Flat Rolling Rural 60-70 40-60 30-50 Mountainous 30-50 30-50 Urban 30-60

Collector and Local Roads Terrain Flat Rolling Rural 30-50 20-40 Urban 30-40 20-40 20-30

Mountainous 20-30

Source: Traffic Engineering Handbook (Fourth Edition), Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, DC, 1992, p. 156. Note: 1 mile/hr =

1.613 km/hr
The values presented in Table 4.2 are minimum acceptable design speeds for the various conditions of terrain and traffic volumes associated with new or reconstructed highway facilities. Designers need to balance the advantages of a higher vehicle operating speed gained through the use of a higher design speed against the flexibility lost in design. It may be more important to retain the maximum possible flexibility, so that a contextsensitive roadway that is more in tune with the needs of a community is designed using a lower design speed. As used here, the term "context sensitive" refers primarily to the land use and environmental conditions adjacent to the highway. For example, for any particular highway other than a freeway or major arterial, as land use density increases, the design speed would typically decrease. The design speed of an urban collector street passing through a residential neighborhood should be appreciably lower than that for a rural highway with the same functional classification. This also recognizes the fact that bicycles and pedestrians would be more likely to use a route located in an urban area. Similarly, in areas that have significant historic interest or visual quality, a lower design speed may be appropriate in recognition of lower average operating ,speeds and the need to avoid affecting these historic or aesthetic resources. The Green Book agrees with this philosophy: Aboveminimum design values should be used where feasible, but in view of the numerous constraints often encountered, practical values should be recognized and used. Along arterial streets, the controlling factor of design speed applies to a lesser degree than on rural highways or hightype urban facilities, such as freeways or expressways. On many of the arterial streets located in large urban areas, maximum vehicle operating speeds for several hours of the day may be limited to those at which the recurring peak period traffic volumes can be accommodated. Thus, speeds may be governed by the presence of other vehicles traveling en masse both in and across the through travel lanes and by traffic control devices, rather than by the physical characteristics of the street. During offpeak periods of lowtomoderate traffic demand, vehicle operating speeds are governed by such factors as speed limits, midblock turns, intersection turns, number of driveways and entrances, traffic signal spacing, and signal timing. As a result, when arterial street improvements are being planned, the selection of the appropriate design speed must be balanced against such factors as speed limits, physical and economic constraints, and the probable running speeds that can be attained during offpeak hours. Although most States have adopted a range of allowable design speeds appropriate for each of the various functional classifications for use in the design of new or reconstructed highway facilities, situations may arise where even the use of the lowest typically acceptable value would result in unacceptably high construction or rightofway costs or unacceptable impact on adjacent properties. In such instances, the design exception process discussed in Chapter 2 can be employed. For example, the reconstruction of a twolane rural arterial route through a relatively flat but environmentally sensitive area might need to employ a design speed of 80 km/h (50 mph) rather than the recommended value for this functional classification of 100 km/h (60 mph) shown in Table 4.2. PeakHour Level of Service Once an appropriate design speed has been selected, the other basic defining elements of the highway (i.e., the number of lines and the basic configuration of junctions with other highway facilities) can be determined through application of the concept of acceptable peakhour level of service. Level of service is a grading system for amount of congestion, using the letter A to represent the least amount of congestion and F to refer to the greatest amount. For a comprehensive treatment of this topic, refer to the Highway Capacity Manual'. Table 4.3 presents a brief description of the operating characteristics associated with each level of service.

As congestion approaches capacity, speed decreases.

Level of Service A B

Description

Table 4.3 Level-of-Service Characteristics

Free flow with low volumes and high speeds. Reasonably free flow, but speeds beginning to be restricted by traffic conditions. In stable flow zone, but most drivers are restricted in the freedom to select their own speeds. Approaching unstable flow; drivers have little freedom to select their own speeds. Unstable flow; may be short stoppages Unacceptable congestion; stop-and-go; forced flow.

E F

Source: Adapted from the AASHTO Green Book. 1 1995 Highway Capacity Manual (Special Report 209), Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, Third Edition, updated 1994
The appropriate degree of congestion (that is, the level of service) to be used in planning and designing highway improvements is determined by considering a variety of factors. These factors include the desires of the motorists, adjacent land use type and development intensity, environmental factors, and aesthetic and historic values. The factors must be weighed against the financial resources available to satisfy the motorists' desires. Table 4.4 presents the relationship between highway type and location and the level of service appropriate for design, suggested by the AASHTO Green Book. Taking into consideration specific traffic and environmental conditions, the responsible highway agency should attempt to provide a reasonable and costeffective level of service.

Table 4.4 Guide for Selectio n of Design Levels of Service

Type of Area and Appropriate Level of Service Highway Rural Rural Rural Urban and Type Level Rolling Mountainous Suburban Freeway Arterial B B B B C C C D C C D

Collector C Local D D D D

Source: Adapted from the AASHTO Green Book

While the Highway Capacity Manual provides the analytical basis for design calculations and decisions, judgment must be used in the selection of the appropriate level of service for the facility under study. Once a level of service has been selected, all elements of the roadway should be designed consistently to that level. For example, along recreational routes subject to widely varying traffic demands according to the time of year or in response to environmental or land use considerations, the designer may conclude that the selection of a level of service that is lower than what is usually recommended may be appropriate. The selection of the desired level of service for a facility must be weighed carefully, because the facility's overall adequacy depends on this decision. ISSUES Application of Appropriate Design Speed For some projects, community residents may perceive an imbalance between the scale of improvement deemed appropriate by the highway designers and that viewed as appropriate by the affected community. Much of this conflict can be traced to the design speed for the subject project. For example, an older twolane rural road with a posted speed limit of 45 mph (72.5 km/h) may be adequate to accommodate current and anticipated future traffic demands, except for a short section containing several sharp curves that has a high incidence of accidents. If this facility were classified as a minor arterial, a State's design criteria might suggest that the reconstruction of the deficient section of roadway utilize a minimum design speed in the range of 60 to 70 mph (96.6 to 112.7 km/h). If these criteria were followed, the reconstructed section would have a significantly higher design speed (and, hence, a higher operating speed and magnitude of physical impact on its surroundings) than the immediately adjacent sections of highway, resulting in a potentially unsafe condition. Solution One approach to avoiding this problem would be to apply a lower uniform design speed over the entire length of the route. This would suggest the application of a design speed of 50 mph (80.5 km/h) to the reconstruction project to preserve the design continuity and character of the route. A similar approach was taken during the design of State Route 9A in New York City to better integrate the project into its surroundings. Although this facility is classified as a principal urban arterial street with an allowable design speed under New York State DOT design criteria as high as 60 mph (96.6 km/h), a design speed of only 40 mph (64.4 km/h) was used. The roadway's capacity remains unchanged and the roadway is functioning safely and efficiently. Note that the design speed must be higher than the posted speed and should also be above the operating speed on a facility, regardless of the posted speed.

Section 3: Sight Distance

Overview
This section provides descriptions and information on sight distance, one of several principal elements of design that are common to all types of highways and streets. Of utmost importance in highway design is the arrangement of geometric elements so that there is adequate sight distance for safe and efficient traffic operation assuming adequate light, clear atmospheric conditions, and drivers' visual acuity. For design, the following four types of sight distance are considered:

Stopping Sight Distance Decision Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance Intersection Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. The available sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling at or a near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Although greater lengths of visible roadway are desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least that needed for a below-average driver or vehicle to stop. Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: (1) the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied; and (2) the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance, respectively. In computing and measuring stopping sight distances, the height of the drivers eye is estimated to be 3.5 ft [1080mm] and the height of the object to be seen by the driver is 2.0 ft [600 mm], equivalent to the taillight height of the passenger car. The calculated and design stopping sight distances are shown in Table 2-1. The values given in Table 2-1 represent stopping sight distances on level terrain. As a general rule, the sight distance available on downgrades is larger than on upgrades, more or less automatically providing the necessary corrections for grade. Therefore, corrections for grade are usually unnecessary. An example where correction for grade might come into play for stopping sight distance would be a divided roadway with independent design profiles in extreme rolling or mountainous terrain. A Policy on Geometric Design for Highways and Streets, AASHTO, provides additional information and suggested values for grade corrections in these rare circumstances
Table 2-1: Stopping Sight Distance

(US Customary)
Stopping sight distance Design Speed (mph) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 55.1 73.5 91.9 110.3 128.6 147.0 165.4 183.8 202.1 220.5 238.9 257.3 275.6 294.0 Brake reaction distance (ft) 21.6 38.4 60.0 86.4 117.6 153.6 194.4 240.0 290.3 345.5 405.5 470.3 539.9 614.3 Braking distance on level (ft) 76.7 111.9 151.9 196.7 246.2 300.6 359.8 423.8 492.4 566.0 644.4 727.6 815.5 908.3 Calculated (ft) 80 115 155 200 250 305 360 425 495 570 645 730 820 910 Design (ft)

(Metric) Stopping sight distance Design Speed (km/h) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 13.9 20.9 27.8 34.8 41.7 48.7 55.6 62.6 69.5 76.5 83.4 90.4 Brake reaction distance (m) 4.6 10.3 18.4 28.7 41.3 56.2 73.4 92.9 114.7 138.8 165.2 193.8 Braking distance on level (m) 18.5 31.2 46.2 63.5 83.0 104.9 129.0 155.5 184.2 215.3 248.6 284.2 Calculated (m) 20 35 50 65 85 105 130 160 185 220 250 285 Design (m)

Note: brake reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5s; deceleration rate 11.2 ft/sec [3.4 m/sec]

Decision Sight Distance

Decision sight distance is the distance required for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source, recognize the source, select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete the required maneuver safely and efficiently. Because decision sight distance gives drivers additional margin for error and affords them sufficient length to maneuver their vehicles at the same or reduced speed rather than to just stop, its values are substantially greater than stopping sight distance. Table 2-2 shows recommended decision sight distance values for various avoidance maneuvers.
Table 2-2: Recommended Decision Sight Distance Values

(US Customary)
Decision sight distance (ft) Avoidance maneuver Design speed (mph) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 220 275 330 395 465 535 610 490 590 690 800 910 1030 1150 450 525 600 675 750 865 990 535 625 715 800 890 980 1125 620 720 825 930 1030 1135 1280 A B C D E

(Metric)
Decision sight distance (m) Avoidance maneuver Design speed (km/h) 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 70 95 115 140 170 200 235 155 195 235 280 325 370 420 145 170 200 230 270 315 330 170 205 235 270 315 355 380 195 235 275 315 360 400 430 A B C D E

65 70 75 80

695 780 875 970

1275 1410 1545 1685

1050 1105 1180 1260

1220 1275 1365 1455

1365 1445 1545 1650

120 130

265 305

470 525

360 390

415 450

470 510

Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road t = 3.0s Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road t = 9.1s Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road t varies between 10.2 and 11.2s Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road t varies between 12.1 and 12.9s Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road t varies between 14.0 and 14.5s

Examples of situations in which decision sight distance is preferred include the following:

Interchange and intersection locations where unusual or unexpected maneuvers are Changes in cross section such as toll plazas and lane drops Areas of concentrated demand where there is apt to be visual noise whenever

required (such as exit ramp gore areas and left-hand exits)

sources of information compete, as those from roadway elements, traffic, traffic control devices, and advertising signs

Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is applicable only in the design of two-lane roadways (including two-way frontage roads) and therefore is presented in Chapter 3, Section 4 under the discussion on Two-Lane Rural Highways.

Intersection Sight Distance

The operator of a vehicle approaching an intersection should have an unobstructed view of the entire intersection and an adequate view of the intersecting highway to permit control of the vehicle to avoid a collision. When designing an intersection, the following factors should be taken into consideration:

Adequate sight distance should be provided along both highway approaches and Gradients of intersecting highways should be as flat as practical on sections that are to Combination of vertical and horizontal curvature should allow adequate sight distance of Traffic lanes should be clearly visible at all times. Lane markings and signs should be clearly visible and understandable from a desired Intersections should be free from the sudden appearance of potential conflicts. Intersections should be evaluated for the effects of barriers, rails, and retaining walls on

across corners.

be used for storage of stopped vehicles.

the intersection.

distance.

sight distance. For selecting appropriate intersection sight distance, refer to A Policy on Geometric Design for Streets and Highways, AASHTO. Sight distance criteria are provided for the following types of intersection controls:

Intersections with no control

Intersections with no stop control on the minor road Intersections with yield control on the minor road Intersections with traffic signal control Intersections with all-way stop control Left turns from the major road.

Differences Between Concrete and Asphalt Pavement

Historically, pavements have been divided into two broad categories, rigid and flexible. These classical definitions, in some cas the terms rigid and flexible provide a good description of how the pavements react to loads and the environment.

The flexible pavement is an asphalt pavement. It generally consists of a relatively thin wearing surface of asphalt built over a subbase courses are usually gravel or stone. These layers rest upon a compacted subgrade (compacted soil). In contrast, rigid cement concrete and may or may not have a base course between the pavement and subgrade.

The essential difference between the two types of pavements, flexible and rigid, is the manner in which they distribute the loa because of concretes rigidity and stiffness, tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of subgrade. The concrete s pavement's structural capacity. Flexible pavement, inherently built with weaker and less stiff material, does not spread loads a pavements usually require more layers and greater thickness for optimally transmitting load to the subgrade.

The major factor considered in the design of rigid pavements is the structural strength of the concrete. For this reason, minor influence upon the structural capacity of the pavement. The major factor considered in the design of flexible pavements is the

One further practical distinction between concrete pavement and asphalt pavement is that concrete pavement provides opport otherwise enhance a pavement, that is not possible with asphalt. These opportunities allow concrete to be made exceedingly s architecturally beautiful. Concrete pavements on average outlast asphalt pavements by 10-15 years before needing rehabilita