Summary Proceedings From the Apnea-of-Prematurity Group Neil N. Finer, Rosemary Higgins, John Kattwinkel and Richard J.

Martin Pediatrics 2006;117;S47-S51 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2005-0620H

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PEDIATRICS is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly publication, it has been published continuously since 1948. PEDIATRICS is owned, published, and trademarked by the American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois, 60007. Copyright 2006 by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0031-4005. Online ISSN: 1098-4275.

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SUPPLEMENT ARTICLE

Summary Proceedings From the Apnea-ofPrematurity Group

Neil N. Finer, MDa, Rosemary Higgins, MDb, John Kattwinkel, MDc, Richard J. Martin, MDd
aDivision of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, California; bNeonatal Research Network, Pregnancy and Perinatology Branch, Center for Developmental Biology and Perinatal Medicine, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland; cDivision of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia; dDivision of Neonatology, Rainbow Babies & Childrens Hospital, Case Medical School, Cleveland, Ohio

The authors have indicated they have no nancial relationships relevant to this article to disclose.

ABSTRACT Apnea of prematurity (AOP) is found in 50% of premature infants and is almost universal in infants who are 1000 g at birth. The literature clearly denes clinically signicant apnea in infants (breathing pauses that last for 20 seconds or for 10 seconds if associated with bradycardia or oxygen desaturation), but there is no consensus about the duration of apnea, the degree of change in oxygen saturation, or severity of bradycardia that should be considered pathologic. Although caregivers are able to respond successfully to apnea events with drugs (as well as physical and mechanical interventions) in the NICU, it remains unproven whether such interventions have any long-term effects. One of the most effective drugs, caffeine citrate, is currently labeled for short-term use only and within a limited gestational-age population. Clinicians often use off-label drugs that have been approved for gastroesophageal reux disease, which is common in premature infants, with the belief that such treatments also have an impact on AOP, although this link has never been demonstrated. Key treatment issues include (1) lack of standardization for denition, diagnosis, and treatment of AOP, (2) unproven benet of intervention, (3) lack of real-time data documenting AOP events, (4) unevaluated sustained treatment improvement at 7 days or later, (5) failure to address confounding conditions, (6) unsubstantiated AOP gastroesophageal reux disease relationship, and (7) undetermined role of AOP affecting long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes. In addressing study-design issues, the pulmonary group identied (1) key questions about neonatal apnea, (2) methodologic requirements for study, (3) appropriate outcome measures, and (4) ethical considerations for future studies. This article describes a sample framework for the study of apnea in neonates and identies future research needs. Plenary-session discussion points are also listed.

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The views presented in this article do not necessarily reect those of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This article reects discussions of designing clinical trials in newborns and should not be construed as an agreement or guidance from the FDA. Drug development and clinical-trial design must be discussed with the relevant review division within the FDA. Key Words apnea of prematurity, gastroesophageal reux disease, pulse oximetry, bradycardia, neurodevelopmental follow-up, xanthines, doxapram Abbreviations AOPapnea of prematurity GERD gastroesophageal reux disease
Accepted for publication Oct 17, 2005 Address correspondence to Neil N. Finer, MD, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, 200 W Arbor Dr, #8774, San Diego, CA 92103-8774. E-mail: [email protected] PEDIATRICS (ISSN Numbers: Print, 0031-4005; Online, 1098-4275); published in the public domain by the American Academy of Pediatrics

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PEDIATRICS Volume 117, Number 3, March 2006

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PNEA OF PREMATURITY (AOP) is the most common and frequently recurring problem in very low birth weight infants. AOP is found in 50% of premature infants and is almost universal in infants who are 1000 g at birth.13 The literature denes clinically signicant apnea in infants as breathing pauses that last for 20 seconds or for 10 seconds if associated with bradycardia (eg, 80 beats per minute) or oxygen desaturation (eg, O2 saturation of 80 85%).4,5 This denition may vary depending on geographic location or the infants symptomatology. Moreover, there is no consensus about the duration of apnea that should be considered pathologic, and there is no agreement regarding the degree of change in oxygen saturation or severity of bradycardia that constitutes an important apnea event. Although scientists cannot yet say whether AOP causes a clinically important effect on outcome and is harmful, providing no treatment when an infant stops breathing in the NICU is not an option. The immediate and irresistible urge to respond to apnea is based partly on the uncertainty about exactly what causes the apneic episode and whether the unknown causative factor might also harm the brain or other systems and produce a long-term effect on neurodevelopment.6 Although caregivers are able to respond successfully to apnea events with drugs (as well as physical and mechanical interventions) in the NICU, it remains unproven whether such interventions have any long-term effects, good or bad. One of the most effective drugs, caffeine citrate, is currently labeled for short-term use only and within a limited gestational-age population. Moreover, most premature infants also suffer from gastroesophageal reux disease (GERD), and many clinicians use off-label drugs that have been approved for GERD in the belief that such treatments also have an impact on AOP, although this link has never been demonstrated.79

age, or disease processes that have occurred in individual infants.

Previous studies have not addressed confounding con-

ditions such as hypoxemia, the requirement for oxygen therapy, pharmacologic sedation, glucocorticoid therapy, acute or chronic lung disease, patent ductus arteriosus, intraventricular hemorrhage, sepsis, or other treatments such as dopamine.
No good evidence exists to support the view that

apnea and reux are temporally or causally related or that the use of antireux medications (eg, cisapride, metoclopramide) decreases the frequency of apnea.
The most important issue to be determined is the role

of apnea in affecting an infants long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes. STUDY-DESIGN ISSUES The pulmonary group identied the following studydesign issues, which have been divided into 4 basic categories. Important Questions About Neonatal Apnea The pulmonary group agreed that the following key questions need to be addressed as a priority.
Does neonatal apnea affect long-term neurodevelop-

mental outcome, or is it merely a marker of other complications of prematurity?

Are xanthines (the primary drug group currently used

to treat apnea) associated with improved outcome, both short- and long-term?
Will future drug therapy for AOP be associated with

improved outcome, both short- and long-term?

Does esophageal reux cause apnea? If so, are phar-

TREATMENT ISSUES The pulmonary group identied the following treatment issues.
The denition, diagnosis, and treatment of the condi-

macologic therapies directed at treating GERD likely to be effective for either the reux or the apnea? Secondary questions about apnea include the following.
What is the effect of xanthines on GERD (eg, poten-

tion have not been standardized.

The benet of intervention, apart from a reduction in

tiation)?
What is the most effective way to intervene for apnea

apnea itself, remains largely unproven.

Most studies of apnea have not collected real-time

(ie, pharmacologic versus mechanical intervention)?

Does the etiology of apnea affect response to therapy? What are the responses and the associated risks as a

data to document the actual event and the preceding baseline, including physiologic parameters such as oxygen saturation.
Few studies have evaluated sustained treatment im-

function of gestational age and weight?

What is the appropriate threshold for treatment? Is xanthine use outside the hospital setting for post-

provement at 7 days or later after the initiation of therapy, and the improvements noted 1 to 3 days after therapy usually are not sustained at 1 week.
Most studies are small in number and thus are not

neonatal infants safe and effective?

Are other agents (eg, other adenosine inhibitors, pro-

stratied by birth weight, gestation, postconceptional

S48 FINER, et al

gestins) effective and safe in treating AOP?

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 What is the effect of baseline oxygenation on the

incidence and severity of apnea?

Are there legitimate uses of xanthines for apnea dis-

orders other than AOP (eg, to counteract apnea associated with prostaglandin administration, for an apparent life-threatening event, for postanesthesia apnea)?
Is there a relationship between body and head posi-

premature infants, they may be unrelated. The pulmonary group agreed that it was important to bridge the investigation of this issue between the gastrointestinal community and neonatologists, because both groups are examining it independently. Appropriate Outcome Measures Studies need to include and be powered for short-, intermediate-, and long-term outcomes (see Table 1 for details on the proposed clinical-trial framework). Ethical Considerations for Future Studies The following determinations about ethical considerations were made.
It is ethical to perform randomized, placebo-controlled

tion and apnea?

What is the appropriate dosing regimen for pharma-

cologic agents that are commonly used to treat AOP (eg, caffeine, doxapram)? What are the toxicities or adverse effects?
Is prophylactic use of xanthines for AOP safe and

effective? Methodologic Requirements for Study The pulmonary group identied the following important methodologic requirements for studies.
Studies should include simultaneous assessment of

multiple relevant variables. At a minimum, chest-wall movement, heart rate, and oximetry should be included.
A portion of the study population or study time should

trials for apnea in preterm infants. The pulmonary group recognized that placebo does not mean that there is no treatment for apnea. The availability of rescue treatments for apnea such as continuous positive airway pressure and mechanical ventilation makes a placebo-controlled trial ethical. It is ethical to perform randomized, placebo-controlled trials for reux (not involving apnea) in preterm infants.
It is ethical to perform randomized, placebo-controlled

include an assessment of nasal airow to distinguish between central and obstructive apnea.
AOP must be dened uniformly (eg, apnea duration of

trials for reux and apnea, with apnea being the outcome, in preterm infants.

20 seconds or 10 20 seconds if accompanied by bradycardia [ 80 beats per minute] or desaturation [SpO2 80%]). The pulmonary group was unable to resolve a concern about failing to account for apnea events 10 seconds in duration that are associated with signicant bradycardia/desaturation. However, recording of multiple parameters as just noted would allow an evaluation of such events.
Studies should examine treatment duration over the

TABLE 1 Framework for a Study of Apnea in Neonates

Hypothesis There is no difference in neurodevelopmental outcome between patients managed with drug X for apnea vs placebo (or active comparator if labeled for the indication); secondary hypotheses would include the following There is no difference in apnea (frequency and severity) at predetermined times sequentially measured between drug X and placebo (or active comparator if labeled for the indication) There is no correlation between apnea (frequency and severity) and neurodevelopmental outcome The following drugs should be used in studies of apnea (in order of priority) Caffeine (dose-ranging studies will need to be performed for a variety of gestational ages for which information is not currently available) GERD agents for treatment of apnea Drugs for future consideration include specic adenosine receptor subtype antagonists, doxapram, and progesterone The study should be powered for neurodevelopmental outcome at 18 mo Proposed secondary outcomes include Length of hospitalization Number of days hospitalized for apnea only Frequency and severity of apnea events (measured 2 d after initiation of therapy and weekly until discharge) Duration of assisted ventilation/continuous positive airway pressure

long-term (eg, several weeks) and over a wider range of gestational ages. The pulmonary group noted that current approved labeling for caffeine is for short-term use and for those of 28 to 32 weeks gestational age.
Studies must control for conditions that are believed

Drug priorities

to both cause apnea and independently inuence outcome (eg, intraventricular hemorrhage, periventricular leukomalacia, respiratory distress syndrome, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, reux).
Studies must be randomized and blinded. It is appropriate to conduct studies by examining rePrimary outcome Secondary outcomes

ux treatment and its effect on apnea without necessarily including measurement of reux. The pulmonary group acknowledged that no good evidence is available to support the relationship; nevertheless, clinicians continue to use antireux medications to treat apnea. Although apnea and GERD occur in nearly all

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PROPOSED CLINICAL-TRIAL FRAMEWORK A sample framework for the study of apnea in neonates was proposed (see Table 1), and the characteristics of the clinical study design were identied (see Table 2). FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS The following future research needs were identied.
A large prospective study is needed to distinguish the

The issue of confounding therapies and morbidities

role of apnea from the many confounding conditions and other predictors of neurodevelopmental outcome, including gestational age, neuroanatomic abnormalities, exposure to mechanical ventilation, sepsis, postnatal steroid treatment, and occurrence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia.
Studies and their analyses should include rigorous

when examining long-term outcomes is an important one that will need to be addressed, perhaps with statistical techniques. The group considered excluding the smallest infants, who were likely to have comorbidities, but the pulmonary group believed that the smallest infants were the ones most in need of intervention for apnea and were receiving prophylactic therapy. Multiple variables should fall out if the randomized clinical trial is large enough.
Although maturation is more relevant than size to

respiratory drive, the pulmonary group chose to categorize infants by birth weight because it is more precise than gestational age.
The pulmonary group may need to analyze available

control of potentially confounding variables.

Ideally, randomized trials should have a primary hy-

pothesis or coprimary hypotheses powered to assess long-term follow-up. PLENARY DISCUSSION During the plenary session, the pulmonary group and other workshop participants made the following points about the study of apnea in neonates.
TABLE 2 Clinical Study Design
Type of study Stratication

pharmacokinetic data to address the issue of whether to adjust drug doses to maintain the same serum levels as the infant grows.
Many monitoring systems that record retrievable data

on heart rate, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation offer opportunities for documenting apnea and related physiologic events. Nurse observations have been shown clearly to be unreliable in documenting apnea episodes.

Sample size

Entry criteria

Exclusion criteria

Assessment parameters

The study should be a randomized, blinded, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial with welldened criteria for rescue therapy Neonatal groups would be stratied by the following criteria 800 g 800 to 1200 g 1200 to 1500 g The pulmonary group proposed a range of sample sizes based on a rst-pass power analysis, given neurodevelopmental outcome vs control (80% power) 3000 patients to discern a 5% difference in neurodevelopmental impairment (eg, 30% vs 25%) 500 patients to discern a 5-point difference in the Bayley score (SD: 15) Entry criteria would require consideration of the following issues Use of periextubation caffeine Use of prophylaxis, particularly for very immature infants to prevent intubation Use of a nonprophylaxis strategy that might require dening frequency and duration Infants with the following characteristics would be excluded from the study Apnea judged to be caused primarily by an alternative etiology (not AOP; eg, intraventricular hemorrhage, sepsis) Congenital anomalies Prior study-drug exposure The pulmonary group identied the following assessment parameters for efcacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics Short-term parameters include Frequency, severity, and duration of apnea episodes at specic times throughout hospitalization, with direct measures of actual apnea and the associated heart rate and SpO2 Pharmacokinetic information for various gestational ages and postconceptional ages Intermediate parameters include Various assessments of duration (eg, duration of hospitalization, assisted ventilation both continuous positive airway pressure and intermittent positive pressure ventilation , O2) Morbidities (necrotizing enterocolitis, intraventricular hemorrhage, periventricular leukomalacia, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, retinopathy of prematurity) Long-term parameters include cognitive and psychomotor assessment

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FINER, et al

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 One pulmonary group member is conducting studies

to assess the role of xanthines and is not specically addressing apnea. Although the pulmonary groups study would build on any results from this study, it would explore new territory by asking whether an association exists between AOP and impaired neurodevelopmental outcome and, if so, whether the association is causal. If apnea is related to or results in impaired neurodevelopmental outcome, treatment to reduce apnea would provide direct benet to the patient.
The pulmonary group did not discuss the issue of the

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We gratefully acknowledge nancial and administrative support from the National Institutes of Health and the Food and Drug Administration. Our thanks go to Keith Barrington, MD, and Barbara Schmidt, MD, for helpful comments. REFERENCES
1. Alden ER, Mandelkorn T, Woodrum DE, Wennberg RP, Parks CR, Hodson WA. Morbidity and mortality of infants weighing less than 1000 grams in an intensive care nursery. Pediatrics. 1972;50:40 49 2. Daily WJR, Klaus M, Meyer HBP. Apnea in premature infants: monitoring, incidence, heart rate changes, and an effect of environmental temperature. Pediatrics. 1967;43:510 518 3. Barrington K, Finer N. The natural history of the appearance of apnea of prematurity. Pediatr Res. 1991;29:372375 4. Aranda JV, Turmen T. Methylxanthines in apnea of prematurity. Clin Perinatol. 1979;6:87108 5. Michigan Association of Apnea Professionals. Consensus Statement on Infantile Apnea and Home Monitoring. 3rd ed. Lansing, MI: Michigan Association of Apnea Professionals; 1994 6. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference on Infantile Apnea and Home Monitoring, Sept 29 to Oct 1, 1986. Pediatrics. 1987;79:292299 7. Menon AP, Schefft GL, Thach BT. Apnea associated with regurgitation in infants. J Pediatr. 1985;106:625 629 8. Kimball AL, Carlton DP. Gastroesophageal reux medications in the treatment of apnea in premature infants. J Pediatr. 2001; 138:355360 9. Peter CS, Sprodowski N, Bohnhorst B, Silny J, Poets CF. Gastroesophageal reux and apnea of prematurity: no temporal relationship. Pediatrics. 2002;109:8 11

potential confounding effect of xanthine therapy, which might affect growth and, thus, long-term outcome. The group did suggest that one approach to addressing the issue was to record growth-rate velocity.
The framework will address differentiation between

central and obstructive apnea by obtaining nasal airow measurements. This assessment would not be conducted for the entire study, because it is impractical to measure airow on a continuing basis.
The pulmonary group considered the issue of nonap-

nea desaturation and was unable to resolve concerns about dening AOP in a way that would miss apnea events 10 seconds in duration. The nal design of the study will need to address whether to include all events, including 2- to 3-second apneas.

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Summary Proceedings From the Apnea-of-Prematurity Group Neil N. Finer, Rosemary Higgins, John Kattwinkel and Richard J. Martin Pediatrics 2006;117;S47-S51 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2005-0620H
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