IMSLP91190 PMLP187384 History of Music

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HANDBOUND AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS
MA TO AM
F,
N O R M AN
N K H If n A
THE
HISTOEY OF MUSIC
HY
EMIL NAUMANN
TRANSLATED BY
F.
PRAEGER
EDITED BY THE
EEV. SIR
F.
A.
GORE OUSELEY,
BART.,
Mus.Doc.,
Professor of Music in the University of Oxford.
VOL.
V.
SPECIAL EDITION.
itb a
Merits of portraits rcproaurcfc in |)Ijoto0rftintrc, an& Numerous illustrations.
CASSELL
&
COMPANY,
NEW YORK
[ALL RIGHTS KK.SEHVKD.]
LIMITED
LONDON. PARIS.
& MELBOURNE.
ML UD ^\
t'
^ A
1
rf
/?
SEP
1968
^S,,V
of
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SIGNOR
PIATTI
SIGN OR BOTTESINI
CONTENTS OF VOL.
V.
|}00k IV.
CHAPTER
(niHfinurd).
XXXV.
TI!i;
FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN
....
.
PAOB
1007
INFLUENCE OF THE GERMAN GENIUS EPOCH ON ITALY AND
FRANCE
XXXVI. THE
GIIAND
.1054
OPERA
...
OPEKA OP PARIS AND THE FUENCH COMIC ROMANTIC

.
...
.
1056
XXXVII.
CHERUBIM, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI
.1107
1143
THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL

XXXVIII.
HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER
XXXIX. THE PRESENT

XL.
........
.
....
.
.
1163
1193
MODERN ENGLISH Music
INDEX
.....
.1274
.
1315
LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS IN VOL. V.
SIGNOR PIATTI MDME. NORMAI^-NERODA SIGNOR BOTTESINI

FIG.
Portrait
,, ,,
FIG.
PGE
M.
1108 1114 1130 1138 Paganini, Portrait of 1140 Paganini, Portrait of 1141 Paganini, Portrait of Hector Berlioz, Letter of ... To face 1167 Richard Wagner, Letter of 1173 ,, Exterior of the Wagner Theatre 1186 ... Interior of the Wagner Theatre ... 1187 Franz Liszt, Portrait of ...To face 1189 Franz Liszt, Autograph of ... 1191 ,, Johannes Brahms, Portrait of 1199 The Vienna Opera-House 1233
L.
282.
Cherubim, Portrait of
PAGE
283. G. L. P. Spontini, Portrait of 284. Gioachino Rossini, Portrait of
268. Felix
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,
Por-
285. 286.
269. 270.
271.
272.
273.
1012 ... 1023 Wilhelmine Schroeder-Devrient Henrietta Sontag, Portrait of ... ... 1026 Moritz Hauptmann, Portrait of .. 1032 1033 Ignatz Moscheles, Portrait of Kobert Schumann To face 1036 Robert and Clara Schumann, AutoTo face 1038 graphs of Clara Schumann, Portrait of 1039 To face 1041 Schumann, Letter of Frederick Chopin, Portrait of 1045 ,,
trait of
287.
288.
289.
290.
291.
Chopin, Autograph of
... Spontini, Autograph of D. F. E. Auber, Portrait of
,,
,,
274. J. F. E.
HaleVy, Portrait of
Gr<5try, Portrait of
275. A. E.
M.
276. E. N. Me'hul, Portrait of 277. F. A. Boieldieu, Portrait of

278. Hippolyte Roger, Portrait of 279. L. J. F. Herold, Portrait of 280. Teresa
1047 1063 1066 1069 1085 1085
292. Giuseppe Verdi, Portrait of 1237 293. N. Gade, Portrait and Autograph of 1252 294. Rubinstein, Portrait of
and Autograph
1258 1265 1268
295. Sarasate, Portrait of 296. Pauline Lucca, Portrait of 297. 298.
...
and Maria Milanollo
281. Malibran Garcia, Portrait of
1087 1091 -.. 1093 1102 .. 1103
Joseph Joachim, Portrait of Wilhelmj, Portrait of
1270 1271
at King's College, CamTo face 1296 bridge 299. Sir W. Sterndale Bennett, Portrait of 1285 300. Sir G. Grove, Portrait of .. .. 1308
The Organ
FELIX MENDELbSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.
1007
CHAPTER XXXV.
FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.
THE
list
Franz
of the composers of the Talent period, which commenced with Schubert and Karl Maria von Weber, and includes Spohr and
Meyerbeer, closes with Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann.
Richard
Wagner, though belonging

chapter.
to
this
period,
will,
in
consequence of his
exceptional position in the history of music, be treated of in a succeeding
Schubert and
Weber
exhibit that naivete to be found in the works of
the great tone-poets
of the Genius
epoch,
hyper-sentimentality finding
no place in their works, which
are replete
with the
health"
and vigour
which characterise the national mind.
The
feature distinguishing Spohr
and Meyerbeer from Weber and Schubert and the same might be said of Mendelssohn and Schumann is that they bear the impress of nationality in a less degree. Spohr, as a harmonist and romantic writer, exhibits a
vein of nationality which forms a special feature in his productions; yet
his works, taken as a whole, give evidence that he
was unable to portray so
decessor
thoroughly the national characteristics of the Germans as did his preWeber. The works of Meyerbeer, though to a great extent
lacking that specifically
German element
to be
found
in the productions of
Spohr, have gained a far wider popularity.

in a less
The national character appears
works of Mendelssohn and Schumann, yet their productions are impressed with it more deeply than those of the members of the Genius epoch. Mendelssohn's national sentiment finds an outlet in the
degree in the
following songs, which have gained great popularity, rivalling that of the gems of Weber and Schubert: "Es ist bestiment in Goltes Rath," " Wer hat dich, du schoner Wald/' " Liese zieht durch mein Geiniith," and " Ihr Thaler weit, ihr Hohen." are entitled to treat Mendelssohn and
We
Schumann
belonging
in
is
as twin talents, as
to
we have
treated
the same period, since they possess
many of their predecessors many mental qualities

whnt
common, and
their points of difference are such that each supplies
In discussing their points of similarity we fin 1 wanting that both are essentially subjective and lyric. The supremacy of the lyric
in his fellow.
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
a characteristic of the latest period of art, and
over the dramatic style

exists
is
in poetry and painting. not only in modern music, but also is to-day presented to us must not be deceived by terms, for much which in the place of an objective as being epic or dramatic is purely lyrical; we encounter a restricted and out in bold relief, representation standing It cannot most individual conception, the outcome of artistic subjectivity.
fail to surprise
is
We
so strongly
us that such a feature should appear at a period when society imbued with realism ; it must be traced to the reaction of
and prosaic man's inborn idealism, which rebels against the scepticism on all sides. Music, being the most materialism by which it is surrounded
deals lyrical of all arts,
most closely with the innermost
life.
It
must
also
in music be acknowledged that the opportunities for lyrical expression or sculpture ; conare more numerous and varied than in poetry, painting,
and Schumann, although in many respects but folsequently Mendelssohn have lowers of the lyrical school of the great epochs which preceded them, is the founder of: Mendelssohn devised new methods for its
f
application.
tone-picture.
the concert-overture, a form of composition which consists of a complete like his Hebrides and Melusine are Instances of
not to be found
also
among
composition the works* of his predecessors.
To Mendelssohn
we owe
modelling of
of "songs without words/'* and the re" and " Schumann the four-part a capella songs. Capriccio
the introduction
must be
forte
credited with the invention of the ballad for recitation with piano-
" " " Symphonic Etude/' accompaniment, the Novelette form and between our two composers is A fresh instance of the similarity existing Their their prominence in the list of song-writers subsequent to Schubert.
contributions to the fund of
but by their excellence.
marked by number alone Mendelssohn wrote about one hundred and forty
German song
are not
songs, including ten duets, twenty- eight four-part songs for male and female voices, seventeen songs for male chorus, and eighty-three solo songs.
The
solo song published by Schubert of Leipzig, at the author's request, as the eighty-third was composed by Mendelssohn for his mother's album in " Wallenstein." Schumann's 1826, the words being taken from Schiller's
vocal works exceed two hundred, and comprise duets and choruses for
* This
mixed
in his
must be taken with some reservation, as it may be well contended that John Field "Nocturnes" had in a great measure forestalled Mendelssohn in this particular.
F. A. G. 0.
1009
Both composers possess a refined sentiment which feminine grace and ardour. approaches These masters figure most prominently among the composers of symphony, symphonic overture, and concerto for solo instrument with
and male
voices.
orchestral accompaniment, since the
period of
the
three
great classical
syrnphonists,
are entitled
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. " by their C major symphony and Power
Whilst Schubert and Spohr " of Sound

respectively
to stand on a level with Mendelssohn and
Schumann, we must
bear in
mind the
fact that those masters composed but one such work, Schubert's minor symphony being unfinished, whereas Schumann has written four
this kind, viz., the
symphonies of
the
\<]
flat
major, the
minor, the
minor,
major, as well as his splendid "Overture, Scherzo, and Finale," which might almost be reckoned as a fifth symphony, and the grand pianoflat
forte concerto in
A minor. Mendelssohn, besides his two symphonies in and A minor, wrote the pianoforte concerto in G minor, his violin major and his five original concert overtures, Midsummer Night's Dream, Mc/n.sine, The Calm and Prosperous Voyage, and Ray Bias ; the
, ,
overture to Athalie, not being an independent conception, cannot be included in this list. > Schumann must be acknowledged as the most important composer of instrumental music since
composer
attains the
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. This same prominence as a composer of chamber music,
his position
being established by his three string quartetts, Op. 41, his

major, Op. 44, and his piano quartett in Mendelssohn, notwithstanding much that is charming and
flat
pianoforte quintett in
flat,
Op. 47.
skilfully finished, cannot be
compared with
his
contemporary Schumann as
regards inventive power and passion.
chumann and Mendelssohn

as a
are entitled to take the lead as composers
of classical pianoforte music since Beethoven.
means
of expressing his
most intense
Schumann employed his piano feeling, and we find that the first
1839) were entirely devoted to
ten years of his career as a composer (1829
Intermezzi/' pianoforte compositions. Papillons," " " Scenes sur quatre notes;" his sonatas, Ops. 11, Carnival," mignonnes
The
results are his
"
"
"
" 14,22; his Fantasiestiicke," "Arabesken," "Humoresken," "Nachstucke," " Die DavidsKinderscenen," eighteen characteristic pieces entitled
biindler;"
and " Kreisleriana."
Mendelssohn's pianoforte compositions
are glimpses of an artistic imagination, which never reveal the sentiment
MMM
1010
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
has not composition the master
of
the
innermost soul, and
in
their
Schumann's instruexecution. neglected the opportunities for brilliant his innermost feelings. ment was the companion to whom he freely confided his piano merely the mediator Mendelssohn, on the contrary, considered
this assertion by no means between the composer and his audience, though as he ever descended to the level of drawing-room music, implies that " his compositions including the Songs withis proved by the list of " Characterstiicke," " Praludien und Studien," " Caprices/' out Words," " und Variationen," Capriccios/' "Praludien "Fantasies," "Sonatas," " Variations serieuses," 54. Op. Fuo-en," Op. 35, and Both masters failed in their attempts to write operas, neither possessand failing to raise their musical expression ing the required dramatic gift, Schumann, though having written an opera, is to the necessary climax. in this form of composition than Mendelssohn, whose even less
gifted
music to the Midsummer Night's Dream and Antigone has retained

position
its
on the
modern
stage,
whilst
the
very
rare
performances
of
are
Schumann's
Genoveva and
incidental
music to
to the
Byron's
Manfred
regarded rather as a
composer.
necessary tribute
memory
of
a celebrated
of similarity in the life of Apart from music we find several points had received the soundest education ; they both our two composers both exhibited the most refined mental culture, which, however, was not only
:
the result of their
school and college training but
of
the
development
of general culture since
the reformation which began
after the
German
Genius epoch and the rise of German ^poetry. In the taste of the two masters we encounter a material difference
whilst both
composed music for the poetry of Goethe, Heine, Geibel, Uhland, Eichendorff and Lenau, Schumann exhibited a preference for Jean Paul, Byron, Thomas Moore, Chamisso, T. A. Hoffmann, Riickert, Justinus
Kerner, Moricke,
clined
Hebbel and Tieck

older
writers,
Mendelssohn's taste, however, inShakespeare, is to be
towards the
such as the Psalmists,
Cervantes, Vosz, and Platen.
Schumann's love of the romantic
seen even in his choice of literature.
decided
classic, or rather a classic in the romantic era.
Mendelssohn, on the contrary, is a We have already
demonstrated that since the entry of the epoch of the Great German Talents every musician has been more or less influenced by the romantic
1011
element, and Mendelssohn, though the resuscitator of the classical artform, did not escape the prevailing influence. The distinction between
Schumann and Mendelssohn

tirely classical, whilst the
classical
is,
in
short,
that the latter
is
more enfew
former, like Mozart and Beethoven, exhibits a

side.
and a romantic
Schumann,
like Spohr, is one of the
romantic writers
This
is
who has thoroughly mastered
the
classical
art-form.
to be seen especially in his orchestral
and chamber music.
The
works which bear the most powerful impress of the romantic, and by which the master aided in the establishment of the school, belong to his
youth, and were superseded by the productions of the later period of his life which exhibit greater perfection of form; nevertheless the earlier works will
ever remain interesting
Among
specimens as belonging to a period of the past. " his the works of this class we must mention his " Carnival ;
;
" Kreisleriana," based on the hypergrand sonata in F sharp minor his romantic work of T. A. Hoffmann, entitled " Kapell-Meister Kreisler;" the " " DavidsPapillons," inspired by Jean Paul's humoristic fancy and his biindler." Schumann himself writes in 1837 to Moscheles concerning the
;
"Carnival
the
"
"The whole
moments
of
it
claims no position as a
work
of art, but
many
varied
of emotion
:
may
I
prove of interest/'
afraid
In 1852 he
writes to
Van Bruyck
as follows
"
am
you
are extolling too
highly my early works, such as the sonatas whose defects are too clear to me. Of my later and more ambitious works, such as my symphonies and choral compositions, such a kind recognition would be more just.''
We
cordially agree with the master's modest opinion, and in respect to his choral compositions we should notice particularly his choruses to Goethe's
Faust, and in particular the Finale of the second part. Schumann and Mendelssohn do not only differ as regards the extent,
and quality of their romantic tendency, but in Mendelssohn we find an epic element by which he was enabled to resuscitate the oratorio. He has founded his resuscitation on the older productions of Bach and Handel,
force,
re-modelling them to suit the present taste. Mendelssohn's St. Paul is based upon Sebastian Bach's Passion of St. Mitll/ieir, and his Elijah is founded on the Old Testament oratorios of
Handel.
masters, for their spirit
These works are not mere copies of the productions of the earlier is thoroughly modern, and they show everywhere
of
the characteristic features
the composer.
Schumann
also
attempted
M M M
1012
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
to much that is new and in his essays he has given birth religious music, and Peri and the Pilgrimage 'and7 beautiful; nevertheless the Paradise the poetry of with St. Paul and Elijah, are as of the Rose, compared The one of the Bible. to the
language Thomas Moore and Moritz Horn drawn Prophets and Apostles; the other introduces powerfully
his
represents
music hazy outlines of femito
nine
grace belonging flowers and poetry of the
the
fairies.
Schumann's
lyrical,
efforts
whereas
epic
were strictly Mendelssohn
employs an
finds
its
equal
power which nowhere since

Although
the sublime
Bach and
he
Handel.
fails to attain to
grandeur of the great masters^ we cannot but admire the earnest and energetic perseverance
with which he pursues his object. No one since has succeeded in

permeating choral works with an
equal
epic spirit,
which
Fig. 268.
compared to Schumann's polyphony
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy.
;
his appears the weakest point of
Bora 3rd February, 1809, at Hamburg 4th November, 1847, at Leipzig.
died
wo
compositions.
.
In order to elucidate the reason of the close relationship of our
(After a Portrait painted by Th. Hildebrandt.)
two masters we must mention
that, at the
most important period
of their
artistic activity, they were both residing at Leipzig.
Though
there was
but the difference of a year in the ages of the two composers, Mendelssohn was undoubtedly the more matured as regarded artistic individuality. Nevertheless Schumann, with remarkable energy, soon made up for what
he had lost while indulging in subjective humour and fantastic creation. He soon felt and became grateful for the beneficial influence of Mendelssohn,
who, with artistic conscientiousness, steadily followed the path which he had Schumann's chosen, and from which he could be drawn aside by nothing. knew no bounds, and his admiration may be gathered from the gratitude
FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND EGBERT SCHUMANN.

"
says
:
1013
following.
He
I look
up
to
Mendelssohn
he says
as to a lofty
mountain
he
is
divine.
Not a day
passes but he utters

letter
some sentiment worthy

:
of
inscription in gold/'
In another
" I believe that Men-
delssohn returns to Leipzig- next winter.

in the world/'
He
is
now
the best musician
Schumann
in 184*2 dedicated to his friend
Mendelssohn
his
three masterly string quartetts, Op. 41.

friend at his death,
similar tribute
was paid
fiir
to his
November
4th, 1847, in his
"Album
die Jugend,
No. 28, Erinnerung." Mendelssohn appears to have helped Schumann to popularity, which is proved by the frequent appearance of the composer's name in the Leipzig Gewandhaus concert programmes, over which Men-
Schumann's engagement at the Leipzig Conservatorium was also due to his friend, who, it must be remembered, was The author, a pupil at the Conservatorium, well remembers its founder.
delssohn had sole control.
how
the
kindly Mendelssohn stood at Schumann's side and advised him during

first
rehearsals of Paradise
and
the Peri.
He
also
caused repeated
performances
evenings/'
of
Schumann's
works at his friend David's " Quartett
We
of
need scarcely
make mention
given
of
of Mendelssohn's thorough appreciation

friend's
the interpretation
;
his
works by his
wife
Clara
he continually showed his approbation in public. If the between these two masters failed to become as intimate relationship existing as Schumann might have desired, we must attribute it to the fact that
Schumann
Mendelssohn entertained a decided aversion

a musical
critic.
for any creative artist becoming 1835 he was called to Leipzig from Diisseldorf in order to assume the direction of the Conservatorium and Gewandhaus
When
in
concerts,
Schumann had
fur
already been for a year the editor
of
the Nene
Zctitehrift
Musik, which, after 1844,
came
into the hands of Brendel.
Although Schumann would have made as little use of such means to raise his name as Mendelssohn, yet there were amongst his staff a few of his admirers who praised him in as extravagant a manner as they afterwards
did Richard
standpoint for these Hotspurs of the
Wagner, when Robert Schumann had become a superseded new Romantic school. That this was
unpleasant to a finely organised nature such as Mendelssohn's can be easily When the celebrated musicperceived by the following circumstance.
teacher
Dehn asked him
for
some explanations of
his Antigone
music for
insertion in his musical journal Cecilia, the master replied
"
:
have made
1014
HISTOBY OF MUSIC.
a stringent rule never to write anything concerning music in public to cause any article to appear concerning papers, nor directly or indirectly I cannot fail to see that this must have own
it
my
productions.
Although
often been to
my
"
:
I have hitherto strictly
detriment, nevertheless I will not depart from a principle adhered to." In the same spirit he writes to his
friend David
If I
am
how
to acquire it; if
it,
not made for popularity I have no desire to learn you find that unreasonable I prefer to say I am
really I cannot
unable to learn
and
and would not
like to learn it."
When we remember
that Mendelssohn's dislike of theorising or speculating
on his art was so great that all aesthetic arguments were antipathetic to him, and that he once remarked that they made him sad and silent, we can
why he conceived a certain reluctance to form a closer intimacy with the editor of the Neue Zeitschrift, which had begun to influence the Leipzig public. There may have been a good side to this matter, as we
understand
doubt whether our master could have acted so unrestrictedly for Schumann's benefit if greater intimacy had existed, as it might have been conducive to
a suspicion of mutual interest.
Mendelssohn when a child was powerfully influenced by Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, and Karl Maria von Weber. The master has often
been extolled as being the
first
to introduce a fantastic
world of nymphs
and
by Mendelssohn in his Midsummer Night's Dream, Melusine, Hebrides, and Walpurgis Night, we must acknowledge Weber as his predecessor, and the real creator of this new feature in music. We owe to Mendelssohn, however, the " Instrumental
original effects produced
gnomes charming and
into
musical
art.
Notwithstanding, however, the
many
in which he often introduces the goblin element, which but rarely found in the works of earlier masters. He introduces this element also into many orqhestral and pianoforte compositions ; it will be found in the Scherzo of his minor symphony, the Finale of the major
Capriccio,"
is
symphony, and the favourite " Rondo Capriccioso." Whilst Weber deals with the preternatural world in its hideous or pleasant aspect, as in Freischiitz and Mendelssohn introduces the humoristic Oberon,
nature of the elves and goblins.
teasing
Weber's influence
may
be plainly traced
" Wer hat and hunting songs ; for example, in his dich, du schoner Wald," in the trio of his A major symphony, and in the beautiful horn " " Nocturne of his Midsummer Night's passage in the
in Mendelssohn's forest
1015
However independently conceived the above passages may be, we cannot doubt but that they were suggested by Weber's hunting chorus from Euryanthe, or the introduction to the overture of Der FreiscJtiil:.
Dream.
Bach and Handel have influenced Mendelssohn most decidedly in his sacred compositions. In St. Paul we trace the Passion of Bach, and Handel
is
certainly taken for a
model in Elijah.
Though Mendelssohn does not
reach the standard of lofty sentiment and grand expression employed by his models, we meet in his works with new and independent features
which
will insure their position

St.
amongst
classical oratorios.
These features
occur in
in the
Paul
in the stoning of
Stephen and the scene following,
miracle on Saul journeying to Damascus, in the chorus, "Arise, for thy light is come/' and in the chorale, to the Christian spirit shine,
of which the
again,
pagan choruses form

epic
so striking a contrast.
In the Elijah,
instances of
power
are
to
be
found in the contest of the
prophet with the heathen and their priests, in the final chorus of the first part descriptive of the rejoicing of the land at the termination of the
drought, and in the scene on
Mount
Sinai.
Mendelssohn's Psalms, though
containing
much
that
is
beautiful, contain too
much modern
subjective
sentiment; in Psalm cxiv., however, we meet with the serious grandeur which characterises the ancient religious hymns. Mendelssohn was the
attempt, and to succeed in producing without poetical and vocal aid, * these grand pictures of nature ; compositions are often replete with local In the overture to the Hebrides, colouring solely produced by the orchestra.
first to
which refers to the group of rock-bound islets enveloped in Ossianic fog, amidst which the stormy waves and the sea-gull's doleful cry call forth strange echoes, Mendelssohn has depicted musically the impressions on a receptive
mind
" Scotch " Italian of the Symphony/' the A minor has been christened the " these works reproducing in a striking manner Mendelssohn's Symphony ;
The first-named with its cheerful and sunny impressions of each country. " character and its Neapolitan Tarantella," and the latter with its serious- /
ness and Scotch melody, clearly
of the fantastic scenery. This tendency to descriptive composition extends even to the master's symphonies the major has received the name
:
With
his
"Sons
feels
show the sources from which they without Words'" Mendelssohn has enriched the
arose.'
The Editor
bound
tho " Pastoral
to demur to this statement, remembering Beethoven's symphonies, Symphony," No. 6. F. A. G. 0.
1016
HISTORY Of MUSIC.
of pianoforte music with a to the transfer

of
form
of composition
which lends
itself readily
momentary
impressions.
If the works in this
new
form lack the grace and refinement of Mendelssohn they degenerate into mere bagatelles. To the master's great merits we must add one which as a tone-poet ; we refer to the enthusiasm those he almost
equals
possesses
and persistence which he displayed as the champion of Handel and Bach Mendelssohn, in opposition in the first half of the nineteenth century. to the modern school which underrates the music of the past, was convinced that the development of the
does nature,
and that
real
progress
mind proceeds as little hy skips as advances by consecutive gradations.
However, Mendelssohn was far from wishing to reduce the musicians of the masters of the past, and in present time to mere imitators of the great
St.
Paul and Elijah he has
clearly
shown what he understands by following
the classical writers.
Instead of producing a mere imitation of the old
masters in his oratorios, Mendelssohn has modernised the style of Bach and
Handel by removing the long introductory phrases and ritornelli, which, theme. especially in the arias, served but to forestall and repeat the singer's
omits the tedious sequences and endless roulades, and reduces the excessive breadth of the text. Such a condensed classical form, notwithstanding
its
He
advantages, could not raise Mendelssohn to the level of Bach
and Handel, for however great and important as a man of talent, like all the masters since Beethoven, he cannot be classed as a genius, and the chasm
between talent and genius
remain impassable. Mendelssohn with becoming modesty never attempted a comparison with the classics, and must be credited with referring to Bach and Handel as the imperishable
will ever
representatives of sacred composition.

resuscitator of Bach,
Mendelssohn may be quoted as the and the earnest study which is made of this composer's
is
works at the present time
due to him.
is
One
Goethe's
years.
of
Mendelssohn's most prominent works
the composition of
Walpurgis Nacht, which was commenced at

this production
Rome
:
in his early
Concerning ning there are spring songs and such-like in abundance then, when the guards create a din with pitchforks and owl hootings, begins the witches'
;
he wrote to his
sister
" In the begin-
scene, for which, as
the Druids' sacrifice (in

follow,
you know, I have a special foible ; this is followed by C major, with trombones) ; the frightened guards
an uncanny chorus, followed by a
and here
I will introduce
hymn
1017
as
Finale" Twelve years later, when the cantata was finished, he wrote " In the second part of the concert my Walpurgis Nacht will be resuscitated,
:
although in a somewhat different dress, but, if it fails to suit me now I vow The critic Otto Gumprecht I will give it up for the rest of my life." " It could not fail to adds satisfy him, for we find in it the three sources
:
from which the composer sought subject and inspiration by preference ; its form is classical, its matter romantic, and it faithfully represents the
composer's characteristics.
of a fantastic fairy world
is
The loving perception of nature and the joy The instrufollowed by a pious invocation.
' mental interlude following the overture and leading up to the chorus, Es lacht der Mai/ is the most loving greeting of spring ever expressed in
music.
The
description of spring and the dramatic effect of the pretended
devilry are
to that
which characterises
most powerful, and the Finale breathes piety equal in intensity St. Paul and Elijah"
Mendelssohn's songs, with few exceptions, follow the form of art-song created by Franz Schubert ; they are, however, as a rule, more restricted in
form and more cunningly devised than the productions of the earlier master. Schubert's ideas are broader, his construction is more effective, his modulations are bolder
restrained than that of Mendelssohn.
and more surprising, and his thematic treatment is less The careful finish of the latter master
resembles the polish of marble, yet a marble coldness also occasionally characterises the songs, whereas we are carried away by the vital power and
warmth
gems.
of colouring,
and refreshed by the imperishable vigour of Schubert's similar distinction exists between the songs of Mendelssohn and
those of Schumann.
Schumann's songs lack the naivete and dewy
fresh-
ness of the works of Schubert, whose inspirations are redolent of the pure Schubert derives mountain air and the invigorating breezes of the forest.
his inspirations
from
real
from an imagined nature.
Schumann's inspirations Yet Schumann's are ever superior

nature
;
are derived
to
Mendels-
must sohn's in passionate expression and deep romantic sentiment. be unjust to the latter master, who has written such charming not, however,
" songs as Leucht' Heller
als die
We
Sonne
" "
;
Winter, schlimmer Winter;

"
"
"Der Herbstwind
"
riittelt
die
Wenn
1st
durch die Piazzetta;" Teich, dem regungslosen ; "Es " and the " An des bestimmt Gottes Rath ; lust'gen two-part song,
Baume;" "Auf dem
" Auf Flugeln des Gesanges;"
Brunnens Rand."
1018
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
We
will
now
discuss
Schumann
as a writer for the orchestra.

:
On
to Heinrich Dorn April 14th, 1839, he wrote it has become too feeble for my ideas smash my piano,
" I would often like to

;
as yet I
have had
symphonies in B flat major, Op. 38, and D minor, Op. 120, were composed. These productions by no means impress us as the works of a beginner, but rather as
but
little
experience in orchestration."
Two
years later the
major symphony was performed with The work is direction in 1841. great success under Mendelssohn's personal not only original and impressive, but is possessed of remarkable freshness.
those of a sound master.
The
flat
other of his instrumental works,
In the Scherzo of this work, as well as in the C major symphony, and many we meet with a peculiarity in the shape The vigorous first Allegro exhibits a formal finish and of two trios.
thematic construction which almost equals that of the first part of the C minor symphony of Beethoven. The graceful Finale exhibits proof of the
influence of Mendelssohn.
it
The second symphony, Op. 120, which number

counted
It gains an entirely individual character
assumed owing
to the composer's re-modelling it at a later period, is
as the fourth of his symphonies.
by the four movements not being separated by pauses, but continuing in one whole. In its later form this work shows a much greater mastery over the
technical
means of the orchestra than

its
its
predecessor, the
flat
major
symphony, which, in
contains
three vast movements, shows some instances of
unskilfulness in the production of orchestral effect.
The
D minor
it
symphony
many
grand traits, although in certain
moments
reminds the
hearer too clearly of Beethoven.
Amongst
symphony, movements
Op. 61,
we
prefer the
are without interest.
C major none of the genial Scherzo, though Schumann's E flat major symphony,
the
movements
of the
Op. 97, must be acknowledged as one of the most important works in this branch of the art which have been written since Beethoven. This beautiful " work receives its title of the " Rhenish Symphony from the fact of its having been written at Diisseldorf ; its freshness and healthy vigour defy any presentiment of the approaching mental derangement which ended in an incurable malady. The romantic mind of the composer is said to have received the inspiration for this work after witnessing the impressive ceremony which took place in Cologne Cathedral on the occasion of the installation of Archbishop Geiszel as cardinal. Op. 52, which consists of an " Overture, Scherzo, and Finale for Orchestra/' shows
1019
surprising
originality.
This work,
which Schumann re-modelled
after
performance, shows very clearly the value of a composer's selfcriticism ; for it is to this that it owes its classical finish and uninterrupted
the
first
flow.
No
less
prominent are Schumann's chamber compositions.

direction
As the
crowning
second
effort in this
quintett, Op. 44.
The Allegro
like
movement
E flat major which begins most powerfully, the a funeral march, in which the plaintive viola is so
we should
allude to the
brillante,
its
effectively
treated,
and the passionate Scherzo, with
two
trios
and
vigorous Finale, form a complete work which points to Schumann as imbued with Beethoven's spirit as no other master was. We must also point
E flat major for piano and and the pianoforte trio in D minor, Op. 63, which is reckoned strings, the most important of his works belonging to this class. Among his
to the excellence of this master's quartett in
string quartetts, that in
minor is the most important, and in it the does not show himself a mere imitator of Beethoven, but a comcomposer poser whose very flesh and blood are saturated with the spirit of the
great master.
Amongst Schumann's moral works Faust undoubtedly

place,
takes the
first
though
this opinion is contrary to that entertained
by Schumann
enthusiasts,
who
invariably retain the Peri for the place of honour.
We
restrict our opinion, however, to the third and last part of this work, the composition of which extended over a period of ten years. The last was the first written, and he was engaged on its composition at the part
must
time when his creative power was at

version,
its zenith.
Faust, especially Goethe's

attracts
possesses
composer.
favourable
magnetic Schumann did not escape this
influence
which
;
every romantic
his genius also found here a
field for action,
and
if
the
first
and second parts of
his
work
had been equal to the third we should now possess a most worthy musical As it is, we possess a priceless gem in the setting of this grand poem. Finale of his work entitled " sie schwankt heran."
Waldung,
That Schumann
seen by comparing
it
excelled himself in the last part of his Faust will be
with the choruses of his other well-known vocal works
for example, his Peri, Pilgrimage

Li<'d
of
the Rose,
Mignon Requiem, Nacht
(Hebbel), and the two
first
parts of Faust, all of which, as regards
polyphonic excellence, are inferior. The fugal chorus in B flat major, " Gerettet ist das edle Glied der Geisterwelt vom Bosen," the antiphonal
1020
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
" Alles
and the contrasting Vergangliche ist nur ein Gleichnisz," " Jene Rosen aus den Handen liebend heiliger choruses for female voices, " and " Du schwebst zu Hohen der Biiszerinnen ewigen Reiche/' contain
chorus,
the noblest power and the most charming tenderness ever displayed by
Schumann in choral composition. The healthy vigour of the Finale
to
Schumann's Faust
is
equal to that
found in the works of the older Romantic school by Schubert and Weber, while for romantic expression it may vie with Mendelssohn's Walpurgis
In the early portions of Faust we Night and Midsummer NigM's Dream. " of " meet already with the monotony of the so-called endless-melody the new Romantic school, a feature which also characterises the master's
music to Byron's Manfred. Schumann does not entirely follow the new Romantic school; the form of the overture to his Manfred is entirely classical, and, as such, is a masterpiece; the contents, however, are of a
most pessimistic character.

life,
The mission
of art is not to darken

its
human
but, even when representing the deepest tragedy,
duty
is
to console
and elevate the mind of man.

into a sea
This dire
The composer of Manfred drags us down of hopeless misery from which it would seem impossible to rise. hopelessness, which we so often meet in the lyrics of Lenau,
which
is
creates a painful impression,
heightened by the recollection of the
two masters.
Notwithstanding the regrettable pessimism of the Manfred,
we cannot
displays.
fail to
be attracted by its masterly development and the talent it The few compositions which affiliate Schumann to the new
either
to
Romantic school belong

his life
;
the
"
storm and stress
period
" of
or
may
as belonging to a superseded class
be selected from Ops. 1 to 23, to which he referred or else they belong to that period ;
during which the master was most terribly afflicted. on which is founded Schumann's world- wide fame
The compositions
belong, without ex-
ception, to the period of the master's artistic maturity health.
and sound mental
Schumann's Peri,
if
we
the
much
beauty, although
ignore its pretension as an oratorio, contains third part is somewhat wearisome by reason
of its extreme length.
addresses itself specially to those
Otto Jahn says of the music to the Peri, that it who form a total impression of the work
exhibits much beauty and finish. detail, To this we may add our opinion that, with the exception of the scenes associated with the conits
from
which
1021
queror Gazna, which exhibit a certain epic and dramatic power, the work lacks the thrilling- events which would justify the employment of the means
supplied
by
orchestra, chorus,
and ensemble; a striking example of the incaof this
pability of a lyric composer to invest

offered
by the Peri.
The subject
any subject with plastic power is thus work would never be chosen by an
epic composer, as being allegorical
and too replete with metaphor. Tom Moore's hyper-sentimental " Lalla Rookh," from which the subject of the Peri is taken, is totally unable to assume the dimensions of an epic poem, nor does it contain the requisite heroic figures and events. In the third part
the work
is
restricted to the description of the soaring of the Peri over the
fertile
Indies and glowing Orient, the only episode being the tear of the
are repentant sinner by which the Peri regains the lost Paradise. far from underrating the lyric charms and poetical colouring to be found
in
We
many
parts of this work.
The second
part
is
specially rich in the above
qualities,
which lend a touching and
poetical expression to the description
of the Nile sprites, the pestilence, the dying scene of the lovers,
affecting character of the final chorus,
voll
and the
" Schlaf nun und ruh'
in
Traumen
in
in his
Duft."
Nor do we
Pensieroso ed
credit
the heroic character to be

;
found
the oratorios of Handel as alone worthy of acceptance
for
;
Handel
Allegro,
il
il
Moderate
Ads and
Galatea
and Susanna,
also
departs from the original character of the subject.
To Haydn
we owe
an entirely new species of oratorio. If a subject of so tender and undefined a character as the Peri had to be treated as an epic, the smaller dimensions
of the cantata
form would have amply sufficed, and this compression would have spared us many tedious and weak points in the score. What is displayed on a large scale in the Peri, that is Schumann's lack of epic power,
to be found in a less degree in his cantata the Pilgrimage
offers
is
of
the Rose,
a similar subject to that of the Peri, though of smaller The poem of the Pilgrimage of the Hose, on account of its proportions. extravagant allegory, which causes it to appear affected and mean, even
which
more stubbornly than the Peri, refuses to lend itself to epic treatment. At most its contents would have supplied matter for a suitable " ballade " or a
small cycle of solos.
Instead of this the master seizes the opportunity of
introducing the too powerful means of expression supplied by choruses and solos, and he alters the more fitting pianoforte accompaniment into one for the orchestra. There is no .need to expatiate on the many lyrical beauties
1022
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
which are present in talent of Schumann.
this
work, when
we
recollect that it is the result of the
Schumann's songs are as a rule more intense and breathe a passion more which pervades those of Mendelssohn. If in the songs of fiery than that
the latter we find deep reflection and too anxious self-criticism,
Schumann's songs
writer, therefore,
are the result of
an
irresistible inspiration.
we feel that As a song-
undoubtedly the more important; he not only surpasses Mendelssohn, but every song-composer since the time of Franz Schubert, amongst whose disciples Schumann ranks, as exhibiting
Schumann
is
the deepest feeling.
Nevertheless Franz Schubert remains incomparable,

traces of his influence
is
and
it
must be confessed that
may
be found through-
out Schumann's songs, though the latter
by
no. means a mere imitator,
but rather an explorer who has discovered many new paths. The most striking difference between the two masters Schubert and Schumann is that
the songs of the former are mostly of a
are pervaded
manly and vigorous
character,
and
by an unchanging youth and cheerfulness ; those of Schumann, on the contrary, are the result of a dreamy and imaginative character, the works of a man entirely occupied by his own " soul-life/' and thus they
receive a peculiar character
which occasionally bears a feminine impress.
Schumann was the

heart, whose most
refer to
first
to depict the innermost sentiment of a
woman's
he appears to have fathomed. We " Frauen-liebe und entitled song-cycles Leben," " Dichterliebe." The twelve songs from Riickert's "Myrthen," and
secret emotions
those beautiful
"
Liebesfruhling,"
mostly partake of this nature.
Op. 37, and those from Eichendorf's poems, Op. 39, If we had to enumerate our favourite
songs from the repertoire of this master, we should include "'Waldesges" Es weisz und Rath' es doch Keiner;" "Es war, als hatte der prach;"
rauschen die Wipfel und schauern;" " Uesberm Garten durch die Liiften ; " " Ich grolle nicht ; " " Und wiiszten die Blumen, die " Allnachtlich im kleinen;" "Der Nuszbaum " " Du
Himmelj" "Es
Traume;"
meine
mein Herz," and many others equally tuneful. most charming duets for female voices we must select " Voglein war" as the most beautiful.
Seele,
Du
Amongst
his
Wenn
ich ein
Amongst the
interpreters
of
Schumann's songs,
especially those in
which he displays such powerful passion, none of her contemporaries surpassed Wilhelmine Schroeder-Devrient, and he who has heard her the
sing

"
1023
Waldesgesprach
It
"
is
or
" " Ich must have received an ineffaceable grolle nicht

that
impression.
natural
Schroeder-Devrient,
for example, the
who
so excelled in
rendering the songs of
Schubert
Meer "Ich
erglanzte
schnitt es
Weit hinaus/' " Bachlein, lasz gern in alle Rinden em" should be the most
"Erl King," "Das dein Rauschen sein," and

successful
Fig.
269.
Wilhelmine
Schroeder-Devrient.
(Original published by Franz Havfstdngl, Munich.)
interpreter of the
in
works of Schumann, who so nearly approached the great
song-master depth of feeling. Though Schumann lacks dramatic power, his Genoveva abounds in lyric beauties for example, Siegfried's aria, and
;
Genoveva's scene at the

to the opera is
cross, acts
is
iii.
and
iv.
respectively.
The overture
pervaded by a
most
effective,
skilfully finished,
and
is
genuine romantic spirit. The introduction, with its mediaeval chorus of warriors, and the witches' scene, are also powerfully delineated. Amongst
Schumann's " Bilder aus
later
works for
;
Osten/' Op. 66
the pianoforte we must note the duets, the " Waldscenen/' Op. 82 ; the " Marchen
1024
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
" Variations for two Pianos," Op. 46, which
Bilder," for viola and piano
were performed for the first time in 1843 by Mendelssohn and Clara " Four As one of Schumann and the Fugues for the Piano/' Op. 72.
;
Schumann's most important tributes to the repertoire of pianoforte music, The list of the however, we must refer to the "Etudes Symphoniques." Julius Casar and master's last great works includes the overtures to " " Hermann und Dorothea ; the two ballade for chorus, soli, and orchestra, " Das Gliick von Edenhall ; " and six splendid " Des Sanger's Fluch" and
the
letters comprised in organ fugues, Op. 60, on the notes represented by the name of Bach.
We
masters.
must now consider the
principal events in the lives of the
two
Hamburg, on February His father, a wealthy banker, was the son of the well-known The boy's musical philosopher and friend of Lessing, Moses Mendelssohn. indeed to such an extent that there could gift was apparent at an early age
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy was born at
3rd, 1809.
be no doubt as to his future career.
In 1813, his family moving to Berlin, Mendelssohn commenced his musical education under the care of the cele-
brated
school at
Berger established a pianoforte which we find Mendelssohn, Berlin, Adolf Henselt, Taubert, and Fanny Hensel. This school might well be called the "Berlin Classical Pianoforte School," as Berger founded his
Ludwig Berger (1777
1839).
amongst the pupils
of
method on that adopted by Mozart and

close connection
his pupil
Hummel, which was
in
with that of Clementi, Cramer, and Dussek (1761 1812). Dussek was one of the first to apply to the piano what is understood as
"
making it sing.-" Mendelssohn was a pianist of the highest his method greatly influenced other well-known pianists, such
Reinecke, and Wilhelmine Clausz.
order,
and
as Killer,
While at Berlin he studied harmony

as the friend
under Karl Friedrich Zelter
(17581832), who was renowned
of Goethe, his correspondence with that master having been published in 1833 in six volumes ; he composed music to many of Goethe's poems, and
was conductor of the celebrated Berlin Vocal Academy. Zelter, as a composer, was of moderate calibre, and, according to Mendelssohn, by no means an erudite contrapuntist. The master's conscientious earnestness led him
to select the best models,
could not
his favourite being Sebastian Bach, and this be most advantageous to the promising pupil. The boy heard at this academy the best choral works, in which he took part in
fail to
FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN*.
1025
person, and,
when
still
ductor at rehearsals.
lessons
a youth, occasionally assumed the post of conThis was more beneficial to him than all the
he received.
The
attention
bestowed
on the
capella
style
formed a special feature of this institution, and proved of the utmost value to the young master. It was introduced by the founder, Karl
Friedrich Fasch, 1792,
special feature
who wrote a
sixteen-part mass in that form.

Zdlter's successors,
This
was continued under the rule of

both of
Karl
Friedrich
Rungenhagen and Edward

;
tively, at Berlin
whom
Grell, born in 1778 and 1800 respecexcelled as a capella writers, the latter
composing a sixteen-part mass in the

possessed at that
style
of
Palestrina.
The Vocal
Academy period an invaluable collection of Sebastian Bach's manuscripts, many of which were either unpublished or out of From this collection Mendelssohn derived considerable benefit, and print.
be traced throughout his whole career, and to this might also be attributed his persistent endeavours for the resuscitation of Bach's
its influence
may
Passion of
St.
Matthew.
The Berlin Opera, then at the zenith of its glory, considerably influenced Mendelssohn, for although the dramatic element was never brought into prominence, yet the excellence of the repertoire could not fail to impress him favourably, and
to this influence
we may
attribute the dramatic effects
with which his oratorios abound, as well as his music to Shakespeare's Mi( I* a >n me r Night's Dream, and in Athalie, Antigone, and (Edipus. At
this period the
most eminent
Mantius.
Royal Opera-House and Konigstadtische Theatre possessed vocalists, such as Sontag, Milder, Seidler, and Faszmanu, as
well as the great baritone Blume, and those excellent tenors Bader and
Pauline
Anna Milder-Hauptmann
for
this
(1785
1838) possessed one
of the most powerful voices of the period, in addition to an unequalled

figure.
It
was
vocalist
that
Beethoven created the part of
Milder was the best interpreter of Gluck's heroines, and as such she excited the greatest enthusiasm among the Berlin public
Leonora in Fidelio.
from 1815
in Aulis,
to
18-'il.
She excelled
in Tauris.
in the roles of Alceste,
and Iphigenia
Goethe was
so
Armida, Iphigenia charmed with her render-
ing of the latter part that he sent her an edition de luxe of his Iphigenia as a memento. Henrietta Sontag (1806 1854), who created Weber's
Euryanthe at Vienna, came in 1824- to the Konigstadtische Theatre, where she remained for three years. As a bravura singer she divided the honours
N N N
1026
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Agatha Der Freischiitz, Euryanthe, Anna in Boieldieu's Dame Blanche, and Donna Anna in Don Giovanni. Besides these classical roles, she performed sucDesdemona in Rossini's Othello, Semiramide, and cessfully the part of above all Rosina in II Barbiere. In 1830 Sontag married Count Rossi,
in
with the celebrated Catalani.
Her most
successful efforts were as
Fig. 270.
Henrietta Sontag.
(Original published by F. Schuberth and Co., Leipzig.)
and retired from the stage; but eighteen years later she returned to her ormer triumphs, and performed in London, Paris, Brussels, and America. She died in 1854, her chief parts at this period being Lucrezia Borgia, di Chamounix, La Figlia del Reggimento, and similar in
characters,
her youthfui
tfUerwM/HfW
appearance caused universal astonishment. Carolina donna at the Berlin Opera from 1817 to while there
1838;
created the part of Agatha, at the 21. From that time until 1836 she
first
representation of the Freischiitz,
appeared ninety-one times in this part.
1027
She
also excelled as
and Isabella in Robert
Euryanthe, Costanza in Cherubini's Porteur d'Eau, le Diable. Augusta von Faszmann, born at Munich,
for her an
1814, visited Berlin in 1836, and obtained a success so great as to procure engagement at the opera for the following year. Faszmann was
classical
mezzo-soprani, and was incomparable in the Heinrich Blume (1788 operas of Gluck and Spontini. 1856) was one
one of the grandest

of the
most prominent interpreters of Mozart, his extraordinary range of voice enabling him to sing both tenor and baritone parts. His rendering of
Don Giovanni
no
less
has rarely been equalled.
During an engagement
of twenty-
seven years, Blume sang this role one hundred and one times.
successful as
He was
Almaviva
in
II Barbiere,
In Weber's operas he
shone as Caspar and Lysiart, and was specially successful as an oratorio and concert singer. Blume was a true artist, as is proved by the fact that he never refused minor characters, his respect for the composer considerably
outweighing the love of prominence. even Masetto in Don Giovanni.
He
sang the Commendatore and
Blume was followed by

the Berlin Opera, 1820
Huri/anl/ie,
Carl Bader, born in 1789,

especially
who was engaged

famous
at
1849, when he was
as Adolar in
Belmonte
in Mozart's Seraglio,
Joseph in Mehul's sacred drama,
Masaniello, and Fra Diavolo.
Bader
also
made a point
of conscientiously
rendering minor parts, such as Blondel in Richard Cceur de Lion, Rudolf in William Tell, and Bois Rose in Meyerbeer's Huguenots. He was a member
of Zelter's Vocal
opera.
Union
and, like Blume, was as famous in oratorio as in
On an
to
Edward
Berlin.
equal footing with these two celebrated tenors we can place Mantius (1806 1874). Mantius belonged to the Royal Opera
from 1830
1857
i.e.,
during the
also a
last years of
Mendelssohn's residence in
He
had, however, gained renown as an oratorio singer before seek-
ing the stage.
Mantius was
member
of Zelter's Vocal Union,
and
was
in the habit of singing the title-roles in
Handel's Samson and Judas
his debut at the Berlin Opera as Tamino in Mozart's and became famous in the characters of Belmonte, Ottavio, Magic Flute,
Maccabeeus.
He made
Joseph,
Raoul, Adolar, Almaviva, George
Brown
in
Boieldieu's
Dame
Blanche, Florestan in Fidelio, and Pylades in Gluck's Iphigenia in Tauris. Young Mendelssohn, as a member of Zelter's Vocal Academy, could not
fail
to be brought into
excellence of the operatic
contact with the two last-named singers. The in Berlin at that period inspired the performances
N N N
2-
1028
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
young master with the

had already
being a pretty
parts,
little
desire' of
tried his skill as opera-writer at the
He writing an opera for such an ensemble. of twelve, the result age

entitled
Although and especially the overture, show the strong influence of Mozart,
operetta,
The Two Pedagogues.
there are yet
many
glimpses of originality.
bass,
The author
from
this
is
in possession of
an autograph duet, for soprano and

hands.
work, as well as the
manuscript of the entire production arranged by the composer for four Neither of these has yet been printed, and it is uncertain whether
any copy exists. Between the composition of this work and the public performance of his Marriage of Camacho, the libretto of which is taken from Cervantes' " Don Quixote," and which was performed at Berlin in
The first 1827, Mendelssohn made many essays in dramatic composition. performance of this work was at the same time the last, for the master
strenuously refused to witness again the stormy applause of his friends confronted by the hisses of an organised opposition. This performance was
the turning-point of our master's
entirely resisted the desire of
this direction
life
as regards opera composition.
He
becoming an opera-writer, his sole efforts in
being Heimkehr
for
am
der Fremde, which was written on the
and Lorelei, the libretto of wedding him by Geibel, and of which he only completed a song, a chorus of vine-dressers, and the Finale.
of his parents,
occasion of the silver
which was written
In a preceding chapter we grouped a number of composers round under the title of the Berlin Opera School, and we now deem Meyerbeer,
it
fit
to connect with
are,
Mendelssohn the two Berlin
theorists,
Dehn and
Marx, who
by the
number and
efficiency of their pupils, entitled to be
regarded as the heads of a special school of composition. connect these masters with Mendelssohn not on account of their close personal reonly lation with the great master, but the affinity of their musical tendencies.
We
They, as teachers, like Mendelssohn in his compositions, distinctly point to the masters of the German Genius epoch as the climax of our musical development. Their intention was to teach their that in form
pupils
art,
is
in as close connection to idea as is the
soul cannot be
ever
fail
as the body imagined without the body, musical ideas without form will to possess an The first of these teachers who organic existence.
to the soul.
And
has exercised his influence almost further by his personal tuition than
his large collection of theoretical
by
and practical works
is
Siegfried Dene,
1029
musical historian and antiquary, born in 1799

in 1858.
at Altona, died at Berlin
include in the list of Proceeding chronologically, his distinguished pupils, Michael Glinka, Hieronymus Truhn, Theodore
we must
Kullak,
Friedrich
Kiel,
Martin
Blumner,
Hugo
Ulrich,
Woldemar
Bargiel, Anton Rubinstein, Albert Becker, Bernhard Scholz, and Heinrich Hoffmann. Dehn from 1819 to 1823 studied jurisprudence at Leipzig,
at the
end of which period he became attached to the Swedish Embassy at Berlin. In 1829 he engaged in music as a professor. Through Meyerbeer's recommendation he became, in 1842, custodian of the musical collection at
the Royal Library at Berlin, where seven years after he received distinction
as royal professor.
celebrity.
By enriching this valuable library, Dehn gained great " Theoretisch Amongst his published works his praktische
" stands pre-eminent.
His
list
Harmonielehre
of
published works also
includes an analysis of three fugues from John Sebastian Bach's " Fortyeight Preludes and Fugues/' and a double fugue for voices by G. M.
Buononcini, a collection of music of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
in twelve parts,
and a translation of Delmotte's notes on Orlandus

his
posthumous papers his pupil Bernhard Scholz collected matter for a treatise on " Counterpoint, Canon, and Fugue/' Adolph Bernhard Marx, who was born at Halle in 1799, and died in 1866, while professor of music at Berlin, was entirely opposed in nature to
Lassus.
his contemporary. tive as to his assertions,
From among
Dehn, although an excellent lecturer, was most posiand terse almost to rudeness. Marx, on the contrary, had the diplomatic prudence of a logician, and was an elegant and gifted writer. It is pleasant to notice that notwithstanding these
existing differences, and a reciprocal personal aversion, these
men were
con-
specially Composition (1837 1847), in four volumes, of which there have been four editions. This work is specially calculated for self-tuition, and is most useful
scientious enough to work into each other's hands, both starting from the same musical principles and aiming at the same end. Among published " " School of works of Marx we must notice his
some elementary knowledge of music. Of his other works, equally intelligent, but not of the same importance, we must mention " The Old Musical Theory, in opposition to that of
for
pupils
who
possess
our
Time/' 1842; "Gluck and the Opera/' "Guide to the Performance of Beethoven's Pianoforte Works," 1863; and the "Musical
Own
1030
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Grammar/'
which appeared in 1875. Amongst Marx's most important pupils we must mention George Vierling, Karl Dehn corresponded with MenReinthaler, and Ludwig Meinardus.
the
ninth edition of
delssohn, and
was repeatedly
visited
by him
at the library, but
Marx
all
belonged to the closer
circle of
Mendelssohn's friends, and attended
the private performances at the master's house during his earlier years. stated that Mendelssohn, in addition to his musical have
We
already
knowledge, had received a sound education. At the age of twelve, in 1821, he was taken by Zelter to Weimar, where he spent several weeks
with Goethe.
The
old poet-prince took a great interest in the boy, being
by his beauty, but by his intelligence. During this visit more attention to music than he was wont, being attracted Goethe gave Mendelssohn received instruction at home from by the boy's talent. D. W. L. Heyse, the father of the renowned novelist, who was delighted
attracted not only
with the gifts of his pupil.

decided talent for landscape
Like
his predecessor
Weber, he possessed a
His father, notwithstanding the drawing. evident gift of music, deemed it advisable to apply to an authority boy's of the first rank, and to be assured that music was really his destined profession.
as he pointed to the church steeple,

cette coupole."
Spontini had already delivered his opinion in the affirmative, adding, " II vous faut des idees grandes comme
This was not sufficient for Felix's father; therefore, in 1825, the boy being sixteen years of age, he took him to Paris to Cherubim, to whom the young master showed his B minor quartett for piano and strings. Cherubini, who was, as a rule, averse to laudation, said,
"Le
gar9on est riche,
il
fera bien,
il
fait
meme
deja bien."'
The young master was henceforward allowed to regard music as his future profession, but this did not him from becoming an prevent industrious student at the While studying there, University of Berlin.
history, philosophy, and geography, the The result of Cherubini's being taught by Bitter. encouragement was the composition of the overture to Midsummer Night's Dream, The Marriage of Camacho, and numerous psalms and other
he
paid
special
attention
to
last-named
subject
sacred compositions, which were performed at the Vocal

his
Academy under and received favourable One of acknowledgment. Mendelssohn's greatest deeds was the resuscitation of Bach's Passion of St. Matthew, 1829, which had never been performed in Berlin,
own
direction,
having,
1031
indeed,
been
completely forgotten
since
the
death of
the
composer,
Mendelssohn was supported in this movement by Edward Devrient, who aided him to overcome the diffidence of Zelter, whose doubts as to the
success of the
work were not
dispelled until the final rehearsal.

first
In 1829
the master visited London for the
time, where his merits as a composer and virtuoso were enthusiastically appreciated. Here he met Moscheles, who did all that lay in his power to further his success. In the spring of
During his visit the poet spent many hours by the piano in company with him. Concerning this, Mendelssohn wrote " He sits there with Tonans.
:
following year, on his request of his friend Goethe.

the
way
to
Italy,
he visited Weimar, at the
still,
flashing eyes, like
a Jupiter
Beethoven offered no attraction for him; but telling him I could not do otherwise, I played him the first movement of the C minor symphony, that seemed to affect him strangely." From Rome, Mendelssohn went, in 1831,
to Naples,
Switzerland, and Munich,
and, in the winter, to Paris and
London.
In the following summer he returned to Berlin. The impressions he received on the journey were published after his death in a collection
of letters.
ment
of director to the Vocal
In order to please his family he tried to obtain the appointIn 1835 Academy, but was unsuccessful.
he was appointed " Musik- Director " at Diisseldorf, where he acted in concert with Immermann, then stage- manager there. Before the end
of the year, however, the composer accepted the post of conductor at the Gewandhaus concerts. Leipzig was celebrated for its music, even
before the advent of Mendelssohn; but
it
reached
brity during the residence of that master.
utmost point of celeAfter a few years this town

its
became the musical centre of Germany.

of the city
By
his excellent conducting
he
raised the orchestra to a high point of perfection.
The musical
reputation
was not only enhanced by the renown of Mendelssohn as the best German pianist and organist, and the excellence and number of the
he attracted thither, and who regarded him as their head. The list men includes Moritz Hauptmann, born 1792 at Dresden, died 1868
compositions he wrote there, but also by the circle of prominent musicians
whom
of these
at Leipzig.
at Cassel.
Hauptmann
was, until 1842, a
member
of the court orchestra
In that year Mendelssohn obtained for him the post of cantor at
tne Church of St.
Thomas
at Leipzig.
The following year Hauptmann
accepted an engagement as the chief master of theory at the Conservatorium
103-
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
newly established by Mendelssohn.

as the first theorist of the age
;
Hauptmann
is
entitled to recognition
which we must refer to his celein 1853, of which brated work, "Nature of Harmony and Metre," published His compositions are not later. a second edition appeared twenty years
in proof of
bear the stamp of high artistic finish ; for instance, to Mendelssohn, which are still well his choruses for mixed voices, dedicated
numerous, but they
all
Fig. 271.
Moritz Hauptmann.
received, as well as a
number
of sacred compositions.
Hauptmann was
justly
entitled to the friendship
of the great master,
on account of his sound
general knowledge, his lofty sentiment, and the purity of his artistic purpose.
His genial humour can be
testified to
by
his pupils, the list of
whom
has
in-
cludes David, Curschmann, Burgmiiller, Kiel, Jadasohn, Gernsheim, Gold-
schmidt, Joachim,
Von
Holstein, Dietrich, and the author.
He
left
" Treatise on John Sebastian treasury of posthumous works, including a " " Bach's Art of the Fugue ; Opuscula," a collection of minor essays, his son in 1874; the " Laws of published by Harmony," published 1868 " Letters to Franz by Oscar Paul ; the interesting Hauser," published by

A. Schone, in two volumes, 1871 ; and "A Collection of Letters to Ludwig Spohr and Others," published by Ferdinand Hiller, 1876. Hauptmann, in
his earlier years,
was an
excellent violinist,
and a pupil of Spohr.
Conservatorium.
Mendelssohn kept a post for his friend Ignatz Moscheles at the Leipzig Moscheles was born at Prague in 1794, and died at Leipzig
Fig. 272.
Ignatz Moscheles.
in
1870.
It will be
remembered that he was chosen by Beethoven as

For many years he occupied a prominent position in G minor concerto, his " Concerto " for the " a sonata
Studies
piano,
for piano
the arranger of the pianoforte score of Fidelio, and from 1814 to 1834
emulated Hummel.
London.
Amongst
his compositions his
Pathetique,"
his excellent
and
violoncello,
repertoire
of
and others, belong to our most classical and instructive music. The third on the list of Mendelssohn's intimate
friends
is
pupil of Spohr.
concerts, and,
Ferdinand David (1810 1873). Like Hauptraann, David was a In 1836 he was appointed leader of the Gewandhaus
in
1843, professor of advanced violin-playing.
With
the
1034
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
no leader who had such power over his
to impart
to every
exception of Lipinsky,
orchestra as David
;
we
find
he seemed
member
his
own
in-
domitable energy.
Notwithstanding that he insisted on
strict
correct-
artistic expression, and if the Gewandhaus ness, he encouraged individual orchestra under Mendelssohn's baton ranked as one of the first, it owed this
but also to its leader, who carried out prominence not only to the conductor, Menthe intentions of his conductor with the energy of a true artist.
delssohn wrote
his
celebrated violin concerto
advice during its composition.
him, and sought his David's efficiency as a master is proved

for
by
Besides his violin concertos, his Joachim and Wilhelmj. " Violin most important works include his Schule," and a collection of
his pupils
violin compositions by German, French, and Italian masters of the seven" Hohe Schule teenth and eighteenth centuries, published under the title of des Mendelssohn was surrounded by a number of intimate
Violinspiels."
friends,
who
all
worked eagerly to extend
his influence over the art of
musie
The most prominent members of this circle were Julius in Germany. The two latter, during their reRietz, Ferdinand Hiller, and Niels Gade.
sidence in Leipzig, occasionally represented
Mendelssohn as conductor at the
Gewandhaus
concerts, or as teacher of composition at the Conservatorium.
We need hardly mention that Schumann and his wife were included list. We shall treat of the renowned pianist in this chapter, but
in this
Hiller,
" The Present Gade, and Rietz will be included in the chapter entitled Time/' as they survived Mendelssohn longer than Hauptmann, David,, and
Moscheles.
Mendelssohn's St. Paul was commenced at Diisseldorf and finished at

Leipzig.
In
this
could almost say that
work he displays his creed in an artistic light, and we it shows the development of the Christian sentiment
which had not

finished,
till then become a conviction. In 1836 St. Paul was and performed for the first time at a musical festival at Diisseldorf ; this performance was soon followed In 1837 the by others in England. work was performed for the first time in Berlin, Sophie Lowe taking
the soprano part.
After the success of 81. Paul at Diisseldorf, the master was created Doctor of Philosophy, and in 1841 the King of Saxony conferred on him the title of " Court Chapel-master." In 1837 Mendelssohn
married Cecilia Jeanrenaud, the handsome and gentle daughter of a pastor of the Reformed Church at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. In 1843 Mendels-
1035
sohn's enthusiasm as a teacher induced

1
him
to establish a
conservatorium at
As a proof of the Leipzig under the protection of the King of Saxony. master's earnestness we may mention the fact that from among the pupils
,
of the conservatorium he selected six,
who met
this
twice a .week to submit their

special
works for
criticism.
The
recipients of
favour
;
were
F.
A.
Dupont, who was appointed chapel-master at Nuremburg

" Musik-Director " at Bonn lewski, afterwards
court chapel-master at Meiniugeii
;
;
Von Wasic"
at Stral-
E. Biichner, who was created

"
Bratfisch,
Musik-Director
sund
Pfretzschner,
;
who
at Dresden
and the author.
accepted the post of organist at the Kreuz Church Their essays consisted of movements of a
and fugue, or a chorus in the strict This mutual criticism under the supervision of the master created style. close ties of friendship between the master and pupils, as also between
sonata, or string quartett, a prelude
the pupils themselves.
was only accorded to Sterudale Bennett, Joachim, Wu'rst, and the author, who were allowed In 1841, when to bring their compositions for correction and advice.
The
privilege of seeing
Mendelssohn
in private
by King Frederick William IV. of Prussia, he composed, at the sovereign's request, the music to the Midsummer Night's Dream, the incidental music to Racine's Athalie, and choruses to Sophocles' Antigone and CEtlipus in Colonus. During his
the master was
invited
to
Berlin
visit
of
he also composed for the newly established royal cathedral choir, which he became the director, many a capella psalms for double
chorus, liturgies, and chorales.
a sacred character more
strict
These compositions bear the impress of than that of most other works of the
1861) was the regular conductor known as the composer of the
same nature.
Heinrich Neithard (1793
of the cathedral choir, and is well national song, " Ich bin ein Preusze."
In
142
Mendelssohn was created

before
" General Musik-Director/' an honour bestowed on no other

but
Spontini.
him
to
This
recognition,
however, could not induce him
abandon Leipzig. In 1844 he visited Frankfort-on-the-Maine, where he spent the winter ; after which, having conducted the performance of
Athalie at Berlin,
Gewandhaus
concerts.
he returned to his former post of conductor of the In the following year the master conducted the
festival at Aix-la-Chapelle, in
which Jenny Lind sang the soprano part of
Haydn's Creation.
This artiste possessed a remarkable gift of rendering
1036
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
pianissimo
effects,
which was
of especially noticeable in her interpretation
Mendelssohn's Winter, Schlimmer Winter/' Jenny Lind and her conof the comtemporary Livia Frege were undoubtedly the best interpreters In 1846 before the public. poser's vocal music that have appeared " at Cologne, the German- Flemish Mendelssohn conducted Sanger-Fest" and for the first time superintended the performance of his Elijah at the
"
In the following year he conducted this oratorio in London, on which occasion the Prince Consort sent him his book of " words on which he had written that he was the saviour of art from the
Birmingham
festival.
service of
circle,
Baal/'
The Queen had already admitted him
into the family
first perand rendered his songs to his accompaniment. formance of his oratorios in England, Mendelssohn has risen into a position
Since the
almost approaching that of Handel.

years
The
excessive
work
of his
latter
proved
too
much
for
his
system,
which received an additional
severe shock at the sudden death of his
and he died oh November 4th, 1847.

worthy of such a prince of the streets were draped in black.
received with the final chorus
loved sister Fanny Hensel, The funeral ceremony at Leipzig was musicians. The houses of business were closed,
much
At the Church of St. Paul the body was from the Passion of St. Matthew. On the journey to the Berlin railway the cortege was accompanied by the members of the university bearing torches, and consisted altogether of thirty
thousand people. At the station, as well as at Dessau, the body was received with choruses of his "Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rath," under the
direction of the
The
life
of
renowned composer of The Last Judgment, Schneider. Schumann was no less eventful than that of his contemporary.
birth,
Schumann's father was by trade a bookseller, who, at the time of Robert's June 8th, 1810, was residing at Zwickau. It was intended that the
boy's musical education should be undertaken
by Karl Maria von Weber,
who had agreed

events, this never
to superintend
it,
but,
owing
to the course of intervening
After leaving the high school at Zwickau, at the desire of his widowed mother he studied jurisprudence at Leipzig, and for one year at In 1830 he determined to devote himself Heidelberg. entirely to music, and removing to became the of Wieck and
Leipzig,
pupil
came
to pass.
Dora.
teacher
Frederick
Wieck (17851873) showed
his excellence as a pianoforte
by the
results obtained in the case of his
He
daughters Clara and Marie.
excelled also as a singing-master, having been a pupil of Mieksch.
ROBEKT SCHUMANN.
Born 8th June, 1810,
at
at Endenich, near
Zwickau, in Saxony died 29th July, 1856, Bonn.

;
(By permission of Bartholf Senf of Leipzig, after an original lithograph

published by him.)
32
1037
While studying pianoforte-playing under Wieck, Schumann was receiving lessons in composition from Heinrich Dorn. The latter master was born in
1304 at Konigsberg.
at in the
He
settled in Leipzig until 1832,
Riga in the capacity of chapel-master. We same capacity, and in 1849 he was appointed court chapel-master. Among Dorn's operas Der Sclioffer von Paris and Die Nibelungen are His humorous part and solo songs became very popular. the best known.
when we find him next meet him at Cologne
As a
critic
he was noted for his characteristic humour.
Schumann was
unable to continue his career as pianist, having, by excessive practice, This is not altogether to be regretted, as it seriously strained his hand.
was doubtless the cause of the devotion of
all
his energies to composition.
An
important item of
Schumann's
artistic
career
was
his
association
and L. Schunke, in the foundation of the Neue Zeitsckrift fur Musik, in which he took so prominent a part that we shall return to it anon. Much praise is due to that band of associates rebelled the " who which
with Wieck,
Julius Knorr,
successfully
against
Kapell-meister
rnusik,"
was the
result of the labours of

taste.
out ideality, sentiment, or

school,
mere adherents of grammatical rule withAs a genuine follower of the Romantic
loving
all
that
is
mysterious and strange,
Schumann
created
in.
which he entitled " Davidshis own mind a union " "biindler," whose intention, he presumed, was the overthrow of Kapellmeister musik." This association consisted not only of imaginary, but
of sympathetic spirits,
also living,
his
personages.
In connection with this
idea,
he composed
all
Wasielewski works, ranging from 1829 to 1839. of this brotherhood as. the outcome of the poetical ideas and manner speaks of Jean Paul. In the articles on the " Davidsbiindler/' Schumann assumes
earlier pianoforte
Wieck is personified by Raro, Banck was represented by Serpentinus, Knorr was Julius, and the sentiments of Schumann did not Clara Wieck were represented by the opinion of Chiara.
the names of Florestan and Eusebius,
restrict
:
his choice of characters to
the world of the living
he wrote to
Dorn " Mozart was as great a handler as is Berlioz." Wasielewski recog" Davidsbiindler " the characteristic trait of Schunises in the idea of this
mann's nature.
opposition to
The master had an unusual penchant for the mysterious In a preface the reality; his very tread was stealthy.
in
to
an edition of his collected works, Schumann, humorously refers to the " Davidsbiindler," which he said was no secret society, but a mere creation
1038
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
changed equally in regard " Davidsthe characters of the
of his imagination.
In
later years his opinion
to his early pianoforte works.
Amongst
and Clara Wieck, Carl Banck is the most biindler," next to Schumann born in 1811, was a pupil of Klein, Zelter, and prominent figure. Banck, He to the original staff of the Neue Zeitschrift. Berger, and belonged himself as a ranks high amongst German critics, and has distinguished
teacher
unknown, composer of songs, editor and eighteenth and arranger of well-known, works of the seventeenth
of
singing,
of
hitherto
centuries.
In 1837 Schumann essayed to obtain Wieck's consent to his marriage with Clara, but was refused. Three years later, having received the degree comof Doctor at the University of Jena, in recognition of his merits as a to gain the consent of the father, and this he once more attempted
poser,
Clara Wieck, born at Leipzig being again refused, he married in secret. in 1819, had created a sensation as a child of ten when accompanying
her father on his concert tours.
It
was to her father that she owed her
of the classical perfect technique, but her conception
masterpieces dates The pianist owes her without doubt from her meeting with Schumann. to the fact that she ignores reputation as an interpreter of classical music
her personal identity while performing, and therefore renders equally well the works of Bach, Beethoven, Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Chopin.
Clara
Schumann
stands unrivalled for conjugal devotion and self-denial.
During the period of his wooing, Schumann's imaginative mind was in a continual state of happy inspiration, which found an outlet in his vocal In the year of his marriage alone he composed no less than compositions. one hundred and "thirty-eight songs. Among these we must draw special
" Myrthen/'" Frauenliebe und " the Leben/' Liederkreis/' the words of which are from the pen of Eichendorff Riickert's " Liebesfriihling/' of which those numbered 2, 4, and 11 were composed by Clara Schumann, and several others.
attention to the cycle dedicated to his bride under the title of
;
In the year 1841 Schumann composed his first two symphonies and Heine's These were followed a year later by the three string quartetts, Tragodie. the piano quintett and quartett in E flat major. In 1843 The Paradise and
In 1845 he composed the fugues for appearance. These were followed by the C major symphony, 1846 the opera Genoveva, and the music to Manfred, 1848 ; Das Spanische Liederits
first
Peri made
piano and organ.
%.- A~-
AC
*-*
II
MANX, AND Ml
SIC
AVRITTEX BY T!IM.
tr;naiui Sd.ulft uf
L'rv'iu. n.)
1039
spiel, the
requiem Mignoti, and "Das Nachtlied," from Hebbel, 1849; which was complete with the exception of the overture, which Faust,
;
followed three years after
and the symphony in
flat
major, 1850, and
The Pilgrimage of the Rose, 1851.
Fig. 273.
Clara Schumann.
In 1843 Schumann was appointed professor at the Leipzig Conservabut after a concert tour with his wife through Russia he removed ; to Dresden, in 1844. Here he founded a Choral Union, which still exists,
torium
and bears
his
name.
In 1850 Ferdinand Hiller, on leaving Diisseldorf
in
order to accept the position of chapel-master at Cologne,
recommended
Schumann
for his
late
post of
" Musik-Director."
After two years of
a misunderstanding with the directors of the " Diisseldorf Musikverein," in conjunction with the first symptoms of
activity in this capacity,
his fatal
malady, caused Schumann to resign the post.
concert tour
1040
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
his wife received the most enthuthrough Holland, during which he and On his siastic ovations, roused him for a short time from his melancholy. and he attempted return to Diisseldorf his malady increased alarmingly,
to put an end to his life
by throwing himself into the Rhine ; he was, and removed to the establishment at Endenich, near however, rescued, Bonn, where he died on July 29th, 1856. No tone-poet has been more he was a of woman than Robert Schumann enthusiastic in the
praise
:
second "Frauenlob." This was acknowledged by the maidens of Bonn, who, at his interment, filled the cemetery, and crowned the tomb with
In 1880 a monument by Donndorf, of Stutgardt, innumerable garlands. on which was represented Schumann, accompanied by his wife as the muse
of
music, was placed
fact that
Schumann
We have already mentioned the on the grave. more than ordinary gifts as a critic. This possessed
that is, at brings us back to the noteworthy fact that after Beethoven the close of the German Genius epoch composers began to address the
public as litterateurs.
Karl Maria von
Weber was renowned

;
as a critic,
humourist, and contributor to the Dresdener Alendzeltung

first
Spohr was the
musician to write an autobiography; as early as 1828 we find Berlioz engaged as a critic on the Correspondent, the Courrier de I' Europe, and the
Revue Europeenne, the special champion of Beethoven, Spontini, and Karl Maria von Weber. From 1834 we meet him engaged on the Journal des
Debats and the Gazette Mtisicale, and employing his spare time in other Schumann held the literary work, of which we shall make mention anon.
same
position in the literary world of
in France.
Franz Liszt
Germany as that occupied by Berlioz and Richard Wagner likewise exemplify the rule.
Weber and
Berlioz.
Wagner
lias
gained reputation as a poet, and in his writings has far outLiterary activity
differed widely
stripped the poetical works of
among
the Great Talents
was the
result of
gift,
and
from that
tendency have
of the host of semi-talents
and
talentless,
to cloak their lack of productive
power
in
music
who make use of members of

;
this
this class
the argument that
even descended from concert composition to concert oration. In answer to we find no litterateurs among the great masters, we can
only offer the proposition that the talents wield the pen in order to establish Those talents in whom the firmly the principles of the Romantic school.
means
romantic was not the most prominent feature, never employed the pen as a of addressing the public and the little that is known of their private
;
ii
to
It,
"
-*
/x
L.
/frt.
FAC-RIMII.E or A
LETTER
FIIOM
SCIIVMAXX TO A Yor\G
T.
\DY.
HONOURED MADAM,
thanks for your co-operation in the "Peri," and especially for the heartfelt delivery of the aria of the maiden. As I was unsuccessful in my endeavour to Receive find you after the performance the ether day I could not express my thanks to you. them then now, and accept my good wishes for your future, which to you and yours, to whom
My
beg to be kindly remembered, can only bring joy and happiness.
With much
esteem,
Yours devotedly,
11.
SCHVMANN.
10
intimate correspondence. The inopinions has been gathered from their of literary aid on vestigation of the more profound reasons for the need
behalf of the steadily increasing Romantic principles
we
shall reserve for
a later chapter.
to
many
through his opposition of the features of the musical world, but nowhere do we find him
litterateur
rebellioti
Schumann became a
claiming indulgence for extreme principles, or a leader of

all
against
pre-existing tenets.
stress period of youth past, Schumann as a critic be designated a classic in the new Romantic school might his prohe never indulged in one-sided or unjustifiable arguments
As a composer, the storm and
with safety by present day, positions The best testimony will be found in the musicians of every party. There is an historical interest attached to his master's own words.
can,
even
at
the
be
accepted
explanation as to the reasons why he founded his opposition paper in " Towards the close of the 1834. year '33 there were a series of
meetings of young musicians, which in the

chance.
first
place were the result of
The aim
of these
meetings was
of
social
communion, and
It cannot be said
this
soon
included the mutual exchange of ideas on that art which was

their life, music.
to
them the meat and drink

the
that
musical state of
Rossini
Germany
at that period
was enjoyable.
On
the
stage
reigned
supreme, on the piano almost exclusively
Herz
and Hiinten, and yet it was but a few years since Beethoven, Karl Maria von Weber, and Franz Schubert had lived among us. However,
the star of Mendelssohn was rising,
said of a Pole,
and wonderful things were being
until
'
No lasting effect was, however, produced by name Chopin. a much later period. One day an idea seized the young enthusiasts
:
let
us not idly look on, let us act, that the poetry of art
may
one day
be honoured/
This gave
rise
to the
Neue
:
already following paragraph is still more important to point to the past and its prodetermined. It is simple ; this is it ductions, with emphasis ; to strongly demonstrate how, from such a source
:
Zeitschrift fur Musik." " Our line of action is
The
only,
new
art-beauties can result

its
to brand the latest period as inartistic,

;
having alone for

hasten a
new
period of poetry."
the talentless, the
later
aim the elevation of mere virtuosity and, lastly, to Schumann wished to war against " three
arch-fiends
common
talent,
and the talented scribblers."
Yet Schumann found
on that he had lighted on a superseded path,
ooo
]Q42
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
a new epoch in the b# itself could neither found ten years elapsed before he up new talents. Scarcely aid more powerfully by hoping as a gifted artist to
After this period it was only He broke this rule on articles.
and that a
critical
journal
tonal art, nor call
resigned the editorship,

his compositions
than by his literary work. on special request that he contributed minor
the occasion of his introduction of

article entitled
Brahms
to the world,
which he did
in
an
"New
that was in
sympathy
much Paths/' as he found in the music of that composer with his own nature, and many novel features. A very
poser
work is his first reference to Chopin, important item in Schumann's literary o one like Schumann has pointed to the importance of Chopin as the comand refined character, and the music of a most of
pianoforte
poetical
creator of a fresh feature in the
new Romantic
school.
No
one has exerted
himself with so
much energy
in spite of the attacks of the Philistines,
to gain for Chopin an appreciative reception, than the composer of the Peri.
Though we
any
introduce Chopin into this chapter, which had been set apart for the discussion of the great German talents, it must not be inferred that we desire of claiming for Germany the possession of that composer. have
Chopin's position
school,
is
peculiar.
He
cannot be identified with the French

first
no Polish school existed in the
half of the nineteenth century

are only just in classing
to which he could be affiliated, therefore

as a pianoforte
we
him
composer with Mendelssohn and Schumann. Both masters admired Chopin, and there are moments in the pianoforte works of Schumann and Chopin in which the mental relation and mutual influence of
the composers cannot escape notice.
notwithstanding the
number
of
worthy of note too that Chopin, monographs and notices in dictionaries of

It is
biography, has, with the single exception of Brendel, received no notice

in the
most important musical
histories of the latter half of our century.
Arrey von
bros,
Dommer closes his who was a warm admirer
musical history with Beethoven ; and Amof the works of Chopin, was prevented by
to his descent
death from continuing his work beyond the life of Palestrina. Owing from a French father and Polish mother, and the influence
exercised on
him by the German
school,
Chopin may well be styled
cos-
mopolitan.
Chopin was not only a highly-gifted musician, but possessed of a most He has invested every form of pianoforte poetical and refined nature.
composition employed by him, be
it
nocturne, polonaise, mazurka, or waltz,
FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND EOBEET SCHUMANN.
1043
with exquisite pathos and charm, and

entirely
may
be said to be the creator of an

first
from the " Valses Sentilevel of Schubert, in his "Valses Nobles/' Op. 77; and by Karl Maria von mentales/' Op. 50; " Invitation a la Danse " ; Chopin was the first to enrich Weber, in his the art of music by forming a special genre of this class of music. His productions were by no means intended to serve as mere dance music,
new pianoforte style. Though a common dance tune by Franz
the waltz was
raised
but rather as complete poems depicting the various emotions and senJust as Mendelssohn timents engendered in the mind of the dancer. into an art-song, so Chopin raised the raised the German "folk-song"
dance into an art-form, and the virtuoso salon music that found favour
with his predecessors into a form of composition possessing a distinctive He may be said to have infused for the first time artistic character.
the genuine spirit of romance into pianoforte music, for it is only in the works of Schubert and Field that we find isolated cases, which are still rarer
in the productions of
Hummel and
Moscheles.
We
find this feature indeit is
pendent in Mendelssohn, whereas in
Schumann's compositions
without
doubt due in part to the influence of Chopin. composer, Schumann may be with justice placed 'at the side of the
contemporary, whose influence is seen Schulhoff, and Hermann Scholtz.
directly in the
Indeed, as a pianoforte
latter
works of Henselt,
There
is
yet another feature in the
which is prominent in the compositions of

of
new Romantic school of Germany we allude to the use Chopin

;
the chromatic progression.
This means of
obtaining effect was but
rarely
used by earlier masters, like Schubert, eber, and Marschner, and then in order to express the presence of something strange, super;
natural, or demoniacal
in the invention
motivi they kept strictly to the diatonic.

this rule, in the person of
and working of their themes and We only meet one exception to
Ludwig Spohr, who not only used the chromatic without special purport, but even made it the basis of his progression peculiar manner, which can be traced not only in his part-writing, but also If in Schubert and Weber the preference for in the outline of his themes.
the diatonic element
may
be regarded as a testimony of vigorous mental
health, as, with the exception of
matic element
is
Bach and Mozart (Don Giovanni), the chrobut rarely found in the works of the heroes of the German
Genius epoch, and even the most powerful ideas of Beethoven are diatonic; o o o 2
1044
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the excessive use of the chromatic found in the works of Spohr, and even
to a greater extent in those of Chopin,
may have
a pathological signification.
The continued presence

that
it
of
an element
like this in the creations of a
master
field
cannot always be considered a fault.

allows the existence of
discordance, and
Art presents such a boundless
a pathological character, sentimentality, even to a certain degree that which is baroque, adventurous, and fantastic, beside healthy vigour, the natural, the euphonic,
and the beautiful.

first
The
latter
compared with the former phase

is
is
as the
crop compared to the second, or the healthy open-air vegetation to

sickly
that reared in the hothouse, which
and mean, commonplace, and
ugly; the latter, unless used for the purpose of contrast, should be excluded from the precincts of art ; whereas we can never fail to be charmed
by
tenderness,
longing
reverie,
and feminine
sentiment.
These
last
qualities proclaim
their presence in
Chopin's works in the strong chro-
by which he not only bridges the space intervening between the old and new Romantic school, but approaches nearer to
matic
element,
the head of the
other master.
new Romantic
school, Richard
Wagner, than does any
The works of Chopin include two concertos for the piano in F minor and F sharp minor, a pianoforte trio, and two sonatas for piano and violoncello,
with
many
for
others.
these works, they fail to

is
However great the beauty contained in parts of show the perfect mastery of the composer ; that
pianoforte works, including the polonaises, and the nocturne, which had been previously mazurkas, valses, etudes, dealt with The grand poetically, but in more restricted proportions. symphonic development of instrumental music which had been applied to
reserved
his
smaller
the pianoforte concerto
tinued by Mendelssohn and

for he lacks
by Beethoven, Mozart, and Weber, and was conSchumann, was beyond the reach of Chopin,
working out of motivi.

paniment ; chamber music.
power of organic development of themes, and strict His orchestration never rises beyond mere accomand the same fault may be found with the string parts in his
the
Chopin appears at his best in the smaller forms of such as his twelve polonaises, composition, fifty-two mazurkas, twentyseven etudes, twenty-five preludes, nineteen nocturnes, thirteen waltzes, five rondos, as well as in his " Funeral March/' and his compositions in the form of the " Crakoviak," "Bolero/' "Tarantella/' "Barcarole/'
FREDERIC CHOPIN.
Born
1st
died 17th October, 1849, March, 1809, at Zelazowa Wola, near Warsaw;
in Paris.
(After
an
original Lithograph
drawn from
l(fe.)
37

and " Berceuse."
1045
Chopin
is
successful in his impromptus, variations, balladen, fantasias,
Although not a perfect master of the symphonic form, and

of
his scherzi, the
form
which he has extended beyond the usual

Chopin's originality, which
is
limits.
We
must here not
fail
to point to the exquisite beauty and originality of
his sixteen Polish songs.
inseparable
from
his individuality
his
a feature
common
to the talents of his period
renders
works almost inimitable.

Frederic Franois Chopin was born
March
1st,
1809, near Warsaw, whence
Nicholas Chopin, had removed from Nancy. The name of He received the earliest portion of his musical education at the Warsaw Conservatorium, under the direchis
father,
his
mother was Justina Kryzanowska.
tion of Joseph Eisner
and even as a child excited general admiration.
He
of
visited
Berlin
in
1828, in
company with the
zoologist,
Professor
Jarocki,
who was on his way to attend a meeting under the presidency Humboldt. It was now that he wrote about Handel's Alexander's " I confess I have been touched It Feast : by Handel's Cacilienfest.
approaches nearest to the ideal which I carry in the depths of my soul." A year later he visited Vienna in the capacity of composer and virtuoso, perFrom here he wrote " I have been forming at the Karthnethor Theatre.
:
leniently criticised
by
my
compatriots here
but what can
expect in a
city that boasts of having heard the performances of
Beethoven?" The refined -interpretation
not altogether appreciated in Vienna, voice about my having played too softly, or rather too delicately, for the
:
Haydn, Mozart, and of his imaginative compositions was " There is but one for he writes
of their
public here.
They
are accustomed to the
thumping
pianoforte
virtuosi; but that does not matter.
that I
Chopin journey formance of Faust at Dresden, given on the occasion of Goethe's eightieth he had ever before him a female ideal, to Like a true
birthday.
poet,
the case stands, I prefer to be told On his return played too delicately rather than too coarsely." was fortunate enough to be present at the perto Warsaw,
As
whom
His first love was Constance Gladhe addressed his inspirations. "I kowska. He wrote to his friend, Titus Woyciechovvsky have, perhaps as yet, spoken a single syllable to I have not, ideal. found
:
unfortunately,
my
me." In 1830 Gladher, but for six months her image has been ever before " She has never concert ; and he wrote of her kowska sang at the farewell sung so well as to-night ' and in her white dress, her hair adorned with roses, o o
: :
1046
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
she looked lovely."
On
his quitting-
Warsaw Chopin was

;
friends with a goblet filled with Polish earth
presented by his and he was implored that,
wherever he might wander or reside, he would never forget Poland. At the end of the year he again visited Vienna, whence he removed to Paris.
Schumann's enthusiasm was
first
excited
2.
from Mozart's Don Giovanni, Op.
by Chopin's variations on a theme While in Paris the young master

and Ernst, and afterwards friendly society, he entered the
met
Liszt, Berlioz, Heine, Balzac, Meyerbeer,

Hiller.
Mendelssohn and
Besides this
capital.
aristocratic circle of the
French
Prince Radziwill introduced
him
at the soirees of Rothschild, where he soon became a great favourite; and The indeed, before very long, he became the hero of every Parisian salon.
master was helped into this position by the enthusiasm felt for the cause of Poland, and the identification of his plaintive melodies with the sorrows
of his down-trodden fatherland.
One
of the composer's
friends writes at
the period
"
:
Chopin
is
at present the hero of the ladies,
which causes
fashionable
much
world
jealousy
will,
among
the men.
He
is
all
the rage.
The
before
long, be wearing gloves a la Chopin."
Every year
Chopin gave several seances musicales, to which it was very difficult to The entree was exceptionally high, as his patrons gain admission.
wished to keep the concerts as exclusive as those in their own salons. We may with justice assert that the /.'refinement of his music might
partly be traced
to his exclusive surroundings. The daughters of the French and Polish families eagerly sought lessons from him. In highest 1835, passing through Leipzig, Chopin spent a day with Mendelssohn,
concerning. which the latter wrote

of a real musician, not one
"
:
was glad to be
in
the
;
company
is,
who
is
half virtuoso, half classic
that
not
man who mingles les honneurs who has a decidedly settled object.
it
de la veriu et les plaisirs du vice, but
However
different
may
be our objects,
In difference, but I cannot bear those half-hearted people." 1836 a second visit to Leipzig brought Chopin into contact with Schu-
makes no
mann.
We
cannot
fail
to
notice
how
our
master was
attracted
by
Before his visit Chopin had been Germany and German composers. affianced to Maria Wodzynska, a Polish lady of noble birth, but on his
return to Paris he found that she had broken faith,
and was married to
a Polish nobleman.
novelist
It
George Sand.
was now that he formed an intimacy with the During 1838 and 1839 they resided at Majorca,
_J^
fSf
:
TF
1017
occupying an uninhabited monastery. memoirs " Our

:
Of
this
sojourn in the ruins of the monastery
George Sand says, in her became agony to
Chopin, and a very difficult task for me ; a broken rose-leaf, the shadow of a passing beetle, affected his shattered nerves. All he cared for was
myself and my children ; all else beneath the southern sky was painful to him/' In the following year we find him at Nohant, her country villa. Here her favourite occupation- was to write while he improvised,
.
and
to this she refers
more than once in her

attributes
novels.
Moritz Karasowsky,
Chopin's biographer,
place in
it
the rupture between them, which took

;
and it may be inferred 1847, to the conduct of George Sand a rapid increase of the composer's malady, of which he finally died after two lingering years. In the spring of 1849 he
that
caused
rallied,
and accepted engagements

season,
in
London.
;
health proved to be, however, only temporary
The improvement and the excitement
in his
of the
London
death.
On
his
and worry caused by a journey into Scotland, hastened his return to Paris it was evident that his life could not be of
His knowledge ol this fact was evident from his wish to long duration. be buried beside Bellini. On the day previous to his death he begged the Countess Potocka, who stood at his bedside, to sing something to him.
She complied by tearfully singing an Italian hymn to the Madonna, at the conclusion of which he said, " Oh, Heaven how beautiful that is ;
!
sing
it
once more."
On
the
17th
of
October
he died, after takiug
His funeral was public, all Paris taking part in it. The burial service was held in the Madelaine. On the way to the church his " Funeral March/' which had been purposely scored, was performed, and the ceremony, according to his desire,
affectionate leave of his friend
Gutmann.
was concluded with Mozart's Requiem.
Thus he was accompanied
to the
grave by the tones of that master to whom he paid homage on his first entrance into In front of the cortege the pall was borne publicity.
by Meyerbeer and
ander Czartoryski.
those of
respect.
Prince
Adam von
Franchomne and Gutmann,

his friends
Czartoryski, and the" musicians the celebrated painter Delacroix, and Alexis
Chopin's grave at Pere la Chaise

Bellini
his
situated between
and Cherubini, for
whom
he
felt a
is
marked
Amongst
lady-pupils Princess Czartoryska
undoubtedly
the best.
On
Jules Schulhoff, born at Prague in 1825, Chopin exercised

It
remarkable influence.
was through
his
inducement that Schulhoff, who
1048
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
had resided several years

author considers
in Paris,,
is
made
his first appearance in public.
The
that there
as Schulhoff performing formed either with too little
no such genial and characteristic pianist at present, and that Chopin's works are pers.pirit,
or
else
with too
much
realism
and
too
many
accents.
prominent in the Polish character.

editions of Chopin's
Schulhoff possessed the grace and chivalric spirit so must reckon as one of the best
We
works that by Hermann Scholtz.

leave altogether of the
Before
we take
three
masters,
Mendelssohn,
Chopin, and Schumann, who possess many features in common, we must consider the position in which they stood with their musical contemporaries,
as that
is
tion of their importance
the only manner in which we can gain a positive appreciaMendelssohn is in the history of musical art.
all
the renovator of the oratorio, which assertion will be proved beyond
doubt by reference to the sacred compositions of his immediate predecessors and contemporaries. Before the St. Paul, Graun's oratorio The
Death of Jesus was regarded as an unsurpassable master-work in the It was the ideal of the innunorth of Germany, and especially at Berlin.
merable cantors, organists, and musik-directors, who, as representatives of " music which had the still existing Zopf, or the " Kapell-meister already its existence, composed oratorios by the dozen, but never dared begun
compare their works with that of Graun. The immediate and most important predecessors of Mendelssohn in oratorio writing were Schneider and Klein. Friedrich Schneider (1786 1853) wrote the Weligericht,
Die Sundfluth, Das verlorene Paradies, Pharao, Gethsemane, and Golgotha. These were considered models of this species of composition, and were frequently heard at the German musical festivities at the period in which
Paul was written. Though the WeUgericht contains much that is sound and earnest, it has, like the other works of the same master, vanished entirely from our churches and concert rooms, although less conSt.
ventional than
his
other works.
Bernhard Klein
(born at Cologne in
Klein's 1793, died at Berlin in 1832) approaches nearer to Mendelssohn. David, contains much meritorious and fine writing, as do his Jephtha and
Jolt.
those
These works display talent and not mere imitation, but they, with by Reissiger, also including an oratorio entitled David, as well as the
oratorios of Spohr, the
before SI.
Paul and
most prominent contemporary of Mendelssohn, pale We must, therefore, connect the works of Elijah.
1049
Mendelssohn, for the sake of comparison, with those of his forerunners Bach and Handel. We have already given praise to Mendelssohn for his
works of Bach. How well-deserved this was is clearly when we remember that, even in Mozart's time, very little more was known of Bach than his " Suites " and his " Forty-eight Preludes and
resuscitation of the
seen
Fugues."
the house of his friend Doles, quite new.
Mozart found Bach's cantatas and motets, which he saw at After his death, Bach's works
The Passions had long been forgotten, his motets again fell into oblivion. and a few of his cantatas were occasionally performed at the Church of St. Thomas at Leipzig, and in a few isolated cases at vocal academies. Mendelssohn directed general attention to the greatness of Bach by his performances of the Passion of SL Matthew, 1829, after more than half a century of oblivion. The classical vocal unions referred to were that of St.
Cecilia, founded by Nepomuck Scheibler (1789 1837) at Fraukfort-onthe-Maine in the year 1819, and that at Breslau established in 1825 by Johann Theodor Mosewius (1788 1858). Not only was Mendelssohn suc-
put an end to the organ and brought about the death of the meaningless " Kapell-meister " ZPf> In support of his endeavours Mendelssohn wrote six preludes and fugue.
cessful in resuscitating Bach's vocal music, but he
fugues for piano, Op. 35

the organ, Op. 65.
for piano,
three organ fugues, Op. 37
and
six sonatas for
Schumann aided in the same cause with four fugues 72 ; and six fugues for the organ, on the notes represented Op. by the letters contained in the name Bach. These works were permeated with the spirit of Bach and Handel, and, whilst removing everything
meretricious, they infused
into the orthodox forms the spirit of
modern
thought.
posers.
It
These praiseworthy efforts produced good effect on other comwas under this influence that Alexander Klengel (1784 1852),
the court organist at Dresden, composed his excellent canons and fugues, which were published after his death by Moritz Hauptmann. The same
might be
Kittel,
said of J. Ch. H. Rinck (17701846), a who became famous through his chorales
disciple of Bach's pupil

;
R. Hesse, whose
1885)
;
life
we have
discussed in a former chapter
A. G. Ritter (1811
and
Gustave Rebling, born 1821. Mendelssohn also exerted

voices,
place,
his power on behalf of the quartett for male which form of composition had degenerated and become commonthough since the time of Karl Maria von Weber, the father of this
1050
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
form, Kreutzer,
Methfessel,
Marschner,
Zollner,
Julius Otto,
Heinricli
most of the composition of Dorn, and Abt have done some good work, yet With the exception of his splendid this form was of the most trivial kind. to (Edipus and Antigone, Mendelssohn has written but few partchoruses
number not only gained great songs for male voices, yet this small be said to vie with those of Karl Maria von Weber, popularity, but may
and have done much towards reinstating this form of art-song. assertion will not surprise any who have heard, for instance, the
fernen Horizonte/'
This
"Am
We
are
entitled to
speak as strongly in favour of
Mendelssohn's composition choirs, which, as regards poetical His most gifted be said to have re-created. significance, Mendelssohn may
for
mixed
follower in this branch of composition was undoubtedly Robert
Schumann.
To gain a definite idea of the value of the songs of these two masters, we must compare them with those of their contemporaries. Friedrich Silcber
(1789
in vogue
1860), the senior of their contemporaries, whose songs were already in the early days of Mendelssohn and Schumann, compares favour-
He was, however, more successful in ably with Reichardt and Zelter. " Aennchen von the taste of the public in such songs as Tharau," striking " " Morgen musz ich fort von hier," Ich hatt' einen Kameraden," which,
even
if
failing
to
rise
to the
level
of
art-songs, possess
imperishable
In chronological order, Silcher is followed by Josef Dessauer, melody. born in 1798 at Prague, who, like the other composers of the period, wrote operas, orchestral, choral, and chamber compositions, but owes his popularity
his songs and romances, many of which became extremely The intellectual superiority of Dessauer's accompanipopular in France. ments almost raises him to the level of Mendelssohn and Schumann.
chiefly
to
We
left
almost say the same of Norbert Burgmuller (1803 1836), who has some excellent specimens of orchestral composition, chamber music, and songs. Karl Friedrich Curschmann (1805 1841), a native of Berlin, was a
may
pupil of Spohr and
Hauptmann. Many of
Heinrich Proch
his songs gained great popularity.
The next on the

Friedrich
list is
(18091878),
w'ho
is
followed by
like
justly accused of which at times approaches dangerously near to trihypersentimentality, Proch's " Alpen Horn/' and Kiicken's " Ach wenn du warst viality.
Wilhelm Kiicken, born at Hanover in 1810. Curschmann ajid Franz Abt, although popular, may be
These two,
mein eigen," enjoyed popularity for over twenty
years.
We
must except

"
1051
Kiicken's
Ach, wie war's moglich dann/' which has become a folk-song
among
the Thuringians.
With a
;
reference to Wilhelrn
Speier, born at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 1790
Hieronymus
Friedrich
Truhn, born in
and Karl Banck, we close the list of song-writers who In favour enjoyed popularity in the time of Schumann and Mendelssohn. of Banck we may add that he aimed higher than most of his contem1811 at Elbing
;
poraries, as
may
be seen in his setting of well-known poems, which give

intiuence.
proof of
Schumann's
Both Schumann and Mendelssohn stand out boldly as composers of chamber and orchestral composition. In chamber music Schumann undoubtedly surpasses his contemporary, although Mendelssohn's octett for strings and his quartett in E flat major rise above most works of the
same kind by his contemporaries. Though Schumann may symphony, Mendelssohn is superior in the concert overture
excel in the
;
and
if
their
works are carefully examined, and their value duly weighed, their importance in the history of modern tonal art cannot fail to strike the student. However clever may be the well-finished orchestral and chamber music of
Kalliwoda (18001866), Lindpaintner (17911856), Reissiger (1798 1859), Vincenz Lachner (1811), Onslow (17841852), Hummel (1778 1837), and others, none of them have, like Schumann and Mendelssohn,
approached so near to their great predecessors of the Genius epoch in As the best works of Lindpaintthematic treatment of poetical ideas. ner and Reissiger, we quote the overtures to Faust and Felsenmu/t/e. " has been adopted as the national anthem Kalliwoda's " Das Deutsche Lied
by the Germans
life
in
Austria.
Mendelssohn and Sehumann infused new
into orchestral
music.
Chopin raised the waltz and mazurka from
simple folk-melodies to the level of art-productions, and Mendelssohn may be said to have done the same in song. Nearly all the previous attempts
to achieve this
may
;
be recorded as failures.
Weber and
Silcher must, of
course,
be excepted
Reichardt and Zelter
may
be said to have succeeded
Labitzky have produced works far to those of our contemporary pianoforte composers, with the exsuperior
occasionally;
Strauss,
Lanner, and
ception
of
Brahms, who possesses considerable

in
his
artistic
power, -especially
accompaniment. and Mendelssohn must be also regarded as the Schumann, Chopin, the works of Weber, renovators of modern pianoforte music, which
apparent
waltzes
for four
hands,
with
vocal
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
as
Hummel, and Moscheles excepted

other branches of
had
This
degenerated
deterioration
much
as
the
the tonal
art.
did
not, however,
extend to the opera.

this section carefully this
class
The three musicians with
whom we
are dealing in
eschewed programme music.
Schumann's works of
and during the epoch of his belong to his early period; refrained from expressing more than the mere greatness he carefully In their great symphonic works Mendelssohn and title of his work.
and programmes, although Berlioz the ninth Liszt had adopted them, and Wagner had even supplied one for Mendelssohn ridiculed the idea of attempting to supply symphony. in Chopin's works we find no programmes to his songs without words; In this respect our composers were stricter traces of any programme. Of those masters Haydn of the Genius epoch. than the great masters
Schumann have
altogether
ignored
next to him we must indulged to the greatest extent in musical painting;

place Beethoven,
who employed programmes

is
for several of his symphonies.
still more remarkable by the This ignoring of programme music fact that the composers in question belong to the Romantic school. Many modern romantic composers consider that instrumental music is incomplete
rendered
unless accompanied
cases the
by a programme.
is
The author suggests that
in
many
and
programme merely a cloak to conceal want of power in working in the classical art-form.
There are
still
artistic incapability
more
links of a
mental and
;
artistic relation
between
Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Chopin for example, the feminine element which we find in their being, their creation, and conception of the world.
This element
masters
is
three is most prominent in Chopin. special feature of these of this by his the entire absence of envy. Chopin gave proof enthusiasm for so dangerous a rival as Liszt ; Mendelssohn by his interest in
the works of
Schumann and Gade
Schumann by his respect for Mendelssohn
and Berlioz, and the extraordinary zeal which he displayed in smoothing the way for Chopin and Brahms. A trait equally common to these composers was their reverence for the classical composers in art.
Mendelssohn wrote to Taubert
" Is
this
and everything great lofty and unpleasant
this bitter cynicism, as And do you disagreeable to you as to me ? agree with me, that the first condition of an artist should be to bear respect towards what is great, and to bow to it and acknowledge it, and not
manner,
attempt to extinguish great flames for the sake of making his own rush-
1053
light burn
more brightly?"
We
when giving
the reasons for his founding the
gave a similar utterance of Schumann's Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik.

to.
Chopin's reverence for Mozart and Beethoven has been already referred
Party spirit was disagreeable to all three. Schumann was annoyed at praise from the paper he had established, and the comparison drawn between Mendelssohn's letters prove positively his dishimself and Mendelssohn.
like for all
any
part in such matters.
musical clique; Chopin, with his retiring nature, never took Our three masters may be said, briefly, to have
poetical spirit into all the forms of composition excepting the
fast degenerating
infused a
new
opera, which had been for some time before
THE INFLUENCE OF THE GERMAN GENIUS EPOCH ON ITALY AND

FRANCE.
took leave of the most musically-gifted of the Latin races in an earlier chapter, when noticing the decadence of their
music, which was owing to the influence exercised over European art in the eighteenth century by the entrance
The sway of the Zopf was rendered of the Zopf period. from the fact of its emanating from the Italians, who claimed doubly potent
seniority as a cultured nation.
Notwithstanding the power exercised by Scarlatti over the French school of music, and by Bernini and Borromini
formed an idiosyncratic
artistic
over the architecture and sculpture of the period, the French nation intuitively
manner, which had been in existence
even during the period of the Baroque. This is especially noticeable in the operas of Lully and Rameau, and the tragedies of contemporary writers.
talent
Notwithstanding the generally pernicious influence of the Zopf, men of existed in the eighteenth century who were enabled by their
individual power to stand out in bold relief from
among
the multitude of
their fellow-artists.
On
Italian music for piano
and
violin, either
chamber
or orchestral, the
Zopf
exercised less power than on opera, oratorio, and
other sacred music.

virtuosi
1764)
This is proved by the works of the celebrated violin and composers, such as Tartini (16921770) ; Locatelli (1693 Sammartini (1700 1775), who, by his symphonies, overtures, and
chamber compositions, might be almost considered the forerunner of Joseph Haydn ; Boccherini (1743 1805), who has composed much solid and
tasteful
music for that period Nardini, died 1793 ; Lolli, died 1802 ; Pugnani, died 1803; Clementi (17521832); Viotti (17531824);
;
who lived about the latter half of the eighteenth century; and Sacchini, who has written many trios and sonatas. In France we
Valentini,
THE INFLUENCE OF THE GERMAN GENIUS EPOCH.
1055
meet with Leclair (16971764), Gavinies (17261800), and Duport. Although the Zopf reigned supreme in Italy and France, these composers
all more or less affected by the advancing stream of modern ideas which were bringing about the maturity of the German Genius epoch.
were
If other nations could not escape the influence of Bach, Handel, Gluck,
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, how much greater power must those masters have exercised over the Italians and French, the most gifted of
their neighbours, especially
when
their music
had become familiar to the
Genius epoch such a brilliant array of talents as Schubert, Weber, Spohr, and Meyerbeer, for the influence of Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Wagner had as yet not extended thus far.
its
masses, and Germany added to
Proof of this
is
found
in
the works
of
Cherubini,
Spontini,
Rossini
(Tell and Barbiere), and the followers of the Italian melodist.
Among
the
French
it
is
exemplified
by the works
of Gretry, Mehul, Boieldieu,
Herold, Halevy, and rarely Auber, as well as a considerable number of prominent masters who have added to the repertoire of French comic
opera during the last half of the eighteenth and first of the nineteenth century. This genre of composition, notwithstanding the German influence,
contains
all
the French grace and finesse.
The
imitate
influence of the
Germans over the French and

in
Italian
music con-
tinues at the present day, and to such an extent, indeed, that both nations
them
in errors
and
improvement.
It will be
remembered that
when
the old French school of contrapuntists of Notre
Dame, the Nether-
land school, and the Italians ruled the musical world in turn, the position was reversed. The imitation by the French and Germans of the Italian
school, albeit
the Italians were then in the midst of their
Zopf
period,
was attended with advantage.
Such talents as Cherubini
who might
almost claim a place next to the six great masters of the Genius epoch or Spontini could never have existed without the influence of Haydn,
nor could the masters of the charming comic Romanvic French opera have perfected their purity of expression, freed themselves from conventionality, and acquired such a mode of poly;
Mozart, Beethoven, or Gluck
phonic treatment, had not they received aid from the German Genius and Talent epochs that preceded them. There is no doubt but that a great part of this charm is owing to the national character of the composers, but the
depth and dramatic
spirit of the
works are derived from the influence of the
1056
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
German
school.
As
proofs of this statement
we should mention
Gretry's
Barbe Bleu, Mehul's Joseph, Boieldieu's Dame Blanche, and Herold's This influence was extended even to literature, and can be 'Zarnpa. works of Chateaubriand, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas and George Sand' all (pere), Lamartine, Alfred De Vigny, Edgar Quinet, of the power of such books as Goethe's of whose writings show proof " Jeanne d'Arc " " Wilhelm Meister/' Schiller's "Faust/' "Werther," " Marie and Stuart/' and the works of Jean Paul, Theodore Hoffmann,
traced
in the
and Heinrich Heine.
In the same way we find that the works of the French Romantic school of music are inspired by Mozart's Don Giovanni,
Weber's Freischiitz and Oberon, Franz Schubert's songs and instrumental music, by the symphonies and sonatas of Beethoven, and the works of
Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Wagner. The Romantic school of the French does not only consist of comic opera, but also contains a number of works
of instrumental, sacred, and romance music. The grand French opera has yielded in part to the influence of the Romantic school, and we shall deal with it in the following chapter with the comic opera, as
by composers
an
interesting, important, and influential factor in the development of dramatic music altogether. Auber and Halevy must be placed in the ranks of the composers of comic opera, notwithstanding that their Masaniello,
Gustave III., and

acting thus
is
La
Juive belong to the grand opera.
Our
reason for
as
that the greater
number
of their
works can be classed
comic, and in
them they exhibit that musical
na'ivete
wd. rhythmic melody
which form the greatest charm, of the music of this genre.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS AND THE FRENCH COMIC ROMANTIC OPERA.
WE
ment
remarked, while treating of the

of the eighteenth century,
German Genius
and
still
eppch, that music,
after the period of the Reformation,
more
after the
commencehistorical
was powerfully influenced by
and by the march of learning. We intend in this chapter to furnish most striking proof of this assertion. In a nation as excitable as
events
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1057
the French, a reaction of historical events could not fail to find an outlet
in
dramatic music.
This
is
most natural,
is
as the
French possess a
facility
will.
for dramatic expression
and a power of lapsing into the pathetic at
noticeable in the history of the nation, for at times this tendency has affected the people as a whole, and has
This talent for dramatic action
caused
many
crises
effect.
lacked stage
and violent catastrophes, none of which have altogether Thus we find the French opera in the foreground of
music
is
their musical world, reflecting, as far as
capable, every phase of
national, political,
and mental existence.
As
the
operas of Lully and
Rameau exemplify the French Renaissance in the reign of Louis XIV., so the masters who succeeded the school of Lully represented a chivalric and The passions of the Revolution, and the patriotic fidelity to the sovereign.
national principle which had travelled throughout Europe, found a place
In the middle of the eighteenth century we meet with unpremeditated and primitive features in their art which express what we should designate the soul and innermost kernel of French dramatic
in the realms of sound.
music, being independent of external influences.
If this music
is
credited
with being the head of the French tonal
art,
the other opera school which

called the heart.
deals with the inner life of the populace
must be
We
purposely employ the term school, as, where the Teutonic love of individualising
is
races indulged involuntarily in
prominent, which was the case in the Genius epoch, the Latin Of the above schools that forming schools.
;
which represents the innermost life of the people is the national the other, which absorbs political events, is international, although in its present form
it is
only possible in France. With reference to the latter, we will consider those dramatic masters who turned their power to the stage and seized on
political events,
and whose
field
of choice consists of
state events
and
revolutions, and who make the stage the arena for pathos and heroism under the title of " Le Grand Opera." Although this species of composition is not without foreign influence, it can scarcely be considered less the product of the national French mind than the comic romantic opera.
But the circumstance that the French possessed the power of attracting foreigners to the country and rendering them serviceable to their art-cause
proves that the grand opera, as well as its sister form the comic romantic There exists between the two opera, is the result of the gift of the French.
operas the essential difference that the comic romantic
p p p
is
entirely a
French
105 8
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
indeed to such a degree that wherever the French production in character; individuals or peoples, it takes root firmly. language is to be found spoken by Isouard was the son of a French inhabitant of ; waa born at
GWfciy
Liege
Malta.
the special product of grand opera may be designated at the all the foreign composers of that form resided Paris, particularly as most prominent French masters of We find the time in the French
The
so-called
capital.
side of the Italian the modern grand opera, Auber and Halevy, at the Rossini and the German Meyerbeer, the older grand French opera having that the been fostered by Gluck, Spontini, and Cherubini. It may be said
and Meyerbeer have elevated Spontini, Cherubini, Rossini, French opera in a great degree, thereby the special style of the grand Auber it a standard to a greater extent than was accomplished by
foreigners
making
and Halevy.
The name
;
of the father of grand opera

he,
is
in justice applic-
able to Spontini alone
with his Vestale, preceded
all
the others and
established the classical model, the ideal of the
new
style.
Auber with
Hasaniello, Rossini with Tell, and Meyerbeer with the Huguenots, emhitherto ployed Spontini's style with a new and characteristic expression
unknown
in musical art.
the fact that a grand opera could nowhere be put on the stage to such perfection as in Paris, which city at that time was
far
We must not ignore
more cosmopolitan than
at present.
all
The opera comique, however,
flourished equally well throughout
France, and in every country where
the French language was spoken.
considerable difference exists between
the two operas owing to the fact that the grand opera was written for the enjoyment of the wealthy, whereas the opera comique, the outcome oE the ancient pastorals or shepherd plays, ballads, and roundelays, addresses
itself to
the people whose unvitiated taste leads

naivete,
them
to recognise genuine
humour and
and to distinguish the difference between heartfelt
music and empty phrase. The grand opera presents to the unbiassed observer the review of two distinct periods differing entirely in character and style.
The
first
posers of
" Period of the Commight be designated the the Great French Revolution and the succeeding Empire," as the
of these periods
reflects
grand opera continually the " Period of the
political
and
social events
the second,
Restoration, July, and Forty-eight Revolution."
The
;
composers of the former period are Cherubini, Gossec, Spontini,
and Lesueur
those of the latter include Auber, Rossini, Meyerbeer, and Halevy.
THE GRAND OPERA OF

One
PARIS.
1059
masters of the grand opera is Pierre Montan Berton (pere), born at Paris in 1727. Berton profited by the traditions of Lully and Rameau, which is proved by the great number of additions made
of the earliest
His by him to the operas of those and other masters of that school. reverence for Gluck, in the performance of whose works he took the greatest
interest,
1755 he was appointed conductor of the Grand Opera, prevents his classification with the school of Lully and Rameau, which was antagonistic to the style of the composer of Armida. Berton is
in
when
instrumental in teaching us that the influence of Gluck, Cherubini, ;md Spontini was necessary for the formation of that peculiar style which distinguishes the grand opera of the French.
When
Cherubini went to Paris
for the second time in 1788, in order to reside there, musical France
was
under the influence of Gluck and Gretry;

partisans of
and the contest between the

climax.
Gluck and Piccini was at
its
Although
Italian
by
birth, Cherubini did not side with Piccini.
Gluck had revealed
to Cherubini
an
ideal world elevated in his idea
above that of the Italian, and his serious
and conscientious character soon determined his choice.

of this decision
The ultimate
result
was the production
of Cherubini's
is
Medee, 1797.
Although the grand opera

still
immortal tragic opera not so decisively typified in

years later, yet
it
Medee
features
as
in
Spnntini's Vestale, which appeared ten

possesses.
exhibits features which that style
Among
these peculiar
we may enumerate
the
greater
warmth and
of
diversity of tone-
colouring, superior
power and
effect,
wealth
harmonic changes, and
In all these qualities, more parthe splendid development of ensembles. works rise above those of Gluck, ticularly the last-named, Cherubini's
*
and
still
more above those
of Lully
and Rameau.
The declamatory
style,
and superabundance of monologues, forbids the acknowledgment of their The pathetic operas music-dramas as the fully-developed grand opera. of Lully and Rameau have nothing in common with the grand opera
but the fact of their being serious.
so materially
In respect to the music they
differ
from
their successors that they
seem to stand
separate, for
Gluck neither followed the style of the old French nor of the Neapolitan school. Throwing aside all conventionalism, he insisted on dramatic truth
and heartfelt expression.
Cherubini also composed a dramatic ballet, entitled Aclnlle a
S(\yros,
and an opera, Die

p P P
-2
Abenceragen, of
which we
shall
speak
in a following
1060
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
chapter.
The master
French opera, owing
with the grand brought into close connection He by no to his pupils Auber and Halevy.
is
means disdained the opera comique, however, and contributed some of the One of his best productions finest specimens of that form of composition. and which is Les Deux Journees, which was performed in Paris in 1800,
such as Medee, occupies a position between the opera seria,
comique, as developed by Gretry and Mehul. and finales , its plot grand opera only on account of its ensembles, choruses, that of an opera comique, the subject the horrors of the Revolubeing
and the opera This work belongs to the
work the composer shows his love of liberty and sympathy with the people, though he was much opposed to the excesses which were In 1794 he was dragged from his house and paraded the result of revolt.
tion.
In
this
about the streets by a band of sans culottes ruffians, who finally made him The dislike felt by provide music for the accompaniment of their orgies.
On the return Bonaparte for Cherubini was reciprocated by the composer. of the victorious Napoleon from his second campaign, the members of
the Conservatoire begged permission to perform a festival cantata and a "Marche Funebre" composed by the master; the General took notice of
neither
in
his
speech to Cherubini,
and
Paisiello as the greatest existing masters.
but lavished praises on Zingarelli Cherubini answered that
Paisiello
might be accepted
as possessing
some merit, but that he could say
nought whereupon Bonaparte turned brusquely upon his heel, and never forgot the master's candid utterance of opinion. The mutual dislike referred to above was further made manifest when Napoleon was
for Zingarelli,
created
Dictator of the Republic. When receiving the masters of the the Consul exclaimed, " I do not see M. Cherubini/' Conservatoire, Being
thus forced into the foreground, the composer could not avoid conversation, and when the Dictator resumed his praises of Paisiello and Zingarelli, and
remarked to Citizen Cherubini that his music was too noisy, the composer " I replied, suppose, Citizen Consul, that you only enjoy that music which allows you to think without In interruption over the affairs of State." 1805 the master, disgusted with the condition of the empire, left Paris for
Vienna, where he was unlucky in encountering Napoleon,
to that city after his
who had proceeded
triumph
at Austerlitz,
will
you
are here,
M. Cherubini, we
and who remarked, " Since The comindulge in some music/'

Schonbrunn, the summer
poser wa.s forced to conduct several concerts at
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1961
palace of the
Emperor
of Austria, without receivingPaisiello,
had been lavished on Spontini, Lesueur,

Bertons.
any such reward as Zingarelli, and the
Fran9ois Joseph Gossec (1734

in introducing incidents
1829) was more ardent than Cherubim
of the lie volution into his so powerfully influenced
opera, however, was not
been
by those
of
Cherubini
and
his
The grand operas. his works as it had by distinguished foreign contemGossec,
poraries
whom we
have already
mentioned.
though
not in-
fluenced by Lully and
Rameau, may
have written under the influence of
Gluck, which, however, could hardly have extended to Cherubini, who was much younger. In the earlier composed choruses to Racine's Athalie,
Rochefort's Electra, the grand operas Sabinus, 1773, and Theseus, 1782, the working-out of the music is more fully developed and richer in scoring
than the old French opera seria of Lully and Rameau.

are
These features
more prominent Revolution, which differ

still
in
the cantatas
and
operas written during the

traditional
entirely
from the conventional and
style of Lully in effective
tion of occasional traits
and brilliantly-scored orchestration and the exhibiof genius. Gossec wrote fourteen minor works,
Raison/'
including hymns,
Liberte,"
"A
la
"A
la Divinite,"
"A
la
Nature/'
"A la
"A
;
1'Humanite," "A
"
Yictorieuse
" and choruses

all
in
FEgalite ; honour of Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire,
"Marche
Religieuse," "Marche
and Mirabeau
which compositions exhibit considerable grandeur of conso great an effect that the composer was, ception. " First by order of the Directoire, styled the Composer of France/' His
These works produced
operas
be similarly criticised. The list includes I/a Reprise de Touton, " Marseillaise " is introduced with This 1796, in which the great effect.
may
by Rouget De Lisle, an engineer who wrote both words and music on the night of the 24th of April, captain, 1792, at StrasWg, entitling- it the "Chant du Combat de FArmee du
celebrated national song was composed
Rhin." It obtained its present title owing to the fact that it was sung by a battalion of volunteers from Marseilles on their entry into Paris in July.
Klopstock, the poet, remarked of
caused the death of
fifty
De
Lisle that with this
song he had
celebrated
thousand Germans.
The remaining
works of this class are Le Camp' tie Grandpre, 1793, and 0/rande a la We must credit Gossec with being the most important Patrie, 1792.
French composer
in
the latter half of the eighteenth century.
Philidor
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
was so beautiful that
said of
his funeral
mass at Paris, in 1760, that

all
it
he would willingly have exchanged cannot attached to such a work.
his
We
fail
honour compositions for the " Te Deum/' to mention Gossec's

1780, an oratorio in which
"O
Salutaris Hostia," and
De
la Nativite,
the greatest admirathere is a chorus of shepherds and angels, which excited to this composer in a subsequent chapter on the We shall refer tion.
opera
again was appointed musical During the Revolution Gossec comique. must be regarded as instruinstructor to the National Guard of Paris, and This mental in the foundation of the world-renowned Paris Conservatoire.
institution
establishment to the lack of competent performers on wood and brass instruments necessary for the army corps of the French This led the Convention, in November, 1793, to start "Une Republic. " Ecole Ecole Nationale de Musique," which was amalgamated with the du Chant et du Declamation," established by the Baron de Breteuil, 1784. The Convention determined on an annual allowance of two hundred and
owed
its
forty thousand francs, and fixed the

fifteen,
number
of masters at one
hundred and
and female, to six hundred. in 1803, and Napoleon favoured the Conservatoire by increasing its income that a number in the autumn of 1812 by issuing a decree from Moscow
limiting the
number
of pupils, male
of free scholarships should be established.
prominent composer of the period of the Revolution was Montan Berton (fils), born at Paris in 1767. Berton was an ardent supporter
The
last
of the Revolution
and under
this influence
he wrote Les Rigueurs du
During the Reign of Terror Berton was proscribed, and, in consequence, his opinions changed entirely ; the result being that he wrote an opera, entitled Charles II., in
d'Assas, Viola, and Cynthee.
CloUre, Le Nouveau
which he favoured the doctrine of

restored in Paris, he turned
the Legitimists.
When
order was
his attention
wholly to the opera comique, in
which he gained
deal with
poraries.
his greatest triumphs.
Immediately following the composers of the Revolution we shall those of the Empire, who were for the most part contem-
The
by
birth,
first
of
these
is
Gasparo
Spontini
(1774
1851),
an
Italian
who,
like
his predecessor of the
Revolution, Cherubini,
rose far above the French composers of the period.
No
other composer
has
infusing spirit of heroism and glory which prompted the victorious exploits of Napoleon, in portrayal of which
in
succeeded
into
music the
f/J? J&L*
y&vJ&M~S
AUTOOBAFH OF SrOXTIX
I should be
obliged
see
if
Signer Hauser would come tbis evening to tbo

to
tell
Il5nigstadt Theatre to
and hear the singer Hanal, in order

roles, to
me
whether she would be preferable, in grand

voice,
as regards figure,
and musical
talent.
Yours devotedly,
Thursday, 30 J;IM.
SPOXTIXI.
THE GRAND OPERA OF

Spontini created a kind of extended to the present day.
PARIS.
1063
artistic expression, the influence of
which has
When
the composer
first
came
to Paris he
school, the performance of which, however, caused little or
brought several operas, written in Italy under the influence of the Neapolitan no enthusiasm.
French opera, entitled Julie. The second, La Petite Maison, 1804, gave rise to a hitherto unheard-of scandal. The ascendancy gained over the French, to the detriment of native comhis first
He
had scarcely more success with
on the Paris opera stage, had long been a source of continually increasing discontent among the musicians and the public. The last-named opera, the libretto of which was of doubtful morality, displeased
posers,
by the
Italians
the public, and their disapprobation being received with scorn by Elleviou, one of the singers, they invaded the orchestra, stormed the stage, and
within their reach, continuing the scene of disorder until checked by the police and soldiery. It was not until after the production of the one-act opera, Milton, at the Feydeau Theatre, and that of Julie, on destroyed
all
appearance, and was performed sixty times, having been re-arranged by the composer in 1805, that Spontini gained
le
Pot de
Fleurs, which
made
its
popularity.
distraire,"
Two romances from

and "
II
these operas,
"
En
vain je cherche a m'en
a done fallu pour la gloire," were sung with enormous
success
Vaudevilles.
by the vocalist Desbordes, and were afterwards adopted by the The hatred against the composer as a foreigner had by no
oratorio written in
means subsided, and an
1807 was hissed to such an
extent by the young musicians of Paris as to prevent a continuation of the performance. This year, however, was destined for his triumph over his
opponents.
The Empress Josephine had already made him court composer,

first
and
this,
though at
supplying a cause for complaint at the precedency
Josephine had commissioned him. in 1806 to write a cantata in honour of the victory at
of a foreigner, could not fail to have a beneficial effect.
This was performed in Paris, and brought the composer under the notice of the emperor, who, in spite of the opposition of the directors
Austerlitz.
and performers of the Grand Opera, ordered the representation of his Festale, the score of which had been previously submitted to the empress.
The
libretto of this work, written by Jouy, had been submitted in turn to Mehul, Boieldieu, and Cherubini, none of whom, however, accepted it. Spontini found in it a congenial theme, and at once, according to Berlioz,
it
" seized on
like
an eagle on
its
prey," the result being his most magnificent
1064-
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
In this production he has found an outlet for and imperishable work. We defer the an artistic representation of the heroism of the period. to a later chapter. Spontini's opponents intended description of the opera
to oppose the opera as they
had the
oratorio,
and had decided to create a
disturbance by laughing, yawning, snoring, and even putting on nightcaps This coarse and childish design was frusat the Finale of the second act.
trated
by the effect produced by the overture and the succeeding pieces, which were received with ever-growing enthusiasm. Henceforth the fame
of Spontini
to
was firmly established become the model for composers
in Paris,
and the Vestale was destined
of this genre.
The Emperor Napoleon
rewarded Spontini with 10,000 francs from his privy purse, the same sum being bestowed on him by the directors of the Conservatoire as the prize
which was presented every ten years to the composer of the best grand At the request of Napoleon, the master composed his second grand opera.
opera,
Ferdinand Cortez.
This
demand was prompted

sympathy
in part
by diplomacy,
the emperor wishing to gain the
of the French for the already
contemplated Spanish campaign, and the reputation of being a friend to that country. The total failure of the Spanish campaign caused Napoleon
to take a violent dislike to the subject of the opera, and to prevent its production by a decree. Spontini's third grand opera, Olympia, composed for a Parisian audience, to which it was presented in 1819, did not meet with success equal to that of its predecessors, the reason of which must be
sought in the fact that affairs in the French capital had undergone an entire change, and Napoleon, who had been deposed by the Allied Powers
in 1815,
had been for the past four years an exile at St. Helena.
France
of the Restoration
was happy in the enjoyment of peace, and had no sympathy with Spontini's heroic strains the consequence being that that composer retired to Berlin, where he accepted the position of chapel;
master.
Jean Francois Lesueur

also influenced the spirit
(or
Le Sueur), born near Abbeville
in
1763,
dominant during the period of the Empire, though

being put
as regards talent he stands far behind Spontini. Lesueur's grand operas, Les Bardes and Le Mort, aside in favour of CateFs d'Adam,
Semiramis, the composer, who was of passionate temperament, made a violent attack upon the masters o the Conservatoire, of which Catel
was one.
This led to his expulsion
from the post of inspector to that
THE GRAND OPERA OF

who had heard
PARIS.
1065
institution.
Napoleon,
Lesueur's Paul
et
Virginie,
La
Telemaque, and had been favourably impressed by them, apthe composer court chapel-master in 1804-, this position putting pointed him at the head of all the musicians at Paris. Bonaparte possessed
Caverne, and
the gift of selecting those individuals likely to be of service to him, and this, doubtless, was the reason for Lesueur's sudden supremacy over all
The composer's the aspirants for the post formerly occupied by Paisiello. gratitude was boundless, and he immediately composed an effective, albeit
somewhat stagey
for
mass,'
and a brilliantly-scored
his
'
Te Deum," intended
as
the
celebration
of
protector's
coronation
Emperor
of
the
Napoleon bestowed on his protege every mark of approval. After the first performance of Les Bardes, in December, 1804, he presented him with a gold snuff-box, on which was engraved " L'Empereur des Francois au compositeur de 1'opera Les Bardes" The dramatic works
French.
dn Temple de la Victoire and Le Triomphe de Trajan, were intended to extol the fame of the emperor. Although self - instructed, and therefore less strictly schooled, Lesueur must be credited with being the first to introduce a full
bearing the
title
of divertissements, such as L' Inauguration
orchestra as an accompaniment to the church music of the French capital, an innovation that has done much to secure increased power and variety
of colour.
tions, are of
Nor is his merit lessened by the fact that his sacred composisomewhat superficial, worldly, and too dramatic a character.
These qualities can be observed in French sacred music dating from the middle of the seventeenth century to the present time, though, previous to
that period, French composers
must be honoured
as the earliest teachers of
sacred counterpoint to all nations.
The
attacks of Lesueur's opponents
were directed
the secular character of this sacred composition than against the introduction of the entire orchestra, where formerly the
less against
violoncelli
of this orchestra for the purpose of tone-painting.
and basses were only occasionally admitted, and the employment It was in defence of
these innovations that Lesueur published, in 1787, his "Essai de
Musique
Sacree " and " Expose d'une Musique Descriptive." This composer may be said to have prepared the way for the grand sacred works of Cherubiui,
in which the prominence of the orchestra cannot fail to attract attention.
He
died at Paris in 1837.
There are yet two names to be added to this
list,
those of Loiseau de
1066
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Persuis (1769
1819) and Rudolph Kreutzer (1766
1831).
must be
credited with having- gained great reputation as director of the
The former Grand
Of his twenty dramatic works, that entitled Jerusalem Delivree Opera. was the only one that gained more than a succes d'estime. Of Kreutzer's shall, forty operas the Jeanne d' Arc alone was received with favour.
We
at a future period, discuss the instrumental
Our
of these
intention
is
now
to deal with
works of this composer. composers whose works may be grand French opera.
classed as forming* the second period of the

is
The
first
1782; died
Daniel Fran9ois Esprit Auber, born, at Caen, January 29th, May 12th, 1870, at Paris. This composer must be recognised
music the modern type of French opera, which reflects His father was an in a striking manner the national French character.
as representing- in his
and painter; and though at eleven years of ag-e the lad already composed romances, he sent him to London, destined for a mercantile career. Young Auber returned
offider des chasses,
who
excelled as violinist, vocalist,
from England more than ever enamoured of music, notwithstanding- the commercial sphere in which he moved. In 1812 he composed an operetta,
entitled Julie, which, notwithstanding its dilettante character, attracted 'the
at'ention of Cheiubini,
he undertook the
who happened to be present, to such a degree supervision of the young composer's musical studies.
of comic operas,
that
In
1813, after a course of instruction in composition and instrumentation,
Auber began the production

in quick succession.
which followed one another

owes to him we shall
What
this genre of composition
see in a subsequent chapter.
Here we must deal with him as one of the

This assertion
his fifty operas
most prominent masters of the grand French opera, who materially assisted
in the foundation of the will at first be surprising
second period of
its
development.
when
it is
remembered that amongst
there are but
two which belong
being of that species

latter
known
at
strictly to the grand opera, the majority as the " comic romantic opera/' Amongst the
we may enumerate
most three which
the nature of both species of opera. as commencing the most
be said to partake of His Masaniello must be accepted
may
important period in the history of the grand French opera. Cherubini and Spontini, following the school of Gluck, had laid the foundations and reared the edifice of the former period of
grand opera, of which the more prominent works were marked with the sublime grandeur of the antique, Spontini introducing in this style the
D. F. E.
AUBER.
;
Born 29th January,
1784, at
Caen
died 12th
May,
1871, at Paris.
35
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1067
triumphs of the hero of his age. The productions of the second period not only include this epic grandeur, but in addition to it we find the portrayal
of the characteristic features of the surroundings, the impressions
produced by the character of the landscape, the popular song and dance. This had already been attempted by Spoutini, who in his Cortez not only
expresses the national character of the Spaniards and Mexicans, but also the
effects of
en
In Ip/tigenie a tropical climate, and the peculiar religious dances. Tuuride Gluck portrays the national characteristics of the Greeks
and Scythians, the storm on the inhospitable rocks of Tauris, and the rhythmic dance of Scythian warriors, the result being a remarkably powerful
specimen of musical painting a foundation for the future productions of the French composer. The essays of Gluck and Spontini were not of
sufficiently frequent occurrence to
form a typical feature of their operas,
whereas the latter period of the grand opera exhibits as a peculiar characteristic the attachment to a modern historical epoch, a particular locality and nationality. Consequently, the modern grand opera claims more sympathy
from the public than did that of the former period; and
this
sympathy
is
strengthened by the fact that, in addition to the peculiar characteristics mentioned above, the works of this epoch are pervaded by a breath of
romance.
operas,
This feature was noticeable before Auber in the French comic

in those of Boieldieu.
more particularly
The
false
and happily super-
seded idea that the grand French opera of the modern period lacks all na'icefe and. purity of style, should be carefully repulsed. This notion can
be entertained only by one who possesses no historical knowledge, whose ideas are merely superficial, and whose objectivity has vanished and given
place to
mere subjective contemplation.
forced
to
employ increased
orchestral, scenic,
The grand opera was undeniably and decorative means to
effectively express the
ment
of the period.
is,
tion, that
the supporter
extended range of subject caused by the advanceThe opponent of this genre of dramatic composiof the modern grand romantic opera, is by no
means backward
in availing himself of increased
and unusual scenic
effect
and the support afforded by an augmented orchestra.
But
as
to the
charge brought against the grand opera, that it lacks purity of style and that its composers are artistically degenerate, we can only say that a school
which regards
all traditional
to the flight of genius, can only find the
forms of art as antiquated and as mere obstacles " purity of style," which it desires,
1068
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
in
the
union
of
the dramatic
opera.
musical drama or
degree in
and musical elements presented by a 'This faultless unity is found in a greater
Euryanthe, Lohengrin, and Die MeisterMedee, Vestale, Cortez, Olympia, Masaniello, William singer, than These latter are compositions which for. Tell, Huguenots, and Norma. half a century have maintained their positions on the stages of nearly
Der
Freischiitz, Oberon,
in
nearly
all
civilised nations,
and have proved
to every satisfaction that they
are not children of fashion.
of composition, neither represents the perfect

ideal is represented
Notwithstanding the beauties of both species form of musical drama. This

Alceste, Armide, Iphigenie,
by Orpheus,
Don
Giovanni,
Figaro,
Magic Flute, Fidelio, Wassertrdger, and Joseph
in Egypt.
These
works cannot be quoted as belonging entirely to the classic, romantic, tragic, comic, or heroic style ; neither can they be expressed by the term genre ; they include and express every sentiment, and may be taken without
fear as the ideal of
human
perfection.
Time and
place can never affect
these productions
they are objective in
no future period of development can lessen their value ; Should not this character, and, therefore, eternal.
lead the partisans of the grand romantic operas to a
more just judgment of

is
the respective worth of the works they admire ?
All that
strained or exag-
gerated, partial or exclusive, should be carefully shut out

art.
from the realms of
Instances of these faults occur in the grand and romantic operas alike. As a proof that the grand French opera is not the result of calculation
and meretricious striving for effect, as has been asserted, we will quote Auber's Masaniello, which is undoubtedly the creation of an ingenious and unfettered imagination. The music of this opera, the plot of which is
founded on the revolt of the Neapolitans, proclaims its origin from a most gifted Frenchmen by its intelligible and charming rhythm, its popular themes and melodies the bold expression of which bears reoccasionally
semblance to the "Marseillaise/'
its
extreme correctness of declamation,
and
the
its
natural
and unrestrained pathos.
The
interest
is
riveted
by
vigorous
and pleasing expression which
pervades the entire work;
and notwithstanding the tragic Finale, in no instance does the work become laboured and dull, a remark not applying equally to all French While attracted by the operas. ever-flowing imagination displayed in the work, we are surprised by the rich harmony, development, novel instrumentation,
and
local
colouring.
The composer's
idea
of
supplying the
THE GRAND OPERA OF

dumb
PARIS.
10G9
speech of the
girl
by means of the orchestra

is
is
so perfectly executed,
ê that her every gesture explained with a precision almost verbal. know of no master who has succeeded in painting in music the beauties
of Italy with a character equal to that obtained
by Auber, who, though

half of the pineteenth
the most national of
all
French composers of the
first
,^f>"
Halcvy.
Fig. 274.
J. F. E.
century, has achieved what has been attempted, with but moderate success How striking are the parting between the brother by many Italians.
and
sister in the
second
act,
the scene in the
oefore the battle. And how greatly is duction of the Barcarole and Tarantella, the national character of which
market, and the prayer the effect heightened by the introsuccessful than that of
has been caught by Auber in a

other composer.
manner more
which was
any
The influence
of this work,
first
performed in 1828, can be
1070
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
clearly traced in Rossini's Tell,
Halevy's Juive, produced in Siege de Corinthe and Mo'ise,
which appeared in the following year, Rossini's 1835, and Meyerbeer's Huguenots. in 1826-7, have vanished from the stage, given
having been comTell, on the contrary, owes
style,
owing
to their
want of the influence of the new
posed before the appearance of Masaniello. its present vitality to the fact of its production taking place after that of Auber's grand work. Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable, though not performed
until three years later than Masaniello,
owes
its
freedom from the influence
of the latter
work
to the fact that its subject
In this grand but to the romantic opera. is due to the introduction into French musical art of the mannerism position
and style belong not to the respect its musical and historical
and strained romance of such German poets as T. A. Hoffmann and Arnim. The innovation of this species of poetry is continued in the works of
Victor
le
Hugo and
Alexandre
Dumas
(pere).
It
was
this affinity of Robert
Diable to the peculiarities of the then most celebrated poets of France that caused its unprecedented success, which was aided considerably by the
spirit pervading it, and the numerous concessions made French musical taste. These items wero important factors in increasing the interest taken by the French for a considerable period in the romantic school of German music and Robert le poetry. Meyerbeer's
evident
German
in the score to
thus be considered in the light of a mediator between the mental streams of two great nations, which, if considered without prejudice, fulHl a most important mission in the Not only the history of the art. music of Masaniello, but the plot and the mode of treatment, influenced the works of the masters belonging to the second era of the grand opera ; thus Tell, La Jmve, and the Huguenots, in which we find portrayed the principal
Diable
may
incidents of great revolutionary movements belonging for the to modern history, admit of a greater variety of musical form
most part
and instru-
dp colouring simple subjects on which antique operas are founded, such as Mede'e, La Festale, and Olympia, which allow only that grandeur of simplicity which characterises the first period of the grand
French opera. Rossini succeeds no less completely in Tell in representing in music the character of the Swiss and their surroundings, than does Auber
in
mental
than
the
portraying the beauties of the
Bay
of Naples
and the
fiery
of the inhabitants of its shores.
Both works
treat in the
temperament same manner
of social and political, religious or national contests, represented alike
by
THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS
1071
individuals
and masses.
These struggles partake of au ideal as well as a
real nature, and afford ample scope for musical expression. Such contests as these are represented in Masaniello by the revolt of the fishermen against
the oppression of the aristocracy; in Tell,

cast off the Austrian yoke;
in
by the
efforts of
the Swiss to
La
Juive,
between Jew and Gentile
whilst the Huguenots
by the ancient hatred existing and the Prophete represent
the horrors resulting from religious fanaticism. The preference of the composers belonging to the latter period of the grand opera for revolutionary themes must not be confounded with that entertained by the
masters
who composed during
the earlier portion of the
first
period,
whom
we have
styled the composers of the French Revolution.
These masters
recorded their impressions of the circumstances surrounding the period in
which they
lived.
nationality, and epoch.
They were, therefore, restricted to the same country, The composers of the second period of the grand
the
opera
only
selected
events of past
import,
far
historical
periods,
whether of
to
national,
political,
or
sectarian
and were therefore enabled more objective than that of
express their impressions in a

predecessors,
manner
their
who were induced through
their sufferings to record subjec-
tively passing events.
Notwithstanding the recognition of this difference

the latter era.
of surroundings, the earlier masters could not compete either as regards
talent or musical skill with the composers of
Auber's
Masaniello possesses a double interest, as it not only recorded but even foreshadowed historical events. Spontini's Cortzz and Rossini's Tell were
but the musical echoes of history ; as also were Mozart's Mtgic Flute, which reflected the humanity and tolerance springing out of the period of
Joseph II., and Spintini's Vestale, which celebrated the French Consulate. Masaniello proved the harbinger of the July Revolution, which produced
a tremor throughout
Europe.
Only a few weeks
later this
opera was
the signal for a general rising of the townspeople of Brussels, who, on the 25th of August, 1830, leaving the theatre, hastened to attack the
and thus began the movement which ended in the forced Auber's separation of Belgium from Holland which followed a year later. second grand opera is his Gitstavus III., or Tke Masked Ball, which was
authorities,
Dutch
performed
in
1833
and although in freshness of invention and dramatic

its
power
notice.
it
does not approach
predecessor,
is
it
is
still
not unworthy of
The character of the page
a creditable conception, musically
1072
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
considered,
inspiration.
and the remainder of the work does not lack moments of happy
truly grand
work
is
Rossini's
William Tell, which immediately
Followed Auber's masterpiece. The composer of this opera was so struck by the dramatic superiority of the French operas which he heard in Paris while on his way to fulfil important engagements in London, that he determined his home. This resolution was carried out on his to make the French
capital
and he accepted the direction of the Italian opera in Paris, a post His inability to control the finances of the occupied formerly by Paer.
return,
company caused him

pointed
Compositeur du Roi et Inspecteur General du Chant en He France," an engagement which produced 20,000 francs per annum. now wrote an opera, II Viaggro di Reims, ossia V Alb ergo del giglio d'oro,
to celebrate the coronation of
this
months' duration. " Premier
an experiment of eighteen In order to retain him in Paris, however, he was apto resign this position after
King
Charles X.
in
The best portions
of
an opera entitled Le Comte Or//. The master reconstructed two other operas the Maometto II. was embodied
work were afterwards embodied
in the Siege de Corinthe,
and the Hose was reproduced as Moise. These works both show the composer's determination to suit his music to the
French audience, and his keen perception of the leading charac-
taste of a
teristics of the operas in
vogue during the early period of the grand
opera.
was not until influenced by Auber that the great Italian maestro exhibited the full power of his latent gift. The foreign yoke under which
it
But
was brought vividly to his memory by the work of the great French master. Under this impression he wrote his William Tell, the revolutionary character of which for a long time caused
his native country lay oppressed
its
prohibition in Vienna, where
it
at last gained admission under the title
of Andreas Hofer.
When we
consider Rossini's earlier serious operas, such
as Semiramide, Otello,
and Tancredi, we cannot fail to see in William Tell that the man and the artist had undergone an entire transformation. This
result cannot be assigned exclusively to French influence ; in his earlier years the composer was an ardent admirer of the works of Haydn and
Mozart, and their power can be traced throughout his Tell and Barber of Seville. Even the influence of Gluck, Cherubiui, and Spontini would not
to the
be sufficient to account cannot but ascribe it entirely for this change. power, exercised over the master by Karl Maria von Weber, whose
We
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
]U73
and Euryanthe had considerably lessened Rossini's supremacy on the German operatic stage. The influence of the last-named operas on Rossini was increased by a personal meeting of the two masters, on Weber's
Freischiitz
Rossini began to occupy passing through Paris while repairing to London. himself seriously with Tell in the winter of 1826-27, but a little while
Europe lamented the loss of Weber, who died in the English The maestro was weary of the mere melody and metropolis at an early age.
before
all
effect of the operas exclusively written for the exhibition of the vocalists'
ambition, and the fame of his operas beginning to wane in France and Germany, he determined to convince the public that he required energetic resolution alone to make for himself a position
skill.
He was
fired
by
artistic
among
method
the greatest dramatic composers.
The lax and almost mechanical
of composition into which he had fallen after the production of // Barliere yielded to a serious power, which was shown in Tell, to the In this work Rossini embodied the surprise of the whole civilised world.
musical spirit of three nations, but fused so thoroughly the
French
esprit,
and Italian grace into one
artistic
German depth, that in no case can whole,
any one of these qualities standing in isolation. The distant horns announcing Gessler, the Swiss hunting chorus, the march in C major in the first act, and Matilda's romance in the second, could not have existed
perceive
we
and the
without Weber's hunting choruses, the peasants' march in Der Freischutz, aria of Agatha; nor could the music descriptive of the storms
have found birth

musical creations;
recitative.
without Beethoven's
pastoral
whilst Gluck, Spontini, and
symphony and Auber's Auber inspired the grand
All these items are welded into perfect unity with an ingenuity never
before exhibited
;
for although Meyerbeer's
Huguenots approaches
the
restraint under,
closely to
Tell in this
respect,
that
master shows
and the
by which he achieves this result, whereas in Tell we cannot In this work Rossini forsook ascribe the effect to aught but inspiration.
power of
will
the past, and with
it
which he
fell after his
the slight and merely mechanical part-writing into enormous success with the Barbiere, and adopted in
the ensembles a form truly classical.
Nowhere do we
find a superfluity of
sensuous effect.
Having
referred to the Huguenots as the next
work
of
the grand opera in order of merit,
we have
here but to add that in this
work Meyerbeer follows the grand opera Q Q q
school,
inasmuch
as he adopts
1071
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the style of Gluck and Spontini, and the power of expression developed by Auber and Rossini. In choice of subject he follows the school of the is pointed to more prominently second period. Meyerbeer's German origin than in Robert le Diable, by the more developed and in the
Huguenots
the greater harmonic polyphony of his orchestra and ensembles, second richness of the score, the vigorous structure of the finales to the
intellectual
and third acts; while the conspirators' scene in the fourth act is superior to Two very important items in the work are the similar scenes in Tell.
(
employment
of Luther's
hymn and
the effective septet in

concessions to
major.
In
the Prophete Meyerbeer has
made very many
the prevailing
taste of the Parisians of the period, in the shape of forced stage effects
and
a musical
olio,
podrida.
According to
conversation imminent on Meyerbeer's

sarcastically remarked,
Heine, Ferdinand Hiller, seeing a Prophete, then about to be produced,

us avoid politics."
"
Gentlemen,
let
L'Africaine,
also
in composed for the Paris Grand Opera, though far more decided in the character, and containing many instances of beauty, more especially
third and fourth acts,
must be considered
master's
as
showing evident proofs of the
degeneration
Meyerbeer's Huguenots, Auber's Masaniello, and Rossini's Tell form a triad which stands out in bold relief from among the many works belonging to the second era of the grand
of
the
work.
opera.
Between
this trio
and the Juive of Halevy, which

interval.
is
next in order
of merit, there exists a considerable
Although
art admits of
many
degrees of excellence, a glance will be sufficient to impress us with

is
the fact that, important as

his productions
Halevy
in the history of
belonging to the school of the
French comic opera, grand opera can bear no
Halevy's best comparison with those of Meyerbeer, Auber, or Ro?sini. works written for the latter school, such as La Juive, 1835, Guido ei
Genevra, 1838, and La Heine de Cfiypre, 1841, cannot, however, be placed on as low a level as the works of Gossec and Lesueur, whose operas obtained but a transient success, and were forgotten even before the death of the
composers.
existence,
all
The incomparably higher merit
of
La
Juive
is
proved by
its
accompanied with undiminished success, for half a century upon
Halevy attempted in the Juive to portray the aspect of religious fanaticism, and thus aided in preparing musically the way for Meyerbeer, who a year later, in the Huguenots, exceeded by far the essay of his predecessor. must bear in mind that Spontini
important European stages.
We
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1075
had preceded Halevy by twenty-six years in depicting religious frenzy in the choruses and dances of the Mexicans in Cortez. Spohr, in 1823,
had portrayed in Jessonda the philosophical placidity of the Brahmins, whilst Marschner, in 1829, had musically painted the religious sentiment
Meyerbeer has succeeded to a greater degree of than did any of his predecessors in expressing in musical colouring perfection the bigoted rage and blind madness of the fanatical Roman Catholics.
Jacques Fromental Elie Halevy was born at Paris in 1799.
of the Jewess in Ivanhoe.
He was
favourite pupil of Cherubim, under whose direction he studied counterpoint
and composition.
de Rome.
He
In 1819 his cantata, Herminia, gained for him the Prix immediately adjourned to Rome, where he ardently studied
Before
the works of the Italian sacred writers under the tuition of Baini.
returning to the French capital he resided in Vienna for a year (1822-3), the Austrian capital then being the centre of musical study in Germany. It is said that during this visit Halevy made the of Beethoven. acquaintance
La Juive not only the result of serious self-criticism and great but moments of passionate feeling and tender expression, evincing industry, Instances of this occur in the second proof of remarkable dramatic gift.
in
We see
and fourth
acts.
Although
in the
of Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable
works of Halevy traces of the influence and the Huguenots are undeniable, these
works have
in
hibited in his grand operas, and
no great degree affected the master's individuality, as exstill less in the comic operas with which
Besides the grand operas already named,
he gained such great success.
Halevy wrote Charles VI., 1843, La Magicienne, and Le Juif Errant. These do not approach La Juive in merit, and do not even equal Guido et Genevra and La Heine de Chypre. In the three former operas Halevy
indulges to a greater extent in a propensity for strained melody and forced and glaring contrast. Notwithstanding this, he appears as the last prominent talent among the composers of the grand French opera, as not one of
his successors can bear comparison with him.
He
died at Nice in 1862.
A talent,
for not
however, has recently developed in the French opera school. refer to Massenet, of whom we shall speak in a future chapter. As a reason
We
mentioning G ounod's Faust, we must state that in company with Meyerbeer's Robert le Diablevte class it as one of the comic romantic operas.
The grand French opera has obtained a
rich harvest
from the foreigners,
who, from contemporaries of Halevy, have continued to the present time.
1076
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
amongst them, we will only Bellini; Belisario and La Favorita Don Carlos, Rigoletto, of Donizetti ; II Giuramento, by Mercadante Those of the Germans include Ivanhoe, by and II Trovatore, by Verdi. Catarina Cornaro, by Lachner ; La Reine Marschner; Jessoiida, by Spohr
Of
the productions of the Italians
who
figure
ma quote the Puritani and Nor
of
Of these works we have already made mention, or de Saba, by Goldmark. With the exception of the German shall do so in a following chapter.
operas,
most of the works we have just mentioned were composed to French Grand Opera or the libretti, and intended either for performance at the Opera
Italien.
We cannot
two of
their
leave the subject of the
most celebrated tenors
grand opera without mentioning Adolphe Nourrit, born in 1802, and
These vocalists were both natives of Paris. The latter possessed the renowned " ut de poitrine." Nourrit made his debut in 1821 as Pylades in Gluck's Ipliigenie in Tauride, and excelled
Louis Duprez, born in 1806.
Arnold in Tell, Robert in Meyerbeer's opera, Eleazer in La Jttive, and Raoul in Les Huguenots. Duprez was equally renowned in the same
as
parts.
In turning to the French comic opera, which sprang from the fading school of Lully and Rameau, we must go back from the nineteenth century
to the middle of the eighteenth.
We
divided the history
of the
grand
;
opera into
two
different
periods, according
to their characteristics
the
comic romantic opera we will separate into three distinct periods. The which extends from Philidor and Monsigny to Gaveaux and Jardin, first,
was preceded by a few dramatic

forerunners
of
creations,
which may be considered as

raised the
the artistic
movement which
primitive
folk-
Such precursors, although mostly conin a different mood and ceived style, we meet with in the comic operas of Rameau, and especially in the Devin du For it will readily Village.
theatre to the song-play stage.
be admitted that the French operetta and the modern comic and comic romantic opera are not direct descendants of Adam de la Hale, King Thibaut de Navarre, or Guillaume de of the thirteenth and fourteenth Maschaud,
rondcaux, and song-plays of the These primitive musical dramatic or half-danced pantomimic attempts, which graced the old French stage, can scarcely claim anything in common with the operas composed during
ballets,
centuries,
nor of the ballads,

et
species of
Li Jus de Robin
Marion.
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1077
the eighteenth century by Duni, Monsigny, Dalayrac, and Desaides, which show the novelty of their species by their decided form. At most the only
existing link
subjects,
would be
their leaning to
modern
tonality and their pastoral
period of the
which features are occasionally to be found in the works of the first modern comic opera. The later masters employed the poly-
phonic method for their song-stage compositions, which have no relation, even in subject-matter, style, or musical form, to the present comic opera,
earliest composers introduced solos, and whose folk-songs, and rondeaux were rendered by soloists to a soft orchestral chanson, accompaniment. History records but the most meagre items of the five
into
which the
which elapsed between the old French pastorale and the operetta. The French Opera Comique, which sprang up in the middle of the eighteenth century, and which, for reasons we shall state hereafter, we
centuries
prefer to call the comic romantic opera,

as
is
essentially
French, and differs
widely from the Italian opera buffa as from the German Sing spiel ; whereas in the opera buffa the recitativo-parlante is employed, in the comic romantic opera dialogue alone is used. The emotional element
contained in the libretto of the comic opera
of the opera buffa,
is
more often wanting

is
in that
and
lastly the French chanson

is,
entirely different
from
the Italian aria.

of the older
This chanson
to a certain degree, related to the lied

is
German song-play, which
also totally distinct
from the
aria,
more fully developed as regards musical form, which fact would be clearly established by a careful comparison of the works of Monsiguy
but
is
(17291817) and
The
first
those of J. A. Killer
(17281804).
composer of this new species of opera is Francois Andre His Darnican Philidor, born at Dreux in 1726, died in London in 1795. in comic opera writing, the elder Philidor and the Neapolitan predecessors
Duni (1709
1775),
who wrote French comic
Paris, lack the peculiarities which distinguish his work.
opera for representation in Fraôis Philidor
an operatic composer by writing one-act operas, all of which were stamped with the characteristics of the genuine comic opera. The list of these works include Blaise le Savetier, 1759; L'Huitre et les
his career as
commenced
Plaideurs ;
Le
Qitiproqno
Le Soldat Magicien, 1760; Le Jardinier

Sorcier, 1764, gained for
et
son
Seigneur, 1761.
The two last-named works and him a
his two-act operas,
Le
of
Marechal Ferand, and Le

the Parisian public, giving
him the favour
position in the history of music
which
1078
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
for several decades
had a decided influence upon his successors. Of his Le Bucheron, Les Trots lighter operas we must enumerate Sancho Panga, Like his contemporary, Berton (pere), Philidor Souhaits, and Tom Jones.
is
one of the
first
composers of the grand opera.
Amongst
his
works of
this class
we
must draw attention to his Ernelinde, or Princess de Norwege,
1767; Pm/<?, 1780; Tkemistocle, 1786; and Belizaire, 1795. As he is much less important in connection with the grand than the comic opera, we have with justice placed him in the foreground in this chapter. The
works of Philidor go far to prove the theory which we have submitted " elsewhere, viz., that what is understood to-day by the grand opera/'
seria of Lully and Rameau, and that its with that of the French comic opera, whose contemporaneous bourgeois character has nothing in common with the mythological characters
differs greatly
from the opera
birth
is
inseparable
from the mask plays of Lully, nor with the pedantic comic
operas of
Rameau.
the upgrowth of the two
With
new
species of opera,
a remarkable feature, which had never occurred before the

of the late era.
we have to notice commencement
refer to the frequent composition of both styles of this had been the case in the earlier opera by period, it was confined entirely to the writing of Intremedes and
We
one master.
When
Comedies-Ballets,
which exhibit nothing in common with the real French An operetta. incident, not without interest, in the life of Philidor, was his success in the chess tournament held at London, the enormous which he obtained
prize
on that occasion forming a large part of his fortune. Berlioz accuses this master of having taken his aria of the Border from Gluck's
Orpheus.
Fetis vehemently defends
him from
this
charge.
We
agree with the
latter, that a master who has given proof of such fertility of invention could have well dispensed with extraneous assistance, and that cases of any unintentional reproduction are of such frequent occurrence in the works of greater masters that we might even defend him on this score alone.
contemporary of Philidor in Pierre Alexandre Monsigny, who Duke of Orleans. Monsigny was born near St. Omer in 1729, and died at Paris in 1817. He was first led to the composition of comic opera by Pergolesi's Serva Padrona. At a later period, however, he adopted the style of Philidor. Amongst his sixteen operas and pantomimic ballets, his comic operas, Rose et Colas, 1764, Le Deserteur, 1769,
We
find a
became tutor
to the
THE GRAND OPERA OF

and
Felix, ou
PARTS.
1079
V Enfant Trouve, were the most successful, and gained him renown. His reputation was based more on his natural musical great and dramatic talent than on a profound knowledge of the theory of his art.
One
of
his chief merits
is
his judicious
h'e
French declamation which

conventional
employment of the pronounced combined with the light and somewhat

opera buffa,
forms
of
the
Italian
by which he gave
characteristic.
to
the chansons and romances of the Parisian comic opera that attractive and
spiritnel expression
which forms
its
most pleasing
In Paris
Monsigny's operas are not yet entirely forgotten, and his Felix or Le Deserteur would be well worthy of reproduction. At the anniversary of the French Republic, 1798, the name of Monsigny was proclaimed, linked
with those of Cherubmi, Lesueur, and Martini, as deserving well of the
nation, he being
a composer of great merit.
We may
notice
at
this
point that Monsigny, like Dalayrac, Gretry, Isouard, Boieldieu, and
Adam,
belongs
to
the small
body
of comic opera composers
who
exerted their
talent in this branch alone, or gained infinitely greater success with this
form than with the grand opera. We must now discuss the comic operas of Gossec, which include Le Faux Lord, 1764; Les Pecheurs, 1766; Le
Double Deguisement, 1767; and Toinon et Toinette, 1767. Of these the PecheurSj which contained the greatest attractions, enjoyed continued favour.
Jean Benjamin Delabord, or more correctly De la Borde, a gentleman-invvaiting to Louis XV., who afterwards became fermier general, gained some
success with
comic operas and operettas, which he wrote as an amateur.
His works of this description number twenty-eight, of which Gilles Garcon Paintre, Annette et Lubin, and Trois Deesses Rivales, achieved some success. His talent, however, was questioned by Grimm in his " Correspondance Litteraire." Works of lasting merit by this amateur composer are his " Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne," published in four volumes in and "Memoires Historiques sur Raoul de Coucy," published in 1780,
1781.
Delabord
fell
a victim to the guillotine in 1794.

in
We
meet a most
gifted and well-schooled musician
who adopted
the
name
of Martini.
Johann Paul jEgidius Schwartzendorff, He was born in the Upper Palatinate of
Bavaria in 1741, and died in 1816.
He
obtained the direction of the
Theatre de Monsieur, formerly the Theatre de Feydeau, where both Italian Martini composed opera buffa and French comic operas were performed.
nine operas, of which the
Amoureux de Quinze Ans, 1771
Le Fermier Cru
1080
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
1772; Le Rendezvous Nocturne, 1773 ; Henri IF., ou la Bataille d'lvry, 1774; and Le Droit du Seigneur, 1783, enjoyed a success almost fabulous. These works were characterised by great imagination and esprit, and were based on the graceful style of the French comic opera. They reSourd,
mained
in the Parisian repertoire for
productions of native composers.
much longer period than many of Martini figures prominently among

a
the
the
composers of romances,
vein which
and the pleasing melody and touching melancholic

are the cause of their adoption as
we
find in these productions
models by the present school. He was followed by Nicholas Dalayrac, born in Languedoc in 1753, a member of a noble family. His early which were anonymous, met with such success as to cause operettas,
him
to attach his
name without
list
He
enriched the
of
further scruple to all succeeding works. comic operas by the addition of sixty works,
great
and
small,
including
Les
Deux
Savoyards,
Raoul
de
Crequi,
and Camille, which were greatly praised by Fetis. These productions were received with considerable favour in Germany. There are extant, in Paris, some beautiful editions of the scores of these operas, and the composer's charming melodies have survived, and are still
Nina,
Jês Sauvages,
enjoyed in Paris as Vaudeville music.

Pierre
Gaveaux (17611825), a celebrated
Dalayrac died at Paris in 1809. tenor, contributed a number of
charming operettas to increase the musical wealth of Paris, from amongst which La Famille Indigente, Le Petit Matelot, and Leonore, ou V Amour
Conjugal,
also been
may
be selected as favourable specimens.
The last-named has
composed by Paer, and although not superior to many contemporary productions, gained renown owing to the fact of its libretto being employed by Beethoven under the title of Fidelia. The most complete collection of the scores of
Gaveaux
is
The
perhaps that left by Meyerbeer.
last
Louis
composer of the early period of the school of opera Emanuel Jadin, born at Versailles in 1768. Jadin
comique was was a page-
great populanty with the people.
During the Revolution he joined a band attached and at the Restoration was Guard, promoted to the post f chief page-musician. The number of his and operettas amount to operas The most celebrated are La forty. Supercherie par Amour, L'Avare Puni,. s Bons Foisins, and Les Deux Lettres. During the disturbances in Paris Im's choruses, "Ennemis des and "Citoyenslevez-vous," en tyrans" joyed
to the National
musician to Louis
XVI.
This composer died at Paris in 1853.
THE GRAND OPERA OF

In taking a retrospective view of the
PARIS.
1081
first
period of development of the
opera comique, we find that its chief features are the correct and refined musical declamation, the peculiar but simple rhythm of its chansons and
choruses, and the expression of
its
melodies, which
at
times equal the
Fig. 275.
A. E. M. Gretry.
heartfelt sentiment of the folk-song, romance,
and roundelay.
The musical
simplicity
and originality of the works belonging
to this era justify their
with the genuine national character of the French. In the latter period of French opera comique we find the composers influenced by
identification
the works of composers of various nationalities.

influenced
Gretry and Mehul are
by Gluck, Isouard and Boieldieu by Mozart. "With the exception of Gretry, the above French composers may be said to have yielded to
1082
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the power of Cherubini, in addition to the already

posers.
named
its
foreign
comin
An
elegiac and romantic
spirit
is
found to a far greater extent
comic-romantic opera.
the latter period, thereby justifying our designation of productions as The romantic breath pervading Isouard's operas
Cendrillon and Joconde, and Boieldieu's Jean de Paris and
La Dame
Blanche,
was without doubt inspired by Mozart. The last-named work also bears Those composers traces of the influence exercised by Weber's Freischillz. Mozart with Don Giovanni, who established the German romantic opera,
and Weber with Der
Freischiitz,
have greatly influenced the second period of
French opera comique. The introduction of this romantic spirit into German, and, finally, French poetry, facilitated the increase of its influence on
the French comic opera, which
we
shall notice
when reviewing the
prin-
cipal features of the third period.
The works
of
all
the composers
between
G retry
and
Mehul and
may be classed as belonging to the second period of the French comic opera. This list includes the operas of the Revolution, of
which we must
his later
select Cherubini's Porteur d'Eau, as it not only influenced works written for Paris and Vienna, Lodoiska and Faniska, 1806, the best operas of Mehul, Berton (fils), Isouard, and Boieldieu.
Isouard and Boieldieu
but also
Since the production of Cherubini's chef-d'oeuvre, the status of the comic romantic opera has risen This improvement of intellectual considerably.
working-out can be seen in the polyphony of the ensembles, the more refined musical portrayal of character, and the richer and more independent orchestration. The thoroughly French character of the Porteur d: Eau is
G minor and the song in E flat major. Both are French grace, reminding one of the chanson and the national folksong, and the melodramatic episodes are of a truly French character. We
seen in the romance in
of
gems
must
leave the remainder of Cherubini's works, with further discussion on the Porteur d'Eau, for a subsequent chapter, and have but to add that
the last-named
Lodoiska
work stands uninjured by any change of school or time. and Faniska, not real romantic operas, like Don although Giovanni and Der Freischiltz, contain a certain amount of romance, which
has helped to influence the masters of the second period. Amongst these masters, the one most of Cherubini's influence is Andre independent
iirneste Modeste Gretry, born at Liege in 1741. This independence may be attributed to his possession of romantic tendencies in a greater degree
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1083
Whereas Gretry's predecessors than that of his contemporary compatriots. wrote instinctively, he formed special doctrines for the guidance of his
successors in the national school.
sion
Gluck, Gretry says, in is to be found in
by the principles of " The true element of musical his memoirs, expresthe accents of the verbal language which must be
Influenced, perhaps,
correctly rendered in music
This caused the composer The comic to become a regular frequenter of the Theatre Fran9ais. romantic opera of the French owes to Gretry a still greater advance by his addition of affecting and dramatic sentiment, which his predecessors allowed
by the composer."
only in exceptional cases, and his introduction into it of the features of real life, thereby giving it a charm and variety to be sought for in vain among the conventional mannerisms and almost fossilised characters of the older
opera buffa of the Italians. Gretry's vocation as a comic opera composer was only determined on his seeing the score of Monsigny's Rose et Colas while
at
Rome.
was anxious
This so excited the hitherto composer of sacred music, that he At the Lake of Geneva he to try his hand at the same genre.
met
Voltaire,
who
pointed to Paris as the only city where world-wide
Gretry made many essays, which were but parbut at length with Lucile, 1769, he gained great celebrity, tially successful, and the quartett, " Ou peut-on etre mieux, qu'au sein de sa famille,"
renown could be gained.
charming opera, gave the rein to his unbounded fertility, and in the ensuing thirty years composed no less than Of these the best are Les Deux Avares ; Zemire et Azor, fifty operas.
became exceedingly popular.
No
less successful
was
his
Le Tableau Parlant.
Deeming
his position secured, he
177
L' Amide la Maison; La Fausse Magie; L'Embarras des Richesses; La Caravane de Ca'ire, which was performed five hundred and six times in the
1;
Richard Coeur de Lion, 1784; Raoul Barbe Bleue, In opposition to these works we must 1789; and Le Barbier du Village. place his Ccphale et Procris, Andromaque, and Aspasie, which, being specially
lifetime of the composer;
pathetic in subject and style,
belonging to the grand opera, and failed entirely even in Paris, whilst his charming comic operas were triumphant on every French and German stage. The same fate met his
as
must be classed
revolutionary Pierre le Grand, Guillaume Tell, Les

le
Deux
Convents, Denys
Tyran, and
La
Fete de la Raison.
It
is
as
wrong
to say that Gretry's

Ca'ire are really
et
Richard Coeur de Lion, Barbe Bleue, and La Caravane de
grand operas, because performed as such, as to assert that Zemire
Azor
1081
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and the Tableau Parlant do not belong to the comic opera, as not being Fairy subjects like Barbe Bleue, Zemire et Azor, and exclusively comic. romantic such as Richard Cosur de Lion and La Caravane de Ca'ire, have
since Gretry been
acknowledged as distinguishing features of French comic

asserted, in 1885, that
opera.
The French composer Saint- Saens

a slanting auditorium,
Gretry
had proposed
without boxes,
and with covered
orchestra, sixteen years before the birth of
Richard Wagner.
The works
which have survived Gretry, and which still remain as proof of his talent, are Richard Cceur'de Lion and Barbe Bleue, which are still produced in
In the latter opera SchroederParis, and seen at times on German stages. Devrient produced a great effect. In 1785 the street leading to the Theatre Italien was named Rue Gretry, to commemorate the triumphs of
that composer in the theatres of the French capital.
In the previous year
the
The Liege had appointed the composer privy councillor. Tnstitut de France made him a member on its foundation in 17tf6, and
of
Abbot
Napoleon created him one of the first Knights of the Legion of Honour, and settled on him in 1801 a considerable pension. On his death, which
took place at
Montmorency
as to the
in
1813, the town council of Liege entered
right of burying the heart of their composer under the pedestal of the monument to be erected in his honour in that city,
in front of the university.
upon a lawsuit
This curious case was decided in favour of the
Liegeois as late as 1828.
Fourteen years later a bronze life-sized statue
was added to the monument, and was unveiled with great ceremony. The next master of importance to the same school belonging
is
Etienne Nicolas Mehul, born at Givet, in the Ardennes, in 1763. have already mentioned this master in the chapter on Gluck as the composer of Joseph in Egypt, which bears an impress almost classical.
We
Here we
is
will
discuss
his
comic-romantic
in
operas.
The
first
of
these
Le Jeune Henri, written

in
honour
it
of
performed
first
Paris
in
for
1797, where
Henry IV. of France, and was hooted and hissed on its
introducing a king, though a favourite, during the dominion of the remarkable evidence of the discrimiRepublic.
representation
nation and just appreciation of the Paris Republic may be found in the fact that a repetition of the overture was demanded twice at the close of the performance. With the exception of MehuPs Joseph in Egypt, which is unique, no other of his the level of the operas
approaches
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1085
Deux Aveugles de Tolede, and Uthal, which was produced in the same year, contain much 1806, that is beautiful. Mehul was led by the sombre and dreamy character
Jeune lloiri, although his Euphrosine, 1790, Les
of Ossian's poetry to leave out the violins, giving their part entirely to
the violas, which seemed to
him
to supply a
more
of
fitting tonal colouring.
The monotony thus produced by the want
brilliancy caused
G retry,
Fig. 276.
E. N.
MehuL
" I be present at the first representation, to exclaim, '' would give a louis to hear the sound of a chanterelle (the E violin Mehul's grand operas met with the same fate as did those of string).
who chanced
to
his predecessor,
for neither
It
is
his
Cora nor
Stratonice achieved more than
moderate success.
1797,
noticeable
also that
even the
Pont de Lodi,
siasm.
of Napoleon, was not received with enthuMehul's Joseph can be classed with the grand operas as little as Gretry's Richard Cosur de Lion; for with its Oriental colouring, elegiac
written in honour
rather
than
heroic
spirit,
and grand ensembles,

Indeed,
it
stands alone,
un-
approached by any other opera.
Mehul might be
placed more
1086
HISTOEY OF MUSIC.
the typical romantic writers than among those of the grand and period of antiquity belong undoubtedly to opera, for the foreign scene
fitly
among
the romantic.
The next on the

The works
list
of romantic writers
is
Henri Montan Berton
(fils).
do not equal in depth and artistic finish those of Gretry, Mehul, and Boieldieu ; they are the outcome of a happy and inventive imagination. There are two works, however, which rise above
of this gifted master
Ponce de Leon and Aline, Heine cle Gokonde. These succeeded Germany as well as in Paris, and might with advantage be reproduced Berton wrote his Montana et Stephanie under the at the present day.
this level
in
supervision of Gretry, and the beneficial influence can be clearly traced in
the more serious portions of the work.
Anton Reicha, though born
at
Prague
in
1770, must
first
also be included in the list of French comic opera
composers of the
half of the nineteenth century.
three comic operas, Cagliostro, Natalie,
about 1810 to 1822, in Paris.

poser desisted
Reicha composed and Sappho, which were performed Their success was so slight that the comthis
field,
from any further attempt in

life
and devoted the
remainder of his
to instrumental music.
He
died at Paris in 1836.
Nicolo Isouard, born at Malta in 1775, achieved great success as composer of comic opera.
Malta, and, intending him
His father was in the service of the Knights of to become a merchant, placed him in a large
fled
mercantile house at Palermo.
composed an opera, and
with the score to Florence.
The boy, entertaining a passion for music, It was not until
his arrival in Paris, however, that he justified the step
which he had taken. In the French capital he was in receiving much happy encouragement from Kreutzer, Mehul, and Boieldieu; but it was not until 1802, when he pro-
duced an opera, Michel Ange, that he Before this gained much success. he had written several which had not been received with much operettas favour, but the success of Michel Ange, both in Paris and Berlin, where it was performed in 1805, decided his future career, and placed him high among the composers of comic opera in Paris. The operas, Les Confidences, Le Medecin Turc, 1803, Leonce ou le Fils au and IS
Fenetres,
position.
Adoptif, Intrigue 1805, followed in quick succession, and helped to assure his Isouard became a great favourite, owing to his wealth of melody
and refined musical
taste. He won great triumphs in 1810 with his opera which was performed not Cendnllon, only in France, but on almost every
THE GRAND OPERA OF

The performances of
still
PARIS.
1087
European opera stage.

alone, over 100,000
this
this opera produced, in Paris
francs as the share of the composer.

in favour with the public.
Until a few
years ago
work was
Isouard's greatest
achievement, from an artistic point of view, was the honourable position maintained by him when in competition with Boieldieu for the favour of
the public.
The works by which he won
this
position were Joconde and
Colin
et Jeannot.
This master died at Paris in 1818.
Fig. 277.
F. A. Boieldieu.
Isouard's rival,
Fraôis Adrien Boieldieu, who may be justly de-
signated one of the greatest of the French comic opera composers, was born at Rouen, December 16th, 1775. His father, private secretary to the
of the cathedral choir, and afterwards placed of the metropolitan church,
Archbishop of Rouen, perceiving his talent for music, made him a member him as pupil with the organist
by name Broche.
The
lad ran
away
to Paris
whilst with this severe master, having
overturned an ink-bottle on the
keys of the organ, but he was brought back to his native town. At the age of seventeen Boieldieu composed an operetta entitled La Fille Coupable, the libretto of which was supplied by his father. This first work meeting
1088
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
with success at Rouen encouraged the young composer to go and seek his " fortune in Paris, which he did in 1795. Notwithstanding the Reign of Terror" from 1792 to 1794, no less than 'thirty-seven new comic operas
In the morning crowds attended to witness the horrors of the guillotine, in the evening the theatres were overThe difficulty for an impoverished composer to obtain a performflowing.
were produced in the French
capital.
ance of one of his works was great, and Boieldieu for a long time was com-
on the miserable earnings of a pianoforte tuner. He had the of an introduction to the celebrated pianoforte manugood fortune, however, facturer Erard, in whose salon he met Cherubini, Mehul, and Rode. He
pelled to exist
now
sold a
number
of romances for the
sum
of twelve francs apiece,
and
these becoming great favourites greatly enriched the publisher.
Boieldieu's
the period, offered
name thus becoming known to the Paris public, Fievee, a celebrated poet of him a libretto, La Dot de Suzette. This was accepted,
and the opera performed in the same year at the Opera Comique. A further success was his one-act opera comique, La Famille Suisse, which followed
soon after, but
et
it was not until 1798 that the production of his opera Zoraime Zulnare firmly established his fame as a superior composer among the Parisians. In this opera Boieldieu's peculiarities, as remarked by Fetis, are
clearly visible. ness,
They
consist in the possession of a vein of
refined
orchestration,
is
Boieldieu's sentiment
genuine tenderand complete mastery over musical form. the deepest to be found in the works belonging to
and second periods of the comic romantic Notwithstandopera. this sentiment, the master bore in mind the ing principles of all French librettists and composers of the comic romantic to afford inthe
first
opera, viz.,
Thus Boieldieu aided preserving that superiority of the French comic opera and song-play over that of the Germans, whose works of the same class are heavy and undramatic. It is but very rarely that this master yields to the French tendency to allow calculation to supply the place of ingenious imagination, and to employ powerful contrasts with no artistic result, and
in to indulge in capricious musical mannerisms, which might not inaptly be compared to musical witticisms. In 1800 he produced the Caliphe de Bagdad, a one-act opera, the music of which is still popular throughout France and Germany. Two years later he married a danseuse, Clotilde Mafleuroy, but the union proved an unhappy one. He was soon glad to
tellectual
amusement and dramatic entertainment.
THE GRAND OPERA OF

accept an
PARIS.
1089
engagement at
St. Petersburg.
an opera in three
acts, entitled
Ma
tante Aarore, in
I.
Before leaving Paris he produced which there is evidence

of Russia appointed
of his progress in the art.
Alexander
him
court
chapel-master, insisting on his composing three operas annually, the subOf the operas Boieldieu composed while at jects to be of his own choice.
St. Petersburg,
amounting
It
to nearly a .dozen, only
two
travelled
beyond
the confines of that city,
viz.,
the minor song-plays Rien de Trap and

until his return to Paris in
La
Jeune Femme Colere.
was not
1811 that the
master developed such a genius as is evinced in his opera Jean de Paris, performed in 1812, which, with La Dame Blanche and Le Caliphe de
Bagdad, has survived his other works, and still maintains a position on every In Jean de Paris we can perceive the stage where regard is paid to true art.
commencement of a transition caused by an absence in foreign countries of seven years, and the influence of a close acquaintance with the works of Mozart formed in Germany and Russia. Without interference with the
national character of the work, Boieldieu has introduced into the last-named
opera a greater wealth of ideas, a deeper sentiment, and more artistic de-
" Ah, quel plaisir d'etre velopment. The ana of the Prmcesse de Navarre, en voyage," and that of the Seneschal, are unequalled in esprit. The three great works named above are only separated chronologically by Le Chaperon
Rouge, which followed Jean de Paris, and which
is
founded on the well-
known
success.
fairy tale of Little
Red Riding Hood.

crowned
Seven years
later Boieldieu
his former successes
This opera met with great with the
production of La
Dame
dramatic tone-poem is half a century, an- attraction on every opera stage.

is
Blanche, without doubt his greatest work. This unique in its kind, and forms now, after a lapse of
The
spirit of the
melody
inspired
by Mozart
the original modulation, dramatic recitatives, and
orchestration are all superior to those of
any other French composer.
have as yet only spoken of the musical merits of La Dame Blanche, and have not discussed its significance in the history of French art.
of the minstrel,
to
We
After Boieldieu had exhibited the deep romance of his nature in his song and that of the troubadour in Jean de Paris, he continued
allow this feature to exercise
the
its
power by omitting
as
to preserve
the
balance of
romantic
and
comic,
observed
by
his predecessors.
Although we agree, as a
it
rule,
favour his assertion that
La
with Riehl's opinion of Boieldieu, we do not Dame Blanche is a perfect romantic opera,
R u
1090
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
since
we
find in
it
number
of purely comic scenes.
In Der Freischiltz
we meet with only two such

altogether wanting.
scenes
in
Euryanthe and Lohengrin they are
We
agree, however, with the opinion that in this
work Boieldieu approaches the boundary which separates the romantic from the comic romantic opera, and the consequences of
shall treat of in the chapter
purely
this
we
on the third period of the comic romantic
In this opera the master introduces, in a manner most successful, opera. the fusion of the music of a foreign nationality with his own, by the in" Robin Adair." Boieldieu troduction into the opera of the Scotch might,
for
many
reasons,
be designated
the
Weber
of
France.
Although we
cannot say that the French composer presented his country with the first complete romantic opera, as did the German, yet he contrived to bring into
with the simple folk-music. Boieldieu follows closely the plan adopted by Karl Maria von Weber in his overtures, by employing important themes from the opera and combining them with
close union the highest art-form
a skilful and intellectual working-out, producing a grand whole, without ever degenerating into mere musical mosaic. Notwithstanding the great number of the themes, they are welded in a most
the folk-motive in
masterly fashion.
The introduction
to the overture begins
with the motivo
of the first Finale, followed
by the ballad with chorus from the same act;
the Allegro begins with the drinking song, its episode being selected from " the trio. The chorus, Sonnez," could never have found birth had not
the composer studied the hunting choruses of Weber.

quel plaisir d'etre soldat,"
The
""
aria,
Ah
and the cavatina, " Viens
gentille
dame," are
Such ensembles as are contained in this opera had thoroughly French. never been known to the opera comique before the appearance of the works
of Boieldieu.
We
to his
cannot take leave of the masterpiece of Boieldieu without referring
most successful
interpreter.
We
refer to
Hippolyte Roger (1815
rendered the role of George Brown. Roger was an excellent tenor, and gave a classic dignity to As every part entrusted to him. regards Boieldieu's domestic life, we must mention that at St. he
1879),
who
Petersburg
married Jeanne Philis.

is
easily perceived in
The composer's amiable and unpretending character the charming letter to his future bride respecting the
" performance of his operetta Rien de Trop. On my way to the theatre I looked anxiously at the weathercock over the Feydeau to see from which
THE GRAND OPERA OF

direction the
PARIS.
1091
hope.
friend,
wind was blowing. It came from the north ; that gave me said to myself, ' This wind bears the kindest wishes of my best
I should have gladly witnessed this
whose joy
evening/
You would
have been happy, I am sure. Of course I was called before the curtain, led on by Chenard, Gavaudan, and Martin. Cherubini, of whom my
Fig. 278.
Hippolyte Roger.
brother had never lost sight during the performance, and who never ceased applauding, came to tell me, before the whole assembly, that this music
Had you been here excessive joy would have killed me." modest were his acknowledgments of the unexampled triumphs He writes " My success appears to he gained with La Dame Blanche.
enchanted him.
less
No
be a national one, and

in the history of
all
the world tells
me
it will
create a fresh epoch
foreign music had gained such an ascendancy that the public understood that all that could
music.
The
fact of the matter
is,
be done was to follow in Rossini's wake.
The task
of overcoming this
R R R 2
1092
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
The honour has been awarded to me of and musicians conachieving it, and all French artists, painters, poets, bestow on me their thanks. But I fear that their zeal in indisprejudice
was by no means
easy.
tinually
creetly
are enraged; they
Bossini's partisans will cause dissension. uttering their opinions of taking up arms on behalf only await an opportunity
of their hero.
The most amusing feature
of the case is that whilst our

I,
the principals, Rossini and respective adherents quarrel, we,

friends."
are excellent
After the most romantic of
all
the French comic romantic operas, that
is Boieldieu's Dame Blanche, by an increase of the romantic element in the works of this school nought could result but a complete separation of The increasing influence of romance the comic from the romantic school.
in
music could
not tend otherwise
than to cause a
separation of the
hitherto
being admitted after the production of

tional cases,
united elements of comic romantic opera, the former element La Dame Blanche in only excep-
most frequently in the shape of
satire.
There
-can
be
no
doubt but that the example set by Boieldieu in his masterpiece was aided strongly, though indirectly, by the works of Weber, Schubert,
much
Spohr, Marschner, Meyerbeer, Hoffmann, Fouque, and Heine; and inasas many of their works partake of a romantic nature, Mozart and
Beethoven, Goethe and Schiller
may
also be reckoned as helping in this
development of romance.
production of Boieldieu's
In the third period, which speedily followed the
Blanche, opera comique was subdivided into comic romantic and romantic or lyric. The very names species, of the Paris theatres go far to support our theory, for while the Opera
Dame
two separate
Lyrique employs entirely romantic repertoire, the Opera Comique supports the comic romantic opera. Many of the works written by French composers for the Opera Italien may also be added to the new genre of the romantic opera ; for example, Halevy's Tempesta. The third period may be accepted as dating from Auber and Herold,
an
who each adopted a
different branch of opera composition, both of which exist at the present as is proved by the works of Thomas, day, Dehbes, and Bizet. The two first-named composers stand alone as the
successors
of
Boieldieu;
but whilst Auber favours the comic romantic
character
of
the
Caliphe de
Bagdad and
Jean,
de
of
Paris,
Herold
in-
clines towards the strongly developed romantic
mood
La Dame Blanche
THE GRAND OPERA OF

in
PARIS.
1093
such a marked manner as to

the
make
the romantic opera triumphant
Joseph Ferdinand Herold was born at Paris in 1791, and died at Maison des Ternes, where he was residing, in 1833. He received instruction from Adam, Catel, and Mehul, and
on
French
stage.
Louis
gained his
first
success in Paris with
an opera
entitled Charles de France,
Fig. 279.
L. J. F. Herold.
which he wrote
in co-operation
with Boieldieu.
It
is
of historical interest
to notice the frequent
and widespread custom of the eighteenth century in
France and Italy of composing in co-operation, the result being much like that produced by a manufactory, works lacking artistic unity. With
reference to Italy
we may regard
France
it
this habit as
fail
an outcome of the Rococo
and Zopf, but
in
cannot
operas of that nation had

Zopf.
to surprise us, as the comic and grand risen to a standard far above the influence of a
Our astonishment
is
increased
by the
recollection that this
custom
was by no means confined
to petty composers, but that it
was followed by
1094
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Herold. Auber, Batton, Chembini, Spontini, Mehul, Boieldieu, Auber, and and Paer, all united in comBerton, Blangini, Boieldieu, Carafa, Cherubim, La Marquise de BrinviUiers ; Cherubini and Boieldieu wrote La
posing Prisonniere
and Isouard produced Bayard a and Kreutzer composed Les Deux Mezieres ; Spontini, Persuis, Berton, As llivaux ; while Herold and Carafa contributed L'Auberge d'Auray. in labour is employed at the present time by French of this
;
Catel, Boieldieu, Cherubini,
plan
litterateurs,
conjunction we must consider
this proceeding is
Where a special trait of Latin nations. found in German composition, it occurs in the eighteenth
it
century in the works of composers tutored in the Italian schools, whose Zopf and co-operative custom they had adopted. This feature cannot, how-
now to German composers, amongst whom the habit has long since died out ; whereas in France the greatest number of libretti are produced by joint authors ; and Dumas, Erckmann, Chatrian, and others
ever, be said to belong
are associates in authorship.
Herold' s earliest comic operas, Les Rosieres and
La
Clockette, were followed by several insignificant works and ballets for His next important works are Le Premier Venu, 1818, the grand opera.
and Marie, performed in 1826.

operas, but his position 1831.
These were followed by seven comic
in
the musical world was assured
by Zampa,
It
is
strange that such a work as this, with so tragic an end, can be

operas, but
classed
among comic
of that
we must
all
explain
it
as the result of the
French custom, which designates
amount
element.
operas comic which contain the smallest Thus it is that Cherubim's Porteur d'Eau,
Lodoiska, Faniska, and All Baba, Gretry's Barbe Bleu and Ritfiard Cceur de Lion, Herold's Zampa and Le Pre aux Clercs, Auber's Lac des Fees,
are styled opera comique.
Halevy's Tempest a, Thomas's Mignon, Gounod's Faust, and Bizet's Carmen, This generalisation is occasionally modified by
the terms Lyric and Italian being applied to various operas, though these distinctive expressions bear no Some of these very significant meaning.
works have been classed even with the grand opera on account of the excessive expenditure necessitated
by the required scenic
effect, their subject
matter being by no means suited to the character of that In the genre. face of such confused though accepted classification, we have ventured to separate Boieldieu's Porteur d'Eau and Mehul's Joseph from the mass of
operas of the period; Gretry's Barbe Bleu and Boieldieu's
Dame Blanche
THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS

we bave designated semi-romantic
Juliet,
1095
while Gounod's Faust and Romeo and

Bizet's
Halevy's
list
Tempesla,
Thomas's Mignon, and
Carmen we
This last-named class found origin We must not forget that Meyerbeer's liobert le Liable in Herold's Zampa. was produced in Paris at the same time as Herold's chef-d'oeuvre, and that
include in the
of romantic operas.
this opera,
with
its
extraordinary combinations,
went
far to
bring the
romantic into favour with the French, who, when once excited, sought eagerly for strained contrast and effect, which found no place in the
classical productions of Boieldieu
and
his
contemporary German composers
of romantic operas.
In discussing the commencement of the period of the opera comique, we noticed the increased influence of German genius and talent on French
This assertion is proved beyond doubt by the first exclusively romantic opera, Herold's Zampa. Although in Boieldieu's Lame Blanche we called attention to a general influence of German masters, now, with
composers.
regard to Herold's Zampa,
Lon
Giovanni, the
first
we can point directly to a special .German work, German romantic opera, without which Herold's
birth.
work could never have found
of the supernatural, with its attendant horrors, necessitates a special of musical treatment, such as the
In these two operas the introduction method

of trombones on occasion of
employment
the marble statues assuming vitality.
Herold's best dramatic effort was a

sans Medecin, which was followed
comic opera in one act,
La Medecine
by
performed in 1832. This opera charmed the French to such an extent that by 1871 it had undergone a thousand representations. Auber was as successful a writer of comic as he had been of grand opera,
Clercs,
Le Pre aux
and as such was directly opposed in style to his contemporary Herold, who was an idealist and romanticist, whereas Auber himself gained great popularity
through his cheerful realism.

his first success
libretti
it
for
Auber
to Scribe's
In 1820 La Bergere Chatelaine gained ; not, however, until he began to compose Scribe was that his continuous triumphs commenced.
was
destined as an opera- writer to hold in France the position occupied a century

before in Italy
by Metastasio, with the exception that while the

conventional and
stiff,
libretti of
the latter
now appear
for
those of Scribe
especially
when written
comic opera
are full of life
and dramatic
interest.
This
writer contributed
many
of the libretti of the works of interest belonging

Lets
to the period of the
grand French opera, such as Masaniello,
Huguenots,
1096
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Le Prophele, and La
Juive.
Although
at times he favours tragedy, there
can he no denial of his rare knowledge of stage effect and poetic conThe first opera by which Auber gained a real and ception of character.
lasting success
for the first
was La Magon, written by Scribe, which was performed The music of this work is pure and time in Paris in 1825.
calculated
to affect us
simple in expression, and therefore
more deeply
pre-
than
many
and
this
other works of the same kind written

calculation.
by him with more
tension
In
work Auber
reflects
the amiable character of the lower classes
most advantageous manner. The composer contrives to produce the most striking effects by his graphic Turkish music, which, in juxtaposition to that of the simple-minded and
of the Parisian population in the
light-hearted French
expression.
workmen, becomes invested with a highly dramatic Auber's other great works of this class include Fra Diavolo,
;
Les Diamants de la Couronne, 1841 ; and Liable, 1843, all works which have remained on the stages of Europe and America, and which gained on their production the fame they still retain. Fra Diavolo obtained in the first few years after its production
;
1830
Le Domino Noir, 1837
La Part du
a popularity of which
we can
barely form an idea
and now,
after a lapse
solos
of half a century, it still attracts
crowded houses.
The charming
and
romances, as well as the ensembles, are specimens of Auber's

compositions, and are only equalled Noir. Auber, as the most
of the French, differs
best finished
by the music of Le Mapon and Le Domino
important master of the comic romantic opera
from Boieldieu, the most important master of the immediately preceding period of this class of opera, since the latter draws
the musical ideas of the situation of his dramatic characters almost always soul, whilst Auber sketches his in graceful outline, and treats their feelings as moods rather than as heartfelt
from his innermost
momentary
emotions.
of
Consequently, Boieldieu employs a more fully developed method

out,
working
organic whole.
of
and greater unity of construction, welding the two into an Auber treats form and contents superficially ; and instead
employing his power for the purpose of giving unity to the work,
attention entirely to the elaboration of details; indeed, in of his less works he descends to a mere manufacture of important
his
directs
many
musical mosaic.
Nevertheless, we are occasionally surprised by charming ideas, striking rhythm, and most As a rule, appropriate modulation.
THE GRAND OPERA OF

music
PARIS.
1097
his
is
neither strained nor affected, and

is
in his better
works the
striving after even small effect
natural, and never interrupts the graceful flow of the music. If in every work of his we fail to find the depth and sentiment of Le Macon, Le Domino Noir, and Fra Diavolo, we are at least
recompensed by his never-failing knowledge of stage effect and dramatic interest. In the Lac des Fees, the libretto of which is founded on the
fairy tale
by the German poet Musaus, Auber has essayed

in this direction.
to enter
upon
the
field
of purely romantic opera, the success of which,
commencing from its

Notwithstand-
birth,
had incited him to make an attempt
ing that this composition contains
many
glimpses of beauty, the romance of
Weber and Schubert
beyond his power, and in some instances the work becomes laboured and dry. In such works as Fra Diavolo, when Auber
lay
follows his natural gift, influenced
by no
desire of imitation,
we
find
more
romance, though of a French and realistic character, than he exhibits when In 1842 the master was appointed imitating German romantic opera.
director of the Conservatoire as successor to Cherubini,
who had occupied the post for almost half a century. In this position he proved himself of the utmost value, and even at the age of eighty had not missed
prizes.
list
a single examination or distribution of

created
includes
Napoleon
III., in 1857,
him court
chapel-master.
;
The
of Auber's best
known
operas
L'Ambassadrice, 1836 ; L' Enfant Prodigue, 1850 ; and the last of nearly half a hundred, Beves tf Amour, 1869. Scarcely less important than Auber, in the history of the comic and comic romantic opera, is Halevy, of whose works written for the grand
opera, viz.,
La Nii'ge, 1823
La
Juive,
already spoken.
La Magicienne, and La Heine de Chypre, we have As a master of opera comique he gained renown with the
His
first
one-act piece, L' Artisan, produced in Paris in 1827.
essay for
the opera Italien, entitled Clari, produced in 1829, was a work of indifferent
merit, and only received favour through the persistent efforts of Malibran.
(V Avignon and Les Souvenir de Lafleur, performed in the Theatre Feydeau, gained a lasting success by their intrinsic worth. It was in L> Eclair and Les Mousquetaires de la Eeine, produced eleven years later,
Le Dilettante
that Halevy exhibited his real worth, which obtained for him a place amongst the most prominent masters of the opera comique. In 1850 the
master composed La Tempesla, a comic romantic work for the London Italian Opera, in which, about a year later, Henriette Sontag made her
1098
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
after re-appearance at Paris,
many
years
of retirement
from the
stage.
This work, and
Le Val
d' Andorra,
many
most
instances of inspiration,
composed in 1848, although containing exhibit on the whole a decided decline of the
master's productive power.

scientific of
Halevy,
who may be designated
as one of the
fatigable worker.
French musicians, was an erudite scholar and an indeIn 1833 he succeeded Fetis as professor of composition
Three years later he was created a
of
at the Conservatoire.
"Membre
of
de
the
1'Institut" in the place
Reicha.
He became
vice-president
Paris Academy of Fine Arts in 1844, and in 1854 he accepted the post of recorder to the same institution, and in this quality he has presented
the
world with masterpieces of reasoning in his minutes, criticisms, He was chosen to represent Paris in the Assembly in and advice.
1848, an honour conferred
on no
musician
before
him, and only met

to the
Italian Par-
with since in the case of Verdi,

liament in 1860.
who was
returned
Adolphe Charles
Adam was
of his
born in Paris in 1803.
'It
was originally
intended that he should become a scientist, but his love for music
made
him oppose the wishes
parents.
His
it
first
occasional pieces of Vaudeville music,
and
was not
attempts consisted of until 1829 that he
succeeded in gaining a performance of his Pierre et Catherine, an operetta in one act, at the Opera Comique. After the production of several similar
works he came to London to superintend the performances of his ballet

of Faust, with which he achieved considerable success.
He
renown in Paris
until
received with favour.
1833-4, when his Proscrit and Le In 1838 his Postilion de Longjumeau was received
gained little Chalet were
with great eclat in Paris, and he gained celebrity throughout Europe. In no succeeding work did he achieve such happy results. Of his later operas
the most successful were
Le Brasseur de Preston, La Heine d'un Jour, and
La Poupee
Parisian opera bouffe, founded
de Nuremberg, with which he tried to improve the style of the Offenbach in 1855. Adam, as a rule, by
effort,
wrote quickly and without

perficial
;
but his music was for the most part su-
in his best works, however,
we
find
much
gracefulness, good taste,
This composer, who was created a " Membre de PInstitut de France," died in 1856. By adding Hippolyte Chelard, born at Paris in 1789, we shall complete the list of French comic romantic opera composers to the middle of the nineteenth century, for Gounod, Maillart, Delibes,
and humour.
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1099
Thomas, Bizet, and Massenet belong strictly to the present period, with which we shall deal in a subsequent chapter. Chelard produced an opera in 1830, La Table el Logement, performed in Germany under the title
of
Der Student. Into his Macbeth, produced in Paris and Munich, he introduced the romantic element favoured by Boieldieu and Herold. He
died at
Weimar
as chapel-master in 1861.
That the French comic romantic

is
opera found favour in other countries of Europe

of its
proved by the adoption
form by Donizetti in his Figlia del Ref/gimento, by Flotow in Martha, and by Ignatz Briill in his Golden Cross. We have now to call attention to a new feature of musical art which
was developed independently of the French stage from 1750 to 1840 j and in connection with which we shall meet with several masters whom we have
discussed as composers of French opera. This period is represented by a body of prominent French orchestral and chamber-music composers, and violin
and pianoforte
there were
virtuosi,
and
is
signalised
by the growth
of elevated style.
Besides those virtuosi, who united artistic purpose to technical perfection,
many who, although
no
artistic quality
gaining great celebrity in Paris, possessed but mere mechanical skill. It is of the latter class that
we
shall treat in the present section.
The
influx of virtuosi into Paris
was
Italians, example being followed by artists of other countries, the French capital was crowded during the latter part of the eighteenth and earlier portion of the present century with singers,
commenced by the
and
their
pianists,
to
make
almost every European nationality, who hoped here the fortunes they could never realise in their own country.
and
violinists of
the most prominent of these were Fran9ois Hiinten, born in 1793 at Coblentz, where he died in 1878, and Henry Herz, born at Vienna in 1806. Hiinten resided in Paris from 1819 to 1837, and Herz from
Among
1816 to 1874.
which institution Herz was afterwards created a
Both pianists were pupils of the Paris Conservatoire, of For many professor.
years they enjoyed great renown as performers and prolific composers of Such celebrity was easily obtained, as the semi-educated pianoforte music.
always welcome superficial productions as being understood without effort. Their innumerable compositions and arrangements are, like the majority of the productions of this class, out of date, and even their concertos for the
piano and orchestra are almost entirely forgotten. Though musicians of this class can now interest us but slightly, those
1100
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
men who have
aided the development of the national instrumental music,
and consequently that of the orchestra, deserve special notice.
The
last
organ ; overtures, wife engraved one with her own hands. Leclair was assassinated at night jn one of the streets of Paris in 1764, the cause of the crime being jealousy. The next violin virtuosi whom we shall
violins, alto, violoncello,
trios,
important violin virtuoso and composer of the period of Rameau was Jean Marie Leclair, born at Lyons in 1697. Ferdinand David has published, in " " his High School of Violin Playing, two of this master's violin sonatas, which cannot fail to prove his importance as a composer. He wrote several " Concerti Grossi " for three and
and sonatas.
Of the
latter his
discuss approach closer to our
own
period.
The
1800.
first
of these
is
Pierre
Gavines, the founder of
the modern violin
school.
He was
artist,
born at
Bordeaux in 1726, and died at Paris jn
This
who was
If
designated by Viotti "the Tartini of the French," was self-taught.
we judge by
his concertos, sonatas,
and
studies (entitled matinees),
Gavines
must have possessed considerable power
as a virtuoso, the technical difficulty
unimportant. proved by nine symphonies, of which three are for wind instruments alone.
of these works being extremely great. Gossec, who succeeds chronologically, has already been mentioned as a master of the French opera schools of the eighteenth century. This master occupies a position among the early orchestra composers by no means This is his
twentySeveral
among contemporaries.* engendered by orchestral music had gradually inculcated a taste for the performances of virtuosi. Amongst those assembled in Paris at this period,
the violoncellist Louis Duport
of his compositions belonging to this class have been performed at the Paris Concerts Spirituels. Gossec's string quartetts, duets for violins, and serenades were much in favour his The interest
(17421819)
stood pre-eminent, composing
many
sonatas, variations,
and duos.
He was
appointed chief soloist
by
His instrument, a magnificent Stradivarius, was bought by Franchomme for 25,000 francs. Rodolphe Kreutzer, born at Versailles in 1766, was as important a violinist as his contemporary Duport was violoncellist. In 1769 Beethoven heard him while on a concert tour through the Netherlands, Italy, and Germany, and dedicated to him his violin sonata, Op. 47, thus
helping
* It
is
the Emperor Napoleon.
supposed that Gossec was the
first
to introduce the clarinet into
his orchestral
compositions.
THE GRAND OPERA OF

to
PARIS.
1101
hand
his
name down
is
to posterity.
Kreutzer's " Quaraute Etudes, ou
Caprices
" for the
violin are accepted as classical
even at the present day, and
much beauty
quartetts.
to be
found in his double concertos, concertos, and string-
He
died at
is
Geneva
in 1831.
The
elder Jadin
composer, and has

tions, consisting
left
still more important as an instrumental and opera a great number of orchestral and chamber composi-
of symphonies, overtures, quintetts, and stringJadin (1769 1802), a younger brother of the lastHyacinthe named composer, was a professor of the Conservatoire. He emulated his
chiefly
quartetts.
brother in his works, of which
many chamber
for
flute,
Reicha,
who
six
is
next on the
list,
compositions still remain. has written no less than twenty stringoboe,

viola,
quartetts,
twenty - four quintetts

quartetts
for
flute,
clarinet,
horn,
;
and
bassoon
violin,
and
violoncello
and
Rcicha's contemporaries were Baillot very many chamber compositions. and Rode, two of the most gifted of French violinists. These virtuosi,
like
their
compatriot
Kreutzer,
were
disciples
of
the
famous
violin
founded by the great Italian master Viotti. Before the appearance of Viotti, who, with short interruptions, resided in Paris from
school
1782 to 1822, France possessed a number of violinists whose school can be identified with that of Gavines ; Kreutzer, however, with Fran9ois
Baillot
(17711842) and
Pierre
lation to Viotti, helped in the fusion of
Rode (17741830), through their rethe violin schools of modern Italy
and France.
Like Kreutzer, Rode was happy in attracting the notice of
Beethoven while on a concert tour through Austria, the result being that the great master dedicated to. him his romance, Op. 50. Amongst Rode's
still
prized compositions
in
we
will
enumerate his thirteen concertos; four

first violin
is
" Quatuors Brillants,"
which the
solo
four string-quar-
" Themes Varies " " tetts, twenty-four Etudes/' and Caprices/' twelve " Methode de with orchestra. A work of value is the
"
great
Violon, par
in
Rode, Baillot et Kreutzer, redigee
par Baillot."
Rode was appointed
1800
solo violinist in the private chapel of the First Consul,
with a salary
of 10,000 francs.
In 1803 he accompanied his friend Boieldieu to St. Of his works the "Etudes/' "I/ Art du Violon" (1835, Petersburg. Paris), 24 preludes, 9 concertos for the violin, 15 string trios, and three
still
string-quartetts are
Baillot gained
his
in great request
among
violinists.
As
litterateur
greatest success with his
" and " Notice sur Gretry
1102
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Though
and again in 1825. "Notice sur Viotti/' published in Paris in 1814, and the Rode enchanted his audience with his exquisite bowing
of of his intonation, Baillot exhibited an unequalled grandeur perfect purity Both in rendering his own works and those of other composers.
conception
.|
'':'
liilliil'I'i
Fig. 280.
Teresa and Mai-ia Milanollo.
these masters were unsurpassed as quartett performers.
Though no
vir-
was an important composer of French tuoso, George Onslow, chamber- music. He was of English descent, but being born at ClermontFerrand in the Puy-de-D6me, and passing his life entirely in France,
born in 1784,
Onslow cannot but have been influenced by

therefore, be accepted as a
his surroundings,
and must,
French composer. It has been asserted that the composer was not born at Clermont, but that he bought an estate there
when very young.
Halevy, however, when delivering a funeral oration at
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARTS.
1103
the Institut, lauded Onslow as a gifted Frenchman. Onslow followed by He preference the classical examples of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.
has, therefore,
Germany.
many excellent works which are Not only was he a thorough and refined
left
still
in
vogue
in
musician, but his
works exhibit deep sentiment ; his quintetts for string instruments and his pianoforte sonatas for four hands are very beautiful, especially the sonata
Fig. 281.
Malibijin Garcia.
in
minor, Op. 22.
Of
his string-quartetts several remain,
which have
lost
began to write
none of their interest through the lapse of time. Later in life Onslow carelessly, and his works were never on a level with those
produced during the first half of his career. In 1842 the composer was chosen to succeed Cherubini as " Membre de Tlnstitut de France." He
now wrote
three comic operas which, though performed in Paris,
but a succes d'estime.
Onslow died at Clermont-Ferrand

sisters Teresa
in 1852.
met with The

These
next famous violinists were the

sisters
and Maria Milanollo.
were born in Piedmont in 1827 and 1832 respectively. Though they commenced their career in Italy, it was not until they visited Paris that
they gained a world-wide fame.
It
was
here, too, that Maria, the
younger
1104
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
At the present day, when the musical world such a performer as Neruda, the sisters Milanollo, excellent as possesses was their performance, would hardly have created such a sensation as they
of the sisters, died in 1848.
did at that period,
new
feature of the concert-room.
when the appearance of two female As the violin
violinists constituted
school of
Paris was
formed through the influence of the Italian Viotti, so

of vocalists established
was the Paris school
Under
their influence,
by the Spaniards Manuel Garcia, father and son. from 1828 to 1850, this school threatened to sur-
Manuel Garcia, the son, is to be credited with the pass that of Italy. invention of a mirror for examination of the larynx,* this ingenious contrivance being
his
named
after the inventor.
The
elder Garcia transmitted
incomparable method to his youngest daughter as well as to his son. This daughter, Pauline Viardot Garcia, is undoubtedly the most gifted female vocalist and teacher of singing. Pauline's elder sister was the celebrated Maria Felicita Malibran, born at Paris in 1808, and
who
died at
Malibran possessed a splendid contralto voice, 'in addition to which she was enabled, by her unusual range, to render sucManchester in 1836.
cessfully high mezzo-soprano parts.
On her first appearance in
1824
at Paris,
she completely electrified her audience. From 1827 to 1832 she performed with great success in Paris, London, and Italy. Her chief roles were from the operas of Rossini, such as Arsace in Semiramide, Tancredi, and Rosina
She was especially successful as Palmira in Meyerbeer's and in Beethoven's Fidelio. In 1836 she Crociato, again married, her second husband being the celebrated violinist Charles Auguste de Beriot This Belgian virtuoso was born at Leuven in 1802, and died in 1870 as
Malibran was one of the best and composed many charming and original songs, romances, nocturnes, and canzonets. Manuel Garcia (pere) was followed by the French master Auguste Panseron, born at Paris in 1796. Panpianists of her period,
in II Barbiere.
professor at the Brussels Conservatoire.
seron was
undoubtedly influenced by his Spanish predecessor, though not " and sufficiently so to destroy his own individuality. His " Solfeggios
'
Methode de Vocalisation " are
still
of great value.
We
shall
now
return
to the French instrumentalists
and
virtuosi.
Louis Drouet
(17921873)
was
solo flautist to the court of the first
horn-player, was born in

*
1821.
in
He
Napoleon. enjoyed great reputation as a wit,

"
Vivier, the celebrated
This
is
usually
known
England as the
Laryngoscope."
F. A. G. O.
THE GRAND OPERA OF
PARIS.
1105
Henri Bertini (1798 1876), who enjoyed great reputation as a pianist and His studies are in general use at composer, came to Paris at the age of six.
the present day. Though Italian by birth, he must be reckoned amongst the masters of the French school, owing to his long residence in Paris, and his connection with the French pianists. have already discussed the
We
influence of
Chopin and Liszt, as virtuosi and composers, on the Parisian masters of pianoforte performance and composition. Simultaneously with, and even before, Liszt and Chopin, Pierre Joseph Guillaume Zimmermann
(17851853), born
at Paris, and
Frederick Kalkbrenner
(17841849),
born at Cassel, greatly influenced the French pianoforte school. These masters both died in Paris. Of the pupils of Kalkbrenner the most were Stamatz, the master of Saint-Saens, and Madame Pleyel ; important
Zimmermann's most noteworthy pupils were Alkan, Dejazet, Prudent, Marmontel, Lacombe, and Ambroise Thomas. Kalkbrenner introduced " or " Logier's Chiroplast hand-guide, which was intended to keep the
fingers free
exercises,
from any influence of the fore-arm when practising scales and and the wrist from that of the upper arm while playing sixths
and octaves.
Zimmermann employed
du Pianiste."
the method of teaching set
down
in
his "Encyclopedic
We
must now glance
retrospectively at the development of the science
of music
among
the French during the period in which the two species of
opera began to flourish.
The two
first
names which we must consider

Ben-
belong to the last century,
and are those of Villoteau and Laborde.
jamin de Laborde, a lord-in-waiting of Louis XV., born in 1734, was He was celebrated as an historian guillotined at Paris in 1794. and theorist. The most important of his works was his " Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne/" published in four volumes in 1780.
died in
Guillaume Villoteau was born in the Department of the Orne in 1759, and Paris in 1839. He commenced his career as a choir-boy, and
eventually became tenor at the Cathedrals of Le Mans, La Rochelle, and Paris; and after the Revolution he studied philosophy at the Sorbonne. His
essays gained for
him such
notoriety that he was appointed a
member
of
the commission of scientists which followed Napoleon's

Villoteau's valuable
lished
army to Egypt. work on the music cf the Oriental nations was pubof
treatises
at the expense of the State under the title
1'Egyptc,"
s s s
which embodied, among others,
Descriptions de on " Les Diverses
"
H06
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
de Musique que 1'on reraarque parrai les Sculptures Especes d'Instruments " " Description Monuments de 1'Egypte ; and qui decorent les Antiques Litteraire des Instruments de Musique des et Historique, Technique, of music, we Orientaux." Amongst his many other works on the theory
" Memoire sur la Possibilite et most important the de la Musique/' pub1'Utilite d'une Theorie Exacte des Principes Naturels in chronological order, we meet next with Alexandre lished 1807. must mention
as the
Proceeding
Choron,
who was born
in
Normandy
in 1772,
and died at Paris in 1834.
published Fayolle, de Composition des ^coles de Pltalie/' a second edition of which cipes " Methode Elementaire de Musique et de Plain-Chant/' appeared in 1816 ;
conjunction published in 1811
;
of French theorists. By Fetis, Choron was designated as the most profound " Dictionnaire Historique/' written Of his works the most important are the Prinin two volumes in 1810 ; and with in
"Liber Choralis Tribus Vocibus ad usum Collegii Sancti " Manuel Complet de Musique Vocale Ludovici," published in 1824 and a et Instrumentale, ou Encyclopedic Musicale," written in collaboration
;
The last of in 1836. Fage, and published in eight volumes " Traite d'HarOf his works the these scientists is Catel (17731830).
with
La
monie," which has been used for

is
many
years at the Conservatoire of Paris,
without doubt the most important. The opinion of the French that the importance of Rossini, Meyerbeer,
of Gluck, Cherubini,
and even
and Spontini, rests solely on their relation with the grand French opera, must be regarded as one of those pardonable errors which soon creep into the mind of a nation which is anxious to
pre-eminence in the world's history by the possession of the Gluck and Spontini not only belonged to the grand greatest names in art. as we have proved before, were its founders ; yet like Rossini, opera, but,
assert
its
Meyerbeer, and the versatile Cherubini, their relation to the French opera represents only one phase of their artistic activity ; they belonged to their
own
nation and the entire musical world

to their artistic individuality
more than
to the
grand opera,
owing
and national character.
In order to do
justice to these masters,
we have
already devoted two chapters to the dis-
cussion of the respective merits of
the following chapter
"
Gluck and Meyerbeer, and are entitling Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini."
CHEEUBINI, SFO.NTINI.
AND
ROSSINI.
1107
CHAPTER XXXVII.
CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI.
IN a former chapter we proved the Italians to be the representatives of the musical Zopf, and, as such, the leaders and model of entire Europe,
by which
is
this period was considered to be the climax of musical art. That the Italians had not already completed the performance of their mission
RossiiiL_at the close of
proved by the appearance of the names of Cherubini, Spontini, and the eighteenth and commencement of the ninecentury.
This ought to suffice for a proof to those biassed phraseologists and musical pharisees who have for an entire generation deplored the decline of Italian music during the last century and a
teenth
half.
In addition
to the three great masters
we have Mercadante,
Italian
Bellini,
and Donizetti^ the most important of the remaining
tone-poets,
prove that the nineteenth century produced a rich after-crop of the genius prevalent in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Operas such as
II Giuramento, Norma, Lucrezra Borgia,
who
La
Favorita,
La Sonnambula, Don
Pasquale, L'Elisire d'Amore y La Figlia del lieggimento, and many other works, prove that the reactionary classicists or romanticists contradict
historical truth
when they
declare such
works as
extinct.
These operas
;
have not disappeared totally from European nor American stages
and
even had they disappeared occasionally, their resuscitation proved always a great and joyful surprise to the public, who found in them, even after a
lapse of fifty years, a marvellous fertility of invention, beauty,
allied to
and charm-
dramatic passion and musical grace and humour. ing melody, This favourable reception cannot fail to increase the ire of those composers
whose
stilted
attempts at artistic profundity cause the withdrawal of their
operas after the usual three performances.
As we have stated elsewhere, Chembini and Spontini came as young men to Paris, where the former, with the exception of a few journeys, remained to the close of his
years.
and where Spontini resided for a number of Yet the influence which was to direct the mind and style of these men
life,
cannot be accepted as French, but rather as German. None can reproach the influence exercised over these us, however, with having underrated
masters by the intelligence of the Parisian population, the national music,
s s s 2
1108
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
such as that of Gretry, Mehul, Isouard, and Boieldieu, and the historical importance attached to that period of the existence of the French capital,
as, it
must be remembered, the composers were respectively twenty-six and twenty-nine years of age when they entered Paris, and had received their
musical education entirely in their
own
country.
In the French capital
the masters were influenced
by
the operas of Gluck, and also in part by
Fig. 282.
M.
L. Cherubini.
the symphonies and overtures of

music, besides, Cherubini
Haydn and Mozart,
of
whose chamber
close study. Although they could not escape the beneficial influence of the French school, the result was by no means equal to that them the classical school of German produced
made a
upon
by
music, which was continually advancing westwards. This influence was afterwards increased by Cherubim's sojourn in Vienna, and Spontini's residence Berlin, as the masters then came into contact with the representatives of the art. As we have not here to discuss the connection existing between the composers of MedSe and the Yettak and the
French school,
we
shall
1109
pass in review their lives, for the purpose of portraying completely the events attendant on the development of their artistic activity. Maria
Florence.
Luigi Cherubini was born September 4-th, 1760, in the Via Fiesolana, at .Strange to relate, the master erroneously quoted the 8th of Sep-
tember as the day of his birth, but this was corrected by the register of His father was " Maestro al the church in which he was baptised.
cembalo/' whose duty in the orchestra was to accompany the recitative on the piano, an institution which lasted until the middle of the present
century.
at
Cherubini therefore received the elements of his musical education
At the age of eighteen his talent attracted the attention of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, afterwards Emperor Leopold II. of Austria, an The duke sent him as a pupil to eminent patron and lover of music. a learned musician. Under this indefatigable master Cherubini Sarti,
home.
received a profound schooling in the strict style,
and there can be no doubt
that
it
was
to
him that he owed

in
writing.
When
:
following terms education in counterpoint, both in sacred and dramatic composition." Until 1779 Cherubini composed nothing but sacred music. year later, his
thorough mastery of polyphonic advanced years, he expressed his gratitude in the " It is to Sard's advice and example that I owe my
his
first
opera, entitled Fabio,
was performed, and during the next
five
years
six operas
were performed with success in different Italian towns. The " Toccante meno al suo nome Venetians said, with reference to his name,
dalla dolcezza di suoi canti," referring to the peculiar
charm
of purity of
melody in his operas, which, however,

his
still
bore slight traces of the influence
of the. contemporaneous Neapolitan school.
These early successes spread

invitation to
fame
to such
an extent that in 1784 he received an
Here he composed an opera in two acts, La Finta Principcssa, which was tolerably well received ; but the second work, Ginlio Salino, met with a complete fiasco, being abused not only by the critics, but by the Mortified at this failure, Cherubini in 1786 returned to Paris, public.
London.
and thence, after a short stay, to
Italy.
opera entitled Iphigenia in Aulide, the last of his

prevailing style.
In 1787 he produced at Turin an works written in the then
He now
visited Paris, as he
thought en passant.
How-
ever, meeting_his countryman Viotti, the violin virtuoso and composer, the close friendship he formed with him induced him to remain there.
We
have already discussed the principal events of his stay
in
the French capital.
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Before composing the Medee, Cherubini wrote Demopkon, 1788; Lodoiska, which contains 1791; and EHse, on le Voyage dit Mont St. Bernard, 1794,
many
traits of truly tragic
grandeur.
Between the Medee and the Porteur
After the Porteur d'Eau, d'Eau he composed L'Hdtellerie Portugais. His first work wrote Anacreon, 1803, and Achille a Scyros, 1804. he
written for the Grand Opera was Demophon, and although in
it
he had
successful. attempted to adopt the French declamation, it was not very With the exception of the Porteur d'Eau, which was written for the
Theatre Feydeau, the above-named works were performed at the Theatre de la Foire St. Germain, founded by Leonard, the hairdresser to Marie
Antoinette, and of which Cherubini was conductor from 1789 to 1792.
During the Revolution the master

visit, in 1805, to
lost his
position.
In 1793 he married
Cecile Tourette, the daughter of a former royal
chamber musician.
On
his
panied by his like a son by the patriarchal Haydn,
Vienna, which we have mentioned before, he was accomIn the Austrian capital he was received wife and daughter.
whom he approached
here,
with the most pro-
found veneration.
He
also
met Beethoven
but his relations to Haydn
were of a more familiar character.
At
the death of the latter master he
composed a funeral cantata, which was performed at Paris, at the ConThe respect he bore .for his revered servatoire, with great celebration.
be estimated by the fact that when asked his reason for not " The work was not dedicating the Porteur d'Eau to Haydn, he replied,
friend
may
worthy of such honour/'

admiration to
all
grand work has been an object of from the date of its production to great the present time. After the 200th representation of this work, which soon
this
Yet
men and
artists
arrived, Gretry headed a committee of French musicians, who wished to express to the composer their respectful congratulations. Goethe praises the work in his celebrated with Eckermann the score is
correspondence
said to have
had a settled place of honour on Beethoven's writing-table ; " Karl Maria von Weber called it " music ; Robert Schumann describes divine^
as a
it
masterly and intellectual work, whose composer, the refined and
learned Italian, in his strict independence of thought, he compares to Italy's greatest poet, Dante.
strange that of Cherubini's Abencerages, which contains so much beauty, nothing is 'popular but the brilliant and romantic overture, that has become a favourite with all the orchestras of France and
is
It
Germany.
CIIERUBINI, SPONTINI,
AND
ROSSINI.
1111
Two
with
of the most characteristic items of this opera are the tribunal scene,
its
powerful choruses, and the Finale.

still
At
the age of seventy-three
the master's intellect was
Baba, an opera in which

overture of
this
all
youthful and vigorous, and he wrote jili the effects of modern orchestration are dis-
plnyed, anticipating those produced
by
Berlioz,
Wagner, and
Liszt.
The
symphonic tone-picture, and with those of the Medee, Lodoiska, Faniska, Anacreon, Alencerages, and Porteur
work forms an
entire
d'Ean, constitutes a constellation sufficient in

the
itself
alone to immortalise
name
of Chcrubini.
This master was as prominent
among
the writers of sacred music as
among
those of
opera and
orchestral
works.
He
rose
far
above the
generality of sacred composers, both French and Italian, belonging to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and his sacred works may be fairly said
to rival those of his Italian precursors Palestrina,
Scarlatti, as well as of the greatest
Gabrieli,
Lotti,
and
German masters
It
is
in this branch of the
tonal art, Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven.
interesting to notice the
causes which led him for a number of years to confine himself to writing music entirely for the Church. Vexed by the neglect of Napoleon and the
entire Parisian public,
which could not understand
his
works with
ease,
with
the exception of the Portenr d'Eau, and which respected him more than it admired him, Cherubini deserted his art and devoted himself, in company
with his learned friend Desfontaines, to the study of botany. He left Paris in 1808, accompanied by his pupil Auber, having accepted an invitation from
the Prince de
Chimay
to visit
him
at his chateau.
The
botanical studies
which he eagerly prosecuted in the parks attached to the chateau led him more than once to dissertations with his host on the philosophy of
nature.
of his
was by mere accident that the composer returned to the pursuit former art. The townsmen of Chimay wished to celebrate the Feast
It
of St. Cecilia,
with the performance of a mass.
however, in finding a
work
suited to their restricted
They were unsuccessful, means of production,
and having petitioned Cherubini to compose one for them, had been One day the master, returning from his usual day's brusquely refused.
boianising, entered the salon of the princess, and seated himself at the
table
where
his
herbarium had
its place.
a quire of manuscript music-paper,
Here by some chance was lying and the composer, almost unwittingly,
began writing, heedless of the assembled company, who forbore noticing
1112
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
his action.
The immediate
result of this
three voices, to which he added later
" in F was a " Kyrie major for on a complete mass in the same key.
Such were the circumstances attendant on Cherubini's resumption of his music. Amongst his art, which tended to the increased wealth of Church
sacred compositions we must draw special attention to his grand mass in A, written in celehration of the coronation of Charles X. ; a mass in C major;
an Ave Maria
which the
in
first,
an occasional credo a capella ; and his two Requiems, of in C minor, is for a mixed choir and orchestra, the second,
male voices only with orchestral accompaniment. The absence of D, female voices in the latter work has been regarded as a concession to the
for
Church dignitaries of the Restoration, who, influenced by the bigotry of former periods, wished to exclude female voices from all Church music. It may be asserted, however, that it was through the preference of the
character of a Requiem.
composer himself, for the darker colouring, as more suitable to the sombre Beethoven was so impressed by the master's first (C minor) Requiem, which bears traces of Mozart's influence, that he was
influenced
till
by
it
while writing his Missa Solennis, which was not produced
much
later period.
as
one of
the
grandest
creations
;
Cherubim's great Requiem must be reckoned of modern art. The master has
there
is
determined his line of action

this
no hesitation.
carried
is
Everything in
in
grand poem
exists.
The
listener is
away, and becomes

unrolled
spirit
a co-actor in the terrible drama which
before him.
!
What mastery does the composer display over the how bold an innovator in the realms of orchestration
strict choral style

!
Until the climax,
the crash of the tam-tam, and the terrible blast of the trombones, depicting the destruction of the world, the composer has confined himself to the use
of the viola in the place of the violin, the subdued colouring thus produced the night of death; then how effective are the shrieks representing effectually
of the violins in the " Dies Irse/' resembling the wild flickerings of a sea of flame. The grandeur and passion displayed in this creation remind us inof that wonderful work of the voluntarily great Florentine painter Michael
Angelo, the "Last Judgment." The Requiem was performed for the first time on January 21st, 1816, in the Cathedral of St. Denis. Amongst its o
:
on the occasion of the interment of Boieldieu in 1834. Cherubini's second October, Requiem, in D, composed in 1836, was intended specially for the celebration
specially that
numerous performances following we must notice
CHERUBINI, SPONTINI,
AND
ROSSINI.
1113
of his
own
burial.
created Officer of
As a reward for the Coronation Mass, the composer was the Legion of Honour by Charles X. and afterwards pro;
In 1822 the master rose from the rank of professor and inspector of the Conservatoire at Paris to that of director, a post which he was destined to retain for twenty years, although sixty-two years of age
moted
to a higher rank.
on his acceptance of
of note,
it.
At the
Conservatoire he taught
many French
Fetis.
masters
including Auber, Halevy, Adam, Carafa, and
Mendelssohn
and Hiller both sought him at Paris to gain his opinion of their works, and Rossini entertained great reverence for him. Mehul may be reckoned
as
In fact Cherubini enjoyed the having been one of his closest friends. of both French and German masters, and composers of all nations respect
sought his advice.
The veneration
in
which the
Italian master
was held
among
his pupils
may
by the author, promised to show
be gathered from the fact that Auber, when visited him the most valuable of his possessions,
and carefully unlocking a case he produced a coffer whence he took a score, which as far as the author remembers was that of Cherubini's great mass.
Cherubini was possessed of a high mental culture, which was allied with refined humour and biting irony. Though conscious of his own merit he
On one occasion when he found his own name on next to that of Beethoven he exclaimed, " I shall appear but programme as a boy next to the great German." On another occasion, however, having
was naturally modest.
the
been requested to attend a performance of a symphony of a composer of whose talent he had formed a very low estimate, he answered, " Why should I go and hear how one is not to compose." His pupil Halevy,
having invited him to a dress rehearsal of one of his operas, sat next to him during the whole of the first act, anxiously expecting some opinion from him. Cherubini maintained a strict silence ; but on Halevy's inquiry
have you not told me Berlioz once expressed an opinion in the presence of Cheruanything?" " The bini that he did not love fugue the Italian master rejoined, fugue loves you just as little," implying that the younger master's training had
as to the reason of his silence, he replied,
"
Why
not been altogether
strict.
Cherubini died on
March
15th, 1842, at the
age of eighty-two, deeply regretted
was public, and was attended by

celebrated French artist.
all
by the musical world. His funeral the prominent men of Paris. One of by Ingres, the
the best portraits of the great master was that painted
1114
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
most by idealism, Spontini's here in that high use the term realism
If
Cherubim
is
is
specially
characterised
prominent feature
realism.
We
with reference to art by Goethe. sense in which it has been employed born on November 14th, 1774, at was Gaspare Luigi Pacifico Spontini to the pontificate. a hamlet situated near Jesi, then belonging Majolati, with regard to His father, a man of humble position, was most ambitious
Fig. 283.
G. L. P. Spontini.
his children,
and would not allow Gasparo
to adopt
music as a profession.
The boy was
sent to his uncle Joseph Spontini, a priest at Jesi, in order to be
educated for the
Roman Catholic Church. He ran away from his guardian, but returned, and his uncle, at length recognising his great talent, ceased to oppose his adoption of music as a profession. Consequently in 1791 he
entered the Conservatorio Delia Pieta, at Naples, where he became a pupil of Sala and Tritto. He soon gained celebrity by his insertions in the of earlier masters. This induced Sigismondi, then director of the operas
Argentine Theatre at Rome, 1796, to persuade him to leave the Conserva-
OHERUBINI, SFONTINI,
AND
ROSSINI.
1115
torio clandestinely,
and follow him to Rome, where he should compose an

This work, entitled /
I'ltn/if/li delle
opera for production at his theatre.
Donne, met with a success so striking that his escape from the Conservatorio was forgiven, through the intercession of Piccini, who made him one of his favourite pupils. Several operas which the young composer wrote for Rome, Florence, and Naples caused his invitation in 1800 to Palermo,
where the Neapolitan court had fled before the advancing French. Here he fell in love with an Italian princess, thus compromising his position. This fact, in conjunction with the unhappy state of his country, compelled
him
In the previous chapter we have called attention to the powerful influence of Gluck's master- works over Spontini; it was so powerful as to make him resign his musical position, and
to establish himself at Paris in
1803.
left him, no striving beginner, but develop rapidly his great talent. a composer of world- wide celebration. In Paris he married the daughter
/
We
and renowned pianoforte manufacturer. His wife proved most devoted, and with true admiration for her husband's When gifts she remained a fond partner of his triumphs and trials.
of Sebastian Erard, the wealthy
1814 King Frederick William III. of Prussia entered Paris at the head of the allies, he not only heard Spontini's operas there, but was
in
much
This induced him him " General Musikto invite Spontini to Berlin 1819, appointing Director," court composer, and conductor of the Royal Opera at Berlin. His income in the Prussian capital was 6,000 dollars (Fetis states the sum
impressed with the composer's individuality.
in
to be 10,000 dollars,
but this
is incorrect).
order of the king

tions,
was immense.
The power given to him by The following is copied from the instruc:
"
dated September 26th, 1821, under the royal signature Spontini has the exclusive right with respect to the performance of
operas, &c., of
"
(a)
"
(b)
Assigning the roles. The ordering and direction of rehearsals.
"
(c)
The power
The
of
excising ineffective vocal pieces, and introducing
others.
"
(d)
scenic arrangements so far as the effect
is
connected with the
music, his orders to be strictly carried out
by the stage manager and his
subordinates, such as the scene-shifters, wardrobe-keepers, scene-painters,
&c.
1116
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
"
(e)
The appointment of a conductor of rehearsals and performances

absence.
choice of understudies for the principal characters."
in his
own
(/)
"
The
We may
almost the sole say in addition that to Spontini belonged
and refusing operas for performance; and very great compower respecting the imposition of fines on the members of the opera On June 28th, 1820, Spontini commenced his career as conductor pany. with his own opera Ferdinand Cortez. The royal orchestra soon had reason A member of this body wrote " The piano to be proud of its conductor.
right of accepting
:
by Spontini resembles the pianissimo of a quartett, the forte vies with the loudest thunder. Between these extremes occur his unparalleled
desired
crescendo
and decrescendo.
He
pays the greatest attention to light and
Through the great number of rehearsals, occasionally amounting to eighty, the performers gain a most complete acquaintance with his I was thunderstruck operas, and the result is an incomparable ensemble.
shade.
when
I performed for the first time in one of those operas

it
it
was not
playing,
was hard work.
Spontini entered the orchestra like a king,
assumed command
like a general, and looking about him with that piercing he noted the heavy battery, as he calls the contrabassi and violonglance, Like a pillar of bronze he stood at celli, and gave the signal to begin.
moving only his forearm a very model of a conductor. The from the leader to the drummer, sat in fear of the master, but orchestra, followed his baton with enthusiasm to the last note. Then with the words
'Ick danke/ he
left
his desk,
the orchestra."
It will be seen that Spontini
was
always imperfect in his pronunciation of German. will add to this letter of one of Spontini's orchestra a few more items concerning his rule in the orchestra. He insisted on uniform bowing on the part of the string performers, even in the most insignificant passages, gaining by such means extraordinary refinement. With his sforzandos he produced remarkable effects. Eckert mentions one in Gluck's aria in F, from Armida, in which the heroine conjures up fury and hatred from the nether world, remarking that the effect resembled a series of stabs with a dagger. After the last rehearsal of a grand opera, Spontini left the company with the words " Au revoir, messieurs, au champ de bataille." When in rehearsal
a grand crescendo was necessary, he would call upon the orchestra as a " Allez general upon his troops, en avant, martelez."
!
We
1117
have ventured to dilate at length upon Spontini's characteristic peculiarities as a conductor, for though conducting is subordinate to composition,
We
we hoped by
this
means
to complete our portrait of the master,
whose ambitious
diction,
spirit, like
and steered towards a
that of his emperor, would brook no contrasettled purpose with a determination to
overthrow every obstacle. Thus the dissensions which occurred later in his career could not but be of a most serious nature. Spontini's reception in
Berlin augured most favourably for his future; his Cortez and
Vestale
were received with enthusiasm
and even Olymj&aL, which met with but
small success in Paris, became the means for an extraordinary ovation to After the performance of the last-named opera, the master the composer.
was
literally
covered
with
flowers
and laudatory
verses,
which
were
showered upon him by the enthusiastic audience. But their excitement rose to the utmost when the maestro attempted, in broken German, to
In 1822 his Nurmahal was performed with the same success, on this occasion showers of eulogistic German verses and Italian sonnets being thrown from the roof upon the audience. This
address his thanks to the public.
to
In 1824 the king commissioned Spontini an opera Alcidor in celebration of the wedding of the Crown compose Prince with Elizabeth of Bavaria. With this opera began the decline of
public ardour at length abated.
:
the composer was reproached with noisy instrumentation, public favour and a number of tuned anvils which were employed in the opera formed
the subject of
much
abuse, and were regarded as meretricious
means of
was the reception of his opera Agnes von Hohenstauffen, which was produced in 1829, and the libretto of which was from the pen of Raupach, a then popular writer.
concealing poverty of invention.
less cold
No
cannot be denied that the three operas which Spontini composed at Berlin, viz., Nurmahal, Alcidor, and Agnes von Hohenstauffen,
Although
stand,
it
on the whole, considerably below the level of the three Paris operas, Vest ale, Cortez , and Olympia; yet it was not the decrease of artistic power of the tone-poet, but rather the position that he assumed
world of the Prussian capital that brought about this development of public animosity. Unlike Cherubini, the maestro did not favour contemporary works, but with the immense power with which he
in the musical
had been invested by the king, and which he employed for his personal interest, he placed his own works entirely in the foreground, excluding,
1118
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
with the exception of the operas of Gluck and Mozart, all German proThis could not but wound the national sentiment, and was ductions.
without doubt the cause of the opposition which ensued.
As
early as 1821
the seeds of dissension between Spontini's supporters, the court and the
civic classes
majority of the aristocracy, and the German party, which consisted of the and the people, were sown by the first performances of Weber's Freischatz. The first representation of this work was given on the 18th of
June, the anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo, in which Spontini's idol, Napoleon, had been overthrown by the allied Powers. The admirers of the
Italian composer did all that lay in their
power
to prevent the success of the
German opera ; but the majority

i.e.,
of the people,
who
loved Weber's music
the composition of Korner's songs of liberty and Preciosa were so moved by the fresh and national character of the FreiscMtz that the work
met with a fabulous

and
his resistance to
success.
Spontini's vanity
was wounded
to the quick,
German
national music became
more and more energetic,
widening continually the breach between his supporters and those of the
German
master.
At
length, feeling the power of the national sentiment,
performances of and Euryanthe, but this must be recognised as a The press diplomatic move rather than as a token of acknowledgment.
first
Spontini invited Spohr
and Weber to conduct the
their operas, Jessonda
united with the

Italian,
and when, angered by the challenges of the Ludwig Rellstab, the most important of Berlin critics, discussed the
public;
question whether a composer like Spontini, who was known in Berlin only as a compounder of such vapid compositions as Lallah Rookh, Nurmakal, and Alcidor, could be accepted as the creator of Vestale and Cortez, a fact which he seriously doubted, a deplorable crisis occurred. At first Spontini
seemed to triumph.
He
brought an action against Rellstab for
libel, as
well as for pre-arranging a scandalous scene to take place in the opera house, the result being that the journalist was sentenced to be imprisoned for fourteen days. This did not, the to the
however, mitigate opposition maestro, for in the eyes of the people Rellstab, who, by-the-by, had been
soured by his imprisonment, had been
made a martyr
for the
German
cause.
Count Bruhl, the

considerably
director of the royal theatres, whose influence had been lessened by the power with which Spontini had been in-
vested, gladly seized the opportunity for revenge
popular party.
by joining the ranks of the William IV., on ascending the throne, appointed a com-
1119
mission to arrange matters to the satisfaction of both parties ; but before this committee could arrive at any decision the -master ventured to declare
that the sacred promise of two Prussian kings would be compromised were they to decide against him. This was regarded as a threat, and therefore as
contempt of a commission appointed by His Majesty, and an investigation ensuing according to the criminal code, Spontini was sentenced to imprison-
ment
in a royal fortress for nine months.
The king, respecting the
artist
and excusing the man, overruled the judgment, and in 1841 freed the composer from his functions, allowing him his full income and the maintenance
of his titles,
and
still
Opera, giving him
at the
permitted him to exert his pen on behalf of the Royal same time the privilege of conducting his own
works.
Spontini, however, felt that his position in Berlin
was untenable,
and therefore relinquished all engagements. He could not fail to see that he had sinned more against the public than they against him. He even
acknowledged this in 1842, at the farewell banquet at Leipzig, saying " I leave Berlin with a The heavy heart, but one full of gratitude. insults which have been directed against me by individuals, and which
:
have long pardoned with

love.
all
my
heart, fail to
make me ungrateful
to
the city which for twenty-three years has afforded
me
protection, esteem,
and
Berlin will ever remain in

of
my mind
'
the noblest and most sacred
memory
death.
my
life,
and
I shall continue to love
and
bless it until
'
my
I leave Berlin as the singer of
Jerusalem Delivered
left the court
of Ferrara.
Tasso could not have loved his Leonora more than I have
Spontini occasionally
visited
my
Prussian
king."
Berlin, but never again
resided there for
any length of time.
but stayed there only for a short time. His compatriot Rossini divided with Meyerhe met with a cool reception. beer almost exclusively the laurels which the French capital could bestow.
It appeared as
if
In 1838 he visited his birthplace, On leaving he went to Paris, where
the creator of the Vestale had outlived his span, and
that the rising generation had no desire to become acquainted with him. The majority were indifferent to his being created "Conte di Sant*
Andrea
the
"
by the Pope,
of
or his membei-ship
of the Paris Institute, or of
Senate
the
Berlin
Academy
of
Arts.
Nor
could
his
breast,
crowded with orders and decorations received at the hands of emperors and kings, recompense him for the carelessness with which the public now
regarded their once highly-revered composer.
But
there
was yet
solace in
1120
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
store for the master, for just
when he was
suffering
from the indolent
respect as
shown by the inhabitants

Italian
of the imperial city to a past greatness,
and when the
fatherland scarcely
knew the name
of its great son,
The contenthe immortal portion of his works was revived in Germany. tion had been forgotten, and the Vestale and Cortez commenced life anew
on the German opera stage.
conduct his operas;
Festival invited
844 Spontini was invited to Dresden to and in 1847 the committee of the Rhenish Musical In
1
him
to Cologne.
faction of conducting
some
of the splendid scenas
Here the aged master enjoyed the satisand choruses from the
and Olympia, for the benefit of thousands of hearers, whose enthusiasm was manifested in a storm of almost interminable applause.
Vestale
Shortly before his death the Italian master experienced a longing to revisit his southern home, and on his passage through Rome received an enthusi-
house of Laudsberg, a clever German musician, whose His last days were house formed the rendezvous of all artists at Rome.
astic reception at the
spent at Majolati, his birthplace, to the inhabitants
'of
which
place,
and
to
the institutions of the neighbouring hamlet of Jesi, he left a considerable In his last moments his mind portion of the large fortune he had amassed.
was occupied with the memory of the Vestale, and this name is said to have been on his lips at the moment he died. It seemed as if he were being
received,
creations.
on his entrance to a new existence, by a band of his noblest He died at Majolati on January 24th, 1851.
Spontini's dramatic creations are impressed with the noblest and most heroic elements, to which he added the most serious, passionate expression at
will.
He
was imbued with the
spirit of
tragedy, and the representation
grand tragic conflicts, with imposing massive and orchestral effect, had become a second nature with him. He never descended, however, to the
of
employment of hollow theatrical pathos. He could with a simple solo affect the hearer, and enchant him with all the grace of chaste beauty, the
Vestale furnishing splendid examples of this power. Spontini has depicted the grandeur and majesty of Rome in as classical and plastic a manner as that in which Gluck had achieved the portrayal of the beauty and nobility of the Grecian era. Whereas Gluck, following the example of the Greek describes the internal emotions of individual tragedians, heroes, Spontini
employs as a theme the action of conflicting masses.

preceded in the representation of
The
latter
had been
Roman
character
by Mozart.
CHERUBINI, SPOXTINI, AND ROSSINI.
1121
The Titus of Mozart compared

likened to a picture replete with
to
Spontini's
Vestale
may
be
fitly
harmony group of marble statuary, such as would be found on the temple of Jupiter It must be remembered, however, that Titus was but a hastily Capitolinus.
standing in juxtaposition to a
composed opera, whilst the Vestale was the outcome of a great love and conIn the heroine we possess a creasequently ardent study of the subject.
tion
whose
ideal purity alone
would be
sufficient to
sympathy. with which Spontini dealt are far more exciting and more serious than The manner in which the Italian master portrays those of Mozart's heroes.
the sorrowful abnegation on the part of the priestess, in whose heart the
fire
The dramatic action and the
gain for the opera every conflicting passions of the persona
6f love at length bursts into passion, leading to a terrible
combat between
duty and
second act one of the grandest conlove, ceptions to be found not only in the region of opera, but of the entire drama. Although the Vestale should, like all great works, be judged in its
close of the
forms at the
entirety,
we cannot
refrain
from calling attention

;
to the chief
and most
noble features of this creation
they include the choruses of the priestesses,
the grand duet between the Vestal virgin and Licinius, the triumphal march,
the affecting Finale to the second act, and the funeral march, to the sound of which Julia is led to death by the priests and populace. The lamentation with
which she takes leave of her youthful existence bears strong
resemblance to a similar outburst occurring in Antigone. Spontini' s second immortal opera, Cortez, partly lacks the youthful vigour, the flow of
melody, and that seeming facility of

Vestale. It
production
so
prominent
in
it
the the
exhibits increased artistic reflection, but

affects
we miss
in
intense
human emotion which

work
still
layman and
artist alike.
Neverthe-
less this
maintains
;
ductions of the period
position as one of the prominent art-proand when we consider the masterly manner in which
its
Spontini in the Yestale

fail
has delineated the

objectivity
Roman
character,
we cannot
to be astonished at the
he displays
in his treatment of
The chief feature of the latter work Cortez, a subject so entirely different. is the juxtaposition of the adventurous chivalry common to the Spaniards
of the sixteenth century, with tht childlike naivete
and
religious fanaticism
shown by the uncultured Mexicans. In representing these items Spontini In the grand Finale of the has succeeded in a manner unsurpassed. second act the composer ventures on an entirely new field. The hero
T T T
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Cortez quells the revolt of his attendant warriors, who long for the return to their distant home, by destroying with fire the very ships which conall connection between veyed them to the Mexican shores, thus severing world and the native country of the adventurers. the newly discovered
When
Ever
the master undertook the task of painting in music this historical
tradition,
he added a hitherto
unknown
expression
to the
musical
art.
increasing in intensity, in this Finale
we
find the
most varied emotions
which at length unite into a complete whole. The vigour of the songs of the men and the seductive dances of the maidens, the home-sickness of the
Spaniards, their revolt, and the contempt of death exhibited
are
by
their leader,
worked into an harmonious and perfect entirety. He who has enjoyed the good fortune of seeing a performance of this work, with such a tenor as Tichatscheck in the title-role, supported by choruses and orchestra as
at Dresden, cannot fail to have been carried
away by enthusiasm, and must

of
have
felt
that Spontini had represented in music the noblest spirit
the Napoleonic age as well as if in marble or bronze. No less vividly does the composer depict the demand of the priests for human sacrifice and the fanatical fury of their religious dances. The orchestration seems to reflect something of the warm breath of the south and the tropical heat of Mexico.
The
trio of the
condemned Spaniards makes the
listener almost
long for the
distant
home, which in
It will scarcely
their contempt of death they despair of seeing again. seem rational at the first glance to place Rossini on a
level with Cherubini
and chaste beauty, the
and Spontini, who the former with his severe grandeur latter with the energy and boldness of his com-
stand above the majority of their effeminate It position contemporaries. cannot be denied that the self-criticism, artistic earnestness, depth of musical expression, and serious conception of the age exhibited by Cheru-
and Spontini, are partly wanting in the works of the third great Rossini was not inferior, however, in the natural gifts which had 9 O been so lavishly bestowed on the former two masters, and he has proved, moreover, in Tell and II Barbiere, that when in earnest he was equal to them in artistic power. We have said that Cherubini and
bini
Italian.
-9
already
Spontini
rose far above the level of their contemporaries, to apply the same remark to Rossini in
;
and we think
it
but just
fact,
we may say
that his
two
above-named operas are as far removed from the standing of his former O works as he himself is from the level of his contemporaries.
1123
Cherubim, Spontini, and Rossini stand together above their contemporaries does not form the sole link connecting this triumvirate.
fact that
The
them not only

universe,
of the
is
Another feature common to the three composers, one which characterises in the musical history of Italy but in that of the entire
the powerful influence exercised over
them by the great masters
have already devoted a section to the epoch. of the influence of the German Genius epoch on Italy and France ; discussion
German Genius
We
we now
assert that this influence
was nowhere
so powerful as in the case
of Cherubini,
Spontini, and Rossini.
As
the former two masters
owed
their great position in the history of
music to Gluck, Haydn, and Mozart more especially to the first so was Rossini's position assured by Spontini Tell and II Barbiere, which were written under the influence of Haydn
and Mozart, whose works he adored. Each of these masters owes his best creations and their continued success to the love and enthusiasm with which
h has studied the model
offered
German Genius
epoch, on
whom,
by the works of the great masters of the in their vanity, their Italian contemworks have been
poraries had turned their backs, the result being that their
long forgotten, whereas those of their three great compatriots are still perWe must add that we find in Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini formed.
only as the creator of II Barbiere and Tell) com" of " Sacchini, concert-operas posers of works which replaced the vapid and Paer with creations containing dramatic life and Paisiello, Zingarelli,
(as regards the latter
truth, substituting for the degenerated duets and the conventional passages
of thirds and sixths, ensembles

this polyphonic
polyphonic in form. The employment of form was extended even to the orchestra, which, in the hands With of their countrymen, had been lowered to a mean accompaniment.
this
began the emancipation of the orchestra, and the introduction into
Italy of musical colouring.
Gioachino__Rossini did not appear in his early years as the great He was but a composer of those master we have considered above. national Italian melodic operas which seemed for some time to the inhabitants of
Europe
His
to
be
the
resuscitation
of
the
great
Italian
musical
in
supremacy.
He was
born on February 29th,

his
1792, at
Pesaro,
the
Romagna.
travelling
father, besides fulfilling the duties of

;
was a performer on the horn

opera troupe.
It
mother was a singer
an inspector of meat, in an insignificant
may
be supposed, therefore, that the lad
T T T 2
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
His possession of a fine voice when a boy caused him to be sent to Bologna, to study under Tesei at the Lyceum ; and he afterwards received lessons in composition from Mattei, A year previously the boy, then fourteen of Padre Martini, 1807. a
received
some musical impressions when young.
pupil
years of age, had,
owing
to his remarkable gift, been elected conductor of
the Academia dei Concordie, and had produced successfully Haydn's Seasons,
a work even at that period one of his favourites. Unfortunately, Mattel was a dry, pedantic scholar, and little able to interest his gifted pupil in
study of the fugue, fugal style, or double counterpoint ; therefore Rossini, with his usual lax disposition, accepted as serious the contemptuous
the
satire of his master,
who
declared that simple counterpoint would be quite
any one who, like him, aspired no higher than the composition of operas and profane music. The youth borrowed from the celebrated It being the old of the Lyceum the works of Haydn and Mozart. library
sufficient for
Italian
custom to
rest con tent
composed the scores for his
with the possession of the parts, young Rossini own benefit. He thus scored a number of
This marked preference for
string quartetts of these great masters.
German
music obtained for the youthful composer the name of "II Tedeschino/' In 1810 Rossini's first comic opera, in one act, entitled La Cambiale di
Matrimonio, was produced at the San Mose Theatre, at Venice.
This work
was followed, a year
later,
by another opera
buffa,
Of
his next three operas,
composed
;
in 181 2, for Venice, Ferrara,
L'Equivoco Stravagante. and Milan,

Pietra del Paragons.
one only achieved a great success
we
refer to
La
The
altogether eclipsed by that of Tancredi, performed in 1813 at the Fenice Theatre, at Venice. The extraordinary excitement caused by the first production of this work raised Rossini at
success
of
this
work was
once to the head of the operatic composers of Italv. In Tancredi we meet all the defects as well as the beauties which
distinguished the unclatsical Rossini of that period, whose works ruled all European opera stages, from the Rossini the composer of II Barbiere and
Tell.
The
title-role
characters in this
of Tancredi was written for a contralto voice. The work were by no means the parts treated dramatically
;
appear to have been intended for concert singers wishing to exhibit their e? Instead of musical expression power of vocalisation. depicting the action on the stage, we find mere Even in the most striving for vocal effect.
tragic
moments the music
is
only composed of pleasing melodies and facile
AND
ROSSINI.
1125
rhythms. Nothing can afford a better proof of this than the celebrated aria, " Di tanti We find in Tancredi features which distinguish it, and palpiti."
all
Rossini's subsequent works, from the conventional opera as produced
by
his predecessors
ritornelli
and contemporaries
the
stiff
aria,
with
its
fatiguing
and endless
repetitions, assumes,
under the hand of this master,
something of the
di marcia
turi ;
;
form of the melodious canzone, the rondo, and the tempo the secco recitative is reduced and adorned with graceful fioriare
harmony and modulation
no longer
restricted to
the
tonic,
dominant, and their parallel keys ; and the orchestra exhibits, even if With Tancredi and Otello modestly, some attempts at independence. Rossini commenced the substitution of the second related minor key for the
usual dominant; for example, he goes from
F major
duces his celebrated crescendi into the strelto.
minor; he introThe latter effect had been

to
already attempted by Jomelli, but without the same success.
At the same
time Rossini introduced the commonplace triplet passages for the violin, consisting only of an arpeggio chord as accompaniment to the singer ; and
which seems merely calculated to provide the a foundation on which to improvise solfeggi and variations.
tins' cantilena,
vocalist
with
We
are con-
however, with occasional sweetness and freshness of melodic invention, such as no other Neapolitan could create. Rossini carefully avoided the
soled,
tedious length and consequent dulness which occur in the opera seria of
Tancredi was compcsed when Rossini was twentyone years of age, and between that age and that of thirty the composer produced thirty operatic works, all of which have, in common with
his older contemporaries.
Tancredi,
defects
and
beauties.
The best known
of
these works are
L'llaliana in Algeri, 1813; II Tttrco in Italia, 1814; Elisabetta, 1815;
1816; Cenerentola, 1817; La Gazza Ladra, 1817; II Califfo di Bagdad, 1818 La Donna del Lago, 1819 Maometto, 1820 ; Semiramide, 1823; Le Siege de Corinthe, 1826; Mo'ise, 1827; and Le Comte Ory,
Otello,
;
1828.
Rossini,
who never missed an opportunity
for
joking at
the
operas, that if
expense of himself as well as of others, said, in reference to most of these you had heard one you had heard them all, so typical and
conventional are the persona, situations, and musical manner.
ventionalism, however,
is
Their con-
far
removed from that of the
later
masters of
rise
the Neapolitan school.
The above-named operas have given

of the
to the
designation of Rossini as the composer
European
reaction which
1126
HISTORY OF MUSIC..
took place after the Revolution, the Consulate, the Empire, and the overW. H. Riehl says " Rossini's world-wide fame dates from the throw.
:
Vienna Congress.
The wearied nations were
in need of rest,
and the Italian
composer provided them with charming lullabies. as in daily life, the pathos of the Napoleonic school, on the stage as well source of entertaining art from which oblivion could be drunk was eagerly
sought.
Tired of the stilted
Where was
art
more entertaining than in the operas of Rossini

;
The heroes had played their parts their duties were replaced by diplomacy, and certainly Rossini was the finest diplomat to be found amongst artists.
How
battle
excellently does his syren song suit a wearied race, anxious to read of
travelling prima donnas
and even
;
victory.
and favourite dancers rather than the reports of The Italians ascribed to Rossini's music a pleasant
perfume
perfume indeed was necessary to remove the scent of those past
years of bloodshed/'
Among the operas of Rossini which we have named above, and which have for the most part been forgotten, we must draw special attention to those which occupy an honourable position midway between the imm6rtal
a gifted melodist.
Mo'ise.
Barbiere and Tell and those works in which the composer shines merely as include the Elisabetta, Semiramide, Otello, and They
In the
first
of these works, Elisabetta, Regina d'Inghilterra, the
composer exhibits unusual earnestness, and introduces into the secco recitativo an entirely new feature, viz., replacing the usual violoncello or piano
accompaniment by that of the string quartett.
In the third act of Otello
we encounter not only

to be affected.
refined musical beauty, decidedly above that of the
average of his productions, but tragedy and pathos by which we cannot fail As instances, we will quote the song of the gondolier, " Nessun maggior dolore/' the grand duet, and the plaintive romance sung with harp accompaniment by Desdemona. The opera Hose, which had been re-arranged for the grand Paris opera under the title of
besides the celebrated
" Comic Romantic designated as the
Prayer/' several touching scenes. The same may be said of Semiramide, the overture of which enjoys great popularity. II Barbiere di Seviglia contains not only isolated instances but one continued flow of beauty. Nowhere are any defects visible, the work never it is a flags; masterpiece, assuming the rank in the opera buffa that Tell occupies in the In a previous chapter we repertoire of the grand opera.
"
Mo'ise, contains,
Opera" that
species of
French opera
CHEP.UBINI, SPONTINI,
AND
ROSSINI.
1127
known
as the
"
Opera Comique," on account of the
latter title inadequately
expressing the diverse elements contained in this form of composition. The Earlier e, however, would necessitate no alteration of the title of its
being entirely restricted to the limits of the old Italian opera beginning with Logroscino and Pergolese, only reached its This ideal at a hundred years from its birth with the work of Rossini.
species, it
buffa, which,
classical
master, was composed
work, which stands so high above the similar productions of the in thirteen days, a fact all the more remarkable when
haste or mere
refined taste
we
consider that not one of the parts exhibits signs of
musical craft.
II Burbiere not only reflects the
humour and
of the composer, but even seems to breathe the voluptuous climate of the
country of its birth. The master in many of his serious operas overlooks the dramatic requirements of the work ; for instance, he leads to death a
condemned victim
accompaniment of a cheerful melody, whereas he In the Barbie re, puts into the mouth of one who is happy a plaintive ditty. he adheres conscientiously to the fitting dramatic characteristics. however,
to the
This
is
visible in
the melody of the gracefully entwined voices of
the
ensembles, in the
rhythm which is replete with irresistible humour, in the modulation and harmonic treatment, and the choice and delicate instrumentation of the entire work.
Indeed, the work might have been inspired
by the graces, so well balanced are its parts ; nowhere is it laboured or The dull, and in no instance does it trespass on the borders of frivolity.
characters of Dr. Bartolo and Basilio, which in the early opera buffa
would
have been grotesque and extravagant, are depicted with a refined irony The barber, instead of being a shrewd and designing truly Shakespearian.
servant alone,
is
fashioned into a genial Gil Bias.
Almaviva and Rosina

It
might be well compared to a
Romeo and
Juliet of comedy.
seems
on the first night of its performance at This occurred through the 1816, hissed and hooted. Rome, February 5th, of the adherents of Paisiello, who were indignant at the subject influence being selected by Rossini, as it had already been composed by their favourite.
incredible that this creation was,
first night by the composer, who quitted His disappointed friends the performance. the theatre immediately after calling at his house later on, intending to console him, found him in bed
The opera was conducted on the
and
The following evening the opera was not conducted by the composer, who remained at home, and who was astonished by a crowd
asleep.
1128
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
" Evviva
assembling- under his

in
windows
after the performance shouting
il
atonement for the injustice which they had shown on the maestro/' In the year 1815 Rossini had entered into an agreeprevious evening.
ment with Barbaja, an enterprising impresario at Naples, who had perceived what a source of wealth would be open to him through the talent of the By this contract Barbaja had the sole right of producing gifted composer.
the master's operas, supplying
him with
libretti
and performers, an agree-
ment
which suited the taste of the indolent maestro.
The impresario soon
reaped the profits of his speculation, and though- providing the composer
with but a petty honorarium, supplied him with such lavish cuisine and cellar that, having been accustomed to moderate circumstances, the master soon
developed into a gourmand, and in after-years surprised his Parisian friends with his love for and knowledge of the culinary art. The operas Mo&e t.
La Donna
del Lago,
and Maometto, performed 1818
1820 at Naples,
owed a great part
of their success to the rendering given
by the prima
donna Mademoiselle Colbran.
cannot be surprised that this vocalist In the charmed the young composer, and in 1822 became his wife. summer of the same year the newly married composer visited Vienna
for
We
the purpose of fulfilling a new engagement procured by Barbaja. During the Congress at Verona, Rossini was recalled to Italy by Prince
Metternich,
who wrote
to
him that " Orpheus must not be missing where
diplomats were busy in restoring harmony between princes, people, and cabinets/' The master, whose vanity was flattered, obeyed the call, and it
was
not. until afterwards that he recognised in the actions of the prince
merely the working-out of a scheme to maintain the Austrian supremacy in It was out of revenge for this that Rossini Italy. composed his
Tell.
The
coolness with which the Semiramide
was received
in
Venice
wounded the composer

ever.
so deeply that he decided to leave his country for In 182.4 he received an invitation from the Italian Opera in where King George IV. and the aristocracy showered laurels and London,
gold upon him.
In a few months he realised 180,000 francs, which, in addition to his previously acquired fortune, made him a wealthy man. On his journey to London, Rossini had visited Paris, where the cheerful
atmosphere and his flattering reception had already inspired him with the This plan was realised on the composer's return, as we
desire of residing.
have mentioned in a previous chapter.
1129
We
will
now
consider the later years of this master.

their grandest
Handel, Gluck, and Haydn composed
Whilst Bach, works when advanced
in years, Meyerbeer wrote the Huguenots at the age of forty-five,
and the
two great
Italians Spontini
and Cherubini composed, the one his Olympia
at the age of forty-five, the other the Porteur d' Eau, Anacreon, Abencerages,
Ali Baba, and his two Requiems between the ages of forty and seventy, Rossini completed his career as a composer on arriving at the age of thirtythat the master, enjoying the full power of his intellect, lived beyond the span of a lifetime after the composition of
seven.
When we remember
appear incredible. It is true that in 1832 Rossini began the Stabat Mater, a work more fitted for the stage than the church, " Soirees notwithstanding its charming melodies, and to this he added his
Tell, this fact will
" Musicale," and Solfeggio per soprano, per rendere la voce agile," and the new instrumentation of a short mass composed in his earliest days, never-
theless these
number
when compared to the magnitude and and we have to face a period of unproductiveness extending over forty years, and for which we can supply no psychological explanation. The only proposition which appears in the
works appear
trifles
of his compositions prior to this age,
slightest
first
degree satisfactory
is
performance in Paris of Tell,
that after the poor success attending the and the loss of one of his dearest friends,
a reaction took place, causing the master to desert for ever the arena of his
It could not fail to wound the master deeply when he contriumphs. sidered that the second of the works destined to bring his fame down to
posterity
was received with more coolness than had been shown at the
first
performance of // Barbiere. How could the composer help despising the public who were indifferent to his greatest works, while showing favour to those creations of which he himself had but slight opinion ? Had the
master been a Cherubini, he would have proudly disdained the judgment of
the public, and remained firm in the assurance of the purity of his intentions. But, being of a nature much less energetic than that of his compatriot,
and having been

quit Paris in
spoilt
by previous adulation, the
failure of Tell
made him
scenes of his childhood.
1836 to return to his birthplace and revisit the After some time he left Pesaro for Bologna, where he
resided in solitude apparently

in
unmoved by
the great success achieved by Tell
Northern Germany, and afterwards in
Paris.
In 1841 he was visited by
Fetis,
who
experienced uneasiness at the master's appearance and humour.
1130
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Rossini seemed satiated with and indifferent to
fame and
success.
He was
and disgusted with mankind ; he had no thoroughly wearied of the world, art nor in himself, and echoed the sentiment of the longer any faith in The master evinced such a dislike for music is vanity." preacher that "all
Fig.
284.
Gioachino
Rossini.
(Pointed by H. Grevedon, 1828.)
While that not a note could be played in the house in which he resided. at Bologna he occupied himself with fishing and pig farming, the latter it
has been supposed as an outburst of irony and contempt.
By
degrees this
misanthropy was dispelled, and in 1853 the composer once more returned to Paris. In the French capital he was received with open arms ; a street,
theatre,
and cafe were named after him. and
His hospitable dwelling on the

all
Boulevard des Italiens was the rendezvous of

intellect,
art,
the
representatives of
science.
He
died on
November
13,
1868,
and was
AND
ROSSINI.
1131
followed to the grave by half Paris. Cherubini was too individual to form a school, Spontini did so only in respect of the grand opera in France, but Rossini, versed in all the mechanical contrivances of his art, and not above
striving for effect, with such a knowledge of writing parts flattering to the
vocalists, could
not
fail to
form a large
After his
school, especially in favour with his
Italian contemporaries.
first
success he was surrounded
by a
group
of imitators, including
Tadolini,
and Pacini.
Mercadante and the now forgotten Generali, Influenced by the facility with which Rossini's
works had driven from the stage the respected creations of the older
masters, such as Sacchini, Anfossi, Paisiello, Zingarelli, Cimarosa, Paer,
and Simon Mayr, who had entirely adopted

followed
their style, Italian
composers
his
gifts.
eagerly
in
his
footsteps,
though
not possessed of
Saverio Mercadante, the most gifted of Rossini's disciples, and the only one whose works are not entirely forgotten, was born near Bari in 1795. The
best of the sixty operas composed
by
this master are Elisa e Claudio
and //
work not only contains powerful dramatic ensembles and soli, but differs from Rossiui's school more than any other of his works, as it contains passages which remind us of Meyerbeer and the
Giuramento.
latter
The
Rienzi of Richard Wagner. For this reason the Giuramento appears more modern than either Tancredi or Otello. This master, who lived until 1870, might be accused of imitating the more modern masters, were we not aware
that the opera in question had been produced in
1837.
importance of
Rossini's disciples
was Vincenzo
Bellini,
The second who was born
in
at
This composer, like Catania, in Sicily, in 1801, and died in Paris in 1835. was endowed with the gift of spontaneous melody. He, however, Rossini,
differed
from
his predecessor in
than his follower, and had as
many respects. Rossini was more versatile much dramatic pathos as humour. Bellini, on
the contrary, never composed a comic opera, a fact all the more surprising when we consider that it was customary with Italian composers to begin
their career with the creation of
an opera buffa. The cause of this was dreamy nature and inclination for melancholy sentiment. It was owing to this elegiac character that Bellini became the The favourite of his period, and was admired so greatly by his nation.
undoubtedly the composer's
and the opponents of foreign oppression, had been ardently hoping that with the July Revolution a complete political and national regeneration of Europe would take place. They were, however,
friends
of
liberty,
1132
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
doomed
to disappointment, for a
brutal reaction took place everywhere,
This more powerfully than any other nation. affecting on the other to led on the one hand to hatred and desire for revenge,
the
Italians
melancholy and effeminacy. No Italian composer represented so thoroughly in his music the latter mood. Vincenzo entered the Conservatoire at
His first real success was Naples when eighteen years of age, 1819. obtained at Milan with the opera II Pirala, the libretto of which was by
Felice
Romani.
The
chief roles of this
work were rendered by Lalande,
Rubini, and Tamburini.
II Pirata was followed in 1828, at Milan,
by
La
Straniera, which in turn was succeeded by / Capuleti ed i Montecchi, These works carried the fame of the composer 1831, and La Sonnambula.
throughout Europe. In 1832 the young master reached the climax of his renown with the production of Norina. the libretto of which was supplied by
his friend
Romani.
operas,
and wants but
This work ranks higher than any other of Bellini's " classic." It has little to obtain the attribute of
been surmised that, like Rossini,

in Tell, Bellini has
who
represented his patriotic sentiments
masked the
Italians under the
form of the Druids
in
Norma,
The overture
to this opera is undoubtedly superior to those preIts motivi are
ceding the other dramatic works of this composer.

fully developed,
more
and are
characteristically orchestrated.
The well-known
first act,
chorus and march of the Druids, and the Finale of the

to produce striking effects.
never
fail
The grand
trio
exception of the trivial duet in thirds allotted to
and the ensembles, with the Norma and Adalgisa, show
what
Bellini
might have achieved had he possessed more energy and gained

life.
further experience with a longer

Bellini,
easily degenerates into the effeminate and has most happily avoided all false sentiment in Norma's melancholy, " Casta Diva" and grand aria, in the latter of which he exhibits a tragic
whose music so
expression and nobility of sentiment equalled only by the chorus of Druids in the second act. The latter number can almost be said to bear traces of the influence of Beethoven's moonlight sonata, and the entire work seems influenced by the music of and the German
Spontini
composers.
Norma
was followed by Beatrice

capital the master
di Tenda,
composer's farewell to his
which appears almost to have been the In the French country on going to Paris.
for the Italian opera,
composed / Puritani, in 1834,
previously made a
serious study of the style of the
having French opera to grand
CHERUBINI, SrOXTINJ, AND ROSSIXI.
1133
which
1835.
in the
this
work
adheres.
It
was the composer's

are,
last opera, for
he died in
The
pleasing- amiability of Bellini's character is powerfully reflected
music of his operas, which

prefer his
therefore, in
great favour
among
prima donnas, who
simple cantilenas to Rossini's arias replete
with brilliant passages. The most renowned interpreters of Bellini's vocal music include Pasta, Grisi, Viardot Garcia, Jenny Lind, Biirde-Ney,
Schroeder-Devrient, Johanna Wagner, Artot, Patti,
and Nilsson.
The
chief male vocalists celebrated for their performance of Bellini's operas are
Tamburini and Rubini.

Bellini,
whose character was similar to that of Chopin, invested the

realism of
Bellini's
superficial character of
cantilena with a breath of romance which differed from the

Rossini.
Notwithstanding the
some of
compositions, the master cannot altogether be accused of that negligent writing according to routine which is so often encountered in the operas of
Rossini, and which
is
the result of the Neapolitan dolcefar niente.

operas produced previous to
is
The
is
orchestration
of those of Bellini's
Norma
considerably weaker than that which

positions.
found in most of Rossini's com-
Bellini in the
the vocalist the
commencement of his career endeavoured to make medium by which to express the emotion and sentiment of
the opera, employing the orchestra as a mere means of accompaniment, thus rendering the wind instruments practically superfluous, the string
quartett fully supplying the requirements of such an accompaniment.
.A'on/za -and
In
the Puritani, the second in importance of this master's operas, a more fully developed orchestration, and one which would bear comparison with that of Rossini's Tell, Barbiere, Siege de Corinthe, and
we
find
Se in ir amide.
great talent belonging to the school of Rossini is Gaetano Donizetti, born at Bergamo, in Lombardy, in 1797, where he died in 1848.
last
The
This composer, though not so gifted as Rossini, was decidedly more versatile than his contemporary Bellini, and exerted his talent in every branch
of opera with the exception of the Romantic, although he outlived Weber, the founder of that class of composition, by twenty-two years. Apart from
the tuition received by this master from the hands of Simon Mayr, he was undoubtedly influenced by the German school, as can be plainly seen in
La
I-'ti
ror if <i, the most important of
his operatic
works.
Donixctti's
com-
position was neither as natural nor flowing as that of Rossini or
Bellini,
1134
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
his
works are more the
result
of reflection
than are those of the latter
masters, and the variety of his subjects, local colouring, and strained effect, In consequence of this prove him to he an adherent of the eclectic school.
method of
speculation, the greater
number
of the master's seventy Italian
and French operas are at the present day forgotten, but there are some in which his natural gift and reflection are so evenly balanced that they have
remained favourites on every opera stage to the present day. Amongst his comic operas, La Figlia del Reggimento and L'Elisire d'Amore are still per-
formed with success.

skilful musicianship,
Both these operas contain much genuine humour,

interest.
and dramatic
La
Figlia, written about 1841,

;
bears strong evidence of its birth in the French capital
but L'Elisire
d'Amore, written in 1832,

ling humour calls We must now
to
is
of a thorough Italian character,

efforts of Rossini.
and
its
spark-
mind the happiest
and those of
less interest.
distinguish between Donizetti's important serious operas The musical development of La Favorita is the
result of serious reflections, its ensembles
and
recitatives are characterised
by
powerful dramatic expression, and most parts are replete with musical charm. There are other numbers, however, which detract seriously from the value of the entire work.
The works which obtained

renown were Lucrezia
1843 at Vienna.
replete
for Donizetti the
greater
portion
of
his
moor, performed in 1835 at Naples
1834 ; Lucia di Lammerand Don Pasquale, which appeared in These works contain much beauty of expression, and are
Borgia,, produced at Milan,
;
with melodious invention. Belisario, in which the composer has emulated Rossini's Guillanme Tell, exhibits a lack of power, self-criticism, and artistic earnestness. Lucrezia Borgia is, without doubt, a work superior to that we have named above, owing to the serious in
chiefly
spirit
which the composer has treated the subject.

operas as Belisario,
The weak character
of such
Anna Bolena, Maria Stuarda, Linda
di Chamounix, and
Faliero, notwithstanding their great success, have gained for their rt composer the soubriquet of Donizetti-dudelsac." The master has not been
Marino
On the one hand he has been exalted, on the altogether fairly judged. other debased to the utmost. But his admirers have too often been led astray by the doubtful taste of the period, whereas his detractors have failed
to
acknowledge the master's great
gifts.
Donizetti's last opera, written

little
for Naples,
was Catarina Cornaro, 1844, which was composed but a
CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND EOSSINI.
1135
while before the
first
attacks of his illness, which eventually proved mental.
The master
visited his birthplace,
where a cure was attempted, but the
malady had gained too great a hold, and the composer lived there for the last two years of his life under the hallucination that he was dead, and
greeted every visitor with the remark that "poor Donizetti is dead." Turning from this sad picture, we will now deal with the remainder of
those masters
who belong
to that period
which
is
marked by the great
names
in
of Cherubini, Spontini,
and Rossini.
1752 at Naples, where he died in 1837.

last of
Antonio Zingarelli was born This composer, like Paer, was
one of the
the Neapolitan opera composers belonging to the period Zingarelli was a great favourite of Napoleon, who pointed to him as a model whom Cherubini should follow, much to the disgust of
of the decline.
that great master. The success of this composer's operas, which was furthered by such vocalists as Marchesi, Crescentini, Rubinelli. Catalani, and
Grassini,
shows us into what Italian music would have degenerated, in the
end of the eighteenth and commencement of the nineteenth century, had not Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini arisen to rescue the art from its
gradual decay.
Pietro Raimondi, born at
Rome
in 1780,
was one
of Italy's
greatest contrapuntists of the nineteenth century.

ficiency in polyphonic combinations too often induced
His extraordinary pro-
him
to indulge in the
For instance, he published at in Milan, four four-part fugues which can be performed as a sixRicordi, teen-part work, and six four-part fugues which can be made into one
mere display of theoretical knowledge.
twenty-four-part work.
exhibition led
His inclination for contrapuntal and polyphonic
him
to
compose a sixty-four-part fugue for sixteen four-
part choirs.
This work was followed by a triple Biblical drama, Potifaro, and Giacobbe. These three parts were performed consecutively^ Giuseppe, at the Argentina Theatre at Rome, on August 7th, 1852, and again, simul-
taneously, on the following day.
Raimondi
also
composed many
oratorios,
masses, requiems, operas, and
ballets, in addition to the composition of the
entire psalter in the Palestrina style.
Francesco Morlacchi and Niccolo
Vaccai were two of the last composers of the almost extinct Neapolitan
inasmuch as they were strongly influenced by the spirit of modern times, the works of Spontini and the grand French opera. This caiised them to write in more than
opera school.
They
differed
from
their colleagues,
one
style,
and they therefore enjoyed two separate periods of
activity.
1136
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Morlacchi, born in
1784 and died in 1841, was ajmpil of Zingarelli.
other works, he composed a cantata in celebration of Napoleon's He was appointed court chapel-master to of coronation as
Amongst
King
Italy.
and was a companion of Karl Maria von Weber and King He was the last of the Italian chapel-masters lleissiger while at Dresden. Niccolo Vaccai (1790 officiated in the Saxon capital. who had so long
the
of Saxony,
1848) has gained greater renown than his compatriot as a composer, and'
was, moreover, a celebrated teacher of singing.
His " Metodo Practico
di
Canto Italiano per " are " Ariette per Camera, per 1'Insegnamento del bel Canto Italiano
is
Camera "
accepted as a classical work,
and
his twelve
still
much used
at
in tuition.
The great number
of operas
and sacred compositions
of Morlacchi
and Vaccai are now forgotten, and even if revived they could We shall the present time possess no other than an historical interest.
complete our list with the names of the brothers Luigi and Federigo Ricci. These brothers lived during the years 1805 1859 and 1809 1877 respecTheir operas, both serious and comic, were performed with great tively.
success until the middle of the present century on the stages of
Trieste, St. Petersburg,
Italy,
These works were based on the prinof the old Neapolitan school, but bear traces of the evident influence ciples of Rossini. The greatest success was achieved by the comic opera Crisîno
e
and Paris.
la
Comarq, the joint production of

in 1850.
the two brothers, which was per-
formed at Venice
That period of development of Italian music which is rendered famous by such names as Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini was characterised by the upgrowth of a great number of remarkable instrumental and vocal virtuosi. Foremost amongst the female vocalists was the celebrated
Angelica Catalan!. This singer was born in 1779 at Sinigaglia. She was educated at the Convent of Santa Lucia at Rome, where her voice attracted
much
attention, to the great profit of the institution.
soprano of
extraordinary compass and
was a powerful exquisite charm, and she soon

It
developed that facility of execution, united with a grand style, that has made her recognised as the greatest Catalani singer perhaps of all times. first appeared in Zingarelli's Clitemnestra, and Niccolini's Baccanali di
Roma, and her wonderful

her an unusual success.
she visited
voice, beauty,
and dramatic talent obtained for
All Europe soon resounded with her fame, and

Trieste, Lisbon,
Rome, Naples, Florence, Venice,
Madrid, Paris,
1137
of the art.
and London, meeting- everywhere with a success unparalleled in the history In England she remained from 1807 to 1814, receiving a fixed
Like
salary of 96,000 francs per season. curred the displeasure of Napoleon

in
Madame
de
Stae'l,
Catalani in-
London
fall of
to one in Paris.
the
Napoleon in
by preferring in 1806 an engagement She only returned to the French capital after 1814, and was by Louis XVIII. created directress
an annual income of 160,000
St.
of the Italian Opera, with
francs.
On
the
return of Bonaparte from Elba she again left Paris, whither she returned
after his overthrow
and
exile to
Helena.
Her
last
performance in
public was at Berlin, in 1827, at the conclusion of a tour throughout
Northern Germany. She died in Paris in 1849. We have alluded before to the importance of Pasta in the success
of
the performances
in
of
Rossini's and
Bellini's operas.
Giuditta Pasta
was born at Como

greatest success
action.
1798, where she died in 1865.

requiring
passionate
She achieved her and dramatic
in
roles
expression
was a magnificent soprano* of unusual compass. She was followed by the sisters Giuditta and Giulia Grisi. Giuditta Grisi was born in 1805 and died in 1840 ; it was for this singer that Bellini
voice
Her
wrote the mezzo-soprano part in his / Capuleli ed i Montecchi. Her sister Giulia was born in 1811 and died in 1869; she possessed a high soprano
voice, for
Montecchi.
Don
Bellini wrote the part of Juliet in I Capuleti ed i This sister was especially famous as Donna Anna in Mozart's Giovanni. Fanny Persiani was born at Rome in 1812, and died at
which
Passy, near Paris, in 1867.

Italian
She was the favourite

in
for
many
years at the
Opera both in London and Paris, and
Venice rivalled Malibran.
One
of the most celebrated contraltos,
who
possessed also the range of a
mezzo-soprano, was the gifted Marietta Alboni, born in the Romagna in 1823. The character of Orsini in Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia was com-
posed especially for this
artiste.
We
Tamburini
this incomparable bass
was born
have already referred to Antonio in 1800 and died in 1867,
and with Giovanni Rubini, a brilliant tenor (1795 1854), united with Lablache, Persiani, Grisi, and Viardot Garcia in forming in Paris, during
the years 1832
1841, an ensemble which placed the Italian opera stage
above
all
stages of Europe.
* Rather mezzo-soprano, as her lower notes were somewhat contralto in quality.
F. A. G. O.
U U U
1138
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
music with the mention of Samtook leave of Italian instrumental in Sammartini was the precursor of Haydn Boccherini.
We
martini and
of Gluck. instrumental composition, and the teacher

in master's symphonies were published
Paris,
Twenty-four of this and twelve trios, for two
Fig. 285.
violins
was celebrated
for
and bass, were published in London and Amsterdam. Boccherini as a composer of chamber music, and not undeservedly so,
his
some of
His
day.
most prominent works are often performed at the present compositions include ninety-one string quartetts and 125
string quintetts.
find
Between these masters and Cherubim and Spontini we
no composer of instrumental music whose works can be compared with the former or the latter, either in respect of artistic earnestness, grandeur
AND
The
ROSSINI.
1139
of form,
or
brilliancy
of colouring.
period
of
activity
of
these
masters was rendered famous by the existence of a number of classical The first of these was virtuosi, some of whom even preceded this epoch.
the violin.
poser,
Gaetano Brunetti, a pupil of Boccherini, celebrated for his execution on Brunetti was of more importance as a virtuoso than as a comproved by his manuscript compositions both for orchestra He was born at Pisa in 1753, and went to Madrid to The siege and capture by Napoleon of this city reside when still a youth.
as
is
and chamber.
in
1808
so affected the
is
master that he died there.
Of
still
greater im-
portance
playing.
Giovanni Battista Yiotti, the founder in Italy of modern violin He was born in 1753 near Vercelli, and died in London in 1824.
tours throughout
Europe, during which he visited and St. Petersburg, he created great excitement. In Paris, London, Berlin, 1782 Viotti was accompanist to the Queen Marie Antoinette, and solo " Concerts The success gained by a performer of the Paris Spirituels." and insignificant violinist, together with the indifference shown by young
his first concert
On
the public at one of his concerts, caused such annoyance to Viotti that for
a number of years he refrained from appearing in public, and played only to a circle of friends and connoisseurs. For some time he assumed the
directorship of the Theatre Feydeau, but
quitted Paris for England.
On
his return to Paris, Cherubini
was ruined by the Revolution, and and Rode
persuaded him to resume his performances as soloist at the Conservatoire, and it was found that, far from having lost any of his power, he had improved to such an extent that he was at once acknowledged to be the
greatest of European violinists.
of a school, which
Italy and of
Viotti's
grand style caused the formation
was followed by all the most prominent violinists of the French capital. Amongst his compositions there are
first
twenty-nine violin concertos of the
order,
and many quartette,
trios,
Viotti was followed by Niccolo duets, and sonatas of minor importance. Pagnnini, born at Genoa in 1784. As a child Paganini performed on the
mandoline and guitar, but soon adopted the violin, which was destined to make his name immortal. Of a violent and untamed nature, Paganini ran away from home when still a boy, and in gambling lost all his possessions,
The extraordinary effect produced by his including his beloved violin. fascinating performances on the people of Italy until the year 1827 was
repeated in France and
Germany.
So great was the excitement caused by
v u u 2
1140
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
his performance that in
many
bigoted places he was credited with magic
and an
Paganini was self-taught, and it was almost perfect mastery over his instrument not until he had obtained an that he began to notice and acquire the methods of other virtuosi, which he He therefore exhibited in his performimitated with the greatest facility.
alliance with the Evil
One.
ance his
own
power, combined with the technical peculiarities of others. To a grand tone he united the most
He employed touching expression. unheard-of double stops, and introduced remarkable

effects,
such as the
imitation of the flageolet, and pizzicatos performed with either hand.
He
could continue the loss

perfectly
performance with of one or even two strings, so

his
indeed
that
the
difference
was scarcely perceptible

seur.
to the connois-
He
tuned his instrument accord-
ing to the effect he desired to produce,

following a method of his own, and even
possessed the
it
power of accomplishing
while playing.
Thus
this mysterious
man, whose genius was not unmixed

with trickery, who could move to tears his audience and at the next moment
Fig. 286.
Paganini.
startle
them with the maddest

all
tricks,
who
and
yet
possessed
all,
could imitate
other virtuosi
an
independent
style,
and who resembled nobody

practical
and excelled
the works
stands unique in the history of
music.
Of
published
under his name
regarded as composed by him.

in
Of
only a moderate number can be those we must mention the concertos

is
flat
major and
minor, the latter of which
known
as
"a
la
Clochette;" twenty-four "Capricci per violino solo/' which have been arranged for the piano by Schumann and Liszt ; twelve " Sonate per
violino e chitarra;
three
" Gran
quartetti a violino, viola, chitarra e violon-
cello;" his
and
his sixty variations
"MoJ^perpetuo," on the "Carnival
his variations
on Rossini's
"Di
tanti palpiti,"
for
of Venice."
These works are
AND
ROSSINI.
1141
the most part characterised by a fantastic vein, a capricious form, and piquancy of expression. One of the most prominent of his pupils was
Giovanni Battista Polledro (1781 1853), who, although celebrated as a performer and a composer of some importance, can bear no comparison with
his master.
was created by the masters
There can be no more convincing proof of the power of a school such as to whom we have devoted this chapter than its
the position
it
influence over the art- productions of other countries,
has
maintained in spite of the numerous

styles of
the esteem
most different character, and in which it is held by

all
masters of
other
schools.
The
influence of Rossini
tion of the period
on the composi-
emanated from the
operas Barbiere and Tell.

as
Although
composer he maintained his nationality, there can be no doubt

but that in the above operas Rossini
was influenced by the works of Haydn, Mozart, Weber, Spontini, and Auber ;
by the two latter especially in Tell. The power of the school formed by
the Italian master can be no longer questioned
Fig. 287.
Paganini.
when we
consider that
it
produced such talents as Mercadante, Bellini, and Donizetti. The influence of the German opera composers on Cherubini and Spontini was more powerful as a whole than that which they exercised on Rossini ; for
instance,
the
Beethoven his
his
Haydn, and in return was declared by greatest contemporary ; and Weber, who had pronounced
former idolised
lest
Porteur d'Eau divine music, feared

for the
by
inserting into Lodoixka a
song specially composed prima donna, he should cause a blemish in the work. Spontini founded his style on the works of Gluck and of whose operas he was the avowed champion, producing in Mozart,
Paris, for the first time,
feature of the works of Gluck, Handel,
Beethoven
making a special Haydn, Mozart, Cherubini, and on the other hand, the maestro was revered by the most
Don
Giovanni, and in Berlin
1142
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
prominent representatives of the New Romantic School Berlioz and Wagner. Berlioz never tired of praising the Vestale, and remarked of " the second act that it was a gigantic crescendo/'' rising to a climax of In his " Grand Traite d'Instrumentation et dramatic passion and tragedy.
d'Orchestration/' Berlioz speaks on every possible occasion with admiration
of Spontini;
and when Olympia
failed
to
achieve a fitting
success, he
opposed the verdict of Fetis, and reproached the Parisian public for the
had given the opera. Richard Wagner * says " With Let Spontini an important and precious art-period has gone to its grave. us bend low and with reverence before the grave of the creator of the
cool reception they
:
Testate, Cortez,
and Olympia."
Wagner's
" Collected
* See Richard
Works," published 1872,
vol. v., p. 111.
THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL.
HE
majority of the masters belonging to the epoch of the Great Talents, such as Weber, Schubert, Spohr, Mendelssohn,
and Schumann, refrained from exaggeration in their compositions as regards expression, sentiment, and instrumentation.
Their manner was, as a
rule,
healthy and grand,
and but rarely degenerated into the strained and unnatural. How different is the case with a great number of the important masters
who form
the
New
Romantic School,
in
whose works the contents and
form are opposed, and the Idiosyncrasy and fancy of the composer replace the eternal laws of an art which has been developing for the space of a
thousand years. It would be impossible for the art-historian to successfully investigate the causes of the changes in music without referring to the history of the
sister arts
which have influenced
it,
especially that of poetry.
In so doing
we must
return to the Renaissance, which affected poetry, architecture,
sculpture, and painting alike.
Besides the Classical Renaissance, the author is convinced, after many years' study of the history of art, that there exists also a Renaissance of
the Romantic.
In order to understand the possibility of such an existence,
we must
consider of
what a renaissance
consists.
We
believe that the
Renaissance at the beginning of the fifteenth century was in great part owing to the longing of the human race to regain that union with
nature which the ascetic tendencies of the religion of the Middle Ages, with its contempt and even hatred of everything terrestrial, had severed.
reaction
took place;
man
wished
to
enjoy the
beauties
of
nature.
1144
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
This Classical
He
desired a
is
new
birth,
hence the term ''Renaissance/'
at a period when a repeated in romantic natures, especially cause in poetical natures barren' moral teaching and prosaic enlightenment of a longing for the supernatural and an ideal solution of the mystery is characteristic that both periods of Renaissance man's existence. It
Renaissance
were interrupted in the midst of their progress by an entirely new artdifferent spirit. Whilst the Renaissance is the epoch, imbued with a totally
the result of a partiality towards the culture of a past period, the object of that of the new era. is to connect that of the past with
intervening epoch " shall style these particular epochs connecting epochs." The first of Renaissance sixteenth century ; and the these occurred in the Classical
We
second in the Romantic Renaissance

these connecting epochs comprises ,the
sists of
eighteenth century. The first of genius era of Italy, the second con-
that of
Germany.
its
Each
period.
of these epochs had the effect of bringing If
about the decline of
we omit
architecture, sculpture,
and
we may state that painting, the renaissance of which took place after 1420, the Classical Renaissance commenced when the development of mediseval
culture reached its climax with Dante.
in
It
is
undeniable that Dante, while
company with Virgil, and in contest between the passing through Hades Guelphs and the Ghibellines, no longer favours the Pope, but rather the
German Emperor
antique and
fact denoting an inclination towards the This tendency becomes still more evident when classical ideal. we consider the works of Petrarch and Boccaccio, which prove also that
of
Rome, a
poetry precedes
little
Music, the youngest of the arts, made but progress before or during the connecting epoch of the sixteenth century, and in the seventeenth century was influenced greatly by the
its sister
art.
weak and mistaken conception of classical ideals then prevalent. Concerning the music-drama we must remember that this institution owed its
origin in a great part to the plastic art and literature, and that the revolution in Tuscan music was brought about rather by an external agency of
the Classical than
by an independent Renaissance.
Consequently the
efforts
of the Florentines affected the tonal art in
many ways, and
their action
reminds us almost of that of the Bayreuth music -drama, though they cannot lay claim to results equal to those produced by the Classical Renaissance in architecture, sculpture, and painting, and from want of vitality
degenerated into the Neapolitan opera, and thence into a musical Zopf.
1145
In church music, however, this period was signalised by uninterrupted progress, aided by the Catholic restoration and the practice of music among
This progress, which had begun in the other arts at an earlier period, can by no means be attributed to a Classical Renaissance, but rather to the more complete expression of the medieval Christian ideal.
the Protestants.
Examples
Schiitz,
of this
we
find
in the sacred compositions
of Lotti, Astorga,
Buxtehude, and others. We can hardly ascribe to the Classical Renaissance the isolated German opera essays of Schiitz, the secular
canzonets of the Venetians, and their imitations by German masters of " School-Comedies " which were the seventeenth century, nor the musical
then in favour with the Protestants of the North.
sance did not take place in
before the
real Classical
Renais-
Germany until the eighteenth century, and not commencement of the Genius, epoch ; as had been the case with
it
the Italians,
happened during that epoch, and increased with such vigour We that for the moment it threatened to eclipse poetry and painting.
can perceive this in the works of Gluck and Handel, its most prominent representatives, who united the pure Christian conception of the age to the Classical Renaissance, in which their example was followed by all the
heroes of the Genius epoch.
circumstances.
The development of the sister arts took place under totally different The union of the medieval Christianity with the antique was brought about in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in painting by
;
masters such as Bramante, Leonardo, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and
Correggio
in poetry
by Shakespeare, Cervantes, and
Ariosto.
This fusion
was brought about unconsciously by the artists of the period, and formed Without any actual period of transithe first of our " connecting epochs/' " conif we ignore for the moment Ghiberti and Brunellesco, this tion, " follows necting epoch immediately upon the Classical Renaissance, which in poetry and the plastic art had begun ere this, and was in
the full strength of
sary result of the
its
development.
It was, without doubt, the neces-
first
Renaissance.
Painters such as
Luca
della Robbia,
and Mantegna, who began this era, and Masaccio, Perugino, Francia, Ghirlandajo, and Signorelli, who, approaching Michael Angelo and Raphael, brought it to a close, show that, notwithstanding
Benozzo, Gozzoli,
the influence of the antique, there existed
tian
still
a strong mediaeval Chris-
type;
in
the
mature works
of
Michael Angelo and Raphael
we
1146
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
meet with a complete fusion of the antique and result of an objective conception of the world.
Christian
ideal,
the
With
the decline of the Italian Genius epoch, a
new
era
commenced
This has already been styled by the in the history of the tonal art. author a period of contention between the antique and realistic, the
Mediaeval Catholicity and the Romantic,
in this period, defying
These various elements existed
amalgamation, and each striving for prominence. The Baroque and Zopf styles prove that the Classical Renaissance even in its decadence was the ruling element of the above-named epoch. The
Romantic Renaissance, which had to struggle for existence, was the result a restoration enthusiastically brought about by the Catholics, who employed as a handmaiden the sacred music of the Protestants. The
of
Renaissance
of
the
Romantic
differs
from the Rococo and Zopf in
its
it.
characterising sentiment, and the nature of the subjects treated by " Its influence can be in the sorrow of a " Crucifixus
perceived
passionate
by
Lotti
an entranced Madonna, the creation of Murillo
Calderon's
" Cross," or his Magi," a seeming prelude to and Lope de Vega's woman-worship, or Tirso de Molino's tragedy Don Juan. The effect on art of the two contending Renaissances is seen in the
at the
realistic
Worship Goethe's " Faust/'
"
and antique tendency of the works of
Cellini,
Veronese, Caracci,
Rubens, Holbein, Velasquez, Teniers, Ostade, Camoens, Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Lully, Pratorius, Monteverde, Peter Vischer, Andreas Schliiter,
Van Dyck,
Rembrandt,
Silesius,
Canaletto, and Poussin.

is
On
the other hand, the Christian and
Catholic idealism
represented
by Ammanati, Giulio Romano, Caravaggio,

Angelas
Heinrich
Schxitz,
Diirer, Murillo, Callot, Salvator Rosa, Calderon, Tasso,
Milton,
Antonio Lotti,
Frescobaldi,
Adam
Kraft, Lorenzo Bernini, Ribera, Ruysdael, and Claude Lorrain. With the eighteenth century a new epoch appeared in the form of a
fusion of the
opposed to Rousseau, whose " Heloise " is both Romantic and fantastic. These masters were instrumental in preparing a fusion of the opposing elements in Germany, which in poetry was brought about intentionally, whereas in music the youngest of the arts it occurs for the first time,
opposing elements of art-culture, which in France was but for Voltaire, with his realism and incomplete, witty sarcasm, was entirely
happened unconsciously. It is important that we should notice that the great poets of this epoch, opposing the vulgarising of the antique and
and
1147
the prosaic enlightenment of the period, no longer sought their inspirations

in the classics,
or
German
and favoured the fantastic Catholic Romance, and paganism Christianity, the source from which emanated the school of
in poetry and music. Klopstock wrote not only his " " Hermann schlacht." " "Messiade," but also Baldur," and the Freia," " .The circle formed around Klopstock, designated the Hainbund," the
modern romance
members
Stolberg,
of which were styled " bards/' included not only the
brothers
in
his
converts
to
Roman
Catholicism,
but
Burger,
who
Leiden/' Berlichingen," Faust scenes, together with his studies in necromancy, and the prevailing admiration of Shakespeare's romance, prove that the age was imbued more strongly with Christian Romance than with the Classical
Steinbach/'
earliest
" Balladen" introduced the tone of genuine romance into modern German " Leonora." " storm and stress " The poetry, as in period not only forth Klinge, by whom this epoch was so named, and who brought wrote a " Faust/' under the title of " Faust's Leben, Thaten und Hollen" Erwin fahrt," but also the passionate Lenz, and the young Goethe, whose " Gotz von " Werther's von and
conception of the world.

It
is
as important to notice that the contemporaries of
the
first
whom, with
his Protestant principles
Handel and Bach, based on Classic form, and
Bach, the perfecter of the mediaeval tonal art, began the fusion of the antique with the Christian conception of the world, as to remark that Mozart and Beethoven favoured the Romance, and therefore the musicians
of the period returned with the last-named master to that
mood which
characterised Bach.
Such
fact
different tendencies in
two
arts of the
same epoch
of genius, the
that the poets are in the
commencement Romantic and
are finally
Classic, whilst the tonal masters, with the single exception of Bach, begin as
Classics
and end as Romantic composers, had the most diverse
effects
upon
both poets and musicians.
Both "connecting epochs" were of some duration, and consequently the Renaissances in which they fell suffered degeneration. As the " con" the Renaissance of
necting epoch
of the eighteenth century interrupted
the Romantic, the art-period immediately following was Romantic, and as the second half of the Classical Renaissance had now come to an end, the
Romantic element enjoyed
sole power.
1148
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
These assertions are proved by history, for immediately following the German Genius epoch was a period of Romance, and one of such power
that
it
produced two separate Romantic schools
the one in modern
German
poetry, the other in
modern German music.
The
style of the
German Genius epoch
of poetry
and music entirely
from that of the commencement. The and Schiller, poets, with the exception of Lessing, Winckelmann, Goethe, who maintained the Classical style, embraced the Romantic element in a
differed at the close of the period
most extravagant manner ; thus Ludwig Tieck, one of the founders of this " William school, in his Lovell," exhibits a contempt of the world almost " We to rid ourabove on nihilism. He
bordering
of
says
must,
all,
try
selves
the loving mawkishness and the agreeable platitudes of the
Frederick Schlegel, another school, viz., Goethe, Schiller, &c." " The of the founders of this school, beginning of all poetry is the says abolition of the process and laws of reasoning and calculation, and the
:
Weimar
restoration of that beautiful confusion of phantasy, the original chaos of
human
in
nature."
Schlegel also says that true genius shows
its lofty
origin
leaving the
bigoted
greatly.
common adherence to duty, morals, and propriety to the Philistines. With regard to the tonal art, circumstances differed
The development
of the musical
Genius epoch, in which Beethoven may be said to have returned to Bach, enabled Romantic composers
and Weber. Thereup by was continued from the point at which it had been left by the great classics. The result was that the development of the two Romantic schools, viz., Poetry and Music, the disciples of which commenced by following Goethe and Beethoven took place in
fore, unlike poetry, the tonal art
to follow their great predecessors without opposition. of Mozart and Beethoven was followed Schubert
The Romantic
vein
respectively,
an entirely different manner. The school of the Romantic poets commenced with chaotic tendencies, and had to The
clarify
by
degrees.
Romantic school of music began clear, naive, and popular, and later on became unnatural and subjective. As a proof of this, the school of literature and poetry of a Frederick Schlegel, Tieck, Gentz, Zacb arias Werner, Holderlin, Novalis, and T. A. Hoffmann, must be compared with that of
Gorres, Heinrich von Kleist, Brentano, Fouque, Armin, Chamisso, Eichenor Spohr, Schumann, ; Chopin, and Robert Franz with their predecessors and Marschner. Weber, Schubert,
dorff,
Lenau, and Hauff
1149
the poets of the Romantic connecting epoch had gained style, and satisfied their inclination for German pagan and Christian, and Catholic
mediaeval subjects, and the musicians were becoming
When
more
subjective, in-
dulging in hypersentimentality,
special
under the impression that this was the

reverse of
province of music, there occurred another
the
sister
The schools, which now turned towards revolution, nature, and nihilism. result of this was a fusion of the terrestrial and the transcendental, which " gave rise to a symbolising of the glorification of the flesh/' a characteristic feature of the New Romantic School. The poets returned to their
former
state, as will
Gutzkow's " Wally."

trammels.
be seen by comparing SchlegeFs "Lucinde" with The musicians, on the contrary, returned from
social
optimism to pessimism, and a bitter contempt of the world or
In taking a comprehensive view of the nature, spirit, treatment of form, subject, and mood of the sister schools, we shall see that they are not only
in
harmony, but are actually
identical.
We
cannot, therefore, gain
perfect understanding of the younger school of music in a shorter and
more
convincing manner than by comparing
it
with the school of poetry, both as
regards moods and conceptions, and the innumerable analogies existing between them. We shall prove this by a few examples, not having room
to treat the matter in a complete and exhaustive manner.
With
the ex-
ception of Bach, in
whose sacred works we
find the full
development of that
world-estrangement which, in the Middle Ages, resulted in the birth Romance, we meet in the Genius epoch of music only two tone-masters who give expression to the Romantic. Mozart favours
of the element of
Romance in his Requiem, Don Giovanni, and Seraglio, Beethoven in the Missa Solennis, Fidelia, the three overtures to Leonora, the apotheosis in " An die feme Geliebte," his last string quartetts, Egmont, his song-cycle, and the ninth symphony. The Romantic appears in the secular works of
these, the
most powerful of tone-poets, as
it
does in the creations of Goethe

artistic individuality.
and
Schiller, as
a separate feature of their
In the
epoch of the Great Talents the masters were variously influenced

spirit of
by the which became a characteristic feature of the period. Romance, Even Felix Mendelssohn, the most decided classic of the era, could not
The masters of this epoch not only introduced Romance into their works, but wrote them under the influence of that
escape the reigning influence.
1]50
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
powerful modern element as examples, Maria von Weber, Spohr, and Marschner.
before, enters into the
we may mention Schubert, Karl Schumann, as we have remarked
Romantic or "Young" German School, and can therefore be placed with justice on a level with Hector Berlioz and Richard of Wagner. Schubert and Weber never considered themselves disciples and even any Romantic School, nor did the masters Spohr and Marschner;
New
Schumann this distinction is due rather to the influence of a number of adherents who in his name adopted a course directly inimical to After the classics under the name or banner of the Romantic School. Schumann the principles of Romance were accepted as the true musical
in the case of
doctrine of the future, and the term
" music of the future " was adopted by
In order to gain a correct conception of these principles, change which took place in German poetry The growth of a generation before under the title of u Young Germany." the Romantic art-principles was gradual, and may be traced in the works of
both friends and opponents.
we must
refer to the
Weber, Schubert, Marschner, and Lowe, which, notwithstanding the introduction of the new element, are of a thoroughly sound character, and though an increase of the power of the new principles is visible in the
works of Spohr, Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Gade, it is as yet not excessive. Later we find a change similar to that which occurred, two centuries earlier, in the Tuscan School of music, the masters of the period
declaring music to be at an end, and claiming for themselves and their similar change characterises disciples the creation of a new tonal art.
the
Romance
period of
German
poetry.
For proof of
this,
the contents,
" " GeharnPrince von Homburg," and the language, and form of Kleist's ischte Sonette" of Ruckert, must be with that of a tragedy of compared
Muller's
Grabbe, or the political poems of Heine, Herwegh, and Tieck's, or Maler "Genoveva" with that of Hebbel. The historian and esthete
regard such changes, which recur in every art with extraordinary regularity,
with impartiality, recognising them as necessary to the development of the mind as the corresponding processes are beneficial to the welfare of the
body.
" The resemblance of " Young Germany as regards poetry, and in connection with music, will be more easily perceived by directing a glance at the special peculiarities which distinguish the poets and musicians of that
period.
In both we mark an inclination towards the
German
prima3val

paganism, and the mediaeval conception of the world
1151
the
memory
of the
These crusades, the sagas, legends, and the reign of the minnesingers. " Bekenntnisse eines kunstfeatures occur in Tieck's and Wackenroder's
(t Heinrich von Ofterdingen," Fouque's " auf der Wartburg," Weber's Euryantkc, and Sigurd Sangerkrieg based on chivalry and woman -worship, Spohr's Kreuzfahrer and Faust,
liebenden Klosterbruders," Novalis'
"
"
and Schumann's Faust and

adoption by
period of
Genoveva. It is interesting to note the the sister schools of a creed destined to overthrow the brilliant
intervening between the Classical RenaisThis faith, which Goethe, with the humour of a
German poetry-music
sance and the present.
Mephisto, attributes to the representatives of philosophy and literature, in his character Baccalaureus, in the second part of Faust, may be taken as " that of the musician of Young Germany." It is characteristic of the
sister schools to underrate their predecessors
belonging to the Genius epoch,
and
to
treat
them with a
certain
degree of contempt.
The brothers
and Lessing in this spirit ; Brentano criticised Herder in the same manner, and in the early half of the present century Heine and Herwegh attacked Goethe in verse
Schlegel, in 1797, directed their criticisms against Schiller
and prose. Haydn was called a lackey, and was said to have been born an old man, and Mozart's Don Giovanni was designated by Brendel's musical " a most defective musical drama/' As late as twenty-five journal in 1852, " years ago Handel has been stigmatised as the elephant-footed Handel." " Judaism in in his pamphlet entitled Music," attacked those of Wagner,
his contemporaries
his
acknowledge adherents continued to shower abuse in the same direction.
who were among
the
first to
his gifts,
and
Goethe had
been attacked by Novalis, but the creations of the school which existed during the last connecting epoch were based on his works, just as those of
the musical school had their foundation on the compositions of Beethoven.
The
Goethe selected for imitation was that which prevailed during " storm and stress" the period, and of Beethoven's creations the ninth was chosen as a model. The works of these masters were symphony
style of
regarded as stepping-stones connecting the later period with the preceding Genius epoch. There was one prevailing theme and mood adopted by the
poets
and musicians of the period. Novalis treats everywhere of the mediaeval Christian ideal, and Tieck and Wackenroder were enthusiasts for
the early Christian painters Fiesple and Diirer.
Tieck, indeed, in his novel
1152
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
" Life and Death
"
Sternbald," and his tragedy
of St.
Genevieve,"
similar
dis-
towards plays an inclination
Roman
Catholicism.
tendency
Liszt to write his prompted Schumann to compose Genoveva and Faust, " Dante and " Legend of St. Francis/' and St. Elizabeth, his Symphony"
Wagner
in
to
add to the
list
of the music-dramas his Lohengrin

Grail.
and Parsifal,
this
which he introduces the Knights of the Holy

towards
In addition to
inclination
mediaeval subjects, each of the masters exhibited a
hatred of Judaism, which almost equalled that of the Middle Ages, and which found an outlet in literature. The German Romantic poets, such as
Motte Fouque, show an inclination for Roman Catholicism, and Frederick von Schlegel, Adam Miiller, and Zacharias Werner apostatised and joined the Roman Catholic Church.
la
Gorres, Clemens Brentano, and
De
Liszt entered the brotherhood of
the Franciscans, and
Wagner, having
portrayed the pagan mythology in his G otter clammerung, treats the Last Supper in his Parsifal in a mediaeval mood. This period of Roman
Catholicism was followed by one of spiritualism.
Justinus Kerner was a

in his house the
pretended
spirit-raiser,
and
for
and in 1824 published a history of that celebrated somnambulist. Clemens Brentano entered a Westphalian cloister to study the utterings of the nun Katharina Emmerich, on whose body marks corresponding to the wounds of Christ had appeared. Liszt, when a youth, was almost induced by his religious enthusiasm to enter into the priesthood ; but ended by adopting the " nouveau established by the Christianisine," Marquis of St. Simon. The followers of this doctrine denounced the Papal
Prophetess of Prevorst,"
reign, but yet did not embrace Protestantism.
socialistic
"
three years
sheltered
They purposed founding a and desired the abolition of the marriage ceremony. community,
traits
These fantastic
influenced the art of the
Romance
period, proof of
which may be found by an inspection of the works of Ludwig Tieck and T. A. Hoffmann, and characters such as Kleist's Kathchen von studying Heilbronn and Wagner's Senta and Elsa. Further proof is to be found in
the ecstatic creations of Novalis, who, like Tieck, enters fully into Jakob
Bohme's mysticism. The sympathy between the

fact that
radical,
sister schools is further
many
of the adherents of both turned
evidenced by the from the orthodox to the
or starting with heterodox opinions, ended by becoming ardent supporters of the accepted faith. Thus Hector Berlioz and Zacharias

Werner were
1153
in the
commencement
radicals,
and
finally
became orthodox.
Berlioz left heterodoxy for the mediaeval Catholicism in his Faust, Requiem,
" Te Heinrich Heine was at first Deum," and L'Enfance du Christ. and afterwards revolutionary; Richard Wagner in Rienzi was romantic,
republican, and in Tannhiiuser, Lohengrin and the Meistersinger orthodox
in Tristan and
;
penhauer, and
Ring des Nibelungen he favoured the pessimism of Schopin Parsifal returned to Catholicism.
Another point of similarity between the twin schools is to be found in the assertion of the author's idiosyncrasy, its position as the basis of all
his conceptions, pass.
Novalis, with an almost effeminate

is
and the limit beyond which no other can be allowed to " We dream of
spirit,
says
journeys through the universe

terious road leads
not the universe within us ?

;
but to our innermost soul
we
are eternity.
The mysThe outer
world throws nought but shadows on this realm of light." Who could arise as the champion of this school but the philosopher Fichte, the ideal
of Frederick
Schlegel?
This savant
all
made
"I"
It
in
is
contradistinction to
the
" world " the foundation of
reasoning.
but natural that a
adhered to the tenets of a Schoppenhauer, whose pessimistic principles represent but one side of a philosophical conception of the world, The preference of the sister could not fail to be as subjective as Fichte.
musician
schools
for
who
the vague and undefined
must be accepted
as a "connect-
fancy was to roam unfettered, reality to be replaced with a of dreams. The opposition of truth to the visionary world of these world schools led to that dissension in the mind the apparent end of which is
ing link
"
world-sorrow (" Weltschmerz "). This sentiment has been identified with art by the modern supporters of romance, and finds its sequel almost
always in contempt of the world. The vague longing for the impossible " Weltschmerz " philosophy, and the subject's over-indulpeculiar to the
like
gence of his idiosyncrasy, frequently taking the form of a Narcissusgazing into the mirror of imaginary joys and sorrows, leads to the
development of irony or weariness. In a Hamlet it results in scepticism, The action of such different and yet closely in a Faust it ends in nihilism.
united sentiments explains the reason for the dislike of the disciples of this
school for
what
is
clearly developed in
form in
classical art,
and preference
for the undefined night with its mysterious world of stars to the brightness
of day.
Of
these inclinations
we
shall
now quote
a few examples, such as
v v v
1154
"
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Tieck's
" and "Phantasus;" Novalis' HeinMondbeglanzte Zaubernaeht " " rich von Ofterdingen and Hymnen an die Nacht ; Karl Maria von " Weber's aria from Der FreiscMtz, Wie nahte mir der Schlummer," and " Mermaid song in Oberon: Robert Schumann's chorus from the Peri, Schlaf " " nun und ruh' in Traumen voll Duft," and Nachtstiicken ; Schumann's " Nachtliede " Richard ; version for chorus and orchestra of Hebbel's " Abendstern " from Tannhauser, " Athmest du nicht mit mir Wagner's <lie siissen Diifte," and the love-scene from Tristan und Isolde ; Chopin's and Schumann's " Phantastische
'
"Nocturnes;"
"
Eichendorff's
in der
;
Jean Paul's
Nur
Ruhe
der
Nacht
gliiht
und
die Liebe hell
" and Wagner's duet in
Nacht;" und glanzt die Sehnsucht " Dem Tristan und Isolde, Tag,
Instances <lem tiickischen Tage, dem hartesten Feinde, Hass und Klage." are to be found even before Jean Paul, the precursor of this school ;
" What is life ? What is it but an empty Madness. Calderon says Little can happiness give us, for bubble ? A poem, scarcely a shadow. In this there is as life is but a dream, and the dreams e'en but a dream."
:
much
of
modern romance
of
its
as in Tieck, T. A.
Hoffmann, Lenau, and Hebbel.

Spaniard proves that
all
The sentiment
romance, with
this pious
Roman
the
Catholic
yearning for
unknown, dates from the Middle
Ages.
and the Jean Paul says " Flowers are arabesques adorning the symbolic " and " Blaue Lilie throne of heaven." Ruckert's " Westdstliche Rosen " " Bezauberte Rose " Ernst Schulze's der Welt ; ; Wolfgang Miiller's 41 Rose von Jericho " Moritz Horn and Robert Schumann's " Der Rose
characteristic feature of both schools is the love of flowers
use.
:
" aria from Spohr's Azor and Zemir, Rose, " Schubert's " Sah ein Knab' ein Roslein wie bist du reizend und mild ; " Novalis' " Bliithenstaub " stehn ; and " Blaue Blume der Romantik ; "
Pilgerfahrt
;
" the well-known
ff Die-Blauen Veilchenaugen schaun " Lotos Blume " and Schumann and Heine's aus dem Grase hervor," and ;
Heine's
"Du
bist
wie eine Blume,''
" Ich will meine Seele tauchen in den Kelch der Lilie hinein," are but a few instances of flower- worship, and the list of poems on the same subject
might be continued ad injinitum. Another trait is the admiration of the charms exhibited by water, both beautiful and terrible, and the peopling
of that element with imaginary nymphs and genii. This appreciation of the beauties of nature is expressed in the Lorelei of Clemens Brentano,

Heine, Eichendorff, Mendelssohn, Geibel, Schumann, and Liszt
I
1155
'inline,
Weber's
Meer made/ten,
Wagner's
R/teinloc/iieru,
in Fouque's Mendelssohn
and Grainmann's Melusine.

appears effeminate, and its
Romance when compared with
the classical
commencement, brought about by the trou-
badours and minnesingers of mediaeval Provence, is rooted in the womanThis " cult " is followed in worship which distinguished the period.
Weber's Enryanthe, Novalis' 1Lei rich von Ofterdingen, Wagner's Wolfram von Eschenbach, Ta/ui/idtiser, and Walther Stolzing, and Chamisso and Schumann's " Frauenliebe und Leben." It is this woman -worship which produces the ecstatic happiness depicted in the characters of Kathchen von
ti
Heilbronn, Senta, and Elsa.
"
Faust/'
The motto of the " Das
New
Romantic School seems
to be taken
from Goethe's
not always
ewig Weibliche zieht uns hinan/' though
it is
employed
in the lofty sense adopted
by that king
of poets.
Another mark
Romance is the glorification of the Virgin Mary, as met " " with in Balde's Marienliede," Tieck and Wackenroder's Mariencult/' " Ich sehe dich in tausend Novalis' Bildern, Maria/' and in secular music
of the schools of
such as Faust, which has been set by so many Romantic musicians, and Franz Schubert's " Ave Maria." So in Wagner's Taiiuhciuser, tne principal " Mein Heil ruht in Maria." character exclaims, Many other types are
.also in
favour with the Romantic Schools, such as Mignon, written by

set
Goethe and
by Schubert, Schumann,
Liszt, Rubinstein,
and Thomas
the well-known Melusine,
who was
selected
by Schwind the painter
Zuleika has been selected by Goethe, Hafiz, Bodeustedt, Schubert, and Mendelssohn ; St. Elizabeth has been chosen by Wagner, Liszt, and
Schwind
Tieck,
Hebbel,
Maler,
Miiller,
and Robert Schumann have
been inspired by Genoveva; Gounod and Berlioz by Juliet; Burger and Raff have made Leonora the theme of their inspirations. Moore and music respectively the and Schumann have celebrated in poetry Marguerite has been adopted as a subject by Goethe, Liszt, Berlioz, Schumann, and Gounod; and Lorelei has proWe have already noticed vided a theme for many poets and musicians. wanderings of the Peri
;
as a feature of the
Romantic Schools
that,
longing for the transcen-
dental, they look with regret on a past paradise, that of the golden age, and yearn for happiness of the future. This is directly opposed to the
principles of classical art, which, as a rule, deals with the present.
In the
v v v 2
H56
Middle Ages this
devotional
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
promoted the adoption of the
desire for the celestial

is,
that principles "of asceticism,

exercises,
and we
the employment of unnecessarily rigorous may venture to assert that the aspiring
desire, as symbolical of the intense
Gothic steeples were raised by the same
which prompted the Crusades, was longing for the divine. It and the craving for the unknown found an outlet in the undertaking of The same principles signalise the present lengthy voyages of discovery. with them a fondness for the fantastic. period of Renaissance, bringing " Childe This statement will be proved by an inspection of Berlioz's fantastic tales Harold/' Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable, T. A. Hoffmann's " and the occasional works Titan," after the manner of Callot, Jean Paul's
this spirit also
of
Achim von Arnim, Brentano, Chamisso, Byron, Yictor Hugo, Richard divested of Wagner, and Schumann. The worship of the purely beautiful,
bizarre surroundings,
is
its
to be
" Liederkreis an found in Beethoven's
die
feme Geliebte,"
in Agatha's prayer in Hebbel's
quartett from Oberon, scene of the Last Supper from Wagner's Parsifal, Elsa's lament at the at the death of his departure of Lohengrin, and Novalis' outburst of grief Dante and Beatrice, a union of the beloved, calling to mind involuntarily Dante's influence can be traced even present with the past Renaissance.
in the
from the FreiscMtz, in the vocal " and Schumann's Nachtlied," in the
works of Berlioz, Schumann, Liszt, and Wagner. Both schools of Romance have sought subjects in the range of the older Persian poetry and the idealistic philosophy of the Hindoos, and this longing
undefined.
for the strange
and foreign causes the outline of the poet's creation to become " Westostlichen Goethe even has entered on this field in his
is
Divan," but this
the only instance.

fanciful
His precursors and followers are
distinguished by more
and subjective expression, and their manner " Oestlichen Rosen," Riickert, in his degenerates into fantastic rhyming. " the " Westostlichen Divan " of Goethe. imitates the In his " Ghasel
poet has
" Michael Beer, in his " Paria ; " Schefer, in " Hafiz in Hellas ; and Byron, in "Childe Harold," " Sardanapalus," " The Corsair," and the " Giaour." Heine longs for the roses of Schiraz, the lotus, and the
so did
Prince devoted special pains to secure euphonious phrasing. Piickler derived the matter of his later poems from his travels in the East ;
Ganges, and laments his being a Persian poet born in Germany. Frederick Schlegel, the champion of romance, writing on the language, religion,
river

.
1157
and philosophy of the Hindoos, says we must seek in the Orient for genuine romance. We meet a similar preference for the poetry of the East. Weber exhibits this tendency in Oberon, Schubert and Mendelssohn in their " Zuleika Liede/' Meyerbeer in L'Africaine, Felicien David in Le Desert, Spohr in
Jessouda and the Crusaders,
in his opera Feramors
Schumann
in his
Paradise and Peri, Rubinstein

in the
Queen of Sheba. by the Romantic poets and composers alike, inasmuch as the poets discovered fresh fields on which to base their subjects, mythology and the saga world, and the morals and customs of foreign lands, thus not only enriching poetry, literature, and
It
is
and many songs, and Goldmark

to notice the merits possessed
incumbent on us
philosophy, but also painting and the plastic

are their
art.
Scarcely less important
new
discoveries for the
advancement of music.
Richard
Wagner
has, for the first time,
bestowed on music a tongue with which to proclaim
the old German Christian conception of the world. Schumann breathes in musical tones the description of a celestial sphere, and Meyerbeer gives The merits of the Romantic School of tongue to religious fanaticism.
music are not restricted to this

to exist for centuries
it
has overcome the barrier which seemed

its sisters.
between the tonal art and
If in the efforts
of the
New
Romantic School to bring about a
closer connection
between the
sister arts
we
find several erroneous assumptions,

rectified,
we may
rest assured that
they will be
open to the musician an increased horizon,

art.
and the prevalence of extended culture can but and will prove a lasting gain to
Musicians
who
lack this advantage, and merely rely on the exercise
of their musical craft, will be henceforth pronounced mere mechanics.
We
have already referred to a number of works dealing with the

This feature in the sister schools, of searching for
beauties of the East.

subjects in the
as being closely
manners and customs of foreign climates, must be accepted related to that trait which causes the schools of the present
all barriers separating the sister arts, and employ the This is a special character of one art for producing the effects of another. feature of the Lyrical Romantic poets, such as Tieck, Schlegel, Novalis,
day to overthrow
Brcntano, Riickert, and Heine,

as the
who appear
to aspire to the musical element
most important item of their art, exhibiting much deference for rhythm and peculiar tonal effects, such as alliteration and assonance,
appertaining to music rather than to poetry. The musicians of the New R unantic School, on the contrary, essay to renounce all flowing melody and
1158
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
" speaking the beautiful periods of the classical art-form, searching for a music/'' and not content with this, attempt to convey in tones positive ideas
and represent particular persons and
localities.
Their printed programmes,
however, prove distinctly that in the music alone they have failed to express The characters and the description of localities. clearly the actions of their
numerous mistakes which have occurred show the impossibility of describing the music in words ; for instance, a piece of programme music without its
convey a different signification to every hearer, and even A. B. Marx, a laconically-worded explanation will lead to serious errors. " Les the title Adieux, referring to Beethoven's sonata, Op. 81, bearing
programme
will
a portrayal of soul-felt We expect the parting of lovers, the loneliness caused by sentiment. and the joyous return." In the manuscript, however, we find separation, " Farewell at the above the first movement the words, departure of his Over the Finale Imperial Highness Archduke Rudolph, May 4th, 1809." " The return of his the Archduke Rudolph, is written, Imperial Highness on January 30th, 1810." In a later orchestral work, the " Nirvana," we find that the composer has gone so far as to attempt the expression of I/ Absence, et Le Retour," says
:
" This sonata
is
philosophy by the orchestra. Wagner, who in his Nilelungen founded the " speaking music," employs in his poetry the assonance and alliteration to be found in the works of Schlegel, who preceded him by fifty years.
"
Speaking music
"
and
sister arts, expression
overstep the barrier between the in tones and words. Some representatives of the
tl
musical poetry
"
Modern Schools
barriers of
of
Romance have not even shrunk from overthrowing
the
conventionality in
life.
to every-day of art,
life, and have applied their nihilistic principles F. Schlegel even wished to subvert the fundamental laws
:
his declaration of the principles of the Romantic School says " The essence of Romantic poetry is its infinitude it alone is endless, and it alone is free. Its first will suffers no law -is that the
and in
acknowledged
is
poet's
restraint.
The
beautiful
maintains equal rights."
Atkenaum
" What objection can there be
separated from the true and moral, and yet (Probably it is in this spirit that he asks, in the
to a
manage
en gnat re ?")
Yet
these writers wish to impose their principles as the only recognised law.
in his
As
Wagner, Gottcrdammemng, attempts to fuse Schoppenhauer's philosophy with the tonal art, so Schlegel proposed a union of philosophy and " all works shall poetry, and indeed, in his remark that in Romantic poetry

be one work,
arts one art/' he anticipates
1159
all
Wagner's
" Kunstwerk der
Zukunft/'
in
which the author proposes that poetry, music, painting, and

1
agree, inassculpture should be united in forming a complete art-work. much as this proposal must be accepted as purely ideal, and can never be
carried into practice, at least to such
We
an extent as
is
to bring about
all
a complete
equality in the various arts.

result in
This
impossible, and
attempts could
nought but the monstrous.
true perception of the real relation
between the arts/one based on their ideal unity and relative identity, will alone teach when to enforce strict separation of action and when to encoufind that the poets and musicians of the New Romantic rage unity. School have for generations clung to the same sagas and mythical or semi-
We
mythical heroes.
Faust has been treated by the poets Goethe, Klinger,

Berlioz, Spohr,
his
Lenau,
Heine, and
Liszt,
to
Gounod,
programme
Grabbe; the musicians and Wagner (the last-named in Beethoven's " Choral
Siegfried saga from the
Schumann,
Fa its t
overture and Faust
Wartburg and the
Symphony"). The minstrel contest at Edda were poetically treated by
Motte Fouque, and both in poetry and music by Richard Wagner. Venus and Tannhauser were treated long before Wagner by Tieck and
la
De
Heine; Don Giovanni by the founder of Romantic Opera, Mozart; by " Lenau in his unfinished " Don Juan ; and Byron, the most advanced of
the
Romantic School. Manfred has been employed as a theme by and Schumann ; Mazeppa by Byron and Liszt. The Corsair, Childe Byron Harold, and Sardanapalus have been celebrated in verse and music respec-
New
tively
Geibel and Hebbel both employed the by Byron and Berlioz. as a theme long before Wagner, whose Flying Dutchman, Nibelungen Saga of the Grail, Lohengrin, Tristan and Isolde, and Hans Sachs, had served for subjects to Tieck, Gorres, Heinrich Heine, and Immermann.
Well may we
aftirm that there
is
no subject which has not been used in
both schools of Romance.

matter, although
all
is
exhibit
After merely glancing at the wealth of subjectsome slight similarity, we cannot fail to notice
how much
there
of novelty, beauty,
and originality amongst the
real
and
We cannot help remarking the number of by-ways by which those Romantic masters, who adopted as their motto the sentence " car tel est notre plaisir," were led from the path of the proportionate,
important talents.
and healthy, into that of incongruity, sentiment, and artificiality. The subjectivity of these masters was further supported by that doctrine of
natural,
1160
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the
Romantic School, which declared that all transmitted forms were else had been smuggled into art by the pedants under the of a Zopf, and could at best be regarded only as arithmetical examples guise which retarded the free flight of genius. This dogma, accompanied by
worn out or
New
an affected display of nationalism, occasionally developing from vigour to rudeness, as well as by a fondness for ancient German paganism, caused " Romantic Goethe, the most objective of critics, to exclaim in anger, " is sickness, classic is health. The poet spoke in the same strain in his periodical Kunst und Alterthum, writing under the title " Ueber die
christlich-patriotisch-neu-deutsche
Kunst."
Goethe,
who
besides
his love
of the classical possessed so deep a vein of
Romance, wished only to express his conviction that the hysterical utterances, the veto on " all discipline of thought," and the heterogeneous mixture of inorganic styles which characterised the
literature, formed the best proof of the feebleness of that style. No better instance of the pessimism of the Romantic School can be cited than that found in the lines written by Jean
Romantic in German
" Man is Paul in the album of the grandson of Goethe. They run thus allowed but two and a half minutes one to smile, one tosigh, and but half to love ; in the midst of this he dies." Such unhealthy exaggeration could not fail to rouse Goethe, who wrote in the same book the following
:
lines
"
Sixty minutes hath an hour, More than thousands hath a day, Look ye what gigantic power He who works may thus display."
If the
lost all
New
Romantic School of
literature
had not
since half a century
healthy perception of the natural
upgrowth
of art as taught
by
history,
they would have
known
that a vital art-form was never the result

is inevitably opposite agents throughout the
of the teaching of a certain master or a special school, but brought about by the working of the most
jurse of centuries
suite, overture,
;
in music this is proved
by the forms
of canon, fugue,
all
itions.
Had
sonata, and symphony, which are adopted by
musical
those litterateurs
who belonged
to the time of Goethe, the
teacher of nature's progress which is based on organic development and the hater of all hasty progress, followed the dictum of that master, would
they

have perceived that the result of
in
aesthetics
1161
investigation
and
art-
philosophy is the knowledge that the first element ment is not the form and the second the contents, but the reverse.
it
of all artistic develop-
In art
has always been the idea that brought about the construction of the form. Those who would abolish all the existing and accepted musical forms
ignore the achievements of the mental culture which has developed for
centuries past.
many
This
is
specially applicable to music, which, unlike painting
and sculpture, does not seek its models from nature. Architecture, like music, finds no model in nature, and its forms are the creations of fancy,
yet
its
tenacity to certain forms
may
well serve as a lesson to musicians,
for the
composer possesses a great advantage over the architect by the

is
fact that music
movement, architecture rest. How superficial is the informs which can vestigation of art-forms by the New Romantic School
be
filled
with worthy contents by
all
fact that they have pointed to examples in

artificiality
but the impotent is proved by the which lack of talent and musical
Besides the talents there
are
many
have degenerated to mere stencilling. parasites of the Romantic School, to
whom
the attack on the
established forms proves a boon, for they are spared the dangerous trial of employing those forms, which when indifferently filled at once proclaim the
incapacity of the composer.
We have
given the Romantic School credit for a considerable number o
genuine artistic objecThose possessing the latter quality, tivity, and are masters of form. The champions of this school, and the greater however, are exceptions. number of their blind followers, declare its doctrines of freedom in
of real talents,
many
of
whom
are possessed of
form
infallible.
If the efforts of the
New
Romantic School
of
music
continue in the
school will soon
same
direction there can
be no question but that the

this progress
become antiquated and then obsolete ;
merely a question of time.

art,
whose
is
New
being This has been the destiny of poetry, the sister Romantic School has ceased to exist. We fear that this
imminent, as, being of the nature of a new art-principle, i.e., both intolerant and aggressive, it will proceed to an extreme where Nature herclimax
self will
enough," thus bringing about a turn and an unavoidable counter-stream. Till then we do not expect the fanatic supporters
exclaim,
of this school to
" hold
awake from
their
dreamy
self-deception.
The
fact
is
that
so great a talent us
Wagner
must, of necessity, be surrounded
and followed
1162
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
by a number of adherents who have been unable to imitate him with any But the master who, with phenomenal power and energy, roused success. the enthusiasm of all belonging- to his period was unique, and was a fittingend to the development of the Romantic in poetry and music. Such a comAll who have copied have failed, and will ever poser could exist but once.
continue to do so
;
we have
sufficient proof of this in the
works of
his
most
ardent disciples, the

of Goldschmidt.
"Hagbarth und Signe" of Mihalovich and "Helianthus" The followers of Wagner, who himself in the second period
of his activity approached closely to the limits of musical expression, can
but copy their ideal, and that without the merit of originality which must be ascribed to the great master. They can but appear what Wagner really and in their attempt to " out- Wagner Wagner " are lost in chaos. If was, we have proved that the musicians of the New Komantic School will continue
their course to its end, as did the poets
who preceded them by

If
fifty years,
we may be
fate
certain that the school of

its
Wagner and
Berlioz will share the
which attended
sister
school.
the history of any religious,
political, or social fraternity, even before the close of its development, can
be compared with that of the career of a preceding school founded on the same conception of the world, we can safely prognosticate for it a like endthis is an occasion on which we can ; employ our power of prophecy. If we can apply this to religious, political, or social bodies, which are greatly influenced by external causes, how truthfully can we say the same of art and science, which are farther beyond ing, as
it
had a similar commencement
the reach of external influence.

of
Both schools were rooted
in the people
less
Germany, and the
historical
development of both occupied
than a
century
influence
(17981885).
Within
this period the elder exercised all the
more
justifiable opposition generation of art into a mere handicraft and artificial imitation, on the other hand they must be accused of unmeasured self-praise and deception,
on the younger, as the poets of the middle and last periods were contemporaries of the earliest and midway composers of the school of music, and the musicians employed as subject-matter almost exclusively the creations of the who in spirit were so closely related to them. poets In both schools we find the same virtues and the same faults; on the one hand they must be credited with a to the de-
which causes them to believe that the art-development of a few thousand

years has been compelled to wait for their labours to raise
it
to a climax.
HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER.
1163
They
are guilty of another misconception, which
is,
that the theory which
declares the
upgrowth of
art to have taken place
by eternal laws
for so
may be regarded as erroneous, and that they themselves were The Romantic School of poets has proved to the discoverers of true art.
long a period
us
how
fatal are such errors.

suicide,
Holderlin and Lenau died insane, Kleist
committed
and Jean Paul, Novalis, Achim von Arnim, Brentano,
Fouque, and Tieck, who were, during their period, exalted at the expense of the classical writers, and who formed the object of feminine hero-worship, are, notwithstanding their evident talent, now almost consigned to oblivion.
The
creations of tho musician possess
more
vitality
than do those of the
poet, since in music the composer can leave the world of reality
into the realms of fantasy,
and soar and con-
whereas the poet
is
restricted to logic
ceptions of truth
the former employs tone with its variety of orchestral
and vocal colouring, but the poet is confined to the positive use of words. Among the Romantic poets and musicians there was a display of much
talent, yet
Jean Paul, Tieck, Novalis, Kleist, Holderlin, Brentano, Arnim,
T. A. Hoffmann, Chamisso, Lenau, Eichendorff,
Immermann, Heine, Hauff,
Gutzkow, Laube, Freiligrath, and Herwegh, who, in their period, were " styled Young Germany," are now old whereas the great masters Herder, Lcssing, Schiller, and Goethe, who were then considered antiquated, are
;
now making
composers
manifest their eternal youth.
The
fate of the latest
Romantic
in poetry.
will be, in fifty years, similar to that of their
compeers
We
might
say, with justice, that whilst the talents of the present period,
raised to the position of suns
who have been

into stars of a
and
fixed stars,
may
decline
minor rank, the great masters of the German Genius epoch, Bach, Handel, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, will rightfully assume
their dignity of planets.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
WE have
seen that the
German Romantic
Schools of music and poetry in
the early part of the nineteenth century were free from foreign influence. In our own period, however, when the New Romantic Schools developed, we
1164
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
find external influence, the English
and French agents of which had been The two men through biassed by the older school of German Romance. whose fiery imagination Germany received the reflection of its own intensiIt was necessary that Byron should fied romance were Byron and Berlioz.
have influenced the school of Romantic poetry before Hector Berlioz could influence. Byron was unsway the younger sister school with his romantic " " Goethe's romantic poems, Werther," Faust," doubtedly influenced by '' Faust," but and " Tasso." He not only analysed and treated of Goethe's had been a very Faust, even as he had enacted the part of Don Juan. Goethe points to the fact that the demon -in Byron's "The Deformed
Transformed'-' could be but the result of his Mephistopheles.
Byron's
unbounded
regard for the poet-king
is
shown
in his enthusiastic letters,
and
" the dedication to him of Sardanapalus."
Goethe
reciprocated the senti-
ment, as is seen in the apotheosis of the English poet in
" Helena."
Sir
latter
Walter Scott, after the death of Byron, wrote to
tell
Goethe how the
all
him by a poet on whom, poet felt the honour which had been conferred on men looked with veneration. Even Mozart was not without influence
as is proved
on him,
by the
and Abel," " Heaven and

Byron's inclination for
influence
" Don Juan." In such works as " Cain " The Last Earth," and Judgment," we see His to mediaeval romance. subjects belonging
latter's
is
on the new German Romantic School
to be seen at its best in
the works of Heine, Lenau, Laube, Herwegh, and Hebbel,

vie with him in poetic
stress
gift,
who not only but exhibit the characteristics of the "storm and
which was brought about by the general discontent and spirit of pessimism to be found at every fresh epoch of development among the adherents of romance as the result of subjectivity and the claim for
period
"
the rights of the individual in the face of the established order of things.
Through the agency of the above-named followers Byron indirectly influenced a number of prominent musicians, who composed their poems and employed their subjects, and by his own creations he directly swayed Berlioz,
Schumann, and
Berlioz rule
Liszt.
As Byron
art.
influenced the poetry of romance, so did
German musical
The points
of similarity between the
French composer and the English poet are many. Like Byron, he was passionate, and judged his entire surrounding solely from the standpoint of his feverish subjectivity. Their pessimistic conceptions were the same.
The outbursts
of volcanic nature
were strange alike in both men.
Berlioz's

was an uninterrupted chain developing into bitterness and
1165
existence, like that of Byron,

failures,
of struggles,
and sorrows,
finally
irony,
which
caused, in their artistic activity, a leaning towards

subjects.
gloomy and demoniacal
Berlioz, however, was less the creator of his own sorrows, since he was naturally of a more generous nature.* Hector Berlioz was born on December 14, 1803, at Cote-Saint-Andre, a small town in the department of the Isere. His father, who was a medical
man, wished him

nature "
is
seen
to follow the same profession. Hector's impressionable the fact that at the age of twelve he had studied the entire by
Mneid," and conceived a violent attachment for a young lady of eighteen. Her ridicule failed to cure him, but caused him to hide himself for days, " in bush and " field. The memory of suffering and dumb like a wounded bird this attachment never left him, and when he met the object of his passion
after
an interval of forty-nine years, a married

evident.
woman
with white hair,
it
was
still
When
nineteen years of age, Hector, to

life, left
whom
music had
already become the passion of his
for Paris, to continue his medical
For a considerable period he pursued his vocation, but when he studies. found in the library of the Conservatoire the operatic scores of Gluck, he
could no longer restrain himself, and declared to his parents his determinaHis enraged mother cursed him, and his father tion to become a musician.
withdrew
all
chorus of the
In order to teep from starvation, he entered the He soon attracted the notice of Lesueur Gymnase Theatre.
help.
and Reicha, who became his teachers in musical theory ; but as the strict style offered no attraction to him he left the Conservatoire in 1825, and
studied composition
by
himself, t
In 1825 Berlioz studied the
Dumas
German
//
"(/
(pere),
school,
literature of Victor Hugo, Alexandre and Alfred De Vigny, who were all influenced by the wrote the two overtures to Les Francs Juges, and Scott's
rcrley,
and sketched
his fantastic
" Episode de symphony, the
la
Vie
in his " Berlioz Intime, d'aprcs des documents nouveaux," points to mistakes in Berlioz's " Memoires," published in Paris in 1870, and of which a second have taken for our authority, in a great part, the memoirs of edition appeared in 1881. Berlioz, and doubt but few of his dates. have already referred to the disagreements between Berlioz and Cherubini, and t
*
Edmond Hippcau,
many
We
We
may assume
that much that Berlioz says of him is tainted with prejudice. Hippeau is doubtless right when he refers to the impossibility of fixing precisely the dates connected with the quarrels of Berlioz and Cherubini.
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
d'un Artiste."
About the same time he composed eight scenes of Goethe's he had deeply studied, publishing the score at l<\int, a subject which satisfied with the work, however, he bought up Not his own expense. matter in his Damnation all the copies, and afterwards used some of the
Berlioz now fell in love de Faust, which was performed in 1846 at Paris. This lady was a talented member of an English with Henrietta Suiithson.
witnessed her performance of Ophelia and troupe, and the composer having made overtures, which were however refused. The disappointDesdemona,
committing and on one occasion Liszt and Chopin spent a night roaming suicide, over the plains of Saint-Ouen, whither he had gone in a fit of madness. The composer returned to the Conservatoire in 1826, and four years later
prix de Rome with his cantata Sardanapalus, the libretto founded on Byron's poem of the same name. He now of which was became reconciled to his parents, and in 1831 left for Rome, where he regained the
first
ment
of the master
was
so deep that his friends feared his
sided at the Villa de Medici, in the society of several French artists, headed
by Horace Vernet, the celebrated painter. Here he composed the overtures " " " Scenes aux to Rob Roy and King Lear, the Champs for his Sym" Chant de " La Bonheur," Captive," from Victor phonic Fantastique," " Hugo's Orientales," and the music to a religious poem by Thomas Moore.
During his residence at Rome Berlioz was subject to fits of melancholy, and would often, like Salvator Rosa, with gun or guitar, wander far among
by the banditti whom he encountered. was during these rambles that the composer gathered those ideas which afterwards found expression in his symphony " Childe Harold/' the subject
the valleys of the Abruzzi, unmolested
It
of which was taken from Byron's poem.
Paris before the expiration of the prescribed period.

to see
In 1832 he returned suddenly to He chanced again
the English actress as Juliet in Shakespeare's tragedy, and it is said that after the performance he exclaimed, "Cette femme j'epouserai " This actress soon et sur ce drame j'ecrirai ma plus vaste symphonic
!
after heard Berlioz's " Lelio," which was performed at one of his concerts, by which she was so impressed that she accepted the composer, and in
his choral
composed which was published in 1839. Madame Berlioz was obliged to leave the stage owing to an accident, which resulted in a broken leg. They were visited with much trouble, until in 1837
1833 they were married.
It
was
after this that the master
symphony "Romeo
et Juliette,"
<*
*v
TtC*
**"
FAC-SIIIILB oy
A LETTER FROM HECTOR BRRLIOZ.

Co/?ertu)
(>rom
<te
^ôgraj)ft
o/
Hermann
Scftote fU
J)re*(iH.)
38
__
Uridstn^
(/<a
t7
/
I
-7
JuL/fa 4xvo
^
--*
AJ |
q*
û^
(OK
/
/<
"0 /Y~
tvx
^
-\
/ ^vw
flA
rmM
herds' Chorus of
I thank you, Sir, for having taken the trouble to re-translate in verse the ShepI regret much more than you that I received Biblical excerpt.
my
your work post festzim (as you call it) have honoured me up to the present.
and
it is
a curious fete with which
my
translators
As you
to forward
offer
me
ao gracefully your assistance against them, I shall take the liberty

last
you from Paris a
You
will oblige
me much by
proof of Faust, and to request you to look being severe in your correction.
it
over.
Give
my
kindest regards to Liszt.
rehearse to-night, and again to-morrow.
know, kneeling to me; and that he m;iy of brass on his Hony theme.
The concert remuius fixed for Saturday. \Ve Remember me cordially to Remeny, who is, I rise as quickly as possible, I send him a volley
Always yours devotedly,
HECTOR BERLIOZ.
LEIPZIG, 6 DectmJtfr, 1853.
HECTOR
BEllI.in/
AND RICHARD WAGXER.
1167
Paganini made the composer a present of 20,000 frs. The marriage, however, was never a happy one, and in 1840 the trouble culminated in a
divorce.
On
the death of his

his
first
wife in 1854 Berlioz married a second

Rezio, a
" The master's symphony " Childe Harold was performed

1840, on the occasion of the erection of the July
time, the subject of
choice
being Mdlle.
young
in
1 8-'J
1
vocalist.
;
and in
Funebre
et
Triomphale
Cellini,
Benvenuto
Column, " was The complete failure of his opera given. which had been performed at Paris in 1838, caused
his
" Sinfonie
a severe attack of melancholy, and the composer, during the winter of ]842 1843, sought refuge in Germany.* Here he entered upon a concert
tour,
in
hoping to gain for
Paris.
music that appreciation which was denied him The composer was well received, and at Stutgardt, Dresden,
his
furore. Although his gift of imagination were acknowledged, he was accused of employing and his remarkable scoring
Berlin,
and Brunswick created a
his talent for the
purpose of giving voice to capricious fancy, and ignoring
euphony In 1845 Berlioz undertook a second concert tour through Vienna, In 1 848 and Prague, Pesth, and Breslau, and two years later to Russia.
1851 the master visited London, and during the two years following he
in favour of the merely characteristic.
The went, for the third time, to Germany, at the invitation of Liszt. This master principal object of his visit was to see Liszt at Weimar.
had been ardently engaged in preparing a reception for his " Berlioz " week. works, and had arranged the celebration of a
friend's It
was
owing
flu
to his efforts also that the
first
part of Berlioz's trilogy,
L'Enfance
composed in 1854, was performed at Aix-la-Chapelle, at the In 1856 an Rhenish Musical Festival, where it achieved great success. " Te with orchestra and organ accompaniment, produced Deum," antiphonal " L'Acain Paris, gained for the composer the honour of membership of In later years he received several decorations, demie des Beaux-Arts/'
Christ,
including; that of
we
*
" Officier de la Legion d'Honneur." Of his last works must mention the comic opera Benedict and Beatrice, taken from
cannot guarantee the correctness of all the dates in connection with the life of between those of his own memoirs and those of Edmond master in his own writings. llippcau, there are many discrepancies in the dates quoted by the For instance, ho places the first performance of Ophelia in the years 1827 and 1830, ho dates in 1842 liis first journey to Brussels and Germany in 18401841, whereas it really took place 1843. His application for professorship at the Conservatoire he fixes at both 1833 and 1839.
Berlioz, as, besides the variance
We
1168
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Shakespeare's
1802, and at
Much Ado about Nothing, performed at Baden-Baden m Weimar a year later. In the same year the composer pro-
duced his grand opera Les Trojans in Paris, and, later on, an oratorio, entitled Le Temple Universel, written for the opening celebration of the When the author, in the spring of the same Paris Exhibition in 1867.
the composer was so unwell as to be year, paid a visit to Berlioz in Paris, to receive him in bed, but the state of his mind by no means pointed
obliged
to a speedy end.
At
the news, however, of the death of his son abroad,

illness,
he was seized with a fatal
and died on March 8th
(or,
as
some
say,
have mentioned Berlioz at the commencement of 9th), 1869. this chapter as the real founder of the New Romantic School of music, a
March
We
school exercising
to
which
Liszt,
immense power on the musical world of the present, and Berlioz Chopin, Meyerbeer, and Richard Wagner belong.
was the resuscitator of programme music, which, however, had been known centuries before, and introduced the form of the symphonic poem and the leit-motiv, which he used in his orchestral works, as later on Wagner
Thirty years before Wagner, Berlioz used, for his the instrumentation which the composer of the Ring symphonic works, des Nibelungen employed for dramatic purposes. Notwithstanding these
did in vocal composition.
points of similarity, Berlioz was little inclined to join in the idol-worship
which was indulged in by Wagner's adherents. It may even be said that Berlioz was not just in his judgment of Wagner. After the first Wagner
concert in Paris he wrote that the attention of the public during the performance of the overture to the Flying Dutchman " is wearied and flagging." He found but little originality in the melody of the Tannhauser March,
which, in form, not to say accent, reminds us of a theme in Der Freischiitz. He declared that the violin passage accompanying the pilgrims' chorus in
the overture to Tannhduser, which occurs one hundred and forty-two times, produced a most wearying impression. Of the charming wedding music in
Lohengrin he says
find here so small
" This march precedes a chorus which one

I
is
amazed to
was
all
might
'
say childish, in its style.

first
The
effect
the more unfavourable, as the

selection
few bars remind us of a very poor

is
from Boieldieu's
Deux
Nuits,' music which

in Paris."
heard in every
vaudeville and
known by every one

Wagner's
principles,
Berlioz said of
all
Speaking like Lessing, that what was true had been known to
previous important masters, while that which was brought forward as
1109
new
" I could but seriously raise my hands and exclaim, non credo." man who is not a fanatical Wagnerian, Every particularly an historian, who must be honest, can but subscribe to this. Also
contained so
little
truth that
" I firmly believe that beauty can never and that though the mission of music is not ugliness, to please the ear alone, it was never intended to be disagreeable to it." The master added that there might be some who preferred to drink
must he agree with assume the form of
Berlioz, that
but he favoured pure water, were it as insipid as an opera of Cimarosa. The author assigns the first place in the list of Berlioz's compositions to his Requiem, excerpts of which he had the good fortune
vitriol,
to hear
under the baton

the
of
the composer at the Leipzig
Gewandhaus
Concerts, where
French
is
Mendelssohn.
of Dante.
efforts
The work
composer had been warmly received by one of austere grandeur, written in the spirit
of opinion that
it
The author was

Berlioz,
crowned
all
the previous
of
and was delighted to hear that
was entertained by the composer.

been equally great, as he
Paris, that the effect
the same opinion admiration seems to have Spontini's declared, on hearing the first performance in
to that
was equal
produced
by Michael Angelo's
" Last Judgment."

of this
work
Among the instruments employed for the production are sixteen kettle-drums, sixteen trombones, a like number of
trumpets, four tam-tams, four ophicleides, two tubas, ten cymbals, twelve These gigantic means would appear to denote horns, four cornets, &c. a too realistic tendency, were we not aware that the motivi, without such
still produce a powerful effect. For " Flammis acribus B of the double instance, at the words, addietio," the basses, clashing with the C of the celli, while the violins depict the leaping
a wealth of dynamic resources, would
of the flames, produces a wonderful effect.
though one exhibiting
less unity, is
Another extraordinary work, " Berlioz's fantastic symphony, Episode

this
de la vie d'un Artiste."
The author heard
work
for the
first
time
under the direction of the composer, at Paris, on March 24, 1851, and his opinion was that with all the chaotic, formless, and inorganic matter, and
working
suspense.
out, there is
no
trivial idea,
but the hearer
is
kept continually in
The
orchestral effects, though strained and glaring at times, are
often powerful and charming, characterised
by spontaneity and
originality.
The
seems to hear a newly-discovered orchestra; lacking but the direction of a Beethoven to be brought to the highest degree of perfection.
listener
WWW
1170
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
The five parts were named respectively, "Reveries et Passions/' "Au Bal," " " Aux " Champs/' Marche Funebre," Dies Irae, un Burlesque/' The sym" phony Harold en Italic/' is one of the master's more prominent works. It
was written
at the desire of Paganini,
who wished
for a
symphonic concerto
for the viola. From this the master constructed a symphony. The numerous beauties contained in this work are marred by the prescribed programme
with which the composer was fettered ; nevertheless, the impression produced is that of a true tonal poem, and the whole effect compensates us " for the too realistic bells in the "Ave Maria" and the noisy Orgie
des
Bandits/'
which Hauptmann compares

ascribed to the viola
is
to
painting by
as
it
" Hell
is
Breughel."
tive.
The part
as original
effec-
King Lear and Les Francs Juges contain much as do also the greater works, La Damnation de Faust and " Romeo beauty, " Queen et Juliette," in the latter of which the scherzo, Mab," must be especially noticed. We must not omit to notice the charming and
The overtures
to
imaginative trilogy L'Enfance du Christ. The operas of .Berlioz, Benvenuto Cellini, Benedict and Beatrice, and Les .TrojgMS, cannot be accepted as
genuine musical dramas,
notwithstanding their
many
beauties, for this
form requires
celebrated
artistic objectivity,
to.
Berlioz could not attain
We
which the dreamy nature of a subjective must direct attention to the master's
Traite d'Instrumentation et d'Or-
and truly
classical
"Grand
1844; and "Le Chef d'Orchestre," published in the same city ten years later, and which is still acknowledged to be the best and most instructive work of its kind. As a serious critic, and one most enthusiastic for his Berlioz must command compeers,
chestration," published
at Paris in
respect.
His appreciation of Gluck, Spontini, Beethoven, Weber, Meyerbeer, Liszt, and Mendelssohn was as sincere as it was As feuilletonist, our master
just.
is proved by the number of and aphorisms published under the titles of " Soirees treatises, articles, d'Orchestre," "Grotesques de la Musique," and "A Travers Chants," between the years 1853 and 1863.* The master's " Voyage Musicale en
was possessed of unusual
gifts, a fact
which
Allemagne
et en Italie," published in
two volumes
in 1844,
is
a work of
great interest.
As
Berlioz
was the founder of the
New
Romantic School,
so
Richard
* These works were, in 1864, translated by Gustav Heinze, at Leipzig.
into
German by Richard
Pohl, and published
1171
Wagner may be styled its perfector, being its most prominent and truly chosen At the commencement of the dramatic career which was destined to make him ere long so famous, Wagner clung to the old traditional opera,
dramatist.
he himself says, he followed the most trodden paths those least He says in his autobiographical sketch, characterised by a German spirit.
and
as
extending to 1842, that his
1835
in
first opera, Das Liebes Verbot, composed between and performed at Magdeburg, was the result of no pains 1836, The avoiding the French and Italian reminiscences then the fashion.
master's Rienzi,
commenced
in 1838, exhibits
unusual progress in dramatic
creation, and although the leaning towards French and Italian models is still displayed, it is confined to the leading masters of the grand French
opera, represented at that period by Spontini, Meyerbeer, Rossini (Tell), and Auber (Masaniello) In the eyes of the connoisseur, Wagner's Riemi is the turning-point, which contains in a great measure his special characteristics.
.
Although
this
work
is
in parts too lengthy,
commonplace, yet there are many traits dramatic gift. This is made manifest in several ensembles, and in the grand antiphonal chorus in the Finale of the third act ; the contrast between the
tumultuous
and at times verges upon the which evidence a powerful musical
cries of the populace and the chorus of priests, at the end of the fourth act, forming dramatic effects of the highest character. Besides these examples of massive choral and orchestral effects we find solos of
touching beauty.
Rienzi's song,
"
laszt der
Gnade Himmelslicht," and

In his next
the prayer in the fifth act, with the female chorus of the messengers of
peace, enchant us with their original
opera, the Flying
and graceful melody.
Dutchman, the master presents a
totally different aspect.
We
specially retain the title opera, for

still
Wagner
until
the Meistersinger
trespasses
on the domain of early opera, from which we see a complete
separation only in Tristan
und
Isolde.
FrcixcftiUz, treated in a popular manner.
The Flying Dutchman was, like the The subject of this opera is a
it
legend well
known
to
all
seafaring nations, and
has been treated by
the composer in a most striking manner.
has depicted in music the character of the spectral seaman and the local colouring of the story in a marvellous manner, and from the commencement of the stormy overture
He
we
are held in thrall
by the powerful instrumentation.
In this work we
meet with that flow which Wagner's music occasionally lacks, and cannot fail to bo delighted with its We must quote as originality and novelty.
w w w
1172
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
instances of especial beauty the vigorous sailor choruses, the song of the steersman, the duet between Daland and the Dutchman in the first act, the
charming spinning chorus, the romance sung by Senta, and the cheerful In Tannhamer, the fourth of Wagner's festal chorus in the third aet. of the romantic vein which he operas, the master has increased the power
struck in the Flying Dutchman, and has given to the local colouring a of St. Elizabeth of Thuringia, special religious impress by the introduction
who, although not particularly identified, is suggested by her renunciation " As " St. Elizabeth of the world, and Tannhauser's words, pray for me is well known, Wagner was a poet and composed his own libretti ; in this
!
viz., that of Tannhauser opera he has employed two distinct folk-legends and the Venusberg, and the contest of minnesingers on the Wartburg.
Amongst
the finest portions of this justly
famed opera we must draw

Elizabeth's grand aria and
attention to the overture, Tannhiiuser's song in honour of Venus, the chorus

of pilgrims, the septet at the
end of the
first act,
duet with Tannhauser, the march and the thrilling Finale of the second act, Wolfram's song "The Star of Eve/' and the thrilling account of
Tannhauser's pilgrimage to
the older opera school
all
is
Rome
in short, all that in
form belongs to
also find that
most
effective.
In Jjohengrin we
the portions to which the opera owes its real success are in or nearly Its greatest approaching the melodic form of the established system.
beauties are to
be found
in
the
novel introduction replacing the over-
ture, Elsa's song, the Finale of the first act, the song
" Euch
Liif ten, die
mein Klagen/' Ortrud's invocation in F sharp minor, the duet between Ortrud and Elsa, the male choruses and the procession in the second act,
the introduction of the third act with its marriage chorus, the grand duet between Elsa and Lohengrin, and the magnificent orchestral summons of the warriors.
We
must here
notice that in the introduction to this opera
Wagner art-form, in which he leads the chief motive from pianissimo to the extreme of fortissimo, from which by degrees it descends to its former level, representing effectually and in a manner most
poetical the progress of the
employed a
new
of
Knight of the Grail. Wagner's Mei&Ux&inger occupies a position midway between that group his operatic works which we have already discussed, and those musical
has, according to his
dramatic works with which
Wagner
we are now about to deal. In this work own words, treated "the dramatic language
<^X<^tx4^VjC^< *^+l
'
FAC-SISIILE or OXE UF
a
KICHAUD WAGNER'S LETTERS.

o/ IfoDuau
Sc/iolta
CoiUcfion
o/ 4{oyra^h,s
at
/'
16
DEAR
SIR,
of
my
correspondence.
I have been BO occupied the kst few weeks that I have been obb'ged to delay the whole I must therefore ask you to excuse my seeming neglect. You princi-
know my opinion whether TannJiauser or Lohengrin should be performed I decidedly say Tannhauser, and only after that can Lohengrin be played. I even insist that Lohengrin shall never be performed first, because the artists can only understand
pally wish to
first.
when they have thoroughly studied Tannhauser. Will you kindly arrange all other matters with my old Mend W. Fischer I am delighted at your undertaking thia enterprise, and wish you every success.
it
of Dresden.
Believe me, dear Sir,
Yours
sincerely,
KICHAKD WAGKEB.
ZtKiCH,
May
3Qik, 1853.

most
1173
as the
essential part of the

it,
subordinate to
work/' and has made the music entirely or to quote once more the words of the master, has " fitted his
music to the thought expressed in language so imperceptibly that the latter 7 is the dominant element/ Nevertheless, in the Meistersinger we find parts in which, as in the early opera, music is the principal feature. Instances of
this are to be
found in the quintett in
flat
major, which occurs in the
third act and represents the original opera ensemble, the song
oil
and dance
the apprentices, the overture, the chorale, the three songs of Walter von Stolzing, " Am stillen Heerd in Winterszeit/' " Fanget an So rief der Lenz in den Wald," and the last scene of the work, which, with instrumental introduction, choruses, procession, and prize-song, illustrates
!
the leading features of the genuine opera finale.

these portions of the
It
is
It
is
in our opinion
is
on
work that the
success of the Meistersinger

entire separation
based.
in Tristan
und Isolde that the
from traditional form
takes place.
Instead of closed and half-closed forms, dramatic ensembles,
and
recitatives alternated
with song, we find declamation supported by

in truth a resuscitation of the
music expressing the meaning of the words

early Florentine
monody employed by
Peri and Monteverde.
This fact
is
most surprising,
as the .progress of the great dramatic tone-poets, Gluck, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Spontini, Cherubini, Mehul, &c., was owing to their endeavours to free the
of polyphony to raise it into a complete form.
music-drama from monody, and by the addition \n Tristan and the Ring des
Nibelungen W'agner practically excludes polyphony. In close connection with this we must note Wagner's adoption of the monothematic style in
direct opposition to the poly thematic, as
i-hissical writers.
founded and cultivated by our In the music-drama the monothematic style can appear
but as a leit-motiv, and although the master did not invent this principle he made it the important feature of his dramas belonging to the second period. Instead of a manifold musical painting of one and the same character, as attempted by the masters of the old opera form, Wagner adopts a single, a dramatic stereotyped, and ever-recurring tone-phrase intended to designate
character.
We
if
" Nie
hero.
sollst
meet in Lohengrin a leit-motiv which illustrates the words du mich befragen," always associated with the presence of the
a leit-motiv be harmonised or orchestrated in various ways, and yet cannot renounce its original outline, it can really represent but one phase in the life of a dramatic character, and is powerless to describe the
Even
1174
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
entire sentiment, action,
and existence of the character.
Beethoven, to impowerful as and
press us with
least
the true character of his heroine in Fidelia, employs at

'as
twenty entirely different themes, which are

richly developed
more
than a leit-motiv of Wagner.
The
latter
is
the
only important master, from the time of Gluck downwards, who has employed the monotheme, none having adopted stereotyped phrases by
in as
which to identify their dramatis persona, but allowing- them to develop many themes as are required, in imitation of real life, of which
the
drama
is
but a mirror.
halt,
Such a procedure
but
is
is
identical
with our
exist-
ence,
which knows no
perpetually in action.
This cannot be
said of such a fixed
and variety.
formula as the leit-motiv, which precludes freedom Wagner also employs monothemes even when using several
leit-motivi to distinguish special traits of character or actions of one person,
for in such case
we
are treated to a repetition of one particular phrase,
which replaces polythematic, and consequently ever-varying effect. His principle undeniably unites the monothematic character with the hyperromantic, and carries
it
to its extreme.
We
must
notice also that the
muster docs
not.
always;
fraction of one.
employ a fully developed theme, but often a mere This must account for the absence of that refreshing o
The pleasant variety which, especially in Tristan, is so painfully apparent. " and the established diversity of form is replaced by the "eternal melody ;
art-forms, such as recitative
are entirely wanting.
gift, that
It is
and ensemble, rest and movement, wonderful indeed, and testifies truly to Wagner's
solo
and song,
even in Tristan, in which, for the first time, he applies his prinwith iron determination, and stands aloof from the well established ciples and beautiful forms of his art, he is enabled to arouse enthusiasm and
affect us
deeply with his dramatic power. For example, we must quote the second scene of the second act, in which Tristan and Isolde passionately
declare
mutual
love.
Such a fascinating power can but be the
result of
an
immense
This scene, followed by the duet, sink' hernieder, Nacht der siebe," is undoubtedly the musical climax of the entire work. On the other hand Tristan und Isolde contains so much " speech music/' and notwithstanding the leit-motivi which connect bar to so much distalent.
"O
bar,
jointed matter, that Berlioz
complaining of the which he experienced whilst to Tannhauser, and this is listening the reason no doubt that Tristan und Isolde has not gained favour on any
"
"
would have been
justified in
fatigue
1175
stage equal to that obtained
by Rienzi and the Meistersinger, and
still less
that of the Flying Dutchman, Tannhauser, and Lohengrin.
Though
in
Tristan
iti
und Isolde Wagner ignores almost
entirely
the
accepted forms,
the
Ring
des Nibelungen he has recognised them.
In
the Rheingold, in place of the resuscitated

find
trios for the
monody
of the Florentines
we
Rhine daughters, and even the leit-motivi appear in the form of fully developed subjects. In the trilogy Wagner further
favours the established forms, as in Die Walkiire, the Walkiirenritt, the duet
between Siegmund and Sieglinde, " Keinerging, Doch Einer Kam," Wotau's " Abschied und Feuerzauber," Siegfried's " Schmiedelied," the
orchestral description of
"Waldweben,"
Waldvoglein, the introduction
to the first act of
the duet between Siegfried and the Gotterdammerung,
the chorus of the warriors, the song of the Rhine daughters, and the impressive funeral march.
Wagner's return to the older forms is even more complete in Parsifal than it had been in the Ring des Nibelungen. In this, Wagner's last dramatic production, we find that power of music which can be expressed The orchestral introduction, the solo of by polyphonic means alone.
Amfortas alternating with the chorus of knights of the Grail, and the chorus of boys from the dome of the chapel, furnish materials which, in
the hands of
so gifted a master, could not fail to result in a magnifiThe chorus of flower maidens, and, indeed, the entire cent tone-picture. Finale of the " Buhnenweih-festspiels," are polyphonic and in obedience to form. It must not be supposed that it was the seriousness of the
subject-matter of Parsifal which led Wagner to return to the polyphonic form. For in works as serious, viz., the Ring des Nibelungen and Tristan
und
Isolde, there were
many
effect.
Indeed, the
in the first act of Tristan
gnomes und
opportunities for the introduction of choral of the Rheingold and the knight and esquire
Isolde seem to claim their right of choral
We can plainly see then treatment, which the composer has denied them. that it is by no means the subject-matter of Parsifal which induced the
master to renounce the antiquated monodic treatment, but that
it
was
rather the instinctive perception of the fact that such a style could not
remain in existence
trilogy.
experience gathered from his Tristan and Nibelungen
It was, without doubt, on the strength of this conviction that

style.
Wagner, with exceptional talent, was enabled to abandon his former
H76
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
We
are of opinion that all
monothematic treatment
is
the result of the
exalted romance of the present day.
We
refer not only to
the second period of his activity, eschewed ensembles,
Wagner, who, in replacing them by
monothematic treatment, but
also the melologue,
Symphony
"
(as
regards the viola solo),

solo songs
" monodrama, the Harold and similar works of Berlioz. The

also points to the
enormous increase of
and pianoforte pieces
tendency of the present age

If
subjectivity.
we
investigate seriously the cause of the inclination to this feature
which characterises the present school, we cannot fail to perceive that to composers other than Wagner, who was undoubtedly a born dramatist, a grand ensemble requires a certain amount of artistic objectivity, which
allows too little play for purely individual sentiment. A body of people seems altogether unfitted to express a purely personal sentiment, conse-
quently the chorus objective a nature.
is
rejected on' the plea of its requiring a
theme of too
is
an ensemble of
expresses a purely personal idea, which necessitates an objective effort on the part of the composer. Even as a litterateur Wagner exhibits the same tendency. Thus, the
Equally soloists, each of
objectionable to the
New
Romantic School
whom
master insists on the fusion of

different items
all arts,
and declares that the thousand
forming our existence and represented in art can only be seen in one condition, viz., that which is acceptable to his personal sentiment, and which consequently he declares as the only one justified. As
Wagner employs the leit-motiv and dramatic song which allows the persona to speak only in rotation, thereby typifying the monothematism in " Art- Work " of the Future music, so in his he advocates the fusion of all
thereby introducing the tendency of the Romantic School into the of thought and criticism. Instead of the endless variety whence very
arts,
field
drama ; he would with epos and the lyric. The separate arts, whose sublime dispense creations can be but the result of freedom, are to be fused into one .whole, the music-drama ; in which, notwithstanding all assurances of the ultimate freedom and equality of the arts, we learn from Wagner's drama that
poetry and painting are subservient to music, whilst architecture and The "Art-Work of the Future/' in fact, may sculpture are to be ignored. be interpreted by the music-drama of to suit which the archi-
art derives its wealth, the master has but one art, the
Wagner,
tect,
according to the master himself, should plan nought but "
Wagner
1177
Theatres;"
gestures,
the
object
of the
sculptor
should be
to
arrange groups,
speech-music the tonal art before the growth of polyphony and ensembles ; comprised lastly, the poet is to overlook all rhythm and the forms of Greece, the
years,
and dress of the performers ; the painter to restrict himself to scenic painting and selection of costumes the musician to repudiate the " which art-culture of a thousand and return to the "
;
assonance.
Renaissance and modern poetry, in order to resuscitate alliteration and Wagner even counsels the abandonment of independent drama,
it
and
requires no extraordinary perception to
become aware that even science
of the Future," which the master would seem to pronounce the end and aim of the future.* We find an explanation of Wagner's underrating of the plastic art in favour oF~
religion find their fate in the
and
"
Art-Work
poetry and music, and
the manner in which

like
the composer ignores the

art, finds
its
Greek sculpture, which, in non-conventional beauty and truth,

importance of
no other
existence
in the master's words, which imply that the ancient sculptors leave us the form of the modelled Greek " like a
petrified
memory, a
mummy
of
Greece"
(p.
162)
and, further, that the
unthought-of works, which may be the outcome of future periods, "will make the remains of Greek art an insignificant toy for foolish children "
(p.
263).
Wagner
overlooks the fact that besides the drama there are other
for example, at the performance of a Stabat Mater,
&c., in a
combinations of arts
a Requiem, a " Te
Deum,"
Roman
Catholic cathedral, in which
music, poetry, architecture, sculpture, and painting (the plastic arts being incomparably superior than when on the stage) unite in forming on the mind of the auditor an effect which, owing to the presence of religion,
If any one inordifail to outweigh that produced by the drama. favoured this church art, as Wagner does the dramatic, he might nately with equal justice demand the fusion of all arts into the form of church
cannot
art,
and yet this impossibility can be but the outcome of a supposition that the unity of art, which can be but ideal, may be positively realised.
Such a conception
of the fusion of all arts could only be a truth
when the
So long as one or two branches of art arts could bring forth equal effects. maintain a supremacy this fancied fusion is impossible. The result of a
" * See Wagner's Collective Works,"
vol.
iii.,
pp. 154, 166, 174, 175,
179,
180, 183, 287
and same volume, pp.
20, 21, 22, 32, 36, 41,
43,
102, 103, 115, 221, 125, 129, 130, 132, 138,
.141, 152, 189, 195, 205, 206, &c.
1178
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
union of sciences would be identical.

a conception of such an ideal the Future/' even though
is
union of art can be but
ideal,
and
of
at present a necessity.
The " Art-Work
its
sentiment be ideal, cannot endure, because
the fanciful conception of the connection between the arts teaches that their
fusion into a unity does not consist in the sacrifice of the independence of
either of the four in favour of one of its sisters, but rather in the absolute
coincidence
of their
essential qualities,
that
is
in the identity
of
their
elementary conditions, the laws of beauty, form, species,
and
style.
have already noticed the fact that with the opening of the Romantic School of Music, critical and not theoretical musical literature was introduced, whilst the Romantic School of Poetry
tirely relating to the laws of their style.
We
commenced with
first
literature en-
The
of the
Romantic School
who engaged
in critical
and
testhetic literature,
was Karl Maria von Weber.

his personal opinion,
though within narrow limits, Spohr's writings are, as a rule, mere records of
only in Berlioz and
and
it is
Schumann
that
we
first
find a
prominent literary
activity.
field,
hitherto attempted in this

no, less
Wagner's fertility exceeds everything the result of his literary labours occupying
than nine volumes. The chief subjects selected by the master " Ein Deutscher include Musiker in Paris/' the libretti of his operas and
musical dramas,
with the exception of Parsifal,

der
Revolution,"
"Das Kunstwerk
und Drama," which occupies three volumes, " Das Judenthuni in der Musik," " Ueber das Dirigiren," "Beethoven," " Ueber die Bestimmung der Oper," and " Programmatische Erliiuterungen." There are also letters to the Mayor of Bologna, on the Stage ; to Hector Berlioz ; to Liszt, on his symphonic poems ; and an autobiographical sketch extending to the year 1842.
It
"Die Kunst und die Zukunst," "Kuust und Klima," "Oper
may
be of interest to notice that Wâgner wrote
libretti
not only for
composition by himself, but for the use of others.

Friedrich Kittl (1809
He
ceded to his friend
1868), a chapel-master at Prague, the libretti of the operas Die Franzosen vor Nizza and Bianca und Giuseppe, the first of which was performed with great success in the Bohemian capital in the year 1848. Alfred Meiszner in the " Geschichte meines Lebens," vol. ii., pp. 6 and 9, ascribes the success to the dramatic of the libretto rather than to the power
composition.
We, however,
prefer
Wagner
as a musician to
Wagner
as a
poet
in the latter capacity he excels in
treatment.
We
choice of subject and dramatic care least for his esthetic and art-philosophical writings,
1179
though they contain many happy ideas and valuable propositions. If the last-named works are to possess in the future a value more than merely historical, it
must be
his
ascribed to the fascinating influence of the writer's in-
dividuality and
immense genius
as a composer.
The
life
of the master
be of great interest, as during the last thirty years nothing has excited the musical world so powerfully as his works and doctrines. The
fail to
cannot
cause of this
is
to be found in the fact that he possessed a nature

its
imbued
with an
ideal
fanaticism, and was so convinced of the truth of

all for
all
principles,
that he was ready to risk
ordinary natures have at
the sake of their propagation. Such extratimes exercised great power over that mass of
the general public whose opinions are unstable, and
who
are easily led
by a
is
temperament therefore more unjust than
firm in
its faith
and
ideas,
and imposing
in presence.
Nothing
to represent the master, as
many
of
Wagner's
self.
opponents have done, as one who by his art-principles worked but for himWhatever advantage might accrue to himself was a secondary result,
the propounding of his principles being the ruling motive. After this remark, which it is due to the master to make (it being his firm belief in his
own
principles
racter,
which appear to us the most prominent feature of his chaand in which we see the clearest explanation of his intolerance
towards those
who
disagreed in doctrine),
we
will turn to the discussion of
Wagner's
life.
Richard
Wagner was born on May 22nd,

was a
civil official.
1813, at Leipzig, of which

year of his
city his father

birth,
He
lost his father in the
and
his
at Dresden.
His stepfather appears
mother married an actor and playwright, Geyer, who resided to have discerned a musical talent in
its
the child, but died before anything could be arranged for
development,
Richard being scarce seven years of age.

the Kreuz-Schule,
it
:
years later the boy entered Of intended that he should study seriously. being
Two
this period he wrote
"
Nothing pleased me
so
much
as the opera
Freischiitz ; I used frequently to see
Weber
pass our house on the
Der way home
A tutor, whose duty it rehearsal, was to explain the intricacies of Cornelius Nepos, instructed me in pianoforte playing, and scarcely had I mastered the first exercises when I began to
from
and looked on him with reverence.
practise secretly the overture to Freischiitz.
When my
master happened to
hear me, he declared that I should never be anything.
He was
right, for
through
my
whole
life I
have never learnt to play the piano/'
At
school
1180
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Wagner
already had attempted poetry.
He
afterwards
commenced a
tragic
The plot was a grand drama, which was a mixture of Hamlet and Lear. one ; forty-two people died in the course of the play, and he adds humorously that he was forced to bring back the characters as ghosts, otherwise In 1827 we find the there were no persona to appear in the last act.
embryo dramatist
concerts interested
to
his
at the Nicolai School at Leipzig,
where the Gewandhaus

Beethoven's music
him
far
more than did
his studies.
Egmont
so pleased the
boy that he was desirous of composing music to

after eight days' study of Logier's
own
tragedy.
Though
" Method of
he lost confidence, yet in 1828 he decided on becoming a musician, but his family offered no encouragement. Like Berlioz, the enthusiast soon wearied of the dry study of musical theory. In 1830
Thorough Bass
"
Wagner was
sent to St. Thomas's School, but his studies were interrupted
by'the July Revolution, by which he was strongly impressed. Heinrich Dorn, then chapel-master at Leipzig, interested himself in the young
composer and produced an overture for the orchestra by him. This work, however, proved unsuccessful, and Wagner, again like Berlioz, found it
The master now necessary to resume the study of the principles of his art. became a pupil of Weinlig, the well-known cantor of St. Thomas's Church,
with
whom
University on philosophy and esthetics.
he studied counterpoint, meanwhile attending lectures at the His first published work was a
^sonata for the piano in B flat major (Breitkopf and Hartel, 1829). About that time also he composed a pianoforte fantasia in F sharp minor, a work of more sterling promise. In 1832 he wrote a symphony which was per-
formed on the 10th of January, 1833, at one of the Gewandhaus concerts. If his earlier works lacked any of the characteristic peculiarities of the
they displayed "a bold fresh energy of thought and naive motivi which arrested the attention of that well-known litterateur,
future composer,
Heinrich Laube,
of this
who
expressed great hopes

lost,
for
his
future.
The
score
but the orchestral parts were found in 1882 at Dresden, and enabled the composer to conduct this work at Venice at the Liceo Benedetto Marcello. In 1833 Wagner composed at WUrzburg a romantic opera, entitled Die Feen, after Gozzi's fairy tale, " Die Frau als Schlange." His wish that it should be performed at the Theatre was not fulfilled. In the Leipzig following year we find Wagner " a champion of Young Germany, writing articles for Laube's Zeitung
C major symphony was

fur die elegante welt."
1181
He was greatly influenced by this school and the of works like " Ardinghello," " Wally," and " Jung Europa/' which study
advocated material enjoyment ; and which he declared to have diverted him from his previously favoured mysticism. While at Wurtzburg the
master composed for his elder brother Albert, then stage-manager and tenor of the opera in that town, a Finale to an aria in Marschner's Vampire,
writing both verses and music, of which latter there were one hundred
This composition shows how he was must influenced by the Romantic School of Karl Maria von Weber.* now seize the opportunity to remark that Marschner holds an important
and forty-two
bars,
in
minor.
We
position
midway between Weber and Wagner,
his
Hans Heiling un-
doubtedly influencing the latter's Flying Dutchman, and that, style alone
excepted, as belonging to the Old Romantic School, he has written works, in subject more akin to the New School of Romance than even those of
Wagner.
In the Vampire there
is
a scene in which the attacked maiden
screams from the wings, an incident as extravagant as which, we may This scene safely affirm, is nowhere to be found in the works of Wagner.
proves also that there
romantic
no incident, however exaggerated, that a hypermind will not essay to depict, after the manner of T. A.
is
Hoffmann.
In 1834
Wagner became
his Liebesverbot (or
conductor of the Magdeburg Theatre, where " The Novice of Palermo "} founded on Shakespeare's
,
Measure for Measure, was performed in 1836 ; its lack of success, In the same year the however, was owing to purely external circumstances. composer married Minna Planer, an actress, and in 1837, after a short period
play of
was appointed " Musik-director," under Holtei, at Rigra^ Here he wrote the libretto of Rienzi, and composed the first two acts. This work being in the style of Meyerbeer, and intended for the Grand Opera at Paris, the master embarked with his wife in a small sailing vessel, and,
at Konigsberg,
after a tedious and dangerous voyage, during
which they were almost driven
on the coast of Norway, arrived at Boulogne.

attribute the realistic beauties
of
To
this sea
voyage we
may
Wagner sought Meyerbeer, who

*
the Flying Dutchman. At Boulogne was greatly interested with thescore~of
French capital. Rienzi, and gave the composer introductory letters to the
fac-simile of this composition is to be leben und seine Werke,'' Elberfeld, 1883.
found in Tappert's " Richard Wagner, sein
1182
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
The
influence of the popular master, however,
was lessened by
his absence,
and Wagner was compelled to earn a livelihood by making arrangements for various instruments and contributing articles to the newspapers.
Amongst
Chypre.
others he arranged a pianoforte score of

It
is
Halevy's
La
Heine de
undeniable that
Wagner
learnt
much from
the orchestral
The two composers, however, did not become very intimate. Amongst those of Wagner's works which were composed in Paris, we find the Faust overture, written in 1840, and the Flying Dutchman,
treatment of Berlioz.
He offered the 1841, an opera which was completed in seven weeks. Flying Dutchman to the opera managers of Leipzig and Munich, but it was not accepted. In the same year Meyerbeer, who was pleased with
the talent of his compatriot, brought about the acceptance of Rienzi at In Dresden, and a year later, that of the Flying Dutchman at Berlin.
1842 Wagner
left
Paris disappointed, and
went to Dresden
to hasten the
production of Rienzi.
On the 20th October of the same year, the opera was performed with immense success, and on January 2nd, in 3,843, the Flying Dutchman was performed for the first time, meeting with great success, and soon afterwards the composer received the appointment of court
chapel-master in the Saxon capital. wrote for the Saxon Male Chorus
Festival a
In the summer of the same year he cantata, with orchestral
accompaniment, entitled Das Liebesmahl der Apostel. In 1844 Wagner conducted the first performance of his opera, the Flying Dutchman, at the
This was followed, on October 19th, IS 15, the production of Tannhduser, and, two by years later, Rienzi was given at Berlin, under the baton of the In Tannhduser Wagner has composer. manifested his artistic faith in a characteristic manner for the first time, a fact acknowledged by the public. The author, who heard this opera in
1847, was vividly impressed with it, as being a work which opened a fresh the realm of musical art. Robert Schumann wrote in his diary, in the same year, that the work exhibited glimpses of genius, and that Wagner would be the man of his period were he as melodious as he was intellectual. In 1848 Wagner, like other became involved
field in
Royal Court Theatre, Berlin.
Revolution, was compelled from Dresden, as did his We meet him friend, the architect Semper. next in Paris, and soon after at Zurich, where he wrote and published " Das the " Kunst und Kunstwerk der Zukunft/' and Revolution," 1849,
to fly
m the eddy of public discontent, and, during the
prominent men,

" Kunst und Klima," which " Oper und Drama," a work
hibited great friendship for
1188
were
followed
in
the next
year by his
in three volumes.
In 1850
Liszt,
who
ex-
and interest in the master, produced Lohengrin at Weimar, on August 28th, and urged him to write a new great work.
Wagner now
turned his attention to the story of the Ring^ de$ ..Nibe-
lungen, which he wished to fashion into the libretto of a music- drama, but it assumed such proportions that the master was compelled to make out of
a trilogy with a prologue, the performance of which occupies four The subject of the opera is based rather upon the Northern evenings. Sagas and the Edda than upon the German of the Nibclungen Lied. The
it
master began this work in 1853, and so energetic was he, that by the spring of 1857 the prologue Rheingold, and the first of the cycle, the Walkilren,
and part of the second, Siegfried, were finished and scored.

of the Walkiirenritt, however,
is
The
first
sketch
dated 1852.
in the composition of this gigantic
work
in_lS, )5
Wagner was interrupted by a journey to London,
where he conducted a
scries of
eight concerts given by the Philharmonic

at the instance of the translator of this
Society (whose invitation
was sent
worked
work), and in 1857 by the composition of Tristan und Isolde, at which he at Zurich, in 1858 at Venice, and which he completed in the
of the following year at Lucerne.
went to Paris to " Salle conduct three concerts of his own compositions in the Yentadour/' and on March 13th, 1861, his Tannhauser was produced at the Grand " music of the future," and now Opera. Berlioz had already opposed the found a legion of envious composers, who hated the foreigner, who Wagner
lie
summer
In 1SGO
misunderstood his works, and who tried to bring about their failure by
means
of
the press.
The Jockey Club, whose members included the
wealthiest
members
Till
the performances.
performances.
of Parisian society, lost no opportunity of interrupting The master in consequence refused to allow further
now he had been
exiled
from Germany for
political
reasons, but in May, 1S(51, a successful performance of Zo/^wyrmjtpok in Paris. In place in Vienna, which repaid him for his disappointments
1852, while staying at Biberich, on the Rhine, he commenced the Meisterand Saxony now being singer, after which he visited Prague and Berlin ;
open to him, he returned for the first time since his flight to Leipzig. During 1S63 he achieved many brilliant successes in Russia and Hungary,
and
in
the following year
King Ludwig
of Bavaria called
him
to
Munich,
1184
\
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
performed at the Royal Court Theatre, the role of the hero being; rendered by Schnorr, the son of In 1868 the Meistersinger was performed for the the celebrated painter.
where, in 1865, Tristan und Isolde was
first
time and soon gained in Germany a popularity much greater than In 1871 Wagner addressed a circular to his that of Tristan und Isolde.
friends for the purpose of collecting the

for the production of his
sum
of
900,000 marks, necessary
most German
1872 he
cities
Ring des Nibelungen ; and for this purpose in }> " was formed. In the previous a Wagner Verein
year the master had married Cosima von Billow, a daughter of Liszt.
left
În
Switzerland for Bayreuth. where, a little while after, a Wagner Theatre was built on the Stuckberg, the plans being drawn up by Semper, and in the building of which many improvements suggested by the master
were introduced.
The foundation-stone was

performances of the
laid
on
May
22nd, 1872, on
which occasion Beethoven's ninth symphony was performed.

afterwards the
first
Four years
August 13th
to 17th.
;
parts of the world
Ring Bayreuth was commenced from all the Americans came not only from the United States
des Nibelungen were given,
A pilgrimage
to
but from California

the East and
West
Indies
Englishmen not only from Great Britain but from and even the French, who had not had time to
;
forget the incident of
Germany
Emperor
on
1870, were strongly represented; sent auditors, and the youthful King of Bavaria,
all
parts
of
lent
who had
unusual support to the enterprise, was present at the performance with the
of
Germany, who had, by
visiting Bayreuth, conferred
an honour
Wagner experienced by no other German composer. The author, who was present at the third cycle, quotes the following from his pamphlet " Musikdrama oder entitled Eine Beleuchtung der Baireuther Oper ? * The Biihnenf effects of the are to be found
estspiele."
grandest
trilogy
in the
the Gotterddmmerung, and include the impressive orchestral introduction, followed by the charming song of the Rhineact of
third
daughter,
" Frau Sonne sendet lichte Strahlen."
All that follows forms a
continuous chain of beauty, which might be increased were there more adherence to established forms. refer to Siegfried's meetino- with the CT O
We
Rhine daughter ; the hunting scene, Siegfried's history, and the funeral march form a powerful ending to the trilogy. Parsifal was performed for
the
first
time at Bayreuth on July 26th, 1882, and with

* Published
it
Wagner brought
by Robert Oppenlieim,
Berlin, 1876.

to a close his career as a musical dramatist.
1185
Sunday, 1884, the grand scene of the Last Supper from this work was performed at a concert at Dresden, and the author, who was present, could not fail to notice the
impression
his
On Palm
produced, not only on enthusiastic Wagner disciples, but on The enraged opponents, the staunch upholders of hyperclassical form. in his later years was not entirely free from hodily ailments he composer
it
:
suffered
from asthma, and passed the winter of 1882;^8JLat Venice, where
he stayed at the Palace Vendramin, near the Grand Canal ; he rallied, but on February 13th the civilised world received the news of his death.*
of singers, musicians,
Wagner's peculiar tendencies may be said to have called forth a new class and litterateurs. We find, first, the Wagner singers,
who, forsaking the melodic flow of the older
aria, require that strongly accented declamatory intensity so necessary to the interpreters of Wagner's works, especially those of the second period. Among the female singers
we must notice specially Reicherkindermann, incomparable as Briinhilde, who died on June 2nd, 1883 Amalie Materna, born in Styria, 1847, who
;
assisted at the performances in
Weimar
Frau Vogel
1876; Theresa Malter; Frau Milder, of Herr Milder; and Herr Vogel, born 1845, who is
undoubtedly the best Tristan; Schnorr von Carolsfold (1836 1865), towhom we have referred as the son of the creator of the Nibelung frescoes which adorn the walls of the museum at Munich; Emil Scaria, born at
Gratz in 1840, who made his debut at Vienna as St. Bris in the Huguenots ; Albert Niemann, born near Magdeburg, 1831. There are some performers " " other than who have excelled in the creations of this
Wagner
singers
master.
We
refer to
Mme.
Schroeder- Devrient,
who was
perhaps
the
most magic Venus who ever appeared in Tannhauser ; Johanna Wagner, who was incomparable as Elizabeth, after receiving tuition in the parF from
her uncle
;
at Dresden, an excellent Rienzi as
Joseph Tichatschek, one of the earliest of the master's friends and Tannhauser ; Franz Bet /, who excelled
;
Wotan and Hans Sachs Wolfran.
and Mitterwurzer, a worthy representative of
* The whole life and experience of the translator have led him to an estimate of Wagner in direct conflict -with that of Professor Naumann. To the translator Wagner represents the climax of the six great geniuses. The whole of their efforts find their completion in him. It is who makes the tonal art a language, understood by all his music is as if the
Wagner
tongue of the art were loosened, where before it was but lisping speech. To class Wagner with the "Talents" is an absolutely false judgment: he is a genius of the first order.
FERDINAND PRAEGER.
XXX
1186
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
There are also Wagner conductors, historians, and panegyrists.
The
known of the and Hermann Levi.

best
first
name
include
Hans
Richter,
Hans von
Biilow,
Among
the historians are Franz Brendel, with his

(a fifth
"
Grundziige der Geschichte der Musik""
edition of which
was
published in 1861);
and Carl F. Glasenapp, whose "Richard Wagner's Leben und Wirken" (published in two volumes in 1876) is well known.
the panegyrists the most prominent are Friedrich Nietzche,
Of
Ludwig
Fig. 288.
Exterior of the
Wagner Theatre
at Bayreuth.
The principal theorist of the school Nohl, and Hans von Wolzogen. is Karl Friedrich Weitzmann, born at Berlin in 1808, where he died in 1880.
Our history of the New Romantic School would be incomplete without mention of Franz Liszt, who holds a position midway between Berlioz and Wagner, and who has been an intimate friend and admirer of both. This, however, has never prevented him from due of talent
acknowledgment
wherever perceived, although a leader of the
"Young German"
school.
prejudice, extolled the beauties of the works of Rossini, Bellini, Verdi, Meyerbeer,
Though nobody has striven so ardently to establish the position of and Wagner when still unacknowledged, yet Liszt, ever without
Auber, Mendelssohn, Chopin, and Schumann
Berlioz
and whereas Wagner under-
1187
rated Meyerbeer, Liszt helped to render celebrated his operas by transcribing parts of them. Liszt's admiration for the old masters is unbounded,
according- to Goethe an unmistakable sign of a noble nature.
As
instances
we can
point to his transcriptions for the piano of the grandest fugues of
Bach, the symphonies of Beethoven, and the songs of Schubert; his fantasias on Mozart's Don Giovanni, Meyerbeer's Huguenots and Robert le Liable, Mendelssohn's Midsummer Night's Dream, and the songs of
Fig. 289
Interior of the
Wagner
Theatre at Bayreuth.
Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Bellini's Pimtani. works of Wagner, Berlioz, and Saint-Saens.
Liszt, as a virtuoso,
He
has also paraphrased
had no equal in any branch but Paganini,

Notwithstanding
whom
he
even excelled in sentiment.
his artistic triumphs,
which
stand unequalled in the histoiy of art,_Liszt ever aspired to gain a position among composers, and although he could not reach that goal which he had set for himself, a goal similar to that of Berlioz, who desired to begin
true artist.
where Beethoven ended, nevertheless his works claim interest from every Those attempts include symphonic poems for the grand opera, " and " " Fest in two of mere
which,
Klange
Prelude,"
expressions
of
sentiment,
later
we
find
still
the symphonic
forms of our
classics.
In his
localities,
works he attempts to paint characteristically circumstances, x x x 2
1188
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and the musical individuality of special persona, and adopts Wagner's
leit-
motivi, thereby introducing the new symphonic style. This form could not bring the desired result, since the employment of the leit-motiv, as we have asserted elsewhere, is nothing but a return to
monothematism, i.e., to an antiquated form. The manifold contrasts of modern existence find their true representation only in poly thematic music,
more especially dualism, the form used by the great masters in the sonata, symphony, and overture, and found in the chamber music of Haydn, Mozart,
and Beethoven, and in the works generally of Schubert, Weber, Spohr, Mendelssohn, and Schumann. This form is also present in a few of Liszt's " Hunnenschlacht," a work inspired by Kaulbach's compositions, viz., the
picture
of
the battle of
the
Huns; "Mazeppa;" "Die
Ideale," after
well-known poem; the "Faust Symphony;" "Dante Symphony;" and "Berg Symphony," after Victor Hugo's poem. This master's works
Schiller's
exhibit as a whole
much
originality, boldness,
and earnestness, while in
them we
possesses
find
no
much
Of
Liszt triviality nor effects lacking serious intention. in common with Wagner as regards energetic will, although
the latter master, with his wealth of invention, developed a

character.
his entire works, Liszt's
valuable,
and includes his
more independent sacred music is by far the most " Graner " Messe," "Missa Choralis," Ungarische
Die Legende von der heiligen of which is by Roquette, and in
Kronungsmesse," and his oratorio Christns.

Elisabeth,
(St.
Elizabeth), the libretto
which Liszt's romantic tendency proclaims its presence most clearly in the " Rosenwunder " and " Kreuzfahrerscene," may be said to stand midway
between the sacred and secular
styles.
We
must
also call attention to the
master's setting to music of Heinrich Heine's poems; a sonata dedicated to Robert Schumann, his two concertos for the piano in E flat, and works
belonging to an early period; the "Consolations," "Annees de Pelerin-
" Hungarian Rhapsodies," and Harmonies Poetiques et Religieuses." " " That the master is not lacking in humour is proved by his Nieschor in the " and " " from the the Wartburgfestspiel Franciskuslegende. Vogelpredigt
age,"
''
"
Besides his gifts as a musician, Liszt enjoys a wide education and sound universal knowledge, which enables him to maintain an important position as a musical litterateur. His is as fluent in French as in German.
He
writing has written a sketch of the life of Chopin, of

Field's
whom
he was ever a
entitled.
champion ; essays on John
"
Nocturnes
" and pamphlets
FRANZ LISZT.
Born 22nd October,
1811, at Raiding, near Oedenburg.
(By permission of
S. Scliottlaender, of Breslau, after the original Steel
Engraving published by him.)
36

*'
1189
Ueber die Musik der Zigeuner," " Ueber Tannhauser und Lohengrin/' He also contributed articles to Brendel's and " Ueber die Goethestif " Neuezeitschrif t."
Meyerbeer, in
that
tung." Benfey remarks on one of Liszt's eulogistic

his opinion
articles
on
which
was
entirely opposed to that of
Wagner,
" where
Liszt feels and thinks otherwise than does
Wagner he knows
how to assert the independence of his judgment." Franz Liszt was born on October 22nd, 1811, at Raiding, a village near Oedenburg, in that part of Hungary bordering on Lower Austria.
perfectly
Though
at an earlier period the family of Liszt had belonged to the
Hun-
garian nobility, Germanj has an equal claim on the master, as it was there that he received his musical education. This claim is strengthened by the
fact that the master resided for
energetic in
many years at Weimar, that he was most the spread of Wagner's works, was most active in promoting assisting the completion of the Beethoven statue at Bonn, and held a peculiar and prominent position in the New Romantic or "Young German"
His father, Adam Liszt, who was himself musical, discovered his son's gift at an early age, and eagerly fostered it, so that at nine years of age the boy made his debut in a concerto by Ferdinand Ries. A stipend
School.
was awarded
to send
to the
young
virtuoso
by the Counts Amade, Apponyi, and

to Prince Esterhazy,
Szapary, which enabled
his father,
who was steward
where he received lessons in pianoforte playing from After a concert given Charles Czerny, and in composition from Salieri. The great in 1823, the young artist was taken to Beethoven by Schindler.
to Vienna,
him
master encouraged the youth with kindly words. By these early successes of his son, Adam Liszt was enabled to forsake his vocation and devote himself
entirely to his son's interest.
He
entered with the lad upon a concert tour

finally to Paris, in the winter of 1823-4-.
through Munich and Stutgardtijmd
Notwithstanding his success as a performer, and a brilliantly-passed examiCherubini, clinging to sundry old statutes, refused to allow the virtuoso to enter the Conservatoire, and he was compelled to take private The Paris journals of 1824 described the lessons from Reicha and Paer.
nation,
boy as a talent without parallel, and at about the same period a similar In 1825 the young musician's operetta, success was obtained in London.
entitled
le Palais de I' Amour, was performed. In. 1.827 and at the early age of sixteen was enabled to Liszt lost his father, present his mother, whom he had sent for from Styria, with 100,000 francs.
Don
Sancho, ou
1190
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
About
this period the youth's career
seemed in imminent danger of inter-
the priesthood. ruption, as he was seized with the desire of joining him soon after, however, an adherent of the "Nouveau Christianisme," find
as preached
We
by
St.
in planning socialistic
this
Simon, and actively engaged with Chevalier and Pereire improvements. Although he soon discovered that
was not
his
true destiny,
we may
safely affirm that
it
is
from this
period that his gentle
humanity
dates.
Later on the talented master
indulged in daily intercourse with the heads of the
Romantic School of
poetry, especially Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Heinrich Heine, and Mme. Dudevant, afterwards so celebrated as George Sand. It was at one of these
" Ce meetings that Victor Hugo read his poem, qu'on entend sur la montagne," which produced such an impression on the composer that he determined on composing the " Berg Symphony." The friendship of Meyerbeer,
Berlioz,
and Chopin kept
alive Liszt's musical enthusiasm.
It
is
peculiar
that the
young
artist
who had
just lately wished to
become
priest
was now
attacked by the same scepticism which characterises so
many prominent Romantic poets and musicians, though it would seem that the nature^ of_ Romance, the chief features of which are art, chivalry, and woman-worship, would be averse to such contradictory principles. We, however, see that
Romance
return, as a rule, to their original world's-concepalso,
the disciples of
tion.
" Paroles Lamennais, the author of d'un Croyant/' led back to the acknowledgment of the undeniable worth and grandeur of religion. The phenomenon we have discussed is not
So
it
was with Liszt
whom
just
without psychological interest, for the commonplace saying that scepticism once past strengthens faith, is not sufficient to account for the endless number and difference of intellect of the individuals who pass through the ordeal. In 1834 Liszt's with the Countess d'Agoult commenced. intimacy This lady was known as a gifted writer under the name of Daniel Stern. One
of the children of this union
was Cosima, afterwards Cosima Wagner. In 1835 they removed to Geneva. A year later, however, the master returned
to Paris, in order to contest with Thalberg, success there. Liszt, as he has done his position as the first of pianists. there was a striking contrast between
who had
just achieved a brilliant
everywhere and all times, maintained Heine remarked on this occasion that
the perfect but
unimpassioned
Austrian and
(18121871)
the wildly enthusiastic Hungarian. Sigismund Thalberg was a pupil of Hummel, studying under that master at Vienna.
_f
-4
\^
'-
'
'
"5
V"

The European fame of
Paris.
1J91
this artist is
Of
his compositions his (pperalic fantasias*
founded on his success in 1835, at must be regarded as

studying the
the best.
lu 1837 Liszt went to Italy, where he achieved great success.

seized the opportunity of earnestly
While here the master

treasures of art
brilliant tour
which abound.
In 1839 he commenced
in
Vienna that
through Europe which insured for him a reputation unequalled that of any virtuoso but Paganini. From this date until the year 1847 by the master travelled incessantly from Russia to Spain, from Sweden to Hungary, visiting everywhere the capitals and chief cities, and producing
an extraordinary effect. Mendelssohn said that he had never before met a musician whose fingers could so perfectly express his sentiments. Schumann " The said, piano appears to glow under the hands of this master." This which was during the years 1841-2 unprecedented at Berlin, was. homage,
not paid to Liszt as virtuoso alone, but
culture.
The
author,
at an early age,
as a man of intellect and high who had the opportunity of frequently hearing Liszt remembers how the public were charmed with the master's
noble
bearing.
Honours
of
every description were showered on Liszt.

;
The Emperor
of Austria renewed his patent of nobility
the University of
Konigsberg awarded him the honorary title of Doctor ; the City of Pesth presented him with a sword of honour ; and the European monarchs vied in It was owing to his strenuous efforts that the Beethoven decorating him.
statue
of unveiling
was completed, he himself contributing 50,000 marks. The ceremony was performed at Bonn, on which occasion Queen Victoria and
of Prussia were present.
King Frederick William IV.

1847 the master, satiated with
About the year
his success as virtuoso, longed for seclusion,
He and the desire of becoming a composer grew daily more intense. and at length determined on residing sought a peaceful resting-place,
at
Weimar, formerly the home of Goethe, where he was invested by the Grand Duke with the direction of all the musical affairs of the State.
accompanied by the Russian Princess Caroline von Wittgen" stein, and took up his abode at the Altenburg," a property belonging As conductor of the opera Liszt to the Grand Duchess of Weimar.
He was
began by producing Flotow's Martha; this was followed by the first performance of Wagner's Lohengrin; Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini; Schu-
mann's Manfred and Genoveva ; and Franz Schubert's Alphonso und Estrella. The works of younger masters, such as Rubinstein, Raff, Lassen,
1192
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and Cornelius, were introduced by him. He also instituted Sunday matinees the Grand Duke at his residence, which was visited on these occasions by
of
" commenced with a symphonic poem, Der entfesselte Prometheus." His " Graner Messe " was of the composed for the ceremony of consecration
church at Gran, in Hungary, its first performance taking place in _18JaILHis resignation of the post he occupied at the Opera was due to the opposito the performance of the Barbier von Bagdad, of the tion of
part
Weimar and many
people of distinction.
Liszt's career as a composer
public
which the master was introducing. Liszt visited Paris in by but soon returned to Weimar, and after a visit to the Duke of 1860, Hohenzollern, finally fixed his residence at Rome, where, in 1864, he acted " Aeademia Sacra." The Pontiff conon behalf of Pope Pio nono in the and " Palestrina," and in 1865 tinually alluded to Liszt as his "dear son"
Cornelius,
created
him Abbe
Liszt^
as which the composer has been for the most part
connected with the Franciscans.
In this year the
St.
Elizabeth was per-
formed for the
first
time at Pesth.
Two
years later Ckristus
was produced at
Rome, and the "Wartburgfestspiel" was performed

Wartburg,
tion.
for the first time at the
in celebration of the eight-hundredth anniversary of its founda-
Since the year 1871 the master has resided for the most part at Weimar and Pesth. In 1870 he conducted a Beethoven festival at Weimar,
and afterwards a similar celebration at Pesth.
The Government
of
Hun-
gary bestowed on the master the title of Royal Councillor, to which honour was attached an annual stipend of 4,000 florins, and the Grand Duke of
Weimar appointed him Chamberlain.
The
first
complete performance of
Christus, a work conceived in the spirit of the Romish Church, took place at Weimar in 1873. Amongst the pupils of Liszt we find Hans von Billow,
Hans von
Bronsart, Karl Tausig (1841-1871), D'Albert, and Sophie Menter.

close
We
must
this sketch of Liszt's career
with a reference to his
and the fostering care with which he aided the works of both old and young composers of the most diverse tendencies. If the
versatility, tolerance,
leaders of opposing parties
and
different schools possessed
more of Liszt's most opposite
qualities of toleration, they
would soon discover
for themselves the fact that
the history of art

natures,
is
sustained
by the
collective efforts of the
and
that,
course of centuries,
who
excepting those isolated geniuses who appear in the raise the beautiful to the divine, all who strive to
reach the ideal are mere disciples.
THE PRESENT.
1193
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE PRESENT.
THE
period of the present
" period of the Epigones,"
might with some justice be described as the i.e., of those whose works form the art-produc-
tion of a period of transition alternative with the existence of the great The leading feature of such periods is the would-be degradation geniuses.
and the attempted "discovery" of others. For the author was introduced to a young man as example thirty years ago the future Goethe; this man has since become one of the foremost of
of preceding geniuses,
:
German
arise
poets, but approaches
Goethe no more than Chopin does Schumann
or Schubert.
who
often in the space of thirty years do so-called geniuses after a decade at most are forced back into oblivion
!
How
Before employing too frequently the term "epigone/* at present a favoured expression with German literary theorists, we should explain that
by
it
we do not imply mere
after the appearance of a genius.
imitation, but the fatality of birth immediately Immermann in his novel " Die Epigonen "
has done
much
to lower the
nate giftless imitators.
meaning of this word by employing it to desigBut as the national peculiarities of composers vary
to such a degree at the present day, as almost to defy the strict application
of the term to
them in any sense, we prefer to leave this debatable point, and return to the acceptation of the term as treated by us earlier in this
Endeavour was there made to show that the musical history of the old French, Gallic, Belgian, Netherland, Roman, and Early Venetian schools
work.
had their origin in the conception of the Middle Ages. The Classical Renaissance of the tonal art might, however, have received an entirely different form if actual reference could have been made to such productions as the
choruses to the tragedies of Sophocles and Êschylus and other musical works of Greece. But nothing more than mere descriptions of such works
were
accessible.
It
is,
then, extraordinary that the
Romantic Renaissance
should have adopted the musical theories of ancient Greece in connection with
the sagas of ancient
Germany
(as if in
opposition to the Classical Renais-
sance) when suffering under the same disadvantage, a disad vantage not
1194
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
shared by the plastic

bequeathed.
art, to
which
distinct
and
visible
Greek models were
We
have referred to two Renaissance periods in the tonal
art,
the Classic
and the Romantic, the latter originating during the decline of the former. Within each of these we find a culminating point of high excellence. In
the Classic period of the plastic art, Greek and mediaeval conceptions united
form the epoch of high culture, as represented by the works of Bramante and Raphael up to Correggio.
to
In the modern Romantic period the Germans combined similar conceptions, attaining that excellence in music and poetry represented by the
creations
period the works of
from Bach and Klopstock to Beethoven and Goethe. In this Wagner and Liszt may be said to form its climax, but
although the latter may represent the culmination of all that preceded them, yet they really belong to that section of the period initiated by Berlioz and
Schumann, and known
as the
New
Romantic School.
and
in so far as
They can
therefore
in nowise be described as Epigones,
Wagner
is
concerned
he must, in a pre-eminent sense, be considered the last of the Romantic
We, however, do not agree that the highest excellence was reached by Wagner and Liszt. It is true they complete the period of the Romantic Renaissance, but we consider that the ultimate stage was reached during
School.
the genius period extending from Bach to Beethoven, for the reason of the fusion that then took place of the most opposed culture-principles, in so far as such was possible in the musical art.
To the
historian
it
is
the Romantic period, the introduction of the
very significant that, during the last stages of New Romantic School was
a perfectly logical sequence to all that had preceded it in the tonal art. It was furthermore imperative that this school, like all others, should have diverged, no matter to what degree, provided it was not the outcome of
mere fashion but the true development of natural law. an historical necessity.
Reflecting
art
It
was in
fact
now on
the achievements of the past,

It is complete
we
observe in the tonal

is to
an organic whole.
and
finished.
What
come one
cannot divine.
the art
is
investigation, a vision of the probable progress of to the realms of It is obvious that the relegated speculation.
Beyond
tonal art, even of the
Romantic School, attained its climax in the universal development of the humanitarian principle dating from the Greek
New
THE PRESENT. And
1195
era.
herein the tonal art differs widely from the fine arts of the
ancients, wherein eaeh art

distinct
race.
appeared to be the unique possession of a
But modern masters, though regarded as the natural outcome of the Romantic era, do, by their inherent tendency, form a period of transition, a period uniting all that has preceded them with the future. If, however, we may assume that the tonal art of the future will be distinguished by
its classical style,
wherein will be found well-balanced periods
and euphonic expression, and

conceptions
intellectual art-forms united to deep heartfelt
(such as were effected, though unconsciously, from Bach to
Beethoven), then our prediction that the basis of art-principles will be more complete and elevated will be perfectly logical and historically supported,
though the productions partake of a Romantic as well as of a Classic character. All will be the natural result of working or proceeding from a sound whether the music be " or united to other arts.
basis,
absolute/'
The more
lofty the conception of art, the
more pure and vigorous
will
be
the art-productions, the character of surmise.
which we are now only able to
all
Such an art-period as this is, in our opinion, the only one possible, after other tendencies and theories have been exhausted, unless music be
work in a circle, or ultimately degenerate into however, our picture of its future be in any degree true, then the period of conflict between the two opposed world-cultures we are now passing through will be conclusively proved. As in past ages there
confined to one direction,
the abnormal.
If,
were
so
conflicts in the arts
of architecture,
sculpture, painting,
and poetry,
now have
such arisen in music.
The
fierce contests in art and literature
of the nineteenth century have invaded the
domain
of mental life with
increasing vigour, arousing the most bitter strife and leading to conclusions too often antagonistic to reason. The battles of intellect have not been o
confined to the arts, but have also
shown themselves
since.
in religion, philosophy,
and natural
sciences, affecting social life as well as the administration of
states, a condition predicted
by us many years
In religion the
;
strife
began
shortly after the period of the
Reformation
in the plastic
arts
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; whilst in literature, natural sciences, philosophy, and the government of states, they date from the
sixteenth to the nineteenth century, having greatly increased within the It is only in the latter half of this century that last two generations.
1196
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
at the consciousness of these seemingly unending struggles have arrived art they are yet still engaged their irreconcilability, while in the musical
in a contest that can only terminate
on the attainment of a
true art principles of
full
and com-
by the annihilaof the fundamental plete conception bias of party contention. tion of all prejudices, and an emergence from the
But
of this, at present,
we cannot
speak.
We can only indicate
in this
tendencies of musical principles and general survey the which are in direct opposition to orthodox laws, while others, some of
their representatives,
to established systems. As, however, from the again, adhere rigorously national different theories on which they work there is evidence of strong
music which greatly influence whole groups of musicians and we are bound, besides pointing that in an almost unprecedented manner
traits in
to the special schools of the artists,

classify
to treat of their nationality
and to
them
all
accordingly.
It
is
evident that
we
are precluded
from
naming
those possessing a certain degree of talent,
who have
are, in
unquestionable notoriety in their
own
locality.
We
yet gained the space to
which we have been limited in this chapter, compelled to confine ourselves to those musicians whose names have become known and respected by
the intellectual section of the musical world.
Were we
not thus, to limit
ourselves we should considerably exceed the limits of this section. feel it also incumbent to consider that a general musical history should
We
be restricted to the extraordinary and excellent on the one hand, and to the abnormal and such as may be deemed of real interest on the other. There
are
many
able artists of France,
torious
is
though they be, We have thought it, however, right to name those, who, less meritorious, have yet explored new regions, such studies being though We the natural outcome of their possessing some strong individuality.
concerned.
Germany, and Italy, whose works, merimust be omitted as far as detailed criticism yet
have regarded solely those who, in theoretical, historical, or aesthetic works, have left that which we feel will bear fruit for future generations.
We
have been compelled to omit, on account of their great number, the
names
of certain conductors, professors, and orchestral performers possessing undeniable talent, and doing- greater service to the tonal art than mediocre
composers or virtuosi, naming them, however, 4f, at the same time, they have excelled as composers, theorists, or masters of prominent pupils.
We
have thought
it
a duty to refer to those artists, vocal and instrumental,
THE PRESENT.
who have
confined their
abilities to
1197
the rendering of the works of the
great masters.
But we
fear, that
sought mentioning a name of less merit than those possessing higher talent, but whose works have not yet been brought to our notice. It is but probable that "we have made no reference to this latter class, one comprising men of worth, but who from various causes escape publicity, although perhaps more
fully entitled to
it.
to adhere to the plan indicated,
no matter how carefully we may have we cannot have escaped occasionally
It
is
hoped that in future editions we
shall be able
to rectify such omissions, or that whoever

will carry it out in the spirit hitherto
may
be engaged in that labour
as
shown by us. After these introductory remarks we will now endeavour to indicate clearly as we are able the artistic tendencies of the most prominent
musicians of our time, grouping their creations as accurately as possible. AsjGrermany took the lead in the tonal art a century and a half ago, and
still
holds the sceptre of music, though probably not for
all
time,
we
will
nation can only hold the lead in an art so long begin with that country. as its vision embraces every point of the horizon. The history of all arts teaches us this, and it is impossible that it should be otherwise. So long
as a country merits the premier position, so long will its conception of artprinciples be the
most complete of its time. But if that necessary and wide survey be reduced, and only one of the many lines that form the limits of an art be treated as its full extent, then the time will quickly
arrive
when
the leadership will pass into unbiassed hands whose natural
not yet have been blunted by wilful prejudice. The loss of this leadership by Germany must happen if it does not succeed in throwing off
instincts
may
its
present subjectivity with
its
pernicious consequences
its
music, to be regretted, during the past thirty-five years.
an upgrowth of If it does not
in
which may not serve a party programme, favour of universality in art, and become elevated above all prejudice while mediating between all contrasts, its lead will inevitably be lost to it. We can distinguishjn Germany three decided groups of composers, one
rid itself of its intolerance of that
loaning to the
New
Romantic School, the second

strict classical
to the
still
vital influence
of Mendelssohn,
and the third
to the teachings of
Schumann.
.In the last
we
find
an adherence to the
form which, with Schumann, was
is a ; connecting link with the followers of Mendelssohn, while, again, certain tendencies that united
almost an article of faith
in this respect there
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Liszt. Berlioz have helped to prepare the school of Wagner and a peculiar position. They retain The pupils of Schumann, therefore, occupy the Classical form of Mendelssohn while employing Wagner's advanced so frequent that in only a Romantic theories. This causes a
him
to
convergence
few
cases can one point to
New German
as being decided followers either of the In School or of the Classico-Romantic School of Schumann.
them
we should, in order to avoid alluding to any disciple of these three groups, mean that he is a misunderstanding, explain that we do not necessarily
strict disciple of
less,
the master of the school, but that he
is
influenced,
more
or
by
his model.
We
will
now
turn to those
masters
Schumann, most prominent, Johannes Brahms,
and, in various directions,
who in their youth followed have disseminated his influence. The

is
a composer of conspicuous merit.
We know
number
of his admirers,
well that this distinction will not satisfy a certain eccentric who in their exclusiveness are not less fanatical
than the Wagnerians, a body
appoint them in declining to Schumann, or on a level with Beethoven,

sponsible for the
much abused by them. place him on a higher

for, little
We
as
cannot but dis-
pedestal than that of
we
hold
him
re-
bombast
of his adherents,
we
are forced
by our stand-
point of art-criticism to regard such inflated
and careless utterances as the
subjective aberrations of irresponsible enthusiasts.
We
do not detract from
his merit in thus describing him, as we firmly believe he is the most prominent talent Germany has produced since Wagner's death. The only man worthy to be placed by his side is Rubinstein.
Johannes Brahms was born in
Hamburg on
the 7th
May, 1833,
his
father being a double-bass performer in the orchestra of the leading theatre there. At the age of fourteen Johannes made his debut as a successful
pianist,
and
in
he played a selection from his
1853 visited Robert Schumann at Diisseldorf, before whom own compositions. Schumann was so favour-
ably impressed that he wrote an article in the Leipzig Neue Zeitsckrift, " New entitled Paths." In this he described Brahms as a talent of the first
rank, the effect of this favourable criticism showing itself by Brahms securing a publisher for his songs and pianoforte pieces, which found much favour with the public. In 1863 moved from Hamburg to Vienna,
jie
making the
latter his
permanent residence.
While
at the latter place he
held the conductorship at the Vocal
Academy for
a period of twelve
months,
THE PRESENT.
1199
and from 1872 to 1874 a similar post to the Society of the Friends of He steadily refused all offers of appointments, his inborn love for Music. music prompting him to devote all his time to composition.
It
was not
long- before
he made
many
friends in the Austrian capital,
and being
practically free
from
all
professional engagements,
was enabled
Fig. 290.
Johannes Brahms.
to
complete
many works
of
eightieth opus, and, ere this,

these
magnitude. By 1882 he jiad written his Among may have completed his hundredth.
to his
we would
time at
Goethe's
direct attention
German Requiem, performed
for
the
first
(after
rhapsody " Harzreise ") for contralto, male chorus, and orchestra,
Vienna
in 1868, a cantata entitled Rinaldo, a
and his two cantatas entitled Schicksalslied and Triumphlied.
Of
his
1200
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
orchestral
compositions
we would remark
first,
are his three symphonies; the

lators
in
the most distinguished minor, was called by his aduthat
seeming sequence to the last of Beethoven's masterpieces. Though we by no means respect such overweening We it is a work of much interest. appreciation, yet we must admit that
the Tenth Symphony,
as a
would, however, place more value on the second and third, as in the
his
major symphony he turns from emulating Beethoven and displays more of own individuality, whilst that in F major, simple and almost pastoral
in character, has
become the most popular.
It
may
be added that at the
first performance of the F major symphony the Viennese public were unanimous in asserting that the one hearing had expressed to them the comWe must also notice poser's intention in a very clear and decisive manner.
favourably the two overtures Tragic and Academic, some variations for the orchestra on a theme by Haydn, the two orchestral serenades in and
major, the two pianoforte concertos, and the violin concerto.
Of
his
chamber
music we would refer to two sextets, the first of which might be said to usher in a new description of " musica di camera." sopata for violon-
cello
forte trios, quartetts
and piano, written at an early age, several string quartetts and pianoand quintetts, bear evidence of considerable artistic
Among modern song composers Brahms holds a prominent position, and when we turn to his a capella songs for four and six voices, we meet " Wie bist du meine with real We refer to the "
merit.
gems.
Konigin,"
in addition,
"
Magelonenlieder/' " Verfehltes Gutenabend, Gutenacht," and Standchen," and,

duets for female voices.
to investigate
If
many we wished
Brahms's music in connection with the
present and the past, we should find nents of that classical art-form used
him one
by
all
of the
most prominent expoin.
the great masters dating from
Bach
to Beethoven.
As
regards the poetical conception of his art, and
spite of the influence of
Schumann on
his earlier period,
we should
find
that he He does not belong to that develops an independent individuality. " class to which might be applied the remark of Schiller on Goethe, that he
had only need
to
touch the tree of art in order that
its fruits
might
fall
plenteously at his feet."

himself,
"
in order to achieve
Rather should we say that Schiller's criticism of any real success my effort had to be cor-
respondingly great/'
is one more He could rarely give birth to applicable. his inspirations without considerable mental struggle, and only in the most
THE PRESENT.
exceptional cases was
able to produce with the readiness of
1201
lie
Goethe,
though he appears to us to have overcome the subjective influence he showed

in his
earliest and,
to a
certain extent,
subsequent works.
It appears
further to us that he has mastered the form and that tendency to subtlety
which gave too abstruse a character to so many of his works, and has now turned to that sovereign naivete which accepts its inspiration without an
exaggerated self-criticism. Throughout his works we meet with talent, accompanied by a seriousness that excludes all trivialities, and we may
fairly say
worthy to be ranked with the best musicians of our time. contemporary of Brahms worthy of mention is Robert Volkmann,
he
is
born at Lommatzsch, in Saxony, on the 6th of April,_1815, died the 29th of October, JJ383, at Buda-Pesth. He is another of the many musical
produced by Saxony, where, during the seventeenth century, were born Johann Hermann Schein, Hammerschmidt, and Heinrich Schiitz ;
notabilities
in the eighteenth century
it
produced
Adam
Hiller,
Naumann, and Schicht
and
Schumann, Richard Wagner, and Otto Grimm. Although Saxony cannot claim old Sebastian Bach, with his son Friedmann, Hasse, Karl Maria von Weber, Moritz Hauptmann,
in the nineteenth century Robert
and Felix Mendelssohn, on the ground of it being their birthplace, yet it has much to be proud of, inasmuch as the major portion of their labours
was completed there. The fathei-of Volkmann, a cantor, early instructed his son in the piano and organ but having the intention to make him a schoolmaster, sent him
;
to Freiberg for the necessary tuition.

director,
At
this town, one
Anacker, a musical
meeting Volkmann by chance,
advised him
to journey to Leipzig
gift.
to complete his musical studies, being
impressed with his artistic

;
This advice
Volkmann
acted on, leaving for Leipzig in 1836
and three
years later had the satisfaction of publishing his first composition for the " Phantasiebilder/' In the year 1839 he visited Prague, and pianoforte,
afterwards Buda-Pesth,
making the
latter his residence.
From
1854- to
1858 he was studying at Vienna, returning to Pesth, the city he cared
most to
live in.
account of his long residence in the Hungarian capital it has been frequently supposed that he was by birth a Hungarian, and indeed some " of his works, such as " Ungarische Skizzen," Ungarische Lieder," and
the fantasia
On
"Au
tombe du Comte Czechenyi,"
justify this supposition..
Y Y Y
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Among his of the Hungarian character. bearing the impress for string.. instruments, a we include three serenades portant works the Third, and two of string quartetts, an overture to Richard number
symphonies
in
in
most im-
B "flaiTmajor
and
minor,
the latter
excellent, and, in addition,
two
trios
for piano and
being especially strings, one of which
minor, as well as the string quartetts

the first to secure
in
minor and
also
minor,
several
notoriety. were among " Concertstiicke " for the violoncello and pianoforte, besides numerous piano
solos "and duets.
him
He
wrote
With
works regard to his vocal
masses for male voices, a number of secular
we would refer to two songs, some with orchestral
and flute accompaniment ; but his accompaniment and others with piano music. best efforts are undoubtedly shown in his orchestral and chamber later on He, like Brahms, was much influenced by Schumann, developing and in a similar way hia real tendencies, these showing themselves in In the greatest number of his works we natural and heartfelt
expression.
find less
subtlety than
profound, for
we meet in Brahms's, yet we do not find him less Volkmann though Brahms is bolder and more severe, yet
shows greater regard to euphony ; but in respect, however, to strict artform, both masters appear to be evenly balanced. Another disciple of Schumann, possessing less universality than the two
masters just compared,
restricted sphere of
is
Robert Franz, a
man
of
much
ability in the
more
song-compositions, in which he has achieved most
praiseworthy results.
Born in 1815
at Halle, his father, perceiving his
inclination for music, forbade
him
to follow the profession, the result being

till
that he did not begin his studies

Schneider.
his efforts
1835, at Dessau, under Friedrich
His retiring character and extreme modesty united in confining to the limits of song-form, with the exception of a few somewhat
lengthy compositions for the Church. Although in his songs he is most individual and refined, still he has failed to achieve the same prominence as
Schumann, Schubert, or Mendelssohn. The first of his forty-four sets of songs appeared in 1843 the second, soon after, was dedicated to Robert " There is no end to the new and Schumann, who in writing of them said,
;
refined traits that one discovers."
to the
<c
held the position of organist Ulrich Kirche/' and conductor to the Vocal Academy of Halle,
Franz,
who
had the honorary degree of Doctor conferred on him by the University oi that town, on account of his resuscitation of old sacred vocal works, such
THE PRESENT.
and Handel.
1203
as those of Astorga, Durante, S. Bach, of his songs, that with very
It
is
to be remarked
known
as
few exceptions they have not become so well those of other classical masters, but on the whole they are tone-
pictures of a reflective nature, and highly finished in form, with carefully chosen harmonies and refined accompaniments, melody and fluency, however, not being very evident.
tion,
Many of them require deep musical declamawith an unusually careful delivery ; and if, on the one hand, there are some that are the outcome of reflection rather than of an effusive imagination, there are those,
spontaneity deficient in others.

of
on the other hand, that overflow with a naivete and Nothing, however, can support our estimate
fact
him more than the
Schaffer,
and Franz Liszt
men such as A. W. Ambros, Julius have deemed him of sufficient merit to warrant
that
reflecting the influence
their writing specially of him.
Another song composer

Jejnse_n^_born at
of
Schumann
is
Adolf
Kpnigsberg^JSS?, died at Baden-Baden, 1879.
Having,
at
in 1856, conceived the idea of studying composition under
Schumann
Diisseldorf, he travelled to Russia in the hope of gaining sufficient
money
Within a year he returned to Germany, on hearing* of Schumann's illness an illness that preceded and accepted the appointment of conductor to the Posen town insanity
there to enable
to carry out his object.
him
This position he subsequently resigned, taking up his residence at Of his different periods in Copenhagen, Konigsberg, Berlin, and Graz.
theatre.
song compositions we would mention those arranged in " and " Erotikon." " 22, and those entitled Dolorpsa
sets
numbered
4, 6,
He
has further dis-
number
for
tinguished himself in modern pianoforte music, notably sonata Op. 25, a of detached pieces, such as Op. 37, 38, and 42, and some larger works of a sacred character, e.g., " Der Gang nach Emmaus," and the chorus
nuns with accompaniment for harp, horns, and piano. In Woldemar Bargiel we meet a musician much resembling Jensen, and belonging to that branch of the Romantic School most closely allied to
he was related, being step-brother to Clara Schumann. at Berlin, he entered while very young the cathedral choir under the leadership of Grell and Mendelssohn, studying counterpoint with
Schumann, to Born in 1828
whom
Dehn, and subsequently pursuing his studies at the Leipzig^Conseryatorium. In 1859 he was appointed professor in the Musical Academy at Cologne
founded by Ferdinand Hiller, afterwards acting as conductor at Rotterdam. Y Y Y 2
1204
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
hia orchestral compositions we would point to the overture Medea, and, in chamber music, to the trios ; whilst his vocal compositions, both part-songs
Of
and
solos, exhibit
much
poetic fancy.
Theodor Kirchner, born in 1824 near Chemnitz, a musician of the type

of Bargiel, has gained
pianoforte pieces,
some repute in his chamber^ music, songs, and short with and without accompaniment of strings. His string
quartett in
many symphonic works, and songs, is a musician endowed with string quartetts, pianoforte pieces, an over-fanciful imagination. The same may, to an extent, be said of Albert Dietrich, born 1829, near Meissen, the pupil of Rietz and Hauptmann, and court chapel-master at Oldenburg from 1861. In 1851, at Diisseldorf, he became intimate with Schumann, whose influence is manifest
in all his compositions.
major deserves special mention. Karl GrMener, born inJlSl^, to whom we owe
Finally,
like those
we must mention Ernst Naumann, born 1832, and
following
above-mentioned the lead of Schumann.
In chamber music he ex-
genuine gift and perfect mastery of art-forms, a combination further apparent in a sonata for viola and piano, and in a seren-ade in A major for
hibits
strings
and wind instruments.
In dealing with those masters of the present who are specially influenced by Mendelssohn, the place of honour belongs to Ferdinand Hiller, his contemporary and friend, as well as the senior among the adherents to the
form which was evolved during the years 1830 to 1865. The romantic spirit which permeates Mendelssohn, the most ardent follower of
classic
classical art-form, is
apparent also in the works of
all his disciples.
With
Hiller, however, posers,
therefore he
Modern
strongly perceptible than in the younger combe regarded as the chief exponent of the Classical School. Ferdinand Hiller, the son of a wealthy Jewish
it
is less
may fitly
merchant, was born on the 24th October, 1811, at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. He first studied under Aloys Schmitt at Frankfort, and subsequently under Hummel at Weimar. InJ.82_e accompanied Hummel on a professional
tour, during
which at Vienna he had the good fortune to become acquainted with Beethoven. In 1829_he proceeded to Paris, forming there a close
friendship with
Cherubini, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Berlioz, Chopin, Liszt, Borne, and Heinrich Heine, and it will be readily understood why such society could not fail to be of the greatest service to him in widening his
THE PRESENT.
views and enlarging his comprehension.
for Schelble in
1205
After acting as a substitute
1836 at Frankfort, he
as
visited Italy in 1838,
and again in
1841.
He
also acted as
deputy conductor for Mendelssohn at the Leipzig

instructor to
the Advanced Composition Three years later he was appointed conductor at Diisseldorf, leaving this post in 1850 to assume a similar one at Cologne, where his activity in the triple r61e of conductor, composer, and
Class held at the Conservatorium.
professor at the Conservatorium founded
position of
Gewandhaus Concerts, and
by him, has
raised the city into a
much prominence.
His directorship of the Cologne musical
festivals held
during his residence there greatly contributed to the musical
celebrity of the old cathedral city.
In 1877
the. King of
Wiirtemberg con-
on him a patent of nobility. before this notice had been written.

ferred
He
died on the 10th of May, 1885,
In 1876 the number of his works had
reached 160,
sition.
many owing
their origin to his
Among
its
his inspired
works
vne
undoubted facility of compowould include The Destruction of
Jerusalem, and Saul,

ceived
two great oratorios, the latter having scarcely remerited recognition. These might fairly be placed by the side of Mendelssohn's oratorios ; the same might also be said of his cantata Ver
Sacrum.
The symphony, superscribed with the motto,
"
Es muss doch
Friihling werden," three concert overtures, a pianoforte concerto in
sharp
minor (Op. 69), the effective vocal quintetts (Op. 25), and many chamber and pianoforte works, show very completely the uncommon facility and
gift of the master.
failed
He composed
five
German and one
Italian opera, but
to achieve any success with them. He was not only a refined musician, but a spiritedjitterateur, maintaining firmly the classical characteristics of his school, and insisting on the principle that only a pure
harmonic permeation of content and form, can create an art- work of His pupils, Max Bruch and Fr. Gernsheim, genuine and lasting merit.
are the
worthy scholars of a gifted master. Next to Hiller we mention Carl Reinecke^ another distinguished repreBorn at Altona in 1824, he sentative of the school of Mendelssohn.
received his
excellent
first
tuition in piano playing
from
his
father,
himself an
musician.
In
1842 he began his tour to Scandinavia and
Stockholm, journeying thence to Leipzig, at that time the musical centre of Germany, owing to the efforts of Mendelssohn and Schumann. In
1851 he was engaged by F. Hiller as professor to the Conservatorium at
1206
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Cologne.
Successively conductor at
in 1859, of
Academy
director
the Leipzig
Barmen in 1854, at the Breslau Vocal Gewandhaus Concerts in 1861, and

his works,
of its Conservatorium, he has been gaining a very prominent
position in the musical world.
Of
numbering more than one
hundred,
certos, a
we may
mention the opera of
Manfred, several pianoforte con-
vocal and
symphony, two concert overtures, Dame Ko^ chamber compositions, all of which deserve notice on account of
their finished form.
born in 1831 at Breslau.
Another professor of the Leipzig Conservatorium, S. Jadassohn. was Successively a pupil of Liszt for piano, and of
Moritz Hauptmann for theory, he settled in 1852 at Leipzig, conducting

the Euterpe Concerts from 1867 to 1869, afterwards becoming professor. His orchestral works possessing most attraction are certain symphonies
which show formal
finish
and natural
flow.
The greater part
of his works
bear the impress of the Mendelssohn school, but his later compositions lean
towards the
New
Romantic School.
Among
idol
the earlier masters of the Mendelssohn school
who
outlived their
we
should mention Rietz and Taubert.
Julius Rigtz, born at Berlin,
1812, died at Dresden, 1877, was in his youth a friend of Mendelssohn; he was the pupil of Zelter and Bernhard Romberg, and became under the latter master a virtuoso on the violoncello. From 1834 to 1847 he occupied the post of conductor at Dusseldorf, thereby
in that particular sphere of the profession.
gaming much experience
In 1847_he became chapela year later he succeeded Mendelssohn master_at_the Leipzig Theatre; as director of the Gewandhaus Concerts, and in 1860 was appointed royal
chapel-master to the Court Theatre, Dresden.
possess
his
He
does not seem to us to
as a composer, although it must be admitted that well-known " Concert Overture," the overture to Hero and Leander,
much importance
and a symphony composed for the Leipzig Concerts, are all masterly as regards form and orchestration. Besides being well versed in his profession, he was eminent as a general scholar, Otto Jahn, the litterateur, asserting
that in
the world lost an eminent doctor of philology, owing to his exclusive devotion to music. Rietz has raised an imperishable monument
to himself in editing the
him
works of Bach, Handel, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart, published by Breitkopf and Hartel. Wilhelm Taubert, another follower of Mendelssohn, born 1811, was a
THE PRESENT.
pupil of
1207
Ludwig
Berger, studying theory under Bernhardt Klein.
He
is
famed
headed by Moscheles, F. Hiller, Wilhelmina Clauss, and Reinecke. Mendelssohn, Clara Schumann, In 1831 he undertook the conductorship of the Berlin Court Concerts, and
as a virtuoso of that classical school of pianists
three years later was elected
member
of the Prussian
Academy
of Arts,
receiving in 1845 the appointment of court chapel-master of the Royal
" Kiuderlieder " Opera-House at Berlin. His acquired much popularity in such eminent artists as Jenny Lind, Johanna Wagner, being sung by
and Harriers- Wippern.
of Euripides.
opera Macbeth, the incidental
His compositions of larger significance are the music to the Tempest, and to the Medea
Of
tuition
the few masters having had the inestimable advantage of private from Mendelssohn we first mention Richard Wiierst, born at Berlin,
1824, and dying there in 1881.
In 1856 he was appointed music director at
Berlin; in 1874 he was nominated Royal Professor of Music, and in 1877 elected member of the Prussian Academy of Arts. Of his compositions
" Der " " Rothmantel," Vineta/' Der Stern von specially " His Turan," and Faublas," and his Cologne prize symphony, Op. 21. cantata, Der Wasserneck, may be mentioned as a scholarly choral work.
we would mention
prominent and popular composer is Max. Bruch, born at Cologne, the pupil of F. Hiller and Carl Reinecke. In 1852 he was awarded 1838, the prize of the Frankfurt Mozartstiftung for a string quartett, a composition that attracted the attention of the musical world. In 1867 he became
court chapel-master at Sondershausen
to Berlin.
;
and three years
later
he removed
1878 he resided at Bonn, afterwards returning to Berlin to conduct Stern's Musical Academy. In 1880 he conducted the
to
From 1873
Philharmonic Concerts at Liverpool, and, after a tour in the United States,

he returned to Europe to reside at Breslau, where he was appointed conductor of the Orchestral Union. Bruch is one of the most versatile and
fruitful
Schumann and Wagner.
composers of the present day, his works evidencing the influence of In addition to his operas, instrumental and vocal
music, his secular cantatas, the libretti of which were written by Georg Vierling, are worthy, from their epic character, to be placed among the best
of secular oratorios, e.g., the cantatas, Scenen aus der Frilhjofs-Sage, Schon Ellen, and, in a still higher degree, his music to the Odyssey, Schiller's
Lay of the
Bell, and his latest work, Achilles.
His operas, Ermione
(after
1208
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the Shakespeare's Winter's Tale) and Loreley, rapidly becoming popular, flat major, and the two violin symphony in F minor, Op. 36, that in~"~E
concertos,
are
deserving of praise.
its
It
is
interesting
to
note that the
melodious Andante^ has been performed popular by coloured artists from St. Domingo. Besides grandeur of style, his
minor concerto, with
pianoforte, chamber,
and song music exhibits much that
is
after effect for its justifies the assertion that he never strives is always the genuine artist.
charming, and own sake, but
composer, educated in the Mendelssohn school, but, like Bruch,
much
influenced
by Schumann and Wagner,
is
Karl Reinthaler, born in 1822 at

his father
Erfurt, in a house formerly inhabited
by Luther, at which town
founded a school called the " Martinstift."
To
gratify his father he devoted
himself to theology, and does not seem to have exhibited any musical inclination until he had passed his examination for the Church.
at Berlin for his theological studies, he,
While residing
on feeling the force of his natural took lessons in musical theory from Dr. A. B. Marx, which were of bent, Like Hiller, he enjoyed the friendship of Mengreat advantage to him.
delssohn,
oratorio
whose steps he followed in adopting the modernised form of created by tnat master, and this is shown most in his Jephthali
and
his Daughter, a work that at once established his name as that of a musician of unusual ability. A symphony strictly adhering to the " " form classical increased his reputation, but the charming romantic
opera Kdthchen von Heilbronn, in spite of its idealistic tendencies and the influence of Wagner's characteristic orchestration, further shows him to be,
in melodious flow
classical
German
school.
and careful attention to orthodox form, a disciple of the His opera Edda, although an earlier work, is
entitled to special mention.
Owing
to the success of certain sacred
com-
by him, performed by the Royal Cathedral Choir at Berlin in 1850, Frederick William IV. of Prussia provided him with the means of At proceeding to Italy for the purpose of studying there for two years. the end of this time, F. Hiller him as professor to the Cologne engaged Conservatorium, but in 1858 he resigned this to become conductor of the
positions
and In 1876 he competed successfully for the Academy. prize offered by the town of Dortmund for a hymn to be composed in honour of Bismarck.
director to the Vocal
Bremen
Concerts, being appointed later on organist to the cathedral
THE PRESENT.
1209
In Friederich Gernsheim we meet with a musician of somewhat similar
Born in 1839, he studied under Hauptmann, Rietz, and Moscheles, making his debut in 1855 as a pianist in Paris, and ten years later Hiller appointed him professor at Cologne, to which he subsemerit to Reinthaler.
office of conductor of the civic Vocal Union and Cologne In 1874 he accepted the post of director of the Rotterdam ConserOpera. vatorium. His pianoforte concerto^ in C minor, several string and piano " " Salve quartetts, the cantata Salamis for male voices, and a Regina for female voices, are worthy of mention. We will conclude this portion by
quently added the
more or less by the teachings Theodor Gouvy, was born in 1822 near Saarbriicken, and was a composer of symphonies, chamber and sacred music the second, Karl Eckert, born 1820 at Potsdam, was chiefly celebrated for
referring briefly to four musicians influenced
of Mendelssohn.
The
first,
his opera Wilhelm von Oranien, and certain songs, and successively held the appointment of court chapel-master at Vienna, Stutgardt, and Berlin ; the third, Robert Radecke, born 1830 in Silesia, the composer of two over-
a symphony, and part-songs, was appointed in 1871 court chapelmaster at the Royal Opera, Berlin ; the fourth being Ernst Rudorff, born 1840jj.t Berlin, a pupil of Rietz, Hauptmann, Moscheles, and Reinecke, and
tures,
famed
for his overtures to Tiecks'
Der Blonde Ekbert,

variations.
to
Der Schutz, a
ballad, a serenade,
and orchestral
In 1880 he was appointed
conductor to Stern's Vocal Union.
In turning our attention to living German musicians, we approach a
body distinguished as dramatic composers e.g., Cornelius, Hofmann, Grammann, and Goldschmidt. Although the three first do not lack
mastery of art-form in a great degree, whilst, however, differing as regards style, yet their operas do not possess the conditions of lasting and genuine
on account of their imitation of the principle employed in the modern music-drama i.e., a continuous melody instead of the estabsuccess, chiefly
lished operatic form.
Such bare imitation must always
fail
to impress the
hearer, as the copy of a strong individuality is at once perceived,
and such
a treatment can only interest

originality like that
when
it
is
the outcome of some well-defined
of
Wagner.
all
This primal power of
Wagner
is
so
exalted that
is,
it
renders
imitation
weak and
external
spiritless
imitation that
after
all,
nothing more than an
reproduction lacking
the
vigour of the original
1210
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
Wiierst.
Heinrich Hofmann, born in 1842_atJBerlin, was the pupil of Dehn and His heroic music-drama Armin displays decided dramatic gift,
whilst a second opera, Aennchen von Tharau, exhibits
much
that
is
charming
its rich
andjromantic in instrumentation.
vein of melody and, in part,
This latter work, on account of
humorous
secured popularity had
it
not been for
character, would assuredly have the unfortunate imitation of the modern
music-drama, with
finales interspersed
its
exclusion of set arias, duets, trios, ensembles, and

it
with dialogue, a form, be
noted, observed with such
All comic by Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Lortzing, and Kreutzer. Nicolai's Merry Wives of Windsor, and The Golden Cross, by e.g., operas Ignaz Briill, both of which have remained popular for the last thirty-five
success
years, have interpolated
spoken dialogue; and, moreover, the French teach us
that recitative, admissible in heroic and tragic operas,
and pre-eminently
in
modern German Romantic opera, ought to be excluded from the opera " comique, a form of opera that evolved itself from their national song-play."
And it should be remarked that, up to the present day, French composers have almost exclusively adhered to the substitution of the spoken dialogue
for recitative.
Karl Grammann. born in 1844, deserves special notice for his operas Like Hofmann, he is Helusine, Thusnelda, and Das Andreasfest.
extensive colourist
;
an_
but both composers have achieved notoriety by works that show their individual gift to better advantage than their operas, and
especially Hofmann by his Hungarian suite, Op. 16, the cantata Mdrchen von der schonen Melusine, Op. 30, and Grammann in many of his chamber works.
more
Peter Cornelius, nephew of the great painter of that name, was born at Mayencej 1824, and died there in 1874. His opera, Der Barrier von Bagdul, met with no success, again because of the imitation of the modern musicdrama form, though talent is in this, as also in his
unquestionably displayed
music-drama Cid, and in certain minor compositions. Adalbert von Goldschmjdt, the last of the four, and born 1853 at Vienna, is a musician of gift, but is an illustration of the unsatisfactory result of
attempting to overreach the individual tendencies of Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner. This is particularly evidenced in his oratorio Die sieben Todsiinden,
performed at Berlin in 1876 and the opera Helianthus, produced at Leipzig

in 1884.
THE PRESENT.
1211
Among
those yet to be
named who, on the whole, follow the German
School, though not in the important branch of the drama, are Damrosch, Draseke, Krug, Lassen, the two Riedels, Josef Huber, Hans von Billow, Hans von Bronsart, Nicode, and Ferdinand Praeger. As a rule, these have
adhered more to orchestral, chamber, and vocal music, an adherence to their

profit,
on account of the impossibility of the application of Wagner's musical dramatic principles to purely instrumental music, and the evident
necessity of strict form.
A musical
subjectivity that descends to using the
no other purpose than extemporising fleeting impressions, as one would improvise at the piano, cannot but defeat its object. The use of such means for so small a purpose appears inconpowerful means
of the orchestra for
gruous, and indicates an overweening love of approbation. This extravagance, however, is not to be met with in the greater number And even those that of the compositions of the musicians just mentioned.
have adopted,
the leit-motif and programme music, always show more fluency and adherence to form, as did Liszt in his chief works, than the imitators of Wagner's music-dramas, and this all the more so when
like Liszt,
they relegate Lohengrin and Tannhauser to the past, and adopt the principle observed in Tristan.
Leopold Damrosch (born at Posen in 1832, died at New York in 1885) was from 1858 to 1860 conductor of the Philharmonic Concerts at Breslau,
which (1862-71) he established an orchestra for the chief purpose of popularising the works of Wagner, Liszt, and Berlioz, subsequently removing to New York, and conducting there numerous concerts and
after
festivals, besides acting as
His
violin concerto in
minor, serenades,
an energetic pioneer of the German tonal art. " a " Festival a sacred
overture,
several other sets of songs, deserve special
idyll,
Ruth and Naomi, and
mention.
Eduard Lassen, born in 1830 at Copenhagen, became, in 1858, through
He is the composer and Frauenlob, and of the incidental music to of two operas, Konig Edgard Goethe's Faust and HebbeFs Nibelungen, a symphony, overtures, cantatas,
the influence of Liszt, court music director at Weimar.
and a number of songs, of which many have become very popular. In these we meet occasional graceful traits, reminding one of the chansons of
the best modern French masters.
In
his orchestral compositions Lassen

it is
generally adheres so strictly to form that
only in the selection of his
1212
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
subjects that one
is
induced to consider him as belonging to the Romantic
School.
Karl Riedel, born in 1827 near Elberfeld, became founder in 1854 of the now celebrated Riedel's Vocal Union, its performance in 1859 of Sebastian Bach's difficult and grand mass in B minor being one of its greatest achievements.
It
is
owing to Riedel that many of the neglected works of the older
masters have been republished, among them being those of Heinrich As a composer Riedel has gained notoriety through his songs and Schiitz.
part-songs,
and
also as
one of the prominent directors of the Leipzig
Wagner- Verein.
Hermann
von SakJcingen.
Riedel,
born in 1847, conductor of the
Court
Theatre,
Brunswick, has obtained prominence by his setting of Scheffel's Trompeter
In Hans von Bronsart, born in 1828 at Konigsberg, and his wife Ingeborg, the latter a pupil of Liszt, we meet artists excelling both as
and composers of pianoforte pieces, the lady being also a writer of songs and an operetta on the subject of Goethe's Jery und Bronsart acted as conductor to the Euterpe Concerts in 1860, and Bcitly.
virtuosi of the piano
from 1870 director to the Court Theatre at Hanover.
Hans von Bulow, born in 1830_at Dresden, whom we have already mentioned as a pupil of Liszt, and one of the most prominent virtuosi on the piano, has written the symphonic works " Nirwana/' "Des S angers
Fluch," the incidental music to Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar.and. in addition nine sets of pianoforte pieces, many transcriptions and arrangements and critical annotations to the works of the great masters.
leader of the Euterpe Concerts, has

sisting only of one
Irene.
Joseph Huber.. born in 1837 at Sigmaringen, and appointed in 1864 composed four symphonies, each con-
movement, and two
operas,
Die Rose vom Libanon and

School that he
such an extreme partisan of the even omits the signature of the piece.
is
He
New German
Felix Draseke, born in 1835 at Coburg, was an enthusiastic admirer of

Liszt.
From 1864
to
1874 he was professor at the Conservatorium at

officiated in
Lausanne, and since 1874 has
Even
a similar capacity at Dresden. his partisans have declared his earlier works to be in their nature
bizarre,
somewhat
and that he has
sacrificed
euphony
to obtain a doubtful
success in character-painting.
This judgment can, in part, be applied to
THE PRESENT.
such works as his symphonies inhe has made a new departure in his
cannot
fail,
1213
and F, and the Requiem. Of late art, and if he steadily adheres to it he
being a really talented musician, to approach closely the ClassicoRomantic School of Schumann, Brahms, and Volkmann.
Arnold Krug, born in 1849 at Hamburg,
is
a musician
who seems
to
unite his symphonic poems, with their leit-motif and programme, with the classic form ; but how much he may achieve in this direction must be left
to the future to decide.
His prologue to Shakespeare's Othello

for the orchestra,
exhibits,
with
real passion of expression,
a decided gift of musical colouring.
His
graceful dance
rhythms
and some chamber compositions,
deserve passing notice.
Krug, Louis Nicode, born in 1853 near Posen, deserves to be included with the more gifted of the New German School, as is proved by his symphonic poems. Storm and stress still seem to weigh down in him
to
Next
He has shown himself the balance of organic development and clearness. to be a virtuoso on the piano, and a composer of pianoforte pieces of
merit.
Lastly,
we must
refer to Ferdinand
phonic
prelude to Byron's
"
Praeger, of London, whose symManfred," and overture to Abellino t show
that he also
referred to.
belongs to that branch of
the
New German
School just
Besides the three groups of German composers mentioned at the beginning of this chapter there is a fourth, consisting of musicians neither
showing the exclusive influence of any particular master, nor that they belong to any special school, but forming in themselves a distinct body.
It is satisfactory to
coteries of musical
know
that this section, notwithstanding the various
thought in Germany, is numerically very large ; but as we are unable to form definite opinions of them all we will confine ourselves to such as Raff,
Rheinberger, Jean Vogt, Ulrich, Grimm, Abert, Ries junior, Klughardt, Herbeck, Albert Becker, Kiel, Xaver and Philipp
Scharwenka, Vierling, Meinardus,
Blumner,
Mangold,
Abt,
Wilhelm
Tschirch, Sch'affer, Stade, Merkel, Miiller-Hartung, Wiillner, Goldmark,
Heinrich Urban, Grell, Riifer, Brambach, Bernhard Scholz,
Briill,
Gurlitt,
Bungert, Kretchmer, Holstein, Herzogenberg, Hochberg, Hopffer, Goetz, Schlottmann, Hans Huber, Strauss, Nessler, and the venerable Franz
Lachner, of whprn
we
treated in the chapter on Schubert and
K. M. von
1214
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
which are
Weber.
We
include Lachner on account of his orchestral suites,
of a modified classical
romanticism that modernises art-form, fused with a

repertoire.
them and augments our present symphonic

their
We will now
pro-
that are noteworthy for ceed to treat of those of the masters just named,
with Raff. symphonic and chamber music, beginning 1822 in the Canton Schwytz, and died in Joachim Raff was bom in
1882 at Frankfort-on-the-Maine.
teaching, he sent
While engaged in the occupation of a few compositions to Mendelssohn for criticism, and in
of them determined to consequence of the favourable opinion expressed He then went through a course of study, devote himself entirely to music.
intending, at
its
but termination, to take finishing lessons of Mendelssohn,
Three the death of that master in 1847 put an end to such a prospect. to Weimar, where the principles of Liszt and the years later he travelled attracted his attention, without, however, inducing New German School
him
to
become
their votary.
In 1856 he was at Wiesbaden, and in 1878
director of
The inHoch's Conservatorium at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. and the New Romantic School shows itself fluence of the Modern Classical
in the upgrowth and quality of Raff's large and prowas owing to the school of Mendelssohn that he gained his solid and excellent foundation, and never fell into the error of thinkingIt was also owing that art-form was superfluous and almost unnecessary.
in a decided
lific
manner
it
talent, for
to the influence of
Schumann and
Liszt that he was kept from exhibiting
a merely finished and polished form by sustaining a passion and depth of feeling that restrained him from treating pure form as the summum &onum, a treatment that would, by
academician.
its
exclusiveness, have rendered
him a mere
The individuality
of Raff
is
well exhibited in his
grand symphonic
" Leonora Symphony," which, with the exception of its demoniacal finale, is as classical in form as it is romantic in content, and because of this feature may justly be regarded as a valuable addition to the modern symphony. The symphonies, " Im Walde," rich in poetic 7 " fancy, Friihlingsklange/ and that in G minor, though less serious, yet graceful and sparkling in orchestration, are, of all that he has written,
works, especially in the
most deserving of
a
special notice.
He
wrote more than two hundred works,
number proving the
facility of his creation, but denoting a facility un-
balanced by the purifying influence of self-criticism, the recognition of
THE PRESENT.
1215
which would have insured the production of works greater in merit, though Notwithstanding this, we find among his possibly fewer in number.
concertos, orchestral suites,
chamber and pianoforte compositions,
certain
of
features
that
connect him with the most prominent musicians
the
present day.
these belongs Hugo Ulrich, a man hitherto but in 1827 at Oppeln, in Silesia, died in 1872 at Berlin.
To
little
known, born
a pupil of
He was
Mosevius and Dehn, and shows in his prize Symphonic Triomphale," and in B minor and G major, an independence of thought that places him in the first rank of modern symphonists ; his pianoforte trio is
"
two others
also distinguished
by the same laudable
feature.
August Klughardt, born in 1847 at Kotin, and court chapel-master since 1873 at Neustrelitz, shows a fusion of the Modern Classic and New
in his D major symphony (No. 3), performed in 1882 at " Leonora Dresden, the Symphony/' the overture Im Friihling, the opera " for the on Lenau's " Schilflieder and
German School
Iwein,
phantasias
piano, viola,
oboe,
and
in other
chamber works.
the Minister
In Otto Grimm, born in 1830 in Saxony, and at present conductor of St. Cecilia Union, we find a composer displaying much
We must vigour in his symphony and pianoforte pieces. specially mention the suite for strings, written in strict canonic form., a composition that not only shows the master of strict art-form, but also
thoughtful
to
what degree a real talent can increase his ideas by its aid. Johann Herbeck, who was born in 1831 at Vienna, and died there in 1877, belongs to the school of modern instrumental music. Of his most im-
portant works, only the fourth symphony, the variations for orchestra, and
a string quartett have been published.
symphonist of merit is Joseph Abert, born in 1832 in Bohemia, a His pupil of Tomaczek, and court chapel-master in 1867 at Stutgardt. deserve notice on account of their operas, Konig Enzio, Astorga, Ekkehard,
His popularity, however, is owing to the C interesting features. minor symphony, the symphonic poem " Columbus," and his overtures. Bernard Hopffer, born in 1840, Heinrich Urban, born in 1837, both in
many
Berlin,
and
P. B. Riifer,
born in 1844 at Liege, and
now
residing in Berlin,
have each shown meritorious work in instrumental composition ; Urban in his " Friihling Symphony," a violin concerto, and the overtures to Fiesco
1216
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and Scheherezade; Hopffer in his opera Frithjof, overtures, and symphonies; and Riifer in his F major symphony, three overtures, and chamber
compositions.
Franz Hies, born in 1846 at Berlin, whose uncle, Ferdinand Ries, was
a pupil of Beethoven, is the son of Hubert Ries, a concert-master at Berlin. His string quartetts bear evidence of excellent polyphonic treatment, and his suites for violin and piano show considerable melodic gift.
Philipp and Xaver Scharwenka, the former born in 1847, and the latter in 1850, both in the province of Posen, are noteworthy f6r their chamber
music.
Philipp, in addition, has
pianoforte concerto in
flat
minor.
composed symphonies, and Xaver, a grand The nationality of both composers is
very discernible in their rhythms.
The
Swiss,
self in his best
Hans Huber, born 1852, may be said to have expressed himmanner in pianoforte and chamber compositions, a trio, violin
sonatas, a
"
Concertstiick," and pianoforte duets.
Jean Vogt, born in 1823 near Liegnitz, shows a certain excellence in his chamber and pianoforte music and his oratorio Lazarus. August Bungert,
Holies
born in 1846, at Muhlheim, on the river Ruhr, is known through his Lied der Liebe, a work with orchestral accompaniment, an overture
to Tasso, at
and a prize pianoforte quartett. Cornelius Gurlitt, born in 1820 Altona, is the composer of two operettas, and certain chamber and piano-
forte music.
Among
notice,
gifted organ performers
we may mention Gustav Merkel,
and composers of the group now under a musician, born in 1827 near
and dying in 1885 whilst court organist at Dresden; Wilhelm born in 1817 at Halle, court Stade, chapel-master at Altenburg, a composer of excellent vocal and orchestral works, and Miiller-Hartung, born in
Zittau,
Thiiringiain 1834, a composer of organ sonatas, psalms, and part-songs for male voices. Also belonging to these, and noteworthy for their vocal works, are Louis Schlottmann and Julius Sehaffer. The first-named was born
at Berlin in
latter
1826, and
in
was born
choirs.
mixed
is famed for his setting of Goethe's poems; the Altmark in 1823, and is known by his compositions for Since 1860 he has been director of the Vocal Academy of
is
Mosevms, and
well
also the
university professor of music at Breslau, and
known
as a musical savant.
In salon and sentimental music we meet with an eminent exponent in
THE PRESENT.
1217
Franz Abt, born in 1819 at Eilenburg, and died in 1885 at Wiesbaden. In 1852 he was court chapel-master at Brunswick, and has written many songs of the description just mentioned. He has gained some prominence
for his part-songs for
male voices. A like prominence has been achieved by Karl Zollner, born in 1800, died in 1860, especially in those of a certain humorous character that is displayed with much effect in his chorus of the
Thirty-six German Fatherlands/' Julius Otto, born in 1804, dying in 1877, was cantor at the Dresden Church of the Cross. He is also another gifted " " song writer, his Das treue deutsche Herz being now acknowledged as a national song; but in the works of Joseph Brambach, born in 1833 at Bonn, and Wilhelm Tschirch, born in 1818 in Silesia, we meet with the and more ambitious the former in " Das evidence of a
"
higher
aim,
eleusische Fest
" and " Prometheus/' and the " and " Der dem Meere Sangerkampf ."
latter in
" Eine Nacht auf
Of the composers
in
of sacred music, Friedrich Kiel, born in 1821 near
1885 in Berlin, is to be mentioned as one that excels in the Siegen, dying He was a pupil of Dehn, but highest degree in that form of composition.
did not gain any notoriety till 1862, then doing so through his Requiem in F minor, a work we had the advantage of hearing at its first performance
in Berlin
opinion that
by Stern's Vocal Union, and it was a worthy successor
of which
we then
expressed the
to the similar
works of Mozart and
A flat major almost equals this in its and mastery of strict style. An equally unusual creative grandeur, depth, power is shown in his Missa Solemnis and the oratorio Christus, written respectively in 1867 and 1874, and again proving the perfect fitness of
Cherubini; a second Requiem in
when united to adequate ideas. " Te " Stabat Kiel has also written a Deum/' motets for two Mater," a female voices, and, in addition, two string quartetts, trios, three pianothe classic form of the polyphonic style
forte quartetts, four violin sonatas, a pianoforte concerto, and, as
solos, fifteen canons, six fugues, suites,
piano
" variations and fugue/' duets, &c. who settled at Berlin in 1842, is decidedly one of the most proKiel, minent contrapuntists of our time, but he never appears to have sacrificed
in order to bring into prominence his pre-eminent ability as a
his ideas
contrapuntist.
sincere, although, Becker, and Wiillner. Grell,
Equally
it
may
be, less gifted
Grell, bora
in
1800 at
than Kiel, are Edward Berlin, became a
z z z
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and ten years later was His grand mass in
member
of the Berlin
Academy
of Arts in 1841,
appointed
conductor of
the Vocal
Academy
there.
midway
him notoriety, is in character sixteen parts, which was the means of securing and Palestrina styles. In addition to between the old Venetian
a " Te psalms in eight and eleven parts,
this he has written
Deum/'
motets,
cantatas, and settings of Biblical proverbs. Albert Becker, born in 1834 at Quedlinburg, a pupil of Dehn, created his mass in B flat minor. His German symphony some sensation in 1879
by
the Viennese Society of the Friends of Music. gained in 1861 the prize of Franz Wiillner, born in 1832 at Miinster, was appointed in 1869
In 1877 he left for Dresden in at Munich. royal court chapel-master order to take up a similar appointment, and since 1884 has been chapel-
He has written master at Cologne and director of its Conservatorium. " Salve " Stabat " Mater/' and a two masses, several motets, a Miserere, a
His which are dignified in form and sacred in character. and his choral with orchestral accompaniment, part-songs for male voices He is a most able conductor, and, as a proexhibit much grace. songs, has written some excellent choral exercises for the Munich Academy, fessor, at which place he received, on account of his professorial attainments, the
Regina,"
all of
degree of Doctor and Professor of Music. add to this class of composers three that have obtained renown
We
through their oratorios and sacred cantatas, viz., Blumner, Meinardus, and Vierling, excluding those such as Hiller, Kiel, Reinthaler, Max Bruch,
Rheinberger, Diettrich, Herzogenberg, and others, also meritorious composers of such works, but who have by no means confined themselves
form of composition. Martin Blumner, born in 1827 at Mecklenburg, was a pupil of Dehn, and was appointed in 1853 a conductor of the Berlin Vocal Academy. He has written two grand oratorios, Abraham and The Fall of Jerusalem, the
strictly to that
latter
Silesian Musical Festival at Breslau.

strict
having been performed in 1884 with much success at the Seventh These not only show his mastery of but also considerable dramatic power in the treatment of style,
musical epics.
Ludwig Meinardus, born in 1827 in Oldenburg, a pupil of A. B. Marx, became in 1862 music director to the Grand Duke of Oldenburg, and in 1865 professor at the Dresden Conservatorium. He is the composer of tne
THE PRESENT.
1219
St. Peter, Gideon, Salomo, and Luther at Worms, the last of which gained him much celebrity at the Luther Jubilee in 1883. Besides several chamber compositions, he has written some secular oratorios, and
oratorios,
the cantatas, Roland's Schwanenlied, Frau
Hitt,
Die Nonne, and Jung
Baldur's Sieg.
Georg Vierling, born
in
1820
in the Bavarian Palatinate, appears as a de-
cided improver of an almost obsolete form, viz., the secular cantata, showing
in this respect similar ability to that of
Max Bruch.
His Hero and Leander,
Der Raub der Sabinerinnen, Alarich, and Constantin are full of dramatic vigour besides having met with much success in Germany, they have also
;
been performed in America.
In modernising the secular
oratorio, Vierling
stands in juxtaposition to Mendelssohn,
who
successfully effected a similar
improvement the year 1850 the Bach Verein

music director in that
city,
in the sacred oratorio.
pupil of
at Berlin. in
Marx, he established about In 1859 he was appointed royal
and
1883 was made a member of the Prussian
130th and 137th Psalms, he shows himself in his symphony and overtures, " Sturm," " Maria Stuart," " Im " " Hermannsschlacht/' and Tragic Overture," an orchestral Friihling/'
Academy
of Arts.
Besides his setting of the
composer of merit.
songs of
He
has also written chamber compositions and part-
much
significance.
is
Another musician of considerable independence of thought

llheinberger, who, in
Joseph
many
respects,
versatile
German
Raff.
Although as
might be described as the South as the North German master, yet he
does not exhibit so great a power in instrumental music as in choral works with orchestral accompaniment, in which he might be said to show a more
powerful individuality. He was born in 1839 at Vaduz, in sight of the Swiss Alps, and was educated at Franz Hauser's Conservatorium in Munich, where,
in 1859, he
professor of music,
was appointed professor. In 1867 he received the title of royal and in 1877 the appointment of Bavarian court chapelhis
master.
Of
works we prefer the symphonic tone-picture

Wittekiml,"
"
Wallen-
stein," the overture to Demetrius, a pianoforte concerto, his choral works
"
Toggenburg,"
"
" Klarchen auf Eberstein," and
St. Christo-
In sacred compositions he phorus, the last being a very excellent cantata. has shown ability in a Requiem, " Stabat Mater/' a mass for two choirs,
and many able organ compositions. The opera Die Sieben Raben, and the incidental music to Calderas's Der U'linderi/iiUigc Mug us, also deserve
z z
/.
-2
1220
HISTOEY OF MUSIC.
mention.
Whilst exhibiting the influence of the Modern Classic and
New
Romantic Schools, he nevertheless retains his individuality intact. Of the masters of the group now under discussion, and whose best
are observable in operatic compositions,
efforts
we would mention,
as the most
popular,
He received a Karl Goldmark, born in 1832 in Hungary. thoroughly German musical education in Vienna, and first attracted notice
his overture Sakuntala, to
by
inclination for Indian subjects, the study of

fascination.
Sliela, a
which subject he was drawn through a natural which had for him a peculiar This same feature is noticeable in his opera, The Queen of
for the first time at
work performed
popularity.
Vienna in 1875, and securing
for
him much
We
know
of no other artist of
whom
it
might
be said that he has entered fully into the peculiarities of that race, a people strange in manner and habits, and with passions peculiar to themselves,
and the outcome of exceptional climatic influences. But in his avidity for Indian subjects both his strength and weakness are apparent. Perhaps his
greatest glory is most, we might say exclusively, exhibited in extensive musical colouring, for his melodic invention and thematic working-out are not in proportion to his tone-painting.
We have included this

gathered
master in the present section,
as,
although he has
much from
the artistic colouring of
Wagner, he yet remains inde-
pendent in his application of this feature of the art of music to that of the Oriental world, with its peculiar rhythms and cadences, and moreover does
not, like
classic
many
of the adherents of the
New
Romantic School, disavow the
art-form.
Of
his
massive colouring
we have
evidence in the
an overture Penthesilea, a violin and many chamber works. With Goldmark we link Ig-naz Briill, 7 O born m 1846 in Mahren, who began his career as a pianist, composed a pianoforte concerto, and in 1864 an orchestral serenade. His opera, The Golden Cross, was the first work on a scale that brought him before large the public, and with much success. It is a composition still found in
concerto,
orchestral suite " Landliche Hochzeit,"
the repertoires of
German
theatres.
said to have greeted the operas Der Landfriede are by no means without evidence of talent.
The same success cannot, however, be and Bianca, works that
As a gifted composer of chamber music he shows the influence of Schumann and Mendelssohn. Edmund Kretchmer,born in 1830 in Saxony, was a pupil of the Dresden
In
organist Schneider, the brother of the composer of the Last Judgment.
THE PRESENT.
1221
1854 he was appointed organist to the Dresden Catholic Chapel, and wrote in 1868 a prize mass. In 1874 his heroic opera Die Folkunger was produced at Dresden, and up to the present has been performed at sixty -three theatres. Although the influence of Wagner's Tannhauser and Lohengrin,
and Meyerbeer's works, may be seen in Kretchmer's operas, he sufficiently maintains an independence, and especially is this to be remarked of certain parts of the heroic opera written in the Scandias well as that of Weber's
own
navian style, which contains much that is new and agreeable. He was his in the opera Heinrich der Lb'ice, performed at Leipzig in librettist 1877, and showed both in the libretto and music much excellence. His " " Musikalische also bears evidence of originality. Dorfgeschichten Bernhard Scholz, born in 1835 at Mayence, was a pupil of Dehn in
:
1859 he was appointed court chapel-master at Hanover, and in 1871 conductor of the Breslau Orchestral Concerts, and in 1882 succeeded, on Raff's
death, to the conductorship at Hoch's Conservatorium at Frankfort -on-the-
Maine.
Of
his operas,
Die
ZietheniscJien Hnsaren, rich in humoristic vein,
and Golo are the most popular.
In chamber music he shows gift and
evidence of the strong influence of Schumann and Brahms. written a Requiem, and an overture to Goethe's Iphigenia.
He
has also
Next
to
Scholz, Holstein and Goetz are musicians of ability.
Goetz
Franz von Holstein, who was born in and died in 1878, began his career as a musician after quitting the 1826, military profession, receiving his theoretical education from Hauptmann.
died at the early age of thirty-six.
His operas, of which he was also librettist, are Zwei Ncichte in Venedig, Waver ley, Der Haideschacht , Der Erbe von Morley, and Die Hochl<i/i<li>r (written in 1876), the first of which spread his name in Germany to a considerable extent.
He
also wrote
an
effective overture to
Frau Aventiure,
is
and many chamber compositions and part-songs. Hermann Goetz, born in 1840 at Konigsberg, died in 1876,
cipally
prin-
known through
Taming
the opera Der Widerspensligen Zahmung (" The of the Shrew"), a work finished in form and full of spirit. It
has been performed at nearly all the important German theatres, in the repertoires of which it still holds a place, and it has further been translast opera, Francesco, di Rimi/ii,vras the third act being unfinished. His F major symphony incomplete, created a favourable impression, and among other works exhibiting talent
lated for
an English audience; his
left
1222
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and
orchestra, a
may
"
If
be mentioned "Nania," a composition for
voices
Spring Overture/' violin
and piano concertos, and other chamber music.
among
the
of this section operatic composers

it
we
include Victor
Neszler, born in 1841 in Alsace,
will
musicianship
or dramatic profundity,
not be on account of thorough but rather because of his natural
His two due his widespread popularity. and Der Trompeter von Sdckingen, von Hameln operas, Der Rattenfanger have been as frequently performed as those of Wagner, the Carmen of know of no operas that have Bizet, and the Undine of Lortzing in fact we those of Mozart and Weber. obtained such universal favour, not even
and
felicitous style, to
which
is
This might well form matter for surprise, and would receive an explanation at our hands were we not so limited for space.
We
will conclude our review of this school
by mentioning those masters
who, though not showing conspicuous or special merit, have nevertheless Karl given sufficient evidence of possessing more than ordinary ability, viz.,
in
Mangold, born in 1830 at Darmstadt ; Heinrich von Herzogenberg, born 1843 at Gratz ; Count Hochberg, born in 1843 in Silesia ; and Richard
Strausz, born in 1865 at Munich.
Mangold, who since 1848 has held
the appointment of court music director at Darmstadt, first acquired prominence by his part-songs for male voices ; his other works of note are the
oratorios
WUteHnd and
Israel in der Wiiste, the operas Dornroschen and
Das
Kohlermiidchen.
Berlin Conservatorium, and has
Herzogenberg succeeded Kiel as professor at the shown himself in his chamber and choral
compositions a disciple of Schumann and Brahms ; he is also one of the founders of the Leipzig Bach Verein. Count Bolko von Hochberg is the of the successful opera Der Warwolf, many string quartetts, composer
symphonies, and songs, and deserves praise for his exertions in promoting the Silesian Musical Festivals. Strausz introduced himself to the public
by
his
thirteen
flat major concerto for the horn, a serenade in the same key for wind instruments, a concerto in D minor for violin and piano,
and string quartetts,
all of
which bear indications of a promising career
being open to the youthful composer.
To
this list
savants in
whom Germany
As
might appropriately be added the names of those musical is scarcely less rich than she is in composers,
clearness,
and whom, for the purpose of

sible to classify.
we
will
historians of music they
endeavour as far as posmight be subdivided into
THE PRESENT.
those that have treated the art as a whole
;
12-23
(1)
(2)
those that have confined

it
their researches to special periods
(3) those that have dealt with
from an
antiquary's standpoint
critical
by
deciphering- old manuscripts

;
and
it
editing, with
comments, old works

its aesthetics
(4) those that have treated
biographically
(5)
and
theoretically, or as physicists
have studied
or its
and as lexicographers philosophy as an art.
and
those that
Unquestionably the most important of the modern German historians that have made musical history a life's study is A. W. Ambros, born in 1816 at Mauth, near Prague, died in 1876 at Vienna. His mother was the
sister
of the celebrated musical
historian
Von
Kiesewetter, which
may
partly account for his early interest in the art and subsequent eminence as an historian. In 1839 he obtained the degree of Doctor of Laws, and
whilst engaged actively in his profession as crown advocate, was appointed This professor of music at the University and Conservatorium of Prague.
double appointment he resigned in 1872, to superintend the historical artstudies of the Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria. He subscribed the musical articles in the Viennese official paper ; a treatise, " The Boundaries
of Poetry
and Music/' which he published in 1856, was in direct conflict with Hauslick's publication, " The Beautiful in Music/' and attracted considerIn 1862 appeared the
first
able notice.
volume of
his excellent
"Musical
From 1864
left
History/' a work displaying his rare gifts as a critic and an art-historian. to 1868 appeared the second and third volumes; the fourth,
unfinished
years after
by him, was completed by G. Nottebohm in 1878, two the death of Ambros, and contained a number of very imporBut
this gifted writer's treatment, begin-
tant studies, dealing with the Palestrina period, and the influence of the
Renaissance on the Florentines.
ning with the development of the musical history of the classic and preclassic nations, does not extend much beyond the Netherland School of
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
It
is
strange that
Ambros should
be another of those eminent historians

their labours, this
who
died before the completion of
happening also to Padre Martini, of Bologna, with his " Storia della Musica," in the last century, and in the present century to
of
Ambros' imcomparable Gottingen, and the Belgian Fetis. still a torso, treats the work, unfortunately history of music as affected by and bearing upon the history and development of the other arts, and disForkel,
cusses, further, the influences of nationality, climate, politics,
and
ethics.
1224
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
He
has also published a
number
these are
of
essays
by no means abstruse
in
character,
though showing
to a remarkable degree his excellent intellectual
education.
The
chief of
"Bunte Blatter" (Musical and Art
sketches and studies,
two volumes, published 1872 and 1874), and " dem Musikleben der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1860), a work written in a graceful style ; from both of which one may He occasionally makes departures into the learn much that is interesting.
in
" Culturhistorische
Bilder, aus
serious realms of art-philosophy
an attractive
and history, but nevertheless maintains character that charms while it instructs.
in
Arrey von Dommer, born in 1828 at Dantzig, August Reiszmann, born 1825 in Silesia, and Heinrich Kostlin, born in 1846 at Tubingen, are
historians of signal merit,
Dommer having
written a comprehensive
" Hand-
buch der Musikgeschichte," published in Leipzig, 1867, a second edition of which appeared in 1878. E-eiszmann, the composer of the operas Gudrun and Das Gralspiel, has written a useful musical history, besides his
Geschichte des deutschen liedes/^ for which the Leipzig University conferred on him the honorary title of Doctor. In addition to his " Geschichte
der
"
Musik im Umrisz,"
in
two
editions,
Kostlin has also written the
"
Einfiihrung in die JSsthetik der
Musik."
The
history of music
by Dr.
we have already referred to. Coming now to those writers who have devoted their researches and criticisms to special periods of tonal history, we find that the epoch of
Brendel
by Heimsoeth, Kriiger, Bellermann, "Westphal, Von Jan, and others. We refrain from naming eminent philologists, like Bockh and Ottfried Miiller, on account of their being such
exclusively,
ancient Greece has been carefully treated
though
it
should at the same time be stated that Heimsoeth was
Bonn ; but, as he was a disamateur musician, his remarkable investigations on the tinguished position and musical signification of the chorus in Greek tragedies have thereby acquired the weight attaching to the investigations of an expert, and as
such they possess great importance for the musician. Similarly Friedrich Bellermann was also a and a musical amateur of much merit.
philologist
also a professor of philology at the University of
From 1847
Monastery
;
to 1867 he
his
was
director to the
Gymnasium
of the Berlin
Grey
profound work on Grecian scales and notes, and a treatise on the " Hymns of Dionysius and Mesomedes/' have gained for him great as a respect That trustworthy writer on ancient Greek musical history.
THE PRESENT.
learned musical theorist,
1225
Kriiger, born in 1807 at Liineburg, held the appointment of professor of music at the He University of Gottingen. " De musicis Graecorum is the author of circa Pindari tempora," and organis
Edward
attention.
"Grundrisz der Metrik" (published in 1838), works, deserving of serious Rudolph Westphal, born in the year 1826, was from 1858 to
1862 professor at Breslau University, and from 1875 professor at the
Kalkow Museum, Moscow.

distinguished
alike
He
belongs to that section of writers
who
are
for
their
" Plutarch
iiber die
Musik "
(published
In his philological and musical ability. " Geschichte der alten in

1864),
und Mittelalterlichen Musik" (published in 1865), and "System der Antiken Rhythmik/' published in the same year, he exhibits profound investigations
distinction.
and
close reasoning,
We
can only accept his assertion
and has justly earned by those works much that the Greeks were
acquainted with polyphonic music, subject to restrictions, as to accept it entirely, without considerable limitations, would completely destroy our notion of the polyphony which we meet with in the a capella composers
and organists, dating from the old French, Netherland, and Italian Schools, up to the time of Bach and Handel. " Westphal has created an epoch in musical history in his Allgemeine
Theorie der Musikalisch
Rhythmik
seit J. S.
Bach"
(published in 1880), a
work that has gained him great respect, and in which he enunciates propositions deserving most careful consideration. Dr. Karl von Jan, headmaster since 1884 at the Strassburg Lycee in Alsace, is the author of many " Ueber antike treatises, among which should be mentioned Tonarten" (Fleckeisen's " Jahrbiicher fur Philologie," 1S67) ; " Die Harexcellent
monik des Aristoxenianers Kleonides" ("Programm Landsberg/' 1870), " Ueber antike " Saiteninstrumente " (" Programm Instrumente," a ; " Denkmaler " u. s. " Floten " w., Saargemiind," 1882), b ; (Baumeister's
1885).
history
In a similar manner to those writers who have treated the tonal

of the Greeks, the
Mettenleiter,
German musical savants, Commer, Proske, Bellerman (junior) Von Winterfeld, Kade, and Andere, have
,
exhaustively written about the music of the Middle Ages and the period of Luther and his immediate successors. Franz Commer, born in 1813 at
schools of the sixteenth
Koln, has dealt very extensively and justly with the great polyphonic " Collectio and seventeenth centuries in his operum
saeculi
musicorum Batavorum
XVI."
This extensive work
is
completed
1226
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
His "Musica sacra XVI., XVII. ssecu" more voluminous, being in thirteen volumes ; and his Collec-
in no less than twelve volumes.
lorum,"
still
tion de compositions pour Torgue des
XVI., XVII., XVIII.
siecles," are
other meritorious works.
Karl Proske, cathedral chapel-master at Ratisbon, was, at the time of his death in 1861, the collector of a most valuable library of works of
" Musica Divina " (began in 1853, and con" Selectus Novus Mishis death by Vesselack in 1864) and tinued after sarum" (published in 1855), a work containing masses, motets, psalms,
the a capella style, including
magnificats,
hymns, vespers, and antiphonies by Anerio, Gabrieli, Gallus, Hassler, Lassus, Marenzio, Paciotti, Suriano, Vecchi, Viadana, Vittoria, and
J.
He cannot be too highly extolled for his efforts. G. Mettenleiter, born at Ratisbon, and dying there in 1858 while organist and precentor of the Stiftskirche, gained even greater " Manuale Breve Cantionum ac Precum " and " Enchiridion fame his
other masters.
by
Chorale, sive selectus locupletissimus cantionum liturgicarum juxta ritum

S.
Romanse Ecclesise" than by
his sacred compositions 'for the
Roman
Catholic Church.
Heinrich Bellermann, born in 1832 at Berlin,
is
the son of the savant of
Greek music of that name

appointed in
whom we
have recently mentioned.
He was
1866 professor at the University of Berlin, and gained a much respected name by his treatise " Die Mensuralnoten and Tactzeichen
im 15 und 16 Jahrhundert."
He
is
also the author of a
work on counter-
In F. H. von der Hagen we meet the author of the " Minnesinger/' a work of interest, the third volume of which is illustrated with specimens taken from the Jena codex and other
point that has passed through two editions.
collections.
He
published in 1807 melodies to old German, Flemish, and
French folk-songs, and died in 1856 while professor of literature at the

University of Berlin.
Karl von Winterfeld, born at Berlin in 1852, added to the library of musical history his work on Johannes in Pierluigi Palestrina (published
Later on, in " Dr. Martin Luther's deutsche geistliche Lieder," and 1840, appeared " Der between 1843 and 1847 evangelische Kirchengesang und sein Verhaltniss zur Kunst des Tonsatzes," a work in three These quarto volumes.
ure classical
" Johannes Gabrieli und sein Zeitalter." 1832), and in 1834
works of a valuable nature, and in addition to being written in
THE PRESENT.
1227
very comprehensive and spirited manner, unite in a great measure an individual and independent research to a profound knowledge whilst advancing propositions of great import to the tonal art.
a
With regard to Luther and the Evangelical Church music, we meet with an able exponent in Otto Kade, born in 1825 at Dresden, and since 1860 music director of the grand ducal cathedral choir at Schweriu. His " Neu work, published in 1872, aufgefundene Luther-Codex vom Jahr and that on " Le Maistre/' are such as may justly be described as 1530,"
His evincing a most genuine and excellent treatment of their subject. musical additions (1881) to the third volume of A. W. explanatory
Ambros' work on musical history are well worth study. He became a member of Robert Eitner's society for musical research (established in 1868),
and in 1877 published, in the seventh volume of the society's journals, the " of " Johann Walther, the wellWittembergisch Geistlich Gesangbuch known friend of Martin Luther. In the realm of musical
research, Bitter
and Schletterer appear to have
approached more closely in their investigations to the period of the present than those authors to whom we have just referred. C. H. Bitter, born in
year
1813 at Schwedt, and dying in 1885 at Berlin, was by profession a lawyer, and became in 1879 Prussian Minister of Finance, publishing in the same " his In 1884 his " Die zur Geschichte des Oratoriums."
Beitrage
Reformation der Oper durch Gluck und Richard Wagner's Kuntswerk der Zukunft " appeared ; he gained notoriety by his pamphlets on Mozart's Don Giovanni and Gluck's Iphigenia in Tauris, as well as on that of Gerborn in 1824 at vinus's " Handel and H. M.
Shakespeare."
Schletterer,
Ansbach, had the honorary
Doctor conferred on him by the Uniof Tiibingen in 1878, and has been since 1866 the director of the versity Augsburg Conservatorium and Oratorio Union. He has made himself " Studien zur Geschichte der franzosischen favourably known through his Musik" (the first section of which is the "Geschichte der Hofkapelle
title of
der franzosischen Konige/' the second, the
zunft in Frankreich und der Pariser
" Geschichte der Spielmannsand the third, the Geigerkonige/'
"
Vorgeschichte und
erste
that appeared between 1884 and 1885.
Yersuche der franzosischen Oper"), a work Older historical treatises are his
" Geschichte der
geistlicheii
volume of which appeared
in
Dichtung Kirchlichen Toukunst," the first " Zur Geschichte der dramatischen 1879, his
1228
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Musik
uncl Poesie in
" Der Ursprung Deutschland," published in 1863, and
der Oper."
Otto Gumprecht, born in 1823 at Erfurt, a Doctor of Law in Berlin Uni1849 musical critic of the National zeitung. Etis is the versity, became in
" Unsere Klassischen which we would direct attention to those entitled " and " Neuere Meister." These have also been linked Meister together " and published under the title Musikalische Lebens- und Charakterbilder,"
a second edition appearing at Leipzig in 1883. La Mara (Marie Lipsius), born in 1837 at Leipzig, has obtained celebrity
He merit of having widely spread the knowledge of our classical masters. has treated, in separate parts, special periods of musical history, concerning
-
" Musikalische Studienkopfe," a work in four volumes, pubthrough her lished between 1873 and 1880, dealing with Weber, Schubert, Men-
Wagner, Cherubim, Spontini, Rossini, and written in an intelligent and agreeable manner, although a not inconsiderable proportion has been derived from other works. Mpritz Fiirstenau, born in 1824 at Dresden, was the son of
delssohn,
Liszt,
Boieldien, Hector Berlioz, &c.,
Schumann, Chopin,
celebrated flautists.
A. Bernhard Fiirstenau and grandson of 'Kaspar Fiirstenau, both of them He was the author of the thoughtful and original works,
"
Beitrage zur Geschichte der Konigl. sachsischen musikalischen Kapelle " Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am (published in 1849), and
"
Hofe zu Dresden" (published between 1861 and 1862), and, in addition, wrote a large number of pamphlets and essays treating of the history of
music.
He
is
himself an excellent flautist, and has been since 1842 con;
nected with the court orchestra of Dresden

librarian to the king's private library,
in
1852 he was appointed

title of
and in 1881 received the
Royal Professor of Music.
To our most prominent musical antiquaries and biographers belong Polchau, Bohme, Dorffel, Eitner, Von Kochel, &c. Georg Polchau, born
1836 at Berlin, was one of the shrewdest collectors of old musical works, and purchased, amongst others, the whole of the musical collection
in of Philipp
much
thus he amassed treasures of this nature of ; on his death, became the value, which, property of the Royal Library
Emanuel Bach
at Berlin.
in 1827 near Weimar, and professor of musical and counterpoint at the Hoch Conservatorium at Frankfort-on-thehistory
Magnus Bohme, born
THE PRESENT.
Maine
1229
1878, has gained an enviable name by his "Altdeusches a work that shows considerable spirit ; its authentic melodies Liederbuch,"
since
and texts are evidently the work of a
critical
mind, and must have been
the continuous labour of at least a year.
Alfred Dorffel, born in 1821, was appointed successor to K. F. Becker, He was the founder of a organist to the Church of St. Peter, Leipzig.
valuable subscription library for orchestral scores and older and rarer works of a theoretical and historical nature. He furnished most complete thematic
catalogues of the works of Sebastian Bach and Robert Schumann, and, in a
very meritorious manner, assisted in
the publication of
Breitkopf and
Hartel's celebrated edition of classic composers.
Robert Eitner, born in 1832 at Breslau, applied his scientific ability to " Lexikon der hollandischen bibliographical productions, such as, e.g., the
Tondichter," by which he gained the prize offered by the City of Amsterdam in 1867. This, and also his " Verzeichnisz neuer Ausgaben alter
zum Jahre 1800" (a work by " which he is best known), his Bibliographic der Musiksammelwerke des 16 und 17 Jahrhunderts/' and his " Verzeichnisz der Gedruckten Werke
Musikwerke aus der
friihesten Zeit bis
von Hans Leo Haszler und Orlandus de Lassus," are works has shown his ceaseless musical activity.
Chevalier
in
which he
not only obtained prominence through Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnisz sammtlicher Tonwerke W. A. Mozart's/' but also by his " Die Kaiserliche
Ludwig von Kochel " his
(died
in
1877 at Vienna)
of those musicians that during

in the Imperial Chapel,
Hofmusikkapelle zu Wein von 1543 bis 1867," which gives a careful review more than three centuries were engaged
and which has secured him celebrity both as an
antiquary and musical historian.
have to mention
Turning now to the most important German musical biographers, we first Friedrich Chrysander, born in 1826 in Mecklenburg.
Doctor of Philosophy at Rostock University, and was co-founder work still unfinished, but which Leipzig Handel Society.
He became
of
the
biography of Handel, consisting in its incomplete state of two and a half volumes. Equally noteworthy are his contributions to the " Jahrbiicher fur musikalische Wissenschaft," of
merited the
it
name
gained him,
is his
which he was
also the editor (vide the issues of 1863, 1867,
and 1885).
His edition of Carissimi's oratorios published in his "Denkmalern der
^30
Tonkunst" was an
worth.
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
because of
its
excellent
finish
to
his
labours
real
than the labours of Chrysander, in connection Scarcely less important with the works and biography of Handel, are those of Philipp Spitta,
of born in 1841 at Hoya, near Hanover, with respect to the works, &c., at Gottingen, and in 3874 Johann Sebastian Bach. He studied philology
assisted in the foundation of the Leipzig
called to
Bach
Society.
In 1875 he was
Berlin to act in the triple role of permanent secretary to the music to the University, and as professor Royal Academy, as professor of His biography of Bach in of musical history at the Royal High School. two volumes (published respectively in 1873 and 1880) introduces, like
that of Handel by Chrysander,

criticism.
much new matter
in an objective historical
In 1875 and 1876 he published two folio volumes of a critical In respect of G. F. Handel, edition of the organ works of Buxtehude. G. G. Gervinus (born in 1805 at Darmstadt, died in 1871 at Heidelberg),
the well-known
University, must
German
literary
historian
and professor
at
be referred to because of his authorship of
Heidelberg " Handel und
work Shakespeare; zur Êsthetik der Tonkunst" (published in 1868), a much that is important, nevertheless proves how which, although containing
even eminent professors, when treating* of other than their own special Gervinus also translated subjects, are liable to err in their judgments.
into
his
German the libretti widow in 1873.
of Handel's oratorios,
which were published by
cantor at St. Thomas's Church, Leipzig,

lessly in
In a similar manner Dr. Wilhelm Rust, born in 1822 at Dessau, and since 1880 has laboured ceasethe
production of the edition of
Bach's works
less
published by
critical
Breitkopf and H'artel. analyses and prefaces.
To
this
Rust has added no
than thirty
Otto Jahn may, in a certain manner, be considered a precursor of Chrysander and Spitta, so far as regards the biographies of classical musicians.
He was
antiquarian research and director of the Academic
born at Kiel in 1830, and in 1855 became professor of Museum of Art at Bonn.
He was
logists.
one of the most distinguished of German archaeologists and philoHis biography of Mozart, published originally between 1856 and
1860 in four volumes, was in a second edition reduced to two; and it may fairly be regarded as a standard work on the life and labours of one of
THE PRESENT.
the most eminent representatives of musical art.
logist Ritschl has referred to this
1231
The celebrated
philo-
novel philological-critical method as one of the greatest achievements of our time. Jahn died at in the year 1869, leaving a large amount of matter for intended Gb'ttingen
its
work and
biographies of
Mozart, which, however, has been utilised by the American biographer Thayer (concerning whom it will be our duty to speak in connection with our review of English music), and by C. F. Pohl,
Haydn and
of Vienna, of
whom we
shall
now
treat.
Carl
Ferdinand
Pohl,
born
in
1819
at
Darmstadt, was in
1849
appointed organist at Vienna, and in 1866 keeper of the records of the His seriously written biography of Society of the Friends of Music.
Haydn,
1
in
two volumes, appearing

it
in
1878 and 1882 respectively,
is
defective only in so far as
790.
He
in
omits to treat of the period subsequent to has written other excellent works, one of which, " Mozart and
of the present that have to mention
Haydn
of
London/' appeared in 1867.
Of the savants
Beethoven,
made a
special study of the life
we have
our opinion, Westphalia, died in 1882 at Gratz. " Ein Skizzenbuch von has no compeer, and shows in his Beethoven " (pub-
M. G. Nottebohm,, born He is an author who, in
in
1817 in
" Thematisches Verzeichnisz der im Druck erschienenen Werke von Beethoven" (1868), " Beethoviana " (1872), "Beethoven's
lished in 1865),
Studien" (Band 1. Beethoven's "Unterricht bei Haydn, Albrechtsberger, nach den Originalmauuscripten," 1873), ff Neue Beethoviana" Salieri
:
(1875), and
(1880),
"Ein Skizzenbuch von Beethoven aus dem Jahre 1803" He also much depth of reasoning and trustworthiness of form.
der im Druck erschienenen " Mozartiana" Werke Franz Schubert" (1874), and (1880) ; and here we as regards biographies of Beethoven, to an excellent pamphlet might refer,
published -a "Thematisches Verzeichnisz
of Dr.
Gerhard von Brenning, son of Beethoven's friend Stephan von Brenning, entitled "Aus dem Schwarzspanierhause, Erinneruug an L. v.
Beethoven aus meiner Jugendzeit," published at Vienna in 1874. Although unable to notice them critically in any way, yet we are not precluded
from directing attention to the work of C. H. Better, in two volumes, " " Johann Sebastian Bach," and his Philipp Emanuel und Friedemann " Franz Schubert " of Dr. Heinrich Kreiszle von Bach/' as well as the " Robert Schumann," in three Hellborn, published at Vienna in 1S65, the
1232
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
yon "' the Gluck (1854) of Anton Schmid, and to " of H. M. Schletterer. " Johann Friedrich Reichardt Among the few German professors of acoustics and physics, Hermann Helmholz, born in 1821 at Potsdam, is by far the most prominent. Having
Willibald Bitter von
studied medicine
in 1858, and his essay, Joseph von Wesielewski, published biography of "DieVioline und ihre Meister;" also to Max vonJWe Karl Maria his Weber, published in T8647~to the "Christoph
volumes,
of
Ws
father,
natural philosophy, the appointment of professor to the Universities of This excellent Heidelberg, and Berlin respectively.
and anatomy, he turned to the study of physiology and and 1871, holding during the jears 1849, 1855, 1858,
Konigsberg, Bonn, physicist wrote in
als physiolo-
1863 a celebrated work, "Lehre von den Tonempfindungen,

gische Grundlage der
generally, but to
Musik," which, not only
to the science of
music
musicians wishing to obtain an insight into the physiological aspect of their art, will be found to be of very great In this work he emphasises the methods of Rameau and Chladni, value.
all practical
and points out how the whole action of music on
man
consists in
the
of objective bodies. relationship of our nervous activity to the vibrations
He shows how the impressions of sound and colour are originated through the vibrations of bodies and light transmitted through air and ether respectively.
The
effect of these vibrations varies
according to their nature,
which may be modified according to the nervous capacity of the organs of Helmholz goes on to show in what way the different sight and hearing. excitements of the nerves affected by sound-waves correspond to their
and how the laws of musical theory were based on such a process long before the principle was discovered. Specially important are the results of his investigations with regard to the varying nature of the
special causes,
tone-colour of different instruments, as well
as
his
sonances by interrupted vibrations. His valuable of the Arabs, and of the Greeks since systems Pythagoras and Terpander, and other cultured nations, deserves passing notice.
of physical science at the
explanation of dissurvey of the tone-
Arthur von Oettingen, born in 1836 at Dorpat, and since 1865 professor
value for musicians
" Harmoniesystem in dualer Entwickelung (published in 1866), and in it shows felicitously the correspondence between the "Lehre von der Harmonik" (Laws of Harmony), the "Natur der
in his "
Dorpat University, has written a work of much
THE PRESENT.
Harmonik und Metrik"
advanced by Helmholz.
of
1233
Hauptmann, and the
acoustic
principles as
theorists have numerically become fewer, and if we such as Flodoard Geyer, or those authors who offer the means of that except apparently rapid acquirement which has the inevitable result of giving but
Within recent years
an imperfect grasp of the subject, we have only to add to the names of such theorists of later times as Marx, Dehn, and Hauptmann that of J. C. Lobe,
an author dying in 1881, while professor of music at Leipzig, and whose
Fig. 291.
The Vienna Opera- House.
tf " Lehrbuch der Musikalischen Composition His " Lehre von der (published in four volumes between 1851 and 1867). " " Musikalischen Briefe von einem and his Thematischen Arbeit
most celebrated work
is
his
(1846),
Wohlbekannten " (published between 1853 and 1860),

deserving mention.
are
works well
Lobe was
also
an eminent
classical art-critic,
but often
lost himself, in
the mere formality of the work, in a purely subjective analysis of the composer's intention expressed in succeeding bars (vide his otherwise excellent
analysis of the
Don Giovanni
overture).
He, as a representative of the
classical school, held the view indicated in the following quotations from
his writings
" Our
classical tone-masters in the
Temple of Art believed
that the
human mind
should be freed from the sorrows and miseries of
A A A A
1234
HISTOEY OF MUSIC.
seems to be gaining- ground that art should every-day life. Now the belief than life itself/"' oppress the heart and torture it even more
Almost
as complete
duced by Reiszmann.
a musical theory as that of Lobe was the one ad" His " Lehrbuch der Musikalischen Composition
first
was published
in three
containing the rudiments, the second treating and the third of orchestration. Of great practical value
Richter's work,
in
volumes between 1866 and 1871 at Berlin, the " " of the
accepted
is
form,
Ernst Friedrich
three
parts,
" Praktische Studien zur Theorie der Musik," published which treat respectively of harmony, counterpoint, and
of these has been translated into six languages,
fugue.
to
The
first
and had
1880 passed through no less than fourteen editions in Germany. up Richter, while at Leipzig, was a colleague of Hauptmann as a professor
of composition,
and
his
work gains a
special
value
on account of
its
embodiment in a
practical form of the system of his celebrated compeer. In 1868 he became successor to Hauptmann as cantor to the Church of
Thomas, and has, in following the Mendelssohn- Hauptmann School, shown in composition some interesting work of a sacred nature. He died
St.
at Leipzig in 1879.
To the group
of
the
German
physicists and theorists
we add
those
authors of aesthetic works and art-philosophy, such as W. H. Riehl, born in 1823 at Biebrich on the Rhine. Of those of his works containing a mass of new ideas on the basis of sound historical studies, and which by
their attractiveness
the educated
German
have gained much popularity with the greater part of " Musikalische Charakpublic, we must mention the
" Ohr," Geistliche Gassen Musik," " Volksgesang/' " Heermusik/' " Geige und Clavier," "Musikalische Architektonik/' "Die Antike in der Tonkunst/' &c.).
Riehl, besides being an art-philosopher,
is
terkopfe" (published in 1853, a second issue with additions appearing in '' " Culturstudien 1861), and (containing the essays "Das Musikalische
professor of the University of
Munich
since 1854.
He
is also
a lawyer, and known as a
" composer by his Hausmusik," published between 1856 and 1877.
With regard
Hanslick,
subject.
to the
study of musical
aesthetics,
we
find in
Edward
bom in 1825 at Prague, a most His "Von Musikalisch-Schonen ein

through
on the important Beitrag zur Revision der

author
/Esthetik der Tonkunst" (published in 1854) has been translated into three six editions. languages, and has in Germany passed It fixes the
THE PRESENT.
aesthetic creed of the musician,
1235
which
till
in the realm of purely subjective conception,
1854 moved in manifold ways by restricting it to an excel-
lent
and sound
basis
deduced from natural laws.
Of
his best
works we
its
would prefer "Die Moderne Oper" (1880), which has reached

edition.
fourth
Hanslick received the degree of Doctor of Law in 1849, and since 1870 has held the appointment of professor of music to the University of
Vienna.
critics of
He
is
one of the most brilliant of the musical feuilletonists and
Germany. Other authors on musical
aesthetics
we meet with
in Karl Kbstlin, born
1819 in Wurtemburg; Heinrich Ehrlich, born in 1824 at Vienna; and Oustav Engel, born in 1823 at Konigsberg. The last-named has been
in
1874 professor at the Royal High School, Berlin, and is one of the most prominent teachers of singing that Germany possesses. In his profound work, " Êsthetik der Tonkunst/' published at Berlin in 1884, he bases his conception of aesthetics on that of Hegel, and in so doing imsince
parts to his
work a philosophic and
strictly scientific character.
Heinrich
Ehrlich
subject.
is
the author of a spirited and intellectual work on the same Kostlin, in addition to a treatise on musical aesthetics, contri-
buted the musical portion to the third volume of Theodor Vischer's work that treats of the aesthetics of the collective arts, and gained thereby a
lasting name.
Of works
referring
more
especially to an intelligent inter-
of musical compositions, we would mention David Wagner's " Musikalische Ornamentik" (published at Berlin in 1863), and the sections in Damm's " Clavierschule " and Riemann's " Methode," treating of
pretation
musical phrasing (published by Steingraber, of Hanover). In these works the authors discuss the subject in a very extensive manner, and, although it is by no means an entirely new one, it had never before received so full a
treatment.
We complete our list of

Paul,
of lexicographers, the most prominent of
and Riemann.
German musical savants by referring to the group whom are Mendel, Von Ledebur, Hermann Mendel, who died in 1876 at Berlin,
" Musikalisches published in 1870 his Conversationslexikon," in which he

only reached to the letter
M,
the rest being completed by Reiszmann.
Oskar Paul, born

tion of the five
in
1836
in Silesia,
and professor of music at the Leipzig
University, published in
1873 a small encyclopaedia, and in 1872 a translabooks of Boetius " De Musica/' which now forms a valuable
A A A A 2
1236
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Freiherr Karl von addition to the history of the earliest Christian era. the year 1852 an officer Ledebur, born in 1806 near Bielefeld, was up to
of the Prussian cavalry, and published in
" 1860 his musical Tonkunstler-
lexikon Berlins von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart."
Hugo
1849 near Sondershausen, and since 1878 a private tutor " in the University of Leipzig, published a Musik-Lexikon," containing, in a treatise on theory and orchestration ; he has also shown ability addition,
Riemann, born
in
as a composer of the
Breslau,
is
new German School. Robert Musiol, born in 1846 at " Musikalisches Fremworterbuch " and " Katethe author of the
chismus der Musikgeschichte," and the editor of the tenth edition of Julius " Schubert's " Musikalisches Conversationslexikon (published in 1877).
We have dealt up to
number
of schools
this point
with the music of Germany.
To the
represented are opposed the less numerous masters of other countries, which, however, have much increased during the last ten or fifteen years, and of these countries France and Italy have, in our opinion, with Germany, been the most prominent from a musical point of view. But we have to remark, that in
it is
and
artistic individualities
by which
modern times, the Scandinavians,
i.e.,
Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, and
the subdivisions of the Slavonic race, viz., the Russians, Czecks, and Poles, have during the period above mentioned also forced themselves prominently
forward by their undeniable genius. England, however, has not much exceeded the average of its musical productivity, for amongst the English, as well as the Spanish and Portuguese, there do not seem to be any
masters whose works have been performed out of their country to such a degree as has been the case with those of the masters of the Scandinavian
and Slavonic
races.
We will now proceed

among
the
(a,
i
to treat of Italian tonal art.
We
find
prominent
the masters in the foremost rank Giuseppe Verdi, bom in 181 3^ near He received his musical education in Busseto, in the Duchy of Parma.
Academy
ft-
of Milan,
where in 1839 he produced his
first
opera, Oberto,
dl
#.
Bonifacio.
Bellini he gained
by
it
manifest resemblance to the style of some publicity. His operas, Nabucodonosor; perits
From
formed 1842, Ernani in 1844, / due Foscari, also in 1844, and Luisa Miller (the libretto adapted from Schiller's " Kabale und Liebe"), began to increase that publicity, but without doubt the world-wide popularity he now enjoys rests on his Rigoletto, performed in 1851, II Trovatore in
1853,
THE PRESENT.
1237
La
Traviata (adapted from
Dumas'
"Dame
;
aux Camelias
"),
Il^Ballo in
MâscHerd, and that most admirable production, A'ida, performed in 1871, on
we may add, The operas written specially for the Paris Grand he received 4,000. Les Vepres Siciliennes and Don Carlos (founded on Schiller's " Don Opera,
thiTopening of the Italian Opera, Cairo
for the last-named,
Fig. 292.
Giuseppe Verdi.
Carlos "), contain

five
much
that
;
is
noteworthy, but bear no comparison to his

especially
is
most celebrated operas
and more
this so for the reason
that his endeavour^to assimilate the style of the Paris Grand Opera (as introduced by Rossini, and continued up to the time of Donizetti) to his
own was detrimental, inasmuch as he was no longer the exponent of his own feelings, but by assuming a garb that was to him foreign, was
restricted
from a
full
and complete expression.
The
result of this is that
1238
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
one intuitively feels that the newer element does not combine by any means in a favourable way with his own real merit. Unfortunately, Verdi went even further, for in his re-writing of Don Carlos at a subsequent date,
he not only wrote in the style of the Paris Grand Opera, but showed a strong imitation of the second period of Richard Wagner, by which he was
led to deviate
his
from the established art-form, and to desert in several scenes
well-known del canto in favour of the undue prominence of orchestral
painting so characteristic of that
German
master.
In his other operas, such as Rigoletto, La Traviala, and // Trovatore, we meet with the influence of Auber, Meyerbeer, and Halevy, yet there is an abundant charm of Italian melody and a naivete that exclude that tendency to strained effects, evident in those works written by him for the
successful was he in his praiseworthy effort to adopt and more dramatic character than had been usually shown deeper by Italian masters. In 1874 he surprised the musical world, which had up
Parisian opera.
Most
in A'ida a
till
then regarded him solely as a dramatic composer, by his great Requiem,
the style of which was very elevated, besides being pathetic in expression and full of youthful fire, containing also soli, ensembles, and choruses
all
whose masterly polyphony is worthy of Mendelssohn. It is a production the more surprising when it is considered that it was written at the
comparatively advanced age of sixty-one, and is the work in which Verdi approaches most closely to the masters of the German Genius epoch, and
especially to Mozart,
It
is
and the modern Classical school.

find among them many regarding him we have to mention Arrigo Boito, bora in
quite natural that such a talent as Verdi's should have influenced
his compatriots,
as their master.
and that he should
Among
these
1842 at Padua, who, however, adopts in many ways the principles of the second period of Richard Wagner. His first work, the cantata Le Sorelle
d' Italia,
the libretto of which

the operas
performed in 1868 at Milan, was folio wed by the opera Mefistofele, is based on Goethe's Faust, and was succeeded by
Hero and Leander and Nerone.
It is interesting to note that
Boito
notice
is
a poet of some considerable merit.
Francesco Cortesi deserves
on account of his opera Mariulizza, performed in 1875 at the The Gioconda of Amilcare Ponchielli (born in Pergola Theatre, Florence. 1834) was performed in 1876, and has like the of
been,
Mefistofele
Boito,
produced at Vienna and in Germany.
Ponchielli's
Marion Delorme met
THE PRESENT.
with much success on
Milan.
1239
its
performance in
1885 at the Scala Theatre,
Filippo Marchetti, born in 1835 at Bolognola, produced at the Carcano
and Scala Theatres

(in
his operas
Romeo
Giulietta (in 1865) and
Ruy Blax
1869), gaining thereby

is
much
popularity.
Franco Faccio, born in 1841
at Verona,
the composer of the operas Iprofnghi Fiamminghi and Amleto, which were produced respectively in 1863 and 1871. Carlo Pedrotti,
born in 1817 at Verona, composed two operas, II Favorito and Olema, performed at Turin and Milan, respectively, in 1870 and 1873, with much success. Giro Pinsuti, born in 1829 near Siena, is the composer of the
operas II Mercante di Venezia and Mattia Corvino, produced in 1873 and
1877.
to the
Before closing this review of Italian masters, we would like to refer work of Dr. Carl Riese, whose skilful translations of Italian libretti
are deserving of
much
praise.
He was
specially
engaged to translate into

Mefistofele,
German
for the
Vienna stage Verdi's Simone Boccanegra, Boito's
and Ponchielli's Gioconda; and for the Dresden stage, Marchetti's Ruy Bias and Verdi's Don Carlos, and in each case paid special attention to
a correct idiomatic rendering while, using language permitting of easy vocalisation. His earlier adaptations are those from Mozart's Idomeneo,
Le Nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, Cosifan tutte, and La Clemenza di Tito. Of the Italians most renowned in the field of musical research, we must mention Francesco Florimo, born in 1800 near Reggio, who introduced
himself to the public through his work in two volumes entitled " Cenno Storico sulla Scuola Musicale di Napoli," published between 1869 and 1876. He showed his interest in German art by another work written in 1879,
entitled
in
" Riccardo Wagner ed
Wagneristi."
Florimo was appointed

at Naples, the Conserva-
1826
librarian to the Real Collegio di
Musica
torium of which city adopted the principles " Metodo di Canto."
set
forth
by him
in
his
Federigo Polidoro, born in 1845 at Naples, is an author of eminence in the field of musical history and aesthetics. By his representation of classic
German, French, and
Italian musicians,
he has gained much celebrity,
* An " anonymous pamphlet on the same subject appeared in 1885 at Bologna, Traccic per una ricerca intorno alia musica di Wagner ed alia musica italiana," and serves to show the widespread interest in German art.
1240
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
" Dei pretesi portenti della Musica Antica," and has been since 1874 professor of aesthetic and musical history to the Conserva-
more
especially in his
torium of Naples.
We
must not omit
to
at Florence, a composer of sacred works,

vita ed alle Opere di Luigi Cherubini."
mention Gamucci, born in 1822 and the author of " Intorno alia
"We will conclude this review of Italian musicians and historians by referring briefly to the author Gaetano Gaspari, born in 1807 at Bologna,
and dying there

Golinelli
in
1881
the gifted composer for the pianoforte, Stefano
the song- writers, Gordigiani and Campana ; and, among im; instrumental composers, G. Sgambati, a pupil of Liszt, whose portant
string quartett in
occasional euphony.
major, Op. 17, shows genuine sentiment and In this work he, unlike many disciples of the New
flat
Romantic School, does not aspire to orchestral tremolos, arpeggios, and other unfit contrivances.
effects
by the
aid
of
is
He shows
that he
aware that this class of composition in its polyphonic treatment still insists on melody; and although a tendency to extravagance becomes apparent, and
an attempt evinces
of Beethoven,
attention.
itself to
yet
we meet with
emulate the so-called posthumous quartetts sufficient inborn gift to attract our
We
greater
will
now
turn to the school of French musicians, of which the
number are composers of operas. These either follow the romantic, and always more or less pathetic opera, or that graceful and romantic comic opera which is so peculiar to the French nature. The former has its
representatives in such gifted musicians as
the latter in Delibes,
Gounod, Bizet, and Massenet, To these we might add Thomas, and Masse.
who is not without talent, although of a lower kind. third section comprising Felicien David, Reber, Lacombe, Godard, Saint-Saens, and Blanc, has devoted itself to the composition of orchestral works.
Offenbach,
In each of these groups there are those that follow their compatriot, Berlioz, or turn directly to the old and new German Romantic School. We
specially refer to
to complete our
Gounod, Saint-Saens, and

to
Bizet.
We
have
also, in
order
list,
name
as a fourth group the musical theorists
and
historians of France, of
whom
Bidal, and
*
Castel-Blaze, Vincent, Kastner, Chouquet,
Pougin
are the best
known.*
do not include in this list of French theorists F6tis, Nisard, De Coussemaker, and aevaert, for the reason that they have not dealt with French but Belgian theory. Further,
We
THE PRESENT.
1241
proceed to treat of the most prominent composers. Charles Fraôis Gounod, born in 1818 at Paris, a pupil of Paer, Lesueur, and Halevy,
will
We
now
gained in 1839
"Le
Prix de
Rome"
for a cantata.
While
in
Rome
he
studied the works of the Italian masters of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, writing in
1842 a Requiem.
At
this time
he was strongly
dis-
posed to enter the Church, but in the course of his travels through
the works of Mendelssohn and
to their
Germany Schumann came under his notice, and owing impression upon him, he was induced to continue his studies in
first
and La nonne Sanglante, performed in 1854, attracted the notice of the Parisian public; it was, however, owing to the success of Fajt&t, performed in 1859, that his fame reached
music.
His
operas, Sappho, performed in 1851,
its
climax.
The opera does not pretend
to paint the metaphysical side of
the Faust of Goethe, but, while allotting it the premier r61e, depicts it only in the character of a fantastic lover. The imagination of the poet was
excited, however, almost exclusively
through the German maiden Mar-
guerite.
But
if,
character,
we make
while accepting Gounod's interpretation of the latter some concessions to the French taste (concessions which
are entirely opposed to Goethe's conception), and- accept the delineation
expressed in the waltz song, for instance, and the joyful dance, during which she adorns herself with the jewels, then must we admit that this
interpretation justly claims for Gounod's
work a place among the best
romantic operas of modern times. And the twenty-six years of its unabated success on all European and American stages, and even in Germany, go far
of the present It will be long before one discovers in the works dramatic composers anything containing so much melody and dramatic passion as that exhibited by Gounod. We refer, in support of this assertion, to the garden scene towards the end of the third act,
to prove this assertion.
Valentine's death, and the cathedral scene.

in our opinion,
is
A
is
but too
little
known,
work of equal merit, which, his Philemon et Baucis, per-
formed for the
first
time in 1860 at Paris, and which
we
consider to be far
more
original than his
Romeo
et Juliette
(performed in 1867 at Paris), in
we did not ckssify, in our list of German musical theorists, the Germans Kastner, Kreutzer, Zimmcrmann, Herold, Habeneck, Adam, and others nor Gretry in the Flemish School, although a Belgian by birth, nor similarly Onslow in the English School. All these masters (Fetis, Nisard, De Coussemaker, and Gevaert excepted) more properly belong to the French School,
;
whereas Fetis and his three compeers have been, on account of their position as Belgian musical savants, included in the Flemish School.
1242
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
which one must admit the lower

although to Philemon
it
level of invention
and dramatic
power,,
met on
et
production with greater success than that accorded Besides the operas named, Gounod wrote eight Baucis.
its
that failed to achieve popularity.
He
has also written a
number
of sacred
works, e.g., masses, Latin hymns, the oratorios Tobias, The Redemption, Hors et Vita (performed for the first time in 1885 at Birmingham),
and
the
many
first
sets of
excellent songs.
A rather
sentimental meditation on
prelude of the great Sebastian Bach's Forty-eight Preludes and
Fugues has secured Gounod considerable popularity among amateurs, but we must confess it is not in strict accord with the spirit of that great* master.
His
artistic
objectivity
is
shown
in a decisive
manner
in his reverence
and enthusiasm for German music, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Weber, and Wagner being the masters that have most influenced him.
contemporary of Gounod, but of
much
less
importance,
is
Aime
Maillart, born in 1817 at Montpellier, died in
1871 at Moulins.
His most
popular opera, Les Dragons de Fillars, performed in Paris in 1856, although not exhibiting the gracefulness and sentiment of Auber's best comic operas,
displays
much piquancy, and
has the true spirit of the opera comique.
A com-
poser of more depth and originality than Maillart
was George
Bizet, born in
He was a pupil of HalevyTand gained Paris, dying there in 1875. 1856 the "Offenbach" prize for his operetta Der WunderdoMor, and in 1857 the " Grand Prix de Rome." It was not till that his ljJ75 J _in~Pa^ Carmen was produced, the success of which spread his name to other
1838 at
.
in
countries.
This work sufficed to gain for Bizet a European fame, never
destined for his enjoyment, the year of its great success being the year of his decease. If we inquire of ourselves whether Carmen deserved its
fame,
we cannot deny
that in
many
respects
it
was
fully merited, but
we only
admit this provided certain extravagances in harmony, rhythm, and instrumentation are disregarded. shows decided originality and adTheVpera
herence to the established art-form, and although employing the modern orchestral It is very colouring, makes it ever subservient to the voice.
successful in its portrayal of Spanish character, which finds its embodiment in the admixture of glowing passion and humour in the leading role, and in the interpretation of which Pauline Lucca and Lilli
Lehmann have succeeded in a pre-eminent The incredible number of the performances degree. of Carmen has been proved by statistics, prepared in 1883 at Berlin, to
THE PRESENT.
1243
In the have exceeded those of Weber's and Wagner's works combined. entr'acte music to Daudet's drama, I/Arlesienne^ Bizet shows much origiAfter his early death and the great success of Carmen, a very natural inclination was shown by the public to hear To meet this the entr'actes were arranged as others of his compositions.
nality, energy,
and grace.
an orchestral
suite,
and in such form have been performed by the chief

born in
German
1842
orchestras. in a different groove to that of Bizet is Jules Massenet,
Working
review.
near St. Etienne, another
composer belonging to the
group now under
Having gained
" Le Prix de
Rome "
for his cantata Rizziof
he
received the
honourable distinction of "Mejnbre de I'lnstitut/' and in 1878 the professorial chair at the Conservatoire. He is especially distin-
guished for his settings of Biblical jinynas, a species of composition which, both as regards libretto and music, is in character partly oratorio and partly opera, and in which he may be said to have been preceded by
Anton Rubinstein. His most important Biblical dramas are Marie MadeHe has, in addition, written leine (1873), Eve (1875), and La Vierge.
orchestral suites, overtures, fantasias, &c.,
and secured celebrity outside
France by two works written for the Paris Grand Opera, Le Roi de
Lahore, and Herodias.
"""it the head of the French national comic-opera writers of the present stands Leo Delibes, born in 1836 at St. Germain du Val. Among his
many charming operas that are very tastefully Le Roi I'a dit (1873) and Lakme (1883), works
ful productions.
scored,
we would mention
that were his most success-
In the first-named, which has been performed on almost " "f all German stages, we cannot refrain from referring to a charming ugato introduced in a serenade. We may mention that much praise has been
awarded to
grand ballet Coppelia. composer, in our opinion, of much
his
less
importance than Delibes
is
Ambroise Thomas, born in 1811 at Metz. His most popular work, Mignon (1866), performed on almost all the principal stages, shows but little depth, although it must be admitted that it leaves the impress of a certain talent.
With
the exception of certain portions, the whole of the music falls short
Of of that required by the high poetic creation of Goethe's heroine. Thomas's Hamlet, written in 1868, it has been asserted that it is very little in advance of Mignon in point of style.
1244
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Victor Masses, born in 1822 at L'Orient, and Of his in 1876 appointed Auber's successor in the French Academy. sixteen operas (eight of which are in character comic) the following have
Of
similar
capacity
is
obtained most popularity,

(1876), and
Le
Fils du Brigadier
(1867),
Paul
et
Virginie
La Nuit
de
Cleopdtre (1877).
We
have
now
to
mention
in 1880 at Paris, who, Jacques Offenbach, born in 1819 at Cologne, died musical gift and a fancy both peculiar notwithstanding his considerable
and original in the creation of the bouffe-parisiens, yet represents the And it cynicism and moral emptiness of the Second French Empire.
cannot but be regarded with regret that he should have so subordinated
his
talents
to
pecuniary considerations;
for his
first
one-act opera,
by
which he became known, entitled Le Manage a la Lanterne, decidedly ranks with the best comic operas, and even solely on account of its
charming ensembles might fairly claim a classical position. Again, his shows in many of its parts such a cheerful exuberance Orphee aux~Enfers that it might well be called an intelligent musical persiflage. Those operas,
La Belle Helene class became not only more frivolous, even from a purely musical standpoint, more and more shallow, and but, tried solely by meretricious means to please the coarser elements of the
however, of the
human mind.
and
however, lay less stress on Offenbach as a musician, prefer to direct attention to the peculiar position he held from a
We,
historical standpoint, in reflecting the
morals and the character of Parisian
society during the years 1850 to 1880, Turning to the modern French masters of symphonic compositions, we meet among the foremost the contemporary of Berlioz, viz., the gifted
Felicien
David, born in 1810 in the department Vaucluse, died in 1876
important symphonic work, Leêseri, which maintained the style of programme-music inaugurated by Berlioz, and is a work not only original, but 'more perfect than those of Berlioz as The success David gained by this regards form. in Paris was Other works by the same master are the very remarkable. " symphonic ode Columbus," the opera Lalla Rookh (1862), an oratorio Moses on Mount Sinai, a symphony in F, twononeWs for wind instruments, and his string quintette, " Les Quatres Saisons."
at St. Germain en Laye. In an early part of this work, when treating of the Islamites, we had occasion to refer to David's most
composer who must unconditionally be admitted to be a most pro-
THE PRESENT.
minent instrumental writer
Camille Saint-Sae'ns.
1245
is
Born
in Paris in 1835,
of
he studied under Halevy, and in 1858 received the appointment of organist La Madeleine. He gained much popularity by his Phaeton, Le Rouet
d'Omp/iale,
La
Jeunesse d'Hercule and Danse Macabre, works in the style

;
oT Berlioz and Liszt
in their stricter adherence to the established art-form.
but they exceeded the productions of those masters It has been sug-
gested that the last-named work (Danse Macabre} might well be accepted " Todtentanz " as a musical illustration of Goethe's (death dance). Among his orchestral compositions, four symphonies, a suite algerienne, four grand
pianoforte concertos,
in addition to one for the violoncello
and one for
the vioKn7 deserve special mention.
In chamber music Saint-Sae'ns again shows his complete mastery of art-form, infusing much genuine French He is an excellent organist and virtuoso on the esprit into his treatment.
thoroughly acquainted with Sebastian Bach, in the interpreHe has also written tation of whose works he has shown special excellence.
piano,
is
and
meritorious organ music, and has a special gift as an improviser on both
piano and organ.

Yet, notwithstanding these acknowledged excellences,
roe
must admit
that Saint-Saens shows more intellectuality in his compositions than poetical

inspiration,
and more
self-criticism in art-form
than richness of invention.
cannot be denied their sterling worth, and other master, only perhaps excepting Pasdeloup, has since the time of no Cherubini, Habeneck, and Berlioz, so warmly fought on behalf of Ger-
His
collective gifts, however,
tonal art in France, as did Saint-Sae'ns, more especially before the year 1870.
man
Another writer of symphonic works is Henri Napoleon Reber. born in 1807 at Miilhausen, in Alsace, died in 1880 at Paris. A pupil of Reicha and Lesueur, he has secured an honourable name by his four symphonies,
an overture, and an orchestral suite. To these may be added his string quartetts and pianoforte trios, all of which are imbued with the influence
of the great
German
masters.
but very slight success. In 1853 he became Membre de in 1862 successor to Halevy at the Conservatoire.
fluenced
His comic operas, however, have met with 1'Institut, and
Louis Lacombe, born in 1818 at Bourges, and a composer much inby Berlioz, studied at Vienna under Czerny, and produced in " Manfred." Three years Paris in 1847 his dramatic choral symphony
1246
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
later a similar work,
Arva, ou
les
Hongrois/' appeared, and excited con-
siderable interest.
He
wrote his prize cantata Sapj)ho for the great ex-
hibition of 1878.
has been furnished to the realm of instrumental composition of a charming character by Benjamin Godard. born in 1849 in Paris. His
orchestral suite,
le
Much
" Dans Bois/'
" Scenes poetiques/' consisting of four movements (" Dans '< les Champs/' Au Village/' and " Sur la Montague"), is
is
replete with the grace that a certain charm due to its
so peculiar to the French, besides possessing
dreamy
nature.
is
It has been as frequently per-
formed in Germany as in Paris, and

Berlin (Op. 46).
published by Bote and Bock of
The praiseworthy
sobriety evinced in orchestration, that
for the attainment of his poetical
nowhere leads the composer to exceed a proper employment of the means and instrumental colouring, gains for him
the city of Paris.
His two hundred " Chansons et Melodies/' the latter " having a strong resemblance to the German lieder/' enjoy a widespread in France. We have lastly to mention Adolphe Blanc, born in reputation 1828 in the department of the Basses- Alpes, who is known for his
chiefly
a prestige over many of the present German opera-composers. Godard also wrote a " Symphonic gothique/' and a lyric scene " Diane et Acteon/' and " " received for his dramatic choral symphony Tasso the prize offered by
chamber music (based on the
theories of the
German
School), consisting of
He was awarded quintetts, string quartetts, pianoforte trios, and sonatas. the " Prix Chartier/' offered by the Ffench for his untiring efforts Academy, in popularising chamber music in that country.
In dealing with the fourth group of French musicians, &c., we meet with the savants, of whom we shall be unable to mention any but the most important on account of space. Francois Castil-Blaze, born in 1784 in
the department Vaucluse, died in 1857 at Paris, began his career by entering the legal profession, and it will not be without interest to refer to the fact of the chief German musical savants Thibaut, Von Winterfeld, Ambros, Kiesewetter, Bitter, Kiehl, Gumprecht, Hanslick, and De Coussemaker,
having also been by profession lawyers. The chief works of Castil-Blaze " Dictionnaire de Musique Moderne" (published in 1825, and passing through two editions), the "Chapelle de Musique des Eois de " " " Theatres France/' Moliere Musicien (published in 1852), and Lyriques de Paris" (in three volumes, Paris, 1855 and 1856). He is also well
are his
THE PRESENT.
known through
title of
1247
his translations of the
German and
Italian libretti of
Don
Giovanni, Figaro, Zauberflote, Robin des Bois), Euryanthe, Matrimonio Segreto, Barbiere, &c.,
Der
Freischiilz (this appearing-
under the
and was the author of the novel " Julien, ou le Pretre." Alexandre Vincent, born in 1797 in the department Pas-de-Calais, and who
died in 1868 at Paris, wrote
many
erudite treatises on the
music of ancient
Greece, and a considerable number also on the music of the Middle Ages ; in these he has furnished us with a very exhaustive criticism on De Cousse-
maker's brilliant mediaeval researches.*
As regards the
possession by the
Greeks and Romans of a polyphony, Vincent strongly supported Westphal's affirmative view, but was as strongly opposed, in 1854 and 1861, by his
compatriot Marcel Jullien (born in 1798, died in 1881). Johann Georg Kastner, born in 1811 at Strasburg, died in 1867 at Paris, was an author whose works have importance chiefly on account of
" Grammaire Musicale," in three the " Theorie abregee du contrepoint et de la fugue," the " Traite volumes, general de 1'instrumentation/' in two volumes with supplement, and the " " (left unfinished through the author's death). Encyklopadie der Musik In Adolphe Gustave Chouquet, born in 1819 at Havre, we meet with a prominent musical historian, who gained in 1864 the " Prix Bordin " for " Histoire de his Musique/' an excellent work, treating of the period from
their educational nature.
We
refer to the
the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
No
less
meritorious
is
his
" Histoire de la Musique Dramatique en France depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours" (published in 1873). In a similar manner Antoine Vidal, born
1820 at Eouen, gained notoriety by a voluminous work, " Les Instruments a archet" (in three volumes, Paris, 1876), which is amongst the
in
most
reliable
and profound
treatises
extant on the history of stringed
instruments.
Arthur Pougin, born in 1834, gained considerable prominence by his " Musiciens franais du XVIII. siecle." In 1867 he wrote, at the request
" De la Notation Musicale * give here the titles of a few of De Coussemaker's works: de 1'ficole d'Alexandrie " ("Revue Archeologique 3i6me annee"), an analysis of the celebrated paper "De Musica,"by St. Augustine (1849), "Emploi des quarts de ton dans le chant gre" " De la Notation Musicale attribute gorien constate sur 1'antiphonaire de Montpellier (1854),
We
a Boece et de quelques chants anciens qui se trouvent dans le manuscrit latin No. 989 de la " liibliotheque imperiale," and lastly, the Notice sur trois manuscrits grecs relatifs a la musique
avec une traduction fraâise et des commentaires " (Paris, imprimerie royale, 1847).
1248
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
" De
la situation des compositeurs de
of the Government, his
musique
et de
Tavenir de Tart musical en France/' and published, in 1878 and 1880, two " " volumes in order to complete the Biographie Universelle des Musiciens
no need here to mention the literary achievements of Berlioz, they having already been referred to. As we have completed our review of the musicians, &c., of the most
of Fetis.
We have
gifted nations of the earth, viz.,
Germany, France, and
Italy,
we
will
turn our attention to the principal musicians of England, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.
During the nineteenth century the first-named country has possessed many undeniable musical savants and noteworthy composers. With regard
to the latter
we may
less
well,
on account of his wide popularity, introduce
them under no
Dublin in
man than Michael William Balfe. Although born in 1808 (died in 1870), we cannot treat him as a national coma
poser, for the reason that his
of the school of Kossini, Bellini,

certain features peculiar to the
works are strongly tinged with the influence and Donizetti, and not unmixed with
French grand opera. The work by which Balfe gained his remarkable popularity was the Bohemian Girl, performed for the first time at Drury Lane. This was followed by the opera Falstaff,
written for
performed
in
Her Majesty's Theatre, and many others, some of which were Germany and France of these Les quatre fils Aymon
:
achieved considerable success in the French capital. Sir George Macfarren, the director of the Royal
Academy
of Music,,
was born in London
in the year 1813,
and from 1842 to 1864 devoted
himself to the composition of the operas Don Quixote, Charles II., Robin Hood, and Helvellyn, and the oratorios John the Baptist and Joseph, in addition to cantatas, symphonies, By overtures, and chamber music.
these works he gained considerable prominence. his critical edition of Purcell and Handel's
There
is
much
merit in
refer to
works, and we may here
the excellent translations of
opera libretti by Lady Macfarren. meet with another opera composer in W. Vincent Wallace, born in 1814 at Waterford, died in 1865. His most popular work, Maritana, like others
of his operas, has been performed in France and America of the British Colonies. Maritana was followed
German
We
and
in the chief
cities
by Matilda, the Amber Witch, Lurline, &c., none of which, however, can be said to be national in character, but rather to show the influence of the modern
THE PRESENT.
and French Schools.
Wallace was a
1219
Italian
prolific
writer of pianoforte
music, none of which, however, can be regarded as of the highest standard. Working in a different direction from that of Balfe and Wallace we find
Sir Michael Costa, who, although born at Naples in 1810, yet spent the
in the English capital, where he
greater part of his

at
life
became conductor
Her Majesty's Theatre, and subsequently of the Philharmonic and Sacred Harmonic Societies, and also of the Birmingham and the great Handel Festivals, writing for Birmingham his oratorio Eli. Costa was knighted in 1869 and died in London in 1884. Sir Sterndale Bennett, who was born in 1816 at Sheffield, and died
in
1875 in London, entirely followed the principles of Mendelssohn, and was honoured by the presence of that master at the performance, at one
of the Royal Academy concerts, of his pianoforte concerto in D minor, a work in which Mendelssohn showed considerable interest an interest
that developed into a friendly intercourse and lasted during Bennett's stay
at Leipzig between the years 1837
for their taste
and 1842.
His compositions are more
and refinement than for their energy and force, noteworthy of them being the four concert overtures, The Na'iads, The Wood the chief Nymphs, Parisina, Paradise and the Peri, the four pianoforte concert!, the
symphony
the
in
minor, the oratorio The IPoman of Samaria, and the cantata
May
Queen.
Bennett founded
in
1849 the London Bach Society, and
1856 the conductor of the Philharmonic Society, and professor of music in the University of Cambridge; in 1870 he received the honorary
became
in
degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford, and was knighted in 1871. Of older composers whose work was begun and completed in the present
century,
we may mention
J.
Baptist Cramer,
who although
of
German
age came to England, where he died (in London) in 1858. A pupil of the celebrated dementi, he owes his fame especially to his well-known classical pianoforte studies, and
birth (born in 1771 at
Mannheim), yet at an
.early
was the composer of much pianoforte and chamber music, writing no less than 105 sonatas, 7 concertos, and various exercises. Less prolific was John Field, who was born at Dublin in 1782, and died in 1837 at Moscow,
many charming nocturnes, which in regard to a certain taste and refinement may be said to have anticipated Chopin, although the subjects are much simpler and more naive and diatonic than those
the composer of
of the
more romantic Polish composer.

B B B B
1250
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
was born in 1819, and
The
celebrated
London
pianist, Charles Halle,
his lifetime in the English capital, yet it although he has practically passed and Sir Julius Benedict (the latter a pupil of is interesting to note that he O
Karl Maria von Weber) were both born in Germany, Halle at Hagen, in in 1804 (died in London, 1885). Westphalia, and Benedict at Stutgardt from Italy, and four years later In 1835 Benedict arrived in London
was appointed conductor of the Drury Lane Opera. In 1850 he proceeded on a tour to America with Jenny Lind, and on his return was appointed In 1854 he conducted the conductor to the Sacred Harmonic Society.
at performance of Naumann's oratorio Christ, the Messenger of Peace, Exeter Hall, for the benefit of the German Hospital; and in 1874 received
the honour of knighthood at the hands of the Queen. Those of his operas that became most popular were the Gipsy's Warning and the Lily of
Killarney
his cantata
Undine, and
many
orchestral compositions, have
frequently been before the public. Among the more youthful English composers of note is Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan, born in 184:2 in London. He received the principal part
o
his musical education at the
from 1858 to 1861.
While there he wrote
Leipzig Conservatorium, at which he stayed his music to Shakespeare's
Tempest, a work that was publicly performed at the Conservatorium.
We
would
ihe
specially
mention
his oratorios,
World, the
symphony
in
The Prodigal Son and The Light of major, the overture In Memoriam, and the
incidental music to
Shakespeare's Henry VIII.
principally comic, contain
His numerous operettas, many charming morceaux, and in these Sullivan
shows himself a talented
disciple of a school evincing the strong influence of
Schumann and Mendelssohn, although he by no means lacks individuality. With regard to the organists and professors of the English School, the
Rev. Sir F. A. Gore Ousel ey, Bart., M.A., Mus.Doc., son of the distinguished Orientalist and English ambassador of the Persian and Russian In 1846 he took his B.A. Courts, stands in a very prominent position.
degree at Oxford, and in 1849 that of Master of Arts. In 1854 he received the degree of Doctor, and in 1855 the title of Professor of Music in the
University of Oxford.
treatises
As a
theorist
he
is
well
known by
his excellent
on harmony, counterpoint, and fugue.
He
has been a contributor
to Sir
translation
George Grove's "Dictionary of Music/' and is the editor of the by Ferdinand Praeger of this "History of Music/' and one
THE PRESENT.
1251
of the chief dignitaries at Hereford Cathedral, besides being a finished
master of the organ. He exhibits a rare skill of improvisation in strict and double counterpoint, and is the composer of two oratorios, entitled
St.
chamber and vocal music,
Polycarp and ILigar, seventy anthems, fugues for the organ, and all of which display considerable merit.
savant,
The musical
in
Henry Chorley (born
in Lancashire, in the year
1808, died in London, 1872), next demands our notice.
His invaluable work
drawing
attention to the classical
works of German authors deserves
special mention.
He was an intimate acquaintance of Mendelssohn, Rietz, and David, and a constant attendant at the German musical festivals. His
most popular works
in
are,
in France and Germany" " and " Modern German Music volumes), (published (in two in addition to being a poet, was also the critic to the volumes). Chorley, Athenaeum, and a librettist, supplying words to many songs.
"Music and Manners
three
John Hullah, born in 1812 at Worcester (died 1884), was another " His grammars of (1) " Music and (2) "Counterdistinguished savant.
point/' his "The Third or Transition Period of Musical History/' and the " History of Modern Music" (1862) are works exhibiting wide knowHe is well known for his enthusiastic endeavours ledge of the musical art.
to establish a national choral union,
national schools, and also as the composer of
formed by the teachers and pupils of many anthems and songs
which have attained very wide popularity. We may here conveniently refer to the American biographer of Beethoven, Alexander Wheelock Thayer, born in 1817 at Massachusetts. In the same
manner that the present generation is considerably indebted to Carlyle and Lewes for their careful and elaborate works on Schiller and Goethe, so it is indebted to Thayer for an excellent biography of Beethoven. The
work, which is not yet complete, is of such merit that the portion which has so far been published has been carefully translated into German by Dr. " Deiters, under the title, Ludwig von Beethoven's Leben." Thayer was
appointed in 1860 attache to the American Embassy at Vienna; an earnest worker in musical art, he has produced a valuable chronological catalogue
of
Beethoven's works
(published
in
1865), and,
further,
the
critical
essay,
" Einen Kritischen Beitrag zur Beethovenliteratur," published

will
in
1877.
We
now
devote our attention to the
Swedish, Norwegian, and
B B B B 2
1252
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Danish masters.
Considered as constituting one body, these Scandinavians the borders of do not appear, at any time, to have achieved celebrity beyond It is only during the progress of the present century their own country.
Fig. 293.
that
we
find
criticism.
any of their works falling under the fierce light of European To the Danes belongs the credit of being the first to make
in musical art, in the person of
any conspicuous advance
no
less
a master he
first
than the excellent Niels Gade.
Born
at
Copenhagen
as the
in 1817,
became celebrated among
his
countrymen
composer of a
C minor
THE PRESENT.
1253
symphony, while still a young member of the Copenhagen orchestra. The author had the good fortune to be present at its first performance at Leipzig under the direction of Mendelssohn, in the winter of 1842, at the Gewandhaus Concerts, at Which date the work was still unpublished. It produced general enthusiasm in the orchestra on account of its newness of treatment.
Connoisseurs discovered in it the same sentiment that so strongly pervades the songs of Ossiau and the sagas of Frith jof. More forcibly is this depicted in the concert overtures, Jfackklange aus Ossiau, In/ Iloc/ilund, Hamlet, and Of Gade's eight symphonies, none of which can be described Michalanfjelo.
as mediocre in character, that in
tlut
major
is
on the whole the
best.
Gade has also written orchestral novelettes and most meritorious chamber Of his cantatas we would specially mention Coma la and Erlkomys music.
Tochter
;
but, notwithstanding the merit of his vocal works,
we
prefer his
instrumental compositions. classical sonata form as he
He
is
is
as rigid in his adherence to the strict

its details.
a perfect master of
He
has also
written some charming songs and pianoforte pieces. During the season 1845-6 he acted for Mendelssohn as conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts,
the year 1847.

celebrated
succeeding to the conductorship on the death of that distinguished man in The following year he was appointed conductor of the
King of Next
in
Copenhagen Concerts, and Denmark.

in importance to
in
1861 court chapel-master to the
Gade
is
his brother-in-law,
Emil Hartmann, born

his overture,
1836 at Copenhagen.
pupil of the elder master, he has followed very
closely in Gade's footsteps.
In
Germany he
is
best
known by
Nordische Heerfahrt, the symphonic poem, " Aus der Ritterzeit/' and the He has also written a violin and a violoncello symphony in E flat major.
concerto, a
cantata Winter
und Lenz, and many smaller chamber and
pianoforte works.
In turning to the Norwegians, among the most noteworthy are Johann Svendsen and Edvard Grieg, the former born at Christiania in 1840, and
the latter at Bergen in 1843.
servatorium, under
Svendsen, a pupil at the Leipzig Con
Hauptmann and Reinecke, has been since 1872 conHe exhibits in ductor of the Musical Union Concerts at Christiania.
his compositions the impress of the Scandinavian character,
and shows an
orchestral
occasional tendency to mannerism.
We would mention among his

B
flat
works the symphonies in
major and
major, the overture to
Romea
1254
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and an
and
Juliet, a descriptive
introduction to Bjornson's
work "
for the orchestra entitled ZoraJiayda,
Sigurd Slembe."
In addition to these he has
written Norwegian rhapsodies, a

octet for strings (Op.
3), all
number
of
chamber compositions, and an
and power of invention.

in
which show mastery of classical art-form Ed vard Grieg has done less than his compatriot
of
symphonic works, gaining his

music.
name
of
chiefly
through chamber and
pianoforte
violin
Of
these
some
the most remarkable are his
two
sonatas,
a string
quartett,
and a sonata in
minor (Op. 36)
ziehen," may Grieg's Bergen," seems somewhat extreme, to his having united with a young composer,
llikard
and piano, in addition to a number of pianoforte pieces, most characteristic and original, e.g., " Norwegischer Brautzug im Voriiber" Auf den We ascribe what in work &c.
for violoncello
effeminate in Scandinavian music,
Nordraak (now dead), in opposing that which they considered an effeminacy asserted to have been
introduced by Gade through his strong leaning to the school of Mendelssohn.
In so doing they entirely disregarded the undoubtedly great influence of the latter master on Scandinavian music, and the influence of the Leipzig school, from which the impulse first proceeded.
Turning now to the Swedish composers, Ivar Hallstrom. born at Stockholm in 1826, is the first to demand our attention. He began his
career as a lawyer, afterwards
in
becoming librarian to the Crown Prince, and 1861 successor to his compatriot, Lindblad, in the directorship of the Stockholm Conservatorium. He shows merit as a composer of operas,
is
but the national impress of his dramatic works

choice of his libretti.
very apparent in the
The most popular of his operas are Das Geraubte Die Braut des Gnomen, JDer Bergkonig, and Die Wikinger, Bergmadchen, all of which were His preperformed during the years 1874 to 1877.
decessor ab the
by pupil, Of the many England and Germany. " Der that are peculiar and interesting, Postilion/' "Der Invalide," junge Der Spatz," Der Schlotfegerbub/' and the excellent " Gesang eines Madchens aus Dalekarlien," are, perhaps, the most popular.
Lind,
Stockholm Conservatorium, Frederick Lindblad (born in 1804 near Stockholm, died in 186-1), was a composer of songs strongly national in character, and made celebrated his the famous Jenny
who introduced them
into
In discussing the music of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, we had to refer to the merit of the then existing Netherland School. supreme
THE PRESENT.
1255
We
will
now turn
to its
and Dutch. In
its list of
modern descendants, as represented by the Belgians composers are the names of Verhulst, Vieuxtemps,
De Swert, and
Servais; and
among
litterateurs the widely
known names
of
Fetis, Nisard, Burbure,
De Coussemaker,
Gevaert,
Van
der Straeten, and
Van Maldeghem.
Jan Verhulst, the most celebrated living Dutch composer, was born in 1816 at the Hague, and studied under Bernhardt Klein and Mendelssohn.
E minor being the most a Requiem for male voices, a setting excellent, overtures, string-quartetts, of the 145th Psalm, and many vocal works. It is, however, very strange that he absolutely refuses to write for any other than the Dutch tongue.
His compositions consist of symphonies, that in
he had the good fortune to move in the circle of prominent and pupils that surrounded Mendelssohn at Leipzig. In the composers same year the King of Holland appointed him court music-director; later on he became conductor of the Amsterdam Concerts, held under the " direction of the
Up
to
184-2
Maatschappijtot."
Of
the Belgian composers of the nineteenth century
we have
first
to
died in 1881 in Algiers.
mention Henri Vieuxtemps, who was born in 1820 at Verviers, and who His compositions are principally for the violin,
which
is
accounted for by his having been one of the greatest violinists of
this century.
They
are all genuine artistic conceptions, aiming at the
highest standard, and exhibiting the classical art-form. The chief of them are five grand concertos in symphonic form, an overture (Op. 41), a violoncello concerto,
and a duo concertante on
airs
from Mozart's Don Giovanni
for violin
and piano.
We
must not omit
to mention his three cadenzas,
written for
Beethoven's violin concertos.
As a performer
of
European
fame, Vieuxtemps made
three most successful tours in America.
1871 to 1873 he held the professorial chair at the Brussels, and was conductor of the concerts populaires of the same
From Conservator ium of
Another Belgian artist of note is Jules de Swert, born in 1843 He was a well-known performer on the violoncello, and at Louvain.
place.
besides being the composer of a
number of works
written an
for
that instrument
that
show decided
talent,
has also
opera,
Les Albigenses.
Franois
Servais, born in 1807
near Brussels (at which city he died in
1866), undoubtedly ranks among the greatest violoncellists of the present As a composer for his favourite instrument he rises much century.
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
above other Belgian virtuosi, as

teen fantasias for violoncello
is
witnessed by his three concertos and six-
and orchestra.
Flemish composer, Peter Benoit, born in Flanders, of whose compositions we prefer the Flemish opera Isa, the oratorio L'Escaut, a choral symphony " Les " Te Moissoneurs/' a Requiem, a Deum/' and the music to Charlotte Benoit is also the author of the interesting treatise, " L'Ecole Corday.
finally refer
We
must
to the
183-1 at Harlebeke, in
de Musique flamande et son Avenir/' Of the Netherland savants we have frequently spoken, and may again In doing so we refer to their connection with modern musical literature.
notice F. J. Fetis, who was born in 1784 at Mons, and who died in 1871 at Brussels ; he was the author of the " Biographic Universelle de Musiciens/' in eight volumes, of which a second edition appeared between 1860 '' and 1865. His " Histoire Generale de between
first
Musique
(published
1869 and 1875, in
five
the fifteenth century.
volumes), unfortunately, does not extend beyond Only fifty copies were printed of his "Esquisse de
FHistoire de 1'Harmonie
"
(1840).
In 1827 ho was appointed librarian
from 1833 to 1873 was principal of the Brussels Conservatoire. He gained some distinction as a composer by his two symphonies, a sextet (for two pianoforte performers and a string
of the Paris Conservatoire, and
quartett), a concert overture,
and a Requiem. Fetis was held in very esteem in the musical profession; at the performance in Aix-lagreat Chapelle in 1867 of his concert overture, he was received with the greatest
enthusiasm by the orchestra, whose reverence for him was such as expected by a father from his sons.
is
only
next come to Theodore Norman (otherwise Nisard), born in 1812 in the province Hennegau, the author of ten works on the cantus planus, and of the " Etxides sur les Anciennes Notations Musicales de works
We
FEurope,"
well deserving In the early part of his career Nisard was headstudy. master of a high school, but after 1842 he devoted himself entirely to music, becoming organist and choirmaster of St. Germain, at Paris. To him is due
the discovery of the celebrated anliphonary of Montpellier. Leon de Burbure, a wealthy 'Belgian nobleman, born in 1812 in East Flanders, has left us the results of his invaluable researches on the ancient " musical guilds of of Instruments and the Antwerp. His
Lute since the Sixteenth Century
History Keyed is a valuable and interesting work.
THE PRESENT.
Edmond
1257
was born in 1805 at
de Coussemaker, the descendant of an old Flemish family, Bailleul, and died in 1867 at Bonbourg. Although
trained for the legal profession, and subsequently appointed a judge at
Bergues, his time, therefore, being fully employed, he succeeded in proving himself one of the most eminent musical savants of the present century.
have mentioned some of his chief works in a former chapter, and need only further name his "GEuvres completes d'Adam de la Hale" (1872),
We
and his "Essai sur
Instruments de Musique au moyen-age." Another Belgian savant of eminence is Fraagois Auguste Gevaert, born in 1828 at Oudeuarde. pupil at the Ghent Conservatoire, he there
les
He also composed sacred music, orchestral works, and comic operas, all of which were produced under his direction, and in 1867 became conductor of the Grand Opera at Paris. In 1856 appeared his " Leerboek van den Gregoriaenschen Zang;" in 1863 the "Traite d'Instrumentation/' and in 1868 the work by which he is chiefly known, " Les Gloires d'ltalie/' containing specimens of the work of the best Italian masters of the present century. These were followed by the " Histoire et
Prix de Rome."
Theorie de la Musique de TAntiquite," written between 1875 and 1881. By these works he undeniably merits the high position he holds in the world
of musical savants.
obtained in 18-47 "
a prize for his Flemish cantata Belgie, and later on the
In 1870 he
left
Paris,
and the following year was
appointed director of the Brussels Conservatoire. Edmond van der Straeten, born in 1826 at Oudenarde, became, on the
termination of his studies at Ghent, librarian of the Royal Library, Brussels. Among his chief works, the "Notice sur Charles Felix de Hollande" " " Recherches sur la (1854), Musique a Audenarde avant le XIX. siecle " La (1856), and Musique aux Pays-Bas" (1867 to 1880, in five volumes),
deserve special attention.
Of
the
life
of
the author
"
is,
Van Maldeghem
very as a meritorious work.
little is
known.
His " Tresor Musical
however, to be mentioned
Within the
last
progress in music.
twenty years the Slavonic races have made considerable We do not intend it to be understood that prior
to this they lacked talent, but, either

in the
number
of their representatives to
from not being sufficiently numerous make an impression, or from
being too
much under
the influence of the great
German
masters, the
until within
special genius of
their race has not been very pronounced
1258
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
advancement in the art of music o all influences, a more
com paratively recent

during this period
is
times.
Whether
their
due to that most powerful
Fig. 294.
(With the kind permission of the publishers,
Rubinstein.
an original engraving.)
S. Schottlaender, of Breslau, after
humane and
it
therefore wider political view,
we
will not venture to say,
but
is
nevertheless true that their progress has been a

all
most glorious one,
showing
the while their national peculiarities.
THE PRESENT.
1259
In entering upon our review of the work of the Slavonic masters,
we
are naturally
led first to consider
Anton Rubinstein, born

indeed,
in
Bess-
arabia on
November
30, 1830.
As
early as
1840 he excited the wonder

they regarded him
of the Parisians
as a prodigy.
by a public
performance;
In 1844, at Meyerbeer's suggestion, he was placed under
Dehn
burg.
at
Berlin.
He
has successfully carried through

capitals,
several
in St.
concert
Peters-
tours in the
various European
and now
of
resides
He
has written some
Russian operas,
which we
shall
only
mention Dimitri Donskoi (1854) and" The Siberian Hunters. In 1858 he was appointed imperial Russian court pianist and conductor; in 1859
he founded
years
later
a
the
Russian
Musical
Society
at
St.
Petersburg,
reflects,
and three
to a great
Conservatorium.
of the
extent,
the
influence
As a composer he German School and its
classical
art-form,
although the unrestrained wildness and impetuous rush so peculiar to the Slavonic race assert themselves at times in a very extraordinary manner.
As a
virtuoso he ranks second only to Liszt.
We here
cite
a few of his
most celebrated compositions, the operas Feramors (1863), Le Demon (1875), Die Makkabder (1875), and Nero (1879) ; the oratorios (designated by him a be I and Paradise Lost; and his five "sacred operas"), The Tower of In he the best of which is that entitled " Ocean."
symphonies, has written an endless number of duets,
sextetts.
addition,
trios,
quartetts, quintetts,
and
Prolific as a composer of pianoforte pieces, he is to be credited with the production of five pianoforte concertos, sonatas, an " Album de Danses Populaires/' " Les Soirees de St. Petersburg," and the musical
" Ivan His songs, " Der Asra," " Gelb rollt IV., the Cruel," &c. " Es blinkt der mir zu Fiiszen," Thau," &c., are most noticeable for natural
sketch,
charm.
Next
to Rubinstein, Michail Ivanovitch
Smolensk, deserves notice.
von Glinka, born in 1804 near Like the great pianist just mentioned, he was also
a pupil of Dehn. At an early period he studied intently the peculiarities of the Russian character, which study resulted in a more successful portrayal of
native character than that of any other of his compatriots.
of this, notice his first opera,
In illustration
in 1836.
The performed Life for second opera, on the libretto of the Russian poet Puschkin, entitled Russia
the Czar,
and Lndmilla,
led Liszt,
who was
it
present at
its
second performance, to
write a laudatory article upon
for
Le Journal
des Debats.
Glinka has
J2GO
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
also
written
many
interesting
graceful
songs.
He
chamber compositions and a number of became popular in Germany by his quaint and
Kamarinskaja and Jota Aragonese, the latter Whilst on a visit to his old master Dehn, for
the harmonies of the old
original orchestral treatment of
composed at Madrid.
assistance in
his researches as to the origin of
Russian folk-songs, he fell ill, and in the year 1857 died at Berlin. Of older Russian composers we have to mention Bortnianski and Lwoff.
Dimitri Bortnianski (born in 1751 in Ukraine, died in 1825) received his musical education from Galuppi, in Venice, through the patronage of the
Empress Katharine II. He reorganised the Russian Imperial Cathedral Choir, and gained for it a celebrity which extended far beyond the Russian borders. For this choir he composed fifty a capella psalms for four and
eight voices, but, like his mass written for the Greek ritual, they are of
too sentimental a character, though this
justify their production in
might
Russian churches.
Alexis von Lwoff,
who was born
in
1799 at Reval, and died in 1870,
was a great violin virtuoso, and chapel-master to the imperial court. He was also a major-general of the Russian army and aide-de-camp to the
Czar.
He
wrote
many
violin
compositions
and choral works

"
for
the
the
cathedral choir, and published in 1859 an interesting treatise
On
7 Free and Unsymmetrical Rhythm of the Old Russian Church Song/ As composers of modern times, Tschaikowsky and Borodin may now be
referred
Peter Tschaikowsky, born in 1840 in the province of Perm, entered Rubinstein's Conservatorium, and held a professorial chair there from 1868 to 1877. Besides some operas, he has written overto.
symphonies,
di
tures, the
" Francesca symphonic poems, "Der Sturm" and
Rimini/'
string quartetts, a violin concerto, a pianoforte concerto, and other works for the piano. He is to be regarded as a representative of the Russian national character, and whilst to trivialities, he occasionally
exhibits,
descending on the whole, originality, combined with interesting modulation
and quaint rhythm. Alexander Borodin, born in 1834, a greater master of polyphony, and possessing more natural gift, is, however, more confused in his treatment,
and, further,
the
is
exceedingly unrestrained.
He
is
a true representative of
Young Russian School, which, in many respects, has modelled itself after the New German Romantic School. As a member of the medical
THE PRESENT.
profession, he
1261
holds the distinguished appointment of professor to the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy, and is an imperial councillor. Two symphonies, of which that in E flat major was performed
1880 at Wiesbaden, the symphonic poem " Mittelasien/' the opera Igor, and his many chamber compositions, strongly corroborate our opinion.
in
Everywhere one
feels that
the composer
is
straining after effect without
duly regarding proper continuity. termed "Nihilistic/'
In fact, his music might be fairly
litterateurs, Oulibicheff and Lenz stand prominently to the Alexander von Oulibicheff, born in 1795 at Dresden, was the son of the Russian ambassador at that court, and died in 1858 at Nishnii
As musical
front.
the public by his " Nouvelle Biographic de Mozart, suivie d'un apenju sur 1'histoire generale de la musique," translated in 1S44 into German. This work (three volumes)
Novgorod.
He
introduced
himself
to
affords
numerous proofs of the

it
writer's enthusiasm
and refined
taste,
and
although His Jahn's " Mozart Biography," it remains a most interesting work. enthusiasm for Mozart has made him scarcely just in his criticism of
lacks a certain trustworthiness, yet, even
when compared with
with regard to that master's ninth symHe was, however, justly and happily corrected by the imperial phony. " Beethoven councillor Wilhelm von Lenz, the well-known author of
Beethoven, more
especially
et ses Trois Styles" (1852
We
now
and 1855). turn to that more numerous class of Slavonic composers, the
Bohemians
(less
known
as the Czecks), the chief of
whom
are Cernohofsky',
Tomaschek, Czerny, Dvorak, Smetana, Naprawnik, Zlenko, Fibich, and Neswadba. Bohuslav Cernohofsky, who died in 1740, and was known in
Padua
as Padre Boe'mo,
was
professor of music at St.
Anna.
On
leaving
Padua he became organist

sacred
at Assisi, and, subsequently, chorus director
and
professor at St. Jacob, in Prague.
compositions Christus "), A. W.

of
(including
In his notice upon Cernohofsk/'s few " Laudetur Jesus the excellent motet,
"
:
Ambros
says
These exhibit the manifold con-
double counterpoint in the boldest and most intelligent In 1754, the time of the great fire in Prague, the greater manner." number of his compositions were unhappily destroyed, but he left in
trivances
his
native
land,
through the excellence of his teaching,
many
gifted
pupils.
1262
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Johann "Wenzel Tomaczek (Tomaschek) who was born in 1774 at Skutsch

,
in 'Bohemia, died in 1850, whilst holding the office of director of the
Conservatorium.
An
excellent organist
Prague and contrapuntist, he was more
famed
as a tutor than as a composer,
celebrated
Schulhoff, Kittl,
masses, cantatas, an opera,
numbering among his pupils the Tomaczek has published and Dreyschock. a symphony, a concerto for the piano, and a
number
of clever
chamber compositions.
Charles Czerny, born in 1791 at Vienna, where he died in 1857, is included among Bohemian composers, on account of his Bohemian descent.
That he was a most

the
prolific
composer will be admitted when we mention that
number
of his works reached the high total of a thousand; he was, too,
an excellent pianist and a praiseworthy editor of classical works, the chief of which is Bach's "Wohltemperirtes Clavier/' The names of such of his
pupils as Liszt, Thalberg, and Dohler, are sufficient to
his ability,
form an estimate of
and
it
will be interesting here to
received lessons
from Beethoven.
mention that Czerny himself His "Etudes de Velocite" and other
studies have gained a world-wide celebrity.
During the
assert
political
their independence,
movement by which the Czecks endeavoured to we trace, concurrently, the development of a

is
similar
feeling
in
music, which
represented
by the genius of Anton
Dvorak (pronounced Dvorschak}. Dvorak, born in 1841 near Kralup, is one of the most gifted composers of the Bohemian section of the modern
German
in his
School.
We
think, however, that he has exercised very little care

of
scoring;
and we are further

stricter
opinion that
a more matured
observance of art-form, would have added materially to the value of his compositions ; of this we are convinced, after having heard certain of his symphonic orchestral works. Whilst we
study of
harmony, and a
do not
feel that much regard will be paid to this Teutonic judgment, yet we take as musicians sufficient interest in his talent to justify this advancement of our opinion. As a dramatic he has but little
success,
which
will well
ein Schelm;
still,
we
composer gained be understood after the opera Der Bauer, hearing meet with much that is remarkable in his
phonies, the Slavonic rhapsodies for orchestra, a serenade for
symwind instru-
ments, an elegy, Dumka/' for piano; the duets "Klange aus Mahren/' Slavonic dances, and the Bohemian national dances entitled " Furiante."
As
national in character as the compositions of
Dvorak
are those of
THE PRESENT.
Fried rich Smetana,
1263
who was born
in
1824
at Leitomischl,
and who died
insane in 1884 at Prague.
Smetana shines most

verkaufte
as a dramatic composer,
and
chiefly in
the operas Die
Bohmen, Dalibor, and
Der Kusz.
Brant, Die Brandenburger in In his orchestral works he shows an
adherence to the school of Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner. Among his sym" Hakon " Wallensteins " Mein VaterJarl/' and phonic poems, Lager,"
land/' deserve special notice.
1839 near Koniggratz, resided from 1853 to 1861 in Prague, and became in 1869 chief conductor of the St. Petersburg Opera. While in that capital he composed the Russian National opera Die Bewohner von Nischnij Novgorod, the symphonic " poem Der Damon," a number of chamber compositions, and many Czeck
in
Edward Naprawnik, born
and Russian songs. Zlenko Fibich, born
in
1850 near Czaslau, was educated at the Leipzig

;
Conservatorium, and was subsequently a pupil of Vincenz Lachner in 1876 he was appointed conductor of the Czeck National Theatre, Prague. Like
Smetana, he follows in his orchestral compositions the school of Berlioz and Liszt ; his works include a number of symphonic poems, two sym" Die Windsbraut." the and a
ballad, opera Blanik, our review of the Czeck composers with Joseph Neswadba, born in 1824 at Vysker, in Bohemia, died in 1876, while court chapel-
phonies,
We conclude
master at Darmstadt.
He was
a very popular composer of national songs.
The
third branch of the Slavonic race which, during the present century,
Of these, Frederic has produced eminent composers, is that of the Poles. Chopin stands above and beyond the reach of any of his countrymen ; but
as
we have
already fully discussed his merits in the chapter on Mendelssohn
and Schumann, further reference is unnecessary. Composers such as Scharwenka and Moszkowski, although of Polish descent, have been too greatly influenced by the modern German School to be justly regarded as
representative Polish composers.
The remaining European countries possessing musical interest are Spain, Portugal, and Hungary. They cannot be said to be of considerable importance if the number of their representatives in musical art be held to
other subjects cannot be denied. be an indication, although their gift But of whatever nature it may be, it has never, to our knowledge, been dis-
seminated beyond their respective borders
it
cannot, therefore, expect
any
1264
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
critical
attention, since it
has not submitted
itself
to the
judgment of
musical opinion either in the English, French, Italian, or German capitals. Although it might be urged that the fame of such operas as those of
Hallstrom has been widespread, in spite of their performances being confined to the native lands of the composers, yet the greater part of Spanish,
Hungarian, and Portuguese music can only be regarded as salon music, Thus we see consisting almost exclusively as it does of songs and dances.
that the Spaniards, with their brilliant poetry
plastic art,
and
their
achievements in the
in music, possess few composers that have aspired to " in music. the " fashionable These exceptions are Juan anything beyond Baltasar Saldoni, and Pablo de Sarasate. The first, Arrieta, born in Arrieta,
and even
1823 at Puente
performance of
la
Reina, studied at the Milan Conservatorium.
By
the
his first opera, Ildegonda, at Milan,
he at once gained
celebrity as a dramatic composer.
He
and operettas, and had in 1878 completed the
subsequently composed other operas All these have thirty-fifth.
been performed in the Spanish capital ; the most popular of them, the zarznelas (operettas), being well known throughout Spain. In 1857 he became director of the Madrid Conservatorium, and has been since 1875
a
member
of the Spanish Council of Education.
Baltasar Saldoni, born in 1807 at Barcelona, a composer and musical savant of note, was educated in the Music School of Montserrat, and was
In appointed in 1829 organist to the Church of Santa Maria del Mar. 1839 he proceeded to Paris to study the classic method of vocalisation,
returning a year later to Madrid, when he was appointed professor of singing at the Conservatorium. He has written a number of organ compositions
in
the strict polyphonic
style,
and other sacred works.

to the
entitled
"
mi Patria," " A
symphony,
is
Hymn
God
of Art," Italian operas,
and Spanish zarznelas, have secured him considerable favour.
He
further
known
as the author of
" " Effemerides de Musicos (1856), and Espanoles (1860). cannot take leave of Spain without referring to one of the greatest violinists of the Pablo de Sarasate, born at present day. Pampeluna in
History of the Montserrat School of
Music "
We
14, exhibits, as
artistic
a virtuoso, an almost marvellous His brilliant perfection. conceptions of works such as those of Mendelssohn and Spohr,
besides his arrangements the greatest popularity.
and compositions
He
of Spanish airs, have gained him has always rendered his performances, in our
THE PRESENT.
12G5
opinion, as interesting- to the critic as to the audience
unfortunately an
uncommon occurrence.* With regard to Portuguese

Ferreira d'Arneiro, born in
1
composers,
we should
first
mention Vicomte
838 at Macao, China ; he studied for the law
Fig. 295.
Pablo de Sarasate.
at the University of Coimbra, but afterwards,

his attention to music.
*
from 1859 to 1862, turned!

ballet,
In 1866 he wrote a pantomimic
performed.
Spanish composers and writers on music it would be wrong to omit all mention Hilarion Eslava. This eminent man was born in 1807, and died in 1878. Hn was educated in the choir of the Cathedral of Pampeluna, became Maestro de Capilla at Osuna in 1828, and in 1832 was appointed to a similar post at Seville, where he was ordained In 1844 Queen Isabella made him her chapel-master. He composed several operas, priest.
Among
of
Don Miguel
about 140 compositions for the Church, and some for the organ. But his greatest work is undoubtedly his admirable collection of Spanish Church music from the sixteenth century to the present day, entitled "Lira Sacro-Hispana," published at Madrid in 1869, in ten volumes. He also published his " Museo organico Espanol" at Madrid, " El Metodo de Solfeo " (1846).
and "Escuela de Armenia y Composicion," of which the second edition appeared at Madrid
1861.
in
F. A. G. 0.
c c c c
1266
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
talent revealed itself in the
at the
San Carlos Theatre, Lisbon, but
his
under the title "Symphonic performed in Paris, 1871, at Lisbon, entitled Cantata/' and, further, the successful opera, performed
"Te Deum"
The Elixir of Youth. Carlo Gomez, born in 1839 in Brazil, of Portuguese parents, gained and Salvator considerable success in Italy with his operas, Fosca (1873)
in 1874, with the greatest Rosa, &c., the latter being performed in Genoa
success.*
We
exclude from the
list
of
Hungarian composers,
fall
&c., those
famous
conductors and virtuosi that do not
within the limits
we
previously
If we laid down. and potpourris, there remain for mention 6ermak (pronounced Csermak], born in 1771 in Bohemia, died in 1822 at Veszprim. We do not include
Liszt,
of
omit Keler Bela, the gifted writer of dances, marches,
his position as founder though an Hungarian by birth, because of Cermak's compositions are still the New German Romantic School.
little
known, but Count Stephan Fay, the historian of Hungarian music,
has asserted that they possess as much classic skill as original genius. Cermak was one of the most prominent violin performers of Hungary, and
in this respect
Count Dessewffy is disposed to consider him greater than He had considerable success as a violinist at Vienna, the celebrated Kode.
but
Of
sad to relate that an unhappy attachment ended in his insanity. less importance than Cermak is Michael Mosonni, born in 1814 at
it is
His principal works consist of a Boldog-Aszony, died in 1870 at Pesth. " funeral symphony, an overture on the national air Szozat," a symphonic
poem
"
operas.
Triumph und Trauer des Honved," a German and two Hungarian The former, entitled Maximilian, was destroyed in anger by the
alterations
composer, on the suggestion by Liszt of certain intended production.
before
its
That which now remains to us

prominent virtuosi of the present,
* One excellent
is
the task of referring to the most
whether as vocalists or instrumentalists.
Portuguese composer
is
here
omitted most unaccountably and
un-
Joa"s Domingos Bomtempo was born in 1775 at Lisbon, and came to Paris at deservedly. the age of twenty. After visiting London, he went back to Lisbon in 1820, where he became head of the Conservatoire. He died in 1842. Perhaps his most successful work was the Requiem Mass which he composed to commemorate the poet Camoens, which was But he also wrote many published in full score, and is a most able and effective work. other very admirable pieces of Church music, teeides operas and pianoforte music. F.A. G. O.
THE PRESENT.
But
this
1267
we
shall
do only in so far as they

stated,
fall
within the limits of our

held subservient
to
consideration,
which, as previously
are
ou:
review of music as a history. "We have previously advanced the opinion that music is the most masculine of all arts, for art .essentially depends on the creative idea. All creative work in music is well known as being
the exclusive work of
paratively speaking,
man
nil.
the totality of woman's labours being, com-
we
it is altogether a different matter when consider the relative proportion of male and female vocalists. The latter
But
then not only equal, but frequently exceed, numerically, the former. Of the lady artistes of Germany we may name Alvsleben, Brandt, Joachim,
Koster, Lehmann, Lucca, Mallinger, Papier> Sembrich, Schuch, Spietz, Wagner, and Wilt ; and it is peculiar that Southern Germany can justly
claim credit as the birthplace of the majority of those just mentioned. Louise Koster (Schlegel), born in 1823 at Liibeck, an artiste of rare intelligence, appeared principally at the Leipzig
.
and Berlin Operas, and showed
excellence in the accurate interpretation of the works of Gluck, Mozart,
Beethoven, Weber, and Meyerbeer.
She assumed the chief characters in
Pamina, Donna Anna, Fidelio, Rezia, Johanna Wagner (Jachmann), Richard Valentine, Alice, and Bertha. niece, was born in 1828 near Hanover, and was. connected with Wagner's
Armida, Iphigenie in Aulis, Alceste,
She appeared principally in the operas of her uncle, in Gluck's Orpheus and Clytemnestra, Fidelio, Romeo, and in Marie Wilt, born in 1835 at Vienna, made her debut Meyerbeer's Fides.
the Dresden and Berlin Operas.
1865 at Gratz, as Donna Anna, and proved herself a charming exMelita Otto Alvsleben, born in 1842 at ponent of the classical opera.
in
Dresden, and engaged at the Dresden Opera from 1860, was an excellent interpreter of such conceptions of Mozart's as Ilia, Elvira, Donna Anna,
Susanne, Fiordiligi
Nicolai's
of
Madame Uhlig
(in
Schauspieldirector], and those
of Margarethe, Isabella, Alice, and Bertha,

in
by Meyerbeer
in
of Mrs. Ford
Merry Wives of Windsor, Agathe

Tell.
is
Der
Freischiitz,
and
Matilda in William
Pauline Lucca, born in 1841 at Vienna,
of remarkably prepossessing
appearance, and has performed with the rarest perfection the most opposite She has charmed French and American audiences with her characters.
representation of Marguerite, Carmen, Mozart's Zerlina, Selika, the
in Figaro,
Page
and Valentine
in Les Huguenots.
c c c c 2
1268
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Mariana Brandt, born in 1842 at Vienna,

tragic ability.
is
a vocalist of considerable
As Armida, Orpheus,
Fides, and in Rubinstein's
Macca-
Mathilde Mallinger, born in 1847 at Agram, beus, she has no compeer. much has exhibited, as prima donna of the Munich and Berlin Operas, and romantic roles. Of Lilli Lehmann, born in 1848 at talent in classic
Fig. 296.
Pauline Lucca.
(Original published by E. Erziwanek, Vienna.)
Wiirzburg, we cannot say whether her Norma excites our admiration more than her Rosina, her Carmen than the Baroness in Lortzing's Wildschtitz,
her Elvira or Fidelio than Mrs. Ford
'
in the
Merry Wives.
To a
re-
markable dramatic power, that recalls to one's mind that of SchroederDevrient and Pauline Garcia, she unites a perfect mastery of Italian vocalisation. Marcella Sembrich (a Slavonian by birth) is of similar
ability to
Lehmann, and
possesses a remarkably high voice, reaching with
THE PRESENT.
1269
facility
on the fourth ledger-line,
i.e.,
by Mozart's Queen of the Night in by the composer

Lucrezia
one note beyond that required the Magic Flute, a part written
for his sister-in-law, Aloysia Weber, whose precursor, Amalie Agujari (died in 1783), possessed a similar range. born in 1839 at Marburg, did not gain the celebrity she now Joachim,
till she had quitted the She opera-house for the concert-room. shows her powerful mezzo-soprano voice and excellent delivery to the greatest advantage in the oratorios and cantatas of Bach, Handel, and Mendelssohn,
possesses
Schumann, Brahms, Rubinstein, Hermine Spiesz, born in 1860 near Weilburg (Nassau), a pupil of Sieber and Stockhausen, may here be mentioned as the principal
and Robert Franz.
contralto of
and
in the songs of Beethoven, Schubert,
Germany,
as no adequate conception can be
formed of her
the contralto parts in Elijah and Samson. An dramatic talent is that of Clementine Schuch-Proska (nee Proentirely As an excellent soubrette, with remarkc'hazka), born in 1853 at Vienna.
beautiful rendering of
able skill in vocalisation, she includes
her roles, Rosina (Barbiere), Madeleine (Postilion de Lonjumeau], Isabelle (Robert le Diable], Javotte (Le Roi I'a di), Sulamith (La Heine da Saba], Baucis (Philemon et
among
Baucis),
Lady Harriet (Martha], Zerlina (Don Giovanni and Fra Diacolo),

an extensive
Dorabella (Cosifan tutfe), &c.

talent, possesses
Frau Rosa Papier, of considerable dramatic register, having an unusually deep contralto
united to a mezzo-soprano. She secured her greatest popularity in Alceste and Orpheus, in Fides and Amneris, and is especially excellent in oratorio
and song.
Among
Italian vocalists of the present day, the sisters Patti, daughters
of the Italian tenor,
Salvator Patti, stand foremost.
Carlotta, born in
1840 at Florence, gained notoriety chiefly as a concert artiste, whilst Adelina, born in 1843 (at Madrid), the incomparable dramatic artiste,
gained her celebrity chiefly through operatic works. They each possess all the refinement that is to be gained from the Italian vocal school. Turning to Northern Europe, we meet with an eminent representative
of the vocal art in the Scandinavian, Christine Nilsson, born in 1843.
She
has devoted herself principally to Italian and French operas, and in song'
displays
airs of
much emotion and

artists,
feeling, especially
when rendering
like
the national
her native land.

Desiree Artot
(a
Of French
pupil,
Aglaja Orgeny., of
1270
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Pauline Viardot Garcia) was in 1858 engaged at the Paris Grand Opera, on the recommendation of Meyerbeer; but on joining an Italian opera company the following year in Berlin, she so ingratiated herself with the
public
that she
in
was appointed
in
1876 court
vocalist.
She was most
excellent
her interpretation
of the
works of Auber, Rossini, Verdi,
Fig. 297.
Joseph Joachim.
Gounod, and Meyerbeer. mentioned as one of the
Her husband,
Padilla
y Ramos, may here be
principal vocalists of Spain.
regard to English artists, we are chiefly concerned with John Braham, who died in 1856, the most celebrated of tenors. His
perfection in oratorios
With
was as great as
his ability
tenors, Mierzwynski (by mann, Walter, Riese, Vogl, and Goetze ; and of baritones, Betz, Bulsz,
Of German
English on the operatic stage. birth a Pole), Ander, Nie-
THE PRESENT.
Stockhausen, Gura, and Henschel,
excellence.
1271
may
be referred to as artists of great
Turning to those instrumental performers (many of whom have been already mentioned) whose popularity is as great in the new as in the old
world,
we have
as pianists, Liszt's pupil Sophie
Menter (born
in
1848 at
Munich), Marie Krebs (born in 1851 at Dresden), Annette Essipoff, and
Fig. 298.
August Wilhelmj.
Eugene D' Albert
(also a pupil of Liszt).
Also those perfect violinists
Joachim, Wilhelmj, and Madame Norman-Neruda, the Polish violinist Wieniawski, the Scandinavian Ole Bull, and the violoncellist Popper. Of D'Albert we may remark that he has, in addition to his merit as
a pianist, considerable claim to be regarded as a composer of classical works. Joseph Joachim, born in 1831 near Preszburg, and August Wilhelmj,
born in
1845
in
Nassau,
were
pupils
of
Ferdinand David, .and, for

ability in the
theory specially, of Hauptmann.
Each shows consummate
1272
HISTOKY
Ui-
MUSIC.
interpretation not only of the
works of the
classical
masters Bach and
Beethoven, but also in the interpretation of Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, and Bruch, who succeeded them. Each also shows himself the true
artist in holding in constant subjection his
marvellous
skill as
a virtuoso
in order that
he
may
the more perfectly express the composer's intention.
Each
also possesses
that in our opinion

inconceivable.
If it be
an exquisite fulness of tone ; but here we may remark Wilhelmj has of late acquired a fulness that is almost
is
assumed that Joachim

it
the best interpreter of Bach and
must be conceded that Wilhelmj has more energy and brilBeethoven, But a marked difference in their artistic tendencies is the enthuliancy. siasm of Wilhelmj for Richard Wagner, and the antipathy of Joachim for
the
New German
School, as proved
by
his resigning the position of leader
of the
Weimar orchestra in 1849, owing to its increasing influence. In 1854 he held a similar appointment at Hanover, and in 1866 removed to Berlin after the Prussian annexation of Hanover. Two years later he
became director of the Berlin Conservatoire. Both masters deservedly As composers it may be stated that enjoy a world-wide reputation. Joachim has written a Hungarian concerto, and that Wilhelmj has paraIn the phrased in a remarkably able manner certain of Wagner's motivi.
foremost rank of violinists
born in 1840 at Briinn.

interest
we meet the lady artiste, Wilhelmina Neruda, In 1864, while at Paris, she excited considerable
skill. In the same year she married the Since 1869 Neruda has regularly appeared at season, and it is not too much to say of her
by her extraordinary
Swedish musician Norman.

the concerts of the
London
that she need not fear the result of a comparison with even such a master
of his art as Joachim.
Of
<
the French virtuosi of modern times,
xcellent violoncellist
Vllard,
Franchomme, born in 1808,
we can only refer who with the
to that
violinist
first
and the pianist Charles Halle, instituted chamber concerts. The violinist of an excellent here be quartett society, Chevillard,
may
mentioned, as well as the pianist Alkan, born in 1813 at Paris. The far-famed Scandinavian violinist, Ole Bull, who was born in
1810 at Bergen, where he died in 1880, was first a pupil of Spohr, and subsequently of Paganini ; but, as was the case with the Polish violinist Henri Wieniawski (born in 18:35 at Lublin, Poland, died in 1880 at
THE PRESENT.
Moscow), and the
1273
violoncellist
Popper (born in 1846 at Prague), he
is
rather to be considered
as a virtuoso
more anxious
ideal.
for public applause
than for the realisation of an artistic

because
artistic
We
have referred to these
they were really eminent instrumentalists, but from a purely consideration would preferably have discussed those who have been
connected with the development of music during the latter part of the These are present century as leaders of orchestras, string quartetts, &c.*
by such first violinists as Lipinski, Hartmann, LauterDe Ahna, Rappoldi, &c. ; and by such violoncellists as Griitzmacher, Goltermann, Coszmann, and Hausmann, as well as by such quartetts as that of the Miillers, of Lauterbach, Joachim, Chevillard, and
best represented
bach, Konigslow,
the Florentine.
1832) are solo performers of the first order, yet the praise due to
is chiefly
Although Lauterbach and Griitzmacher (both born in them
on account of their good work in orchestral and chamber music.
We
have
now completed
our task.
reference to all those that have
assisted in the construction of the temple of art will be seen to be entirely
beyond our province.
All that not only Germany but Europe has contributed to that temple during the last two generations, though most interesting to the musician, but not of sufficient general interest, may well
be left to the department of special biography. For example, the interest of the majority of the public is rather for the vocalist, and especially for
the dramatic artiste
;
for these,
by standing out
in bolder relief than the
instrumentalist, necessarily excite the attention more, and thereby cause a greater impression than that produced by the orchestral, quartett, or solo
performer.
mentalists,
possess.
Furthermore, vocalists are numerically
much fewer than
instru-
and
this is
an
additional reason for the greater attraction they
It will be observed that
we have
refrained from referring to
many
prominent conductors and professors, if exclusively such, but this we felt compelled to do, unless they had gained any celebrity, as, for instance,
musical litterateurs.
As
in music, so in the history of the
human
race,
do
we
find that
many important
factors of civilisation have been overlooked,
Anna
we have refrained from reference to Teresina Tua and Senkrah, &c., and other lady artistes, as well as to certain male artists, on account of their not having aimed at a higher artistic position than that of mere virtuosi.
* For the above-mentioned reason
1274
and that frequently the
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
attention and important have attracted most the results of their labours. gained rewards totally out of proportion to a period of more than 3,000 years, we Although this history embraces
less
venture to hope that it will serve as an aid in dissipating party dissensions, "We have throughout considered our duty to be, as historians, that of awakening a sense and understanding of the schools and master-works of
all
times and creeds, a duty most admirably performed in literature by

Schiller.
Winckelmann, Lessing, Herder, Schlegel, Tieck, Goethe, and
In
writing a history one has to prove that one can be classic without discarding the magic of romance ; and further, that one can also adopt the romantic
without denying the beauty of classical form. To exclusively uphold one school, one period, or one master, is but to show poverty of art, and thereby to rob oneself of a world of pure happiness. Goethe has promulgated his
and Alexander von Humboldt a comparative " Cosmos " and so in music. A method,, out of which grew his ; universality is proved Mozart's works ; and we may well refer to the two-hundredth by
idea of a world's literature,
anniversary in 1885, that caused the adherents of both the Romantic and
Classical Schools to join in
Bach and Handel.

this
warm appreciation of the two great masters, All restriction in music induces one-sidedness, but
of the art.
we
feel
must vanish before a universal conception
This
can, however, only be
when
in the realm of all the arts the comparative
method has been established.

degree music
is
By
that alone can
it
be decided to what
to be subjected to those eternal laws to
which
all
other arts
owe
their existence,
whether as regards idea, extension,
aesthetic beauty,
proportion, form, or artistic style.
CHAPTER XL. MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC.

IN the 31st chapter we brought down the history of music in England to the end of the eighteenth It will be remembered that it was not century.
at that time in a very flourishing condition.
Of
really national opera there
was
practically none.
Dramatic music was
chiefly confined to musical
ballads, accompanied with glees, choruses,
and instrumental overtures and
MODERN ENGLISH
MUSIC.
1275
interludes inserted in the course of spoken dialogues, and thus producing a " rather than a true modernised development of the more ancient " masque
William Shield (17481829), Thomas Linley (1725 ? 1795), Thomas Linley, jun. (1757 1758), William Linley (1767 ? 1835), William Jackson (17301803), Stephen Storace (17631796), and a
opera.
few
others, carried
down
less
the old traditional English dramatical

enfeebled form, from Dr.
mode
of
writing, in a
more or
Arne
to the
beginning
of the present century.
Many
of them, however, excelled as song- writers
and glee-composers, as has been already stated in a former chapter. Instrumental music for the concert or chamber was not in a much better condition.
The
exclusive admiration which the public bestowed on Italian opera, and
on the works of Handel, rendered all indigenous attempts at composition Only hopeless failures, and most injuriously affected English musical art. one kind of secular music then flourished in England, and that was the
glee, a description of
which has been already given.

sad to reflect
This kind of music
had reached
century.
its
culminating point of excellence at the close of the last
And
it is
how
entirely this
most pleasing, though
not profound, species of music has of late years been allowed to decline. The composer who was most active in supplying a number of really Hrstclass compositions of this nature at the
time we are discussing, was un-
questionably Dr. John Wall Callcott. This able man was born in 1766, and died in 1821. He was self-taught, but began to show his remarkable talent at a very early age. He graduated Bachelor of Music at Oxford in
In 1720 he took lessons in 1785, and proceeded to the Doctorate in 1800. composition from Haydn, but they do not appear to have much modified
his
which remained ever truly English. He published some excellent songs, and a few pieces of Church music ; but it was as a composer of glees and catches that he chiefly excelled. In this branch of
own
peculiar style,
no one has surpassed him. He also brought out a very good Grammar of Music in 1806, of which several editions subsequently appeared, but
art
which has now been entirely superseded by newer works.
We
would
mention, as examples of Dr. Callcott's skill in the art of glee-writing, the " " " " Peace to " Go, Idle Boy ; Thyrsis, when He Left Me ; following " " Father of Heroes " " " Queen of the the Souls of the Heroes ; ; Valley ;
:
and " Blow, Warder, Blow/'
In connection with Callcott we must not omit to mention his son-in-
1276
HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
law, William Horsley,
who was
a worthy successor to him.
This excellent
musician was born in 1774, and was an organist at various churches in London, where he was much looked up to both as a player, a composer, and
a most worthy man. As a contrapuntist he holds a high rank, and espeas a composer of canons and catches, in which he greatly distinguished cially
himself.
The
writer of this notice has in his possession
written anthems by Horsley, in twelve real parts, in honour to any nation or period. Still, it is doubtless in such glees as " See the Chariot at Hand/' or " By Celia's Arbour/' that Horsley's fame will
survive.
two admirably MS., which would do
The two examples here mentioned are truly masterpieces. took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Oxford in 1800, and died in 1858. Horsley Another very popular composer of glees was Richard J. S. Stevens (born
in 1757,
and died in 1837), whose glees are still sung by all glee-clubs and and are certainly of great excellence. We would specify the " " " From Oberon in following as among his best Sigh no Fairy Land ;
vocal unions,
:
more, Ladies;''
"Ye
Spotted Snakes;"
also be
and " Crabbed Age and Youth." John Stafford Smith should
place,
"The Cloud-Capped Towers;"
though he was eminent also in other branches of our
mentioned as a glee- writer in this art. He was
born at Gloucester in 1750, where his father was cathedral organist, and became a pupil of Dr. Boyce. His death occurred in 1836. As a well-read
musical antiquarian he rendered good service, especially by the publication of his learned work, " Musica Antiqua," 2 vols. folio, in 1812, and his curious collection of English songs in score, for three and four voices, com-
posed about 1500, and taken from MSS. of the same age, published in 1779. He also composed a few anthems for the Church. But it is as a
entitled if he
glee-composer that he claims mention in this place, to which he would be had never written anything but that magnificent glee, "Blest
" " Pair of Sirens," or such specimens as Return, Blest Days," and Fools their Time," which will ever remain favourites.
Dr. Crotch was a glee-writer, and a good one, but
of
While
him
till
We
we reserve our notice we come to speak of oratorios and Church music. come now to one of the most prolific and popular of all our English
composers of songs, glees, rounds, and choruses. Sir Henry Rowley Bishop was born in 1786, and was a He was musical director pupil of F. Bianchi.
of
Drury Lane Theatre in 1810.
In 1813 he was one of the original
MODERN ENGLISH
MUSIC.
1277
founders of the Philharmonic Society, which has done more perhaps than any other institution in London for the improvement of musical taste, and
is
still
a flourishing and most useful organisation.
Bishop became con-
ductor at Drury Lane Theatre in 1825, and musical director at Vauxhall in 1S3U. In 1839 he took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Oxford. In 1841 and
1
:!
he.
directed the music in

of.
Covent Garden Theatre.
In 1840 he became
conductor
years.
The
the Concerts of Ancient Music, which post he held for eight University of Edinburgh conferred on him the professorship
of music in 1841, in succession to
held for about
two
years.
John Thomson, which honourable post he In 1842 he received the honour of knighthood,
then but seldom conferred on musicians.
On
him
"
the death of Dr. Crotch in 1848 Sir
Henry R. Bishop succeeded

and
in
in the chair of music at the University of Oxford, took the degree of Mus. Doc. Oxon., thus the
1853 he
putting coping-stone on the which his great talents had reared for him during a long and laborious life. Sir Henry Bishop died in London on the 3Uth April, 1855. He was a most voluminous composer of what were
monumentum
sere
perennius
"
formerly called English operas, of which he composed eighty-two, besides

several adaptations of foreign operas to English
words (often brought out,
be
it
an
evil
added with shame, without reference to the original composer, after fashion much in vogue towards the beginning of the present
.
century)
In his
own dramatic works we
find,
however, a number of very

still
beautiful songs, glees,

larity.
and choruses, many of which
retain their popu-
It
is
true, indeed, that the majority of Bishop's so-called glees
require instrumental accompaniment,
and are
so far
an innovation on the
genuine English glee ; such is the case with those effective compositions. " When the Wind Blows/' " Mynheer Van Dunck," " Blow, Gentle Gales," " To and See His Face." Yet he also wrote some real unaccompanied of these perhaps the best are, " Sleep, Gentle Lady," and " Where glees " art Thou, Beam of Light ? His choruses are really grand, and he excelled especially in the composition of vocal " rounds," such as " Hark, 'tis the Indian Drum," in which particular branch he may be said to be
;
nulli secundus.
His instrumentation was always masterly and effective, though generally devoid of startling contrasts and unexpected combinations,
such as are
the prevailing fashion. Probably Bishop's greatest merit was his admirable way of writing well for the voices. His music is always
now
1278
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
admirably adapted to the works he had to set. On the be ranked among the best English composers of the present
singable,
and
is
whole he
century.
may
in
The gradual introduction of the German part-song into England, although itself an unquestionable gain, yet had this disadvantage, that it tended
and more national
it is
to supersede the older
glee.
The modern part-song
differs
from the glee in that
single voices to each part.
sung in chorus, whereas the glee is intended for The style of the part-song, too, is very different
from that of the glee ; for whereas the glee mainly depends for its effect on the delicacy of the execution, the neatness of the various shakes, turns, and other graces with which it is adorned, the balance of the voices both as
power and quality of tone, and the accurate rendering of the words the part(most of which .things are incompatible with chorus-singing) on the other hand, is constructed of sterner stuff; force and vigour song,
to are often
more important elements
of its effect than delicate refinement,
although, of course, as
much
of the latter should be
employed as
is
possible
where the voices are multiplied. The part-song, indeed, is essentially a But it agrees both with chorus, and must rely mostly on chorus effects. the glee and the madrigal in being unaccompanied by instruments.
number of part-songs produced in England has very greatly exceeded that of the glees, and it is much to be feared that the older and more be lost truly English form will ere
During the
last thirty years the
long
entirely
a result which
Still there
is,
in the writer's opinion, very
much
to be deprecated.
have been a few good glee composers amongst us

in
persevered
specially
spite
of
the
name
Sir
John Goss and

Church.
opposing fashion, J. L. Hatton.
who have among whom we would

when we come to speak now will be to com-
Of
Sir
John Goss an account

his
will be given
of composers for the
All that need be said
memorate " Ossian's

of
'< There is Beauty on the Mountain," " and Heard Ye Not ? " which are equal to any Hymn/-' Hark,
admirable glees,
Webbe's or
Callcott's.
in Liverpool in 1809, and soon developed a great talent for in which he was almost composition, entirely self-taught. He was a composer of dramatic music, in which branch his opera of Pascal Bruno (produced at Vienna in 1844) was his greatest success. He perhaps
also produced a
John Liphott Hatton was born
number
of very
good and popular songs, of which many
MODERN ENGLISH
MUSIC.
1279
were published under the pseudonym of Czapek. But it is as a composer Of these he of part-songs that he comes under our notice in this place.
produced a large number.
essentially glees,
But amongst them we

and which
find
many which
are
though
called part-songs,
are best adapted for
performance with but one voice to a part.

in classing
Hence there need be no
scruple
Hatton among English
glee- writers, although
he did not adopt
the
name
of glee for his compositions.

also in
services
and a few anthems;
Hatton composed two cathedral 1877 he produced his "sacred drama"

Still it is
of
Hezekiah, at the
Crystal Palace.
upon
his songs, part-
songs, and glees, that his fame
will chiefly rest.
spoken of writers of glees and part-songs. But some of these with more or less success, to revive the old composers " O voi Elizabethan madrigal. Callcott composed one to Petrarch's words,
also attempted,
We have
ehe sospirate," which
is
a good imitation well carried out.

shall
Wesley and Wal-
have to speak as Church composers, were each also the author of a madrigal. But the most successful of all modern Engmisley also, of
whom we
attempts in this direction were made by R. L. de Pearsall. This clever and original composer was born at Clifton in 1795, and died at Wartensee
lish
in 1856.
gals,
He composed only vocal concerted music, glees, part-songs, madriand Church music, and it was in his madrigals and part-songs that he
achieved his greatest triumphs. Although intentionally adopting the style of a former period, yet his music was always spontaneous, original, and tuneful ;
and consequently
society in
it
still
retains its popularity.

is
England which
hardly a choral not familiar with Pearsall's Hardy Norse-
There
is
"
man,"
with
or
"Who shall Win my Lady Fair ?" or "Oh, Who
will o'er the
Downs
can any musician fail to recognise the contrapuntal skill and the good effects realised in " Lay a Garland," and " Great displayed, God of Love." Pearsall's Church compositions are not equal to his secular
Me ?" Nor
He published an essay "On works, though they display no small ability. Consecutive Fifths and Octaves in Counterpoint," which is not without merit, though it does not go very deeply into the matter, nor does it
originate
any very novel views.
other composers of lyrical part-music will have to be treated of under the head of Church composers or opera writers further on.
Many
this
Perhaps the most popular composer of what may be called ballad-operas country ever produced was Michael Henry Balfe. He was torn in
1280
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Dublin in 1808, and studied there under C. E. Horn and Rooke (whose real name was O'Rourke, and who had made himself known favourably by
his opera of Amilie, or the
Love
Test}.
He was
a violinist at Drury
Lane
Theatre in 1824,
when he
also
came out
as a baritone vocalist.
His patron.
Count Mazzara, took him to Italy with him, where he doubtless perfected In 1835 he rehimself as a singer, and married Lina Roser, a vocalist.
appeared in London as a singer, and became conductor at various theatres. He was engaged as composer at Her Majesty's Theatre from 1852 to 1870.
His death' occurred in October, 1870.
composer ; done more to establish a real and permanent English opera than any one else. Unfortunately, he adopted so entirely Italian a style and method in
order to accomplish that good object, that he incurred the just reproach of
the stage was his peculiar province, and he
Balfe was essentially a dramatic may be said to have
being an imitator, in spite of the original and often decidedly Irish character of his beautiful melodies. It is this devotion to Italian models which has mostly hindered the permanent appreciation of his works. There is also a want of harmonic vigour about his choruses, and instrumental accom-
paniments and overtures, which has detracted not a little from the high The reputation he gained as a writer of pure and most lovely melodies. result is a certain effeminacy of style which is in the strongest contrast to
the hyper-Teutonic taste of the present
day.
Still,
in justice
it
must
be admitted that no
British composer, since the days of Purcell and Arne, ever had such a gift of spontaneous and original melody as Balfe. This is particularly observable in some of his detached songs and duets, of which he composed a large number. Of his operas, perhaps the best are The Bohemian Girt, The Siege of Rochelle, The Bondman, The Talisman, The Daughter of St. Mark, Satanella, and The Rose of Castille. He pub" Irish lished a few cantatas and some glees, besides an edition of Moore's
pure melodist that his fame will mainly survive. Another composer of signal merit, who belongs to the same school as Balfe, was William Vincent Wallace. He was of Scottish parentage, but was born at Waterford, in He began his musical career Ireland, in 1814. as a violinist, in which In capacity he was attached to various orchestras. 1836 he began to travel, and visited Australia, New Zealand, India, and South America, re-appearing in London in 1845, "and dying in France in 1865. He was a composer of operas, pianoforte music, and detached songs.
;
.
Melodies
"
but
it is
as a
MODERN ENGLISH
His best opera
is
MUSIC.
1281
undoubtedly Maritana, to which Lurline may rank as a good second. These two achieved a popularity quite equal to that of any of Balfe's, whose style is very similar. In some respects it may be said
that Wallace was superior to Balfe, for his scoring- was more vigorous and
effective,
genius of his Irish contemporary.

fairly be
harmonic resources greater. But he had not the prolific His pianoforte compositions are elegant and pleasing, but have now gone out of fashion. On the whole, Wallace
his
and
may
John Barnett
reckoned amongst our best English composers. is another English composer^ mostly of dramatic works.
He was
born at Bedford in 1802, and studied harmony at Frankfort under Schnyder von Wartensee. He has resided since 1841 at Cheltenham. He
has composed a large number of operas and operettas, some of which have been eminently popular. Of these the most notable is The Mountain Sylph,
perhaps the earliest English work written in strictly opera form, and probably served as a model in this respect to Balfe, Wallace, and
because
it is
others.
refer to
To show what
"
a prolific writer Barnett has been,
it will suffice
to
selection
from Mr. Barnett's concerted vocal
which have been published, the total two thousand, issued between 1816 and 1880."
pieces and songs number of such works being about
He composed two oratorios which were never performed, and some instrumental works, besides a treatise on singing and some strictures on the " Hullah-system." There can be no doubt that if ever English opera obtains a permanent footing it will be
very greatly due to John Barnett's admirable efforts in that direction. The only other English dramatic composer who need be mentioned in this
place
He
E. J. Loder (born at Bath in 1813, and died in Lotidon in 1865). composed many songs and ballads of a popular character, and also
is
several operas, of
which the best was The Night Dancers, composed and
brought out in 1848.
who
two composers, under another head, out operas and operettas with great success. But from brought what has been already said it will be sufficiently plain that there have not
shall speak hereafter of one or
We
also
been wanting, during the last fifty years, English composers with both the
will
and the power to establish and make perfect a regular school of
if only the public could be persuaded to encourage native We have been obliged dramatic talent more than they have hitherto done. to omit all detailed account of several song-writers who achieved great
national opera,
D D D D
1282
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
such as Charles Dibdin (1745-1814), C. E. Horn popularity in their day, (17621830), the brothers C. W. and Stephen Glover, George Linley &c. &c., in order to Sir John A. Stevenson
(1795_1865), leave more space
(17621833),
for others
to the
who aimed
at higher
walks of
chiefly
art.
We come
now
few Englishmen who have
made
their
name
as composers of instrumental music. Many of these have also been famous with the as performers on various instruments, but it is more in accordance them mainly as composers, and with a work to of the
regard present view to the influence they have exercised on the progress of musical special
plan
art in this country.
and composer Probably the most distinguished British pianoforte player

in the early part of the present century
was John Field (born in Dublin
in
1782, and died at
Moscow
described in this work,

place, unless
it
it unnecessary be to observe that while his peculiar style of playing and of his celebrated composition in some respects anticipated Chopin, the form " Lieder nocturnes rendered them, as it were, precursors of the well-known
in 1837), but as he has been already sufficiently to say more about him in this will be
ohneW6rte"of Mendelssohn.
Field's nocturnes as a model.
There can be no doubt that Chopin took
The next instrumental performer and composer who comes before us is Thomas Adams (born 1785 and died 1858), who was certainly one of the
best organists
The writer of these lines has England has ever produced. many a time listened to Adams's marvellous extemporaneous performances of fugues and other contrapuntal pieces, in which he was second only to
Mendelssohn and Dr. S. S. Wesley.
He was
often employed to
show
off
new organs
before they left the builder's factory,
and
it
was mostly on these

After studying
occasions that his remarkable talents were fully displayed.
under Busby, he became organist of Carlisle Chapel, at Lambeth, from 1802 to 1814, when he held a similar post at St. Paul's, Deptford. In 1824 he was appointed organist of St. George's, Camberwell ; and in 1838
he migrated to St. Dunstan's, Fleet Street, of which church he remained He composed many fugues and other pieces for the organist till his death.
In his organ organ, besides a few anthems, hymns, and pianoforte pieces. fugues he showed himself a most admirable and ingenious contrapuntist,
and
his compositions,
though complicated and

It
is
effective
and never
dull.
much
to be
very wished that his organ fugues
difficult to execute, are
MODERN ENGLISH
i
MUSIC.
12 S3
were transcribed for modern organs.

of imperfect
compass and
deficient in pedal,
In his days English organs were and now that we have every-
where adopted the true compass and arrangement of pedals and manuals, all good music composed to suit the older and more imperfect system should be carefully adapted to modern requirements. No organ fugues deserve
such treatment more than those of Thomas Adams.
We
come now
to speak of an English musician whose
works have been,

and died there
in the writer's opinion, most unaccountably and undeservedly neglected. Philip Cipriani
in 1871.
Hambly
Potter was born in
London
in 1792,
He made
his debut as a pianist at a concert of the Philharmonic
It was Society in 1816, and then went to study at Vienna under Forster. then that he made the acquaintance of Beethoven, an event which had no inconsiderable influence on his subsequent career.* In 1822 he was
appointed Professor of the Pianoforte at the Royal Academy of Music, of which excellent institution he became Principal, in succession to Dr. Crotch,
in 1832.
This honourable and useful appointment he held till 1859, when he resigned it in favour of Sterndale Bennett. Potter composed no less
than nine symphonies for full orchestra, of which four were performed by the Philharmonic Society with great success. These have, however, never
been published, which is much to be regretted. positions were mostly for his own instrument
The remainder
the pianoforte
of his
com-
and were
almost
all
published.
His " Studies" for that instrument, which were
composed for the use of the Royal Academy of Music, are admirably Potter adapted to their purpose, and have formed many excellent pianists.
did
much
to enlarge
and improve the Royal Academy, and

that
it
it is, in
a great
measure, owing
to his
financial struggle
good management finally which for many years threatened its continued existence.
emerged from the
Potter's eminent successor in the Principalship of the Royal

of
Academy
William
Music
is
the next musician whose
name comes
before us.
13th,
Sterndale Bennett was born at Sheffield on April
1816, and died
February
1st,
1875.
No
English composer since
Henry
Purcell has earned
so wide or so high a reputation, nor has
and originality of
style.
any had so strong an individuality Coming as he did from a family of musicians,
* In a letter to Ries, dated

several times.
He
"
March 5th, 1818, Beethoven says: "Potter has visited me seems to be a good man, and has talent for composition." (See Grove's
Dictionary of Music.")
D D D D 2
1284
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
he not only inherited an unusual portion of musical talent, but he had the that talent judiciously cultivated from his earliest great advantage of having of eight he was made a chorister of King's College, At the age youth. then entered as a Cambridge, but only remained there for two years, being student at the Royal Academy of Music, where he learnt the pianoforte,
then from Cipriani Potter, while in and of Dr. Crotch. Under composition he was a' pupil of Charles Lucas such able tutors his progress was exceptionally rapid, and before he had
first
from Mr.
W. H. Holmes, and
his completed his seventeenth year he had an opportunity of performing concerto in D minor at a Prize Concert of the Academy, in the presence of
the work, and spoke words of enIn 1836, so great an impression was couragement to the young composer. created by some of his works that Messrs. J. Broadwood and Sons, the
Mendelssohn,
who
greatly
commended
eminent pianoforte makers, were induced to send him, at their expense, to Leipzig for a year an event of no slight advantage to Bennett, who was
not only able to make many valuable musical acquaintances, but was also But perhaps enabled to make his talents known outside his own country.
the greatest benefit to
of cultivating the friendship of
him was the opportunity which he had in Leipzig two such musical giants as Mendelssohn
Probably no English-
and Schumann, who became his warmest admirers.
man
own country as he appears to have been more curious, So greatly did highly appreciated at Leipzig than he ever was at home. he enjoy his sojourn at Leipzig that he returned thither foi a second visit in
ever achieved such a musical reputation out of his
is
Sterndale Bennett, and, what
more
1841.
In 1844 he married Mary Ann, daughter of Captain
J.
Wood, R.N.
Five years later he founded the
London Bach Society
for the encourage-
ment
of a study of Sebastian Bach's works,
by which much good was done
to public taste in
England.
Gewandhaus Concerts was

a post
In 1853 the conductorship of the Leipzig offered to him no slight honour; while in
1856 he became permanent conductor of the Philharmonic Society's concerts, which he filled for ten years. At the same date he was elected Pro-
fessor of
Music
in the University of
this chwPtill his death.
of Music, a post for
Cambridge, and he continued to occupy In 1866 he became Principal of the Royal Academy which he was eminently qualified. At Cambridge
.
he was so highly appreciated that in 1 856 that University conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Music, and the following year added also the degree
MODERN ENGLISH
of Master of Arts, attaching at the
fessorship.
MUSIC.
1285
Up
to this
same time a salary of 100 to his protime Bennett had published only instrumental music,
but in 1858 his
May Queen was produced at the Leeds Musical Festival with great success, and then published. Although the libretto of this cantata is but a feeble performance, yet such is the graceful beauty of the
Fig. 299.
Sir
W.
Sterndale Bennett.
solos,
the excellence of
the choral
writing, and the admirable skill dis-
played in the
instrumentation, that
the work has continued a general
favourite with the public, and will probably live long.
In 1867, however,
work, The Woman of deserving This composition, though by no Samaria, at the Birmingham Festival. means of so popular a character as the May Qneen, is yet far more
Bennett produced a far more
choral
interesting to the cultivated musician, as

far higher order. It
is,
it
contains original beauties of a
unquestionably, Bennett's best choral composition.
1286
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
In 1870 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of D.C.L. honoris causa, and in the following year he received the honour of knighthood.
In 1872 a public testimonial was presented to him, and the money sub" scribed on that occasion was devoted to the foundation of a Sterndale Bennett
Scholarship
" at the Royal Academy of Music, which he had been connected with from his boyhood, and which he had loved and served so well. Bennett was a very fine pianist, and the pianoforte was naturally the instrument for
which the greater part of his works were composed. They are calculated to display the peculiar characteristics of that instrument to the best advantage, and although by no means easy of performance, are yet well worthy of
serious study.
His style is emphatically his own. It has been said by many writers that he was an imitator of Mendelssohn ; but it is hardly credible
that any competent critic could form such a

trouble to examine Bennett's works at
ality pervades
all
judgment if he had taken the The stamp of originminutely.

author of plagiarism can only
as time goes on,
them
all,
and
tc accuse their
be taken as a proof of ignorance or prejudice.

to live,
and
to be
more and more appreciated
His compositions are likely and may it
be long before the musicians of England cease to revere in Sterndale Bennett the finest instrumental composer this country has yet produced. In addition to the compositions already mentioned, Bennett was a composer of anthems
and hymn tunes, and his songs are the English School has produced.
among
the very best
Another composer of instrumental music whose name deserves special mention is Henry Smart. This eminent organist and composer was born
October 26th, 1813, and died July 6th, 1879. He came of a very musical his father having been a good violinist, and his stock, uncle, Sir George
Thomas Smart, having been

of
well
music, and remarkable as one of those
known as a conductor and teacher of who handed down the old tradition
performing Handel's music from Joah Bates to our
own
times.
Sir
George Smart was also, it is believed, the first English musician who received the honour of knighthood. Henry Smart studied music under his father and W. H. Kearns, but he was He had been mainly self-taught.
intended for the law, but, his musical proclivities proving irresistible, he soon devoted himself to the " science of sweet sounds/' He was
successively organist at
St.
wholly Blackburn
St. Philip's,
Luke's, Old Street, City; and St.
Regent Street, London ; Pancras, Euston Road, London,
MODERN ENGLISH
which
last
MUSIC.
1287
post he only resigned
total loss of sight.

Jlritle
He
1864, in consequence of his almost composed a fe\v operas and cantatas, of which the
in.
of Dunkerron was, perhaps, cathedral services in F, G, and B

his fame,
his best.
flat,
He
also
was the author

suffice to
of
which would
perpetuate
had he written nothing besides. Some few anthems also he wrote, which are deserving of commendation. As a composer of part-songs, too,
to be despised.
he greatly distinguished himself, nor are his single songs by any means But it is for his admirable organ compositions that he will be best remembered. Of these he composed a large number, but as
yet they have not been collected into one set of volumes, having been brought out by different publishers and in various forms. The best of
them appeared
the Organist's Quarterly Journal, published by Novello. Probably no English composer for the organ has furnished us with so large
in
a number of original works at once masterly and pleasing as Henry Smart. He had an inexhaustible store of lovely melody, which invested all his works with a charm peculiarly their own, while his harmonies were
always masterly, his counterpoint irreproachable, and his power of bringing out the best points of his instrument unrivalled.
enough has been said in another chapter of this work, especially as, although an Englishman by residence and naturalisation, he was a German by birth and education. He was born at Stutgardt in
1804, and died in 1885 in London.
Of
Sir Julius Benedict
a composer of whom a few words must be said in this place, although he never rose to so high a level as those last mentioned. He was born at Caermarthen in 1817, and died in
Henry Brinley Richards
is
London
in 1885.
many
brilliant
composed one or two orchestral pieces and a good arrangements, with some few original pieces for the
also wrote
is
He
pianoforte.
He
Among
his songs
this is
some meritorious part-songs and vocal duets. one which, from circumstances, has acquired a great
" God Bless the Prince of Wales," composed in 1862. and subsequently arranged as a chorus and also for various combinations
popularity
of instruments.
Postponing for the present all notice of living composers, we must now speak of those who have chiefly distinguished themselves during the present century as composers of oratorios, sacred cantatas, and Church music.
Of
these the
first
who comes
before
us
is
Thomas Attwood.
This well-
1288
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
known and justly-admired composer was born in 1767 and died in 1838. He was educated in the Chapel Royal under Nares and Ayrton. While yet
a youth he attracted the notice of George, Prince of
George TV.), who most liberally sent him abroad in and then under Mozart at Vienna, who expressed the of his talents. On his return to London, Attwood became highest opinion
Latilla at Naples,
Wales (afterwards 1783 to study under
organist of St. George the Martyr, in London, and

of Wales's
member
of the Prince
In 1796 he was appointed organist of St. Paul's which post he retained till his death. To this he added the duties Cathedral, of composer to the Chapel Royal in 1796, and organist also to the same
chamber band.
in 1836.
In the
earlier part of his career
Attwood devoted himself almost
exclusively to dramatic composition, in which he was very successful ; but as all such music is now entirely laid aside and forgotten, it is not on that
portion of his
life
that his reputation
now
rests.
It
was not until
his
PauFs and composer to the Chapel Royal that Attwood began to compose services and anthems; but after that period he did little else. Although his Church music will not compare
appointments to be organist of St.
advantageously with the old English cathedral compositions, either of the madrigalian epoch or of the days of Purcell and Croft, yet it must be
admitted that
music of
its
it is in
every respect far superior to any other English sacred
own
date.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century Church composition had sunk to a very low ebb in this A sort of effeminate vulgarity country. seems to have invaded the music of the Ineffective adaptations sanctuary.
of foreign works, intended for the
services of the
Roman Communion,
to
English words bearing no analogy to the style of the music adapted to them, had taken possession of our cathedrals, and the most vapid and illchosen metrical psalmody It was reigned supreme in our parish churches. no small gain, then, to have in Attwood a composer of original Church
music, comparatively free from the abuses then prevalent, and able to supply series of services and anthems of no inconsiderable contrapuntal merit,
well written for the voices, and suitable to the words to which they were set, which still retain much of their in our choirs and pristine popularity bid fair to live for many future generations. Attwood's services in F and
are
still
household words in most cathedrals, while
many
of his
anthems
are as fresh
now
as
when
first
composed.
But Attwood
did more than this.
MODERN ENGLISH
It
1
MUSIC.
1289
was not for nothing that he had been the disciple of the greatest The influence of Mozart's orchestral composer the world had yet seen.
teaching was unmistakably seen in Attwood's compositions for the orchestra.
As examples
anthems
refer to his two magnificent coronation and chorus, of which the former, " I was glad/' was written for the coronation of his patron and friend, George IV., while
of this
we would
for full orchestra
the latter, "
Lord, grant the
King
coronation of William IV., in 1831.

of the highest merit.
a long life," was written for the These are indeed, both of them, works
the same kind for the coronation of
Attwood had begun to compose a third anthem of Queen Victoria, when his career was
cut short by death, and the intended work was never completed. He also composed some excellent glees and songs, which show his admirable power of vocal writing to great advantage. Mendelssohn formed a very intimate
friendship with
Attwood when he
visited
England, and dedicated to him
some
of his best works.
is
The next great English composer of sacred music whom we must notice Samuel Wesley. This gifted man was the nephew of the celebrated Rev.
John Wesley, from

was born at
whom
the Wesleyans take their name.
Samuel Wesley
In his childhood
Bristol in 1766,
and died
in
London
in 1837.
he exhibited such a wonderful precocity in music that the greatest interest was excited in his talents and progress, and several notices of him were
He studied music under his elder brother, Charles Wesley, who a well-known and much-admired organist and composer. Samuel held several organ appointments, among them one at a Nonconformist place
published.
also
was
of worship
however,
it
He was himself, and another at a Roman Catholic chapel. is believed, a member of the Church of England, for whose
and one very clever, though somewhat " dedicated to all choirs." He also composed fragmentary, service in F, some really splendid Latin motets, for unaccompanied chorus and in many vocal parts, of which his " Dixit Dominus," "Exultate Deo," and "In He likewise composed Exitu Israel " may be cited as good samples.
service he wrote several anthems,
tunes adapted to every metre in the collection of the Rev. John Wesley. His fugues and voluntaries for the organ contain merit of But he has laid all English musicians under a deep a no mean order.
original
hymn
obligation
works of
by being the first of our countrymen who made known to us the John Sebastian Bach, of whose " Wohltemperirte Clavier'' he
1290
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
brought out a good English edition, in conjunction with a co-editor, Horn. Samuel Wesley was admitted to be the best organist of his day, and he excelled specially in the (now neglected) art of fugal extemporisation.
Wesley had a rival in a childish musical phenomenon, who excited even greater wonder by his very early performances on the pianoforte and organ. This was William Crotch, who was born at Norwich in 1775, and died at
Taunton in 1847.
Both Dr. Burney and the Hon. Daines Barrington
published accounts of the wonderful proofs of musical genius displayed by Crotch in his childhood. Burney's account was printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1779. In 1786 the young musician was taken to Cambridge,
At
the age of fourteen

in
where he studied under Dr. Randall, whose assistant he became. he composed his first oratorio, The Captivity,
to Oxford, where, in 1 790,
which was performed
migrated He took the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford in 1794, and on the death of Philip Hayes, in 1797, Crotch was appointed to the Professorship
of
Cambridge, June 4th, 1789. About this time he he became organist of Christ Church.
Music
in that University,
an
office
which he held
till
his death.
He
which was a setting of Dr. Warton's " Ode to Fancy/' afterwards His published in full score. greatest work, however, Palestine, was not brought out till 1812. This
oratorio was, unquestionably, the greatest
took his Doctor's degree in 1799, his exercise for
and most successful work of the kind composed by an Englishman to that time, and for force, vigour, up beauty, orchestral effect, and proper setting of the words has seldom been
excelled.
In some
places, indeed, it rises to real sublimity (e.g., the
chorus,
"Let
Sinai tell"),
and
it
is
work which has
stood,
grand and will
stand, the test of time.

at the
Royal Institution, and ia 1822 he was
In 1820 Crotch was appointed lecturer on music chosen to be the first
Principal of the newly-founded

stallation of the
Royal Academy of Music.
On
the in-
Wellington as Chancellor of the University of Oxford, in 1834, Dr. Crotch composed the music to an ode written for
occasion by the Professor of Poetry, the Rev. John Keble, and, at same time, produced a new oratorio on the same subject as his first
Duke
of
the
the
boyish attempt, The Captivity of Judah. This was prepared for publication, but, shame to say, a sufficient number of subscribers was never o-ot o together to render publication practicable. Besides his oratorios and
odes,
MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC
1291
Dr. Crotch was also the composer of several anthems, of various pianoforte
and organ fugues, of some excellent glees, and of two treatises which have only been superseded quite recently. He also published some very useful lectures on music in 1831, together with three volumes of " Specimens
pieces
of Various Styles of Music/' to illustrate them.
These lectures deserve to
musical students,, although many of the views maintained in them must now be considered antiquated and narrow. Crotch was a
be read by
all
He also thoroughly well-educated man, and understood several languages. had a great talent for drawing, in which he might have become quite as eminent as in music had he thought it worth his while. On the whole,
Crotch
is
a musician
who deservedly
holds a very high place
among
the
English composers of the nineteenth century.
have only space to mention very cursorily John Clarke-Whitfield, an He was born organist and composer who had a certain celebrity in his day.
at Gloucester in 1770, and died
at
We
Holmer, near Hereford,
in 1835.
He
was successively organist at Ludlow, 1789; Armagh Cathedral, 1794; Christ Church and St. Patrick's Cathedrals, Dublin, 1798; St. John's and
Trinity. Colleges,
He
graduated
in
Cambridge, 1798; Hereford Cathedral, 1820 to 1833. music at Dublin, Cambridge, and Oxford, and was
'
He appointed Professor of Music in the University of Cambridge in 1821. published four volumes of services and anthems in 1805, .besides an oratorio
and a cantata.
are
He
also
composed many glees and songs.
All these works
well-nigh forgotten, but he has the merit of being among the earliest to publish editions of Handel's oratorios in vocal score with pianoforte accompaniments.
now
The next name which comes before us is that of a most eminent Church composer, John Goss (born at Fareham in 1800, and died in London in He was a chorister under John Stafford Smith at the Chapel Royal, 1880).
and afterwards became a pupil of Attwood. In 1824 he had the place of organist at St. Luke's, Chelsea, and succeeded Attwood as organist of St.
Paul's Cathedral in
1838.
office,
Chapel Royal, which

resigned in
In 1856 he was appointed composer to the together with his appointment at St. Paul's, he
He
1872, in which year he received the honour of knighthood. was presented with the honorary degree of Doctor of Music by the
University of Cambridge in 1876, four years before his death.
posed several cathedral services, of
which one, his "Magnificat" and
He coin"Nunc
1292
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
is a permanent favourite in every choir where genuine Church music is cultivated. But it is by his many and most exEnglish cellent anthems that he is best known these are, indeed, a repertory of
Dimittis" in E,
solid beauty,
and pure part-writing, sometimes almost rising to sublimity, which have probably done more than the writings of any other Church
1
composer of recent times to preserve and hand down the true old English cathedral style, while, at the same time, they are by no means devoid o
more modern resources

equalled Sir
in
harmony and
construction.
voices
;
Few
composers have
John Goss as a writer for
the inner parts of his

cor-
anthems are always melodious and easy to sing, the words are most
rectly set to music, while the counterpoint is
always good, often masterly.
Among
Sir
John Goss's anthems
it is
hard to assign the chief place to any
in particular, as. they are so uniformly good.
But among
those best
known
we would mention
world,"
"
the following: "If we believe," Saviour of the " Praise the " The taste and see/' Lord, O my soul/' and
"O
But Goss was not exclusively a Church composer. He also some most admirable glees and one madrigal, not to mention some composed orchestral works of value and some He published, in organ arrangements.
Wilderness/'
" Introduction to 1835, his
had considerable success

treatises
in its day,
Harmony and Thorough Bass," a work which though now superseded by subsequent
likewise
and instruction books.

a pupil of
The next composer who comes before us was
Attwood, and a son of an excellent musician, Thomas Forbes Walmisley (also himself a pupil of Attwood), who was born in 1783, and died in
1866.
Thomas Attwood Walmisley was born

so able a teacher as
in
1814 and died
in 1856.
Attwood, young Walmisley made very rapid progress, both as a composer and a player. In 1830 he was appointed
of Trinity
Under
organist of Croydon Church, and three years later he was elected organist and St. John's Colleges, at Cambridge, and took the degree of
Bachelor of Music at that University.
and in 1841 that of M.A., while

Doc.
cathedral services and anthems, of which by a collection was in 1857, published posthumously, edited by his father, who survived him ten years. He also composed some vocal and instrumental music of no small merit. He was a distinguished organist and an admirable extemporaneous In this too much neglected performer.
He
In 1838 he took his B.A. degree, in 1846 he took the degree of Mus.
is
best
known
his
MODEUN ENGLISH
branch of the
art,
MUSIC.
1293
however, he was excelled by the next composer
who
comes before
us.
Samuel Sebastian Wesley (born in 1810 and died in 1876) was a son of Samuel Wesley, whom we have mentioned above, and was a worthy successor to his father's musical eminence. He was educated in the Chapel
became
Royal, where his talents soon made themselves apparent. organist of Hereford Cathedral in succession to
In 1833 he
Dr.
Clarke-
After his marriage with Miss Merewether, sister of the Dean of Hereford, he left that cathedral, and in 1835 was appointed organist of Exeter Cathedral. In 1839 he accumulated the degrees of Bachelor and
Whitfield.
Doctor of Music at Oxford, by special grace of the University. He became organist of Leeds Parish Church in 1842, which post he retained for six
years.
and
to
In 1849 he was appointed to the organ of Winchester Cathedral, that of Gloucester in 1865, which last post he held till his
death in 1876.
His service in E was probably the first of his works which earned him his great reputation as a Church composer. In this work, composed in 1845, he departed considerably from the old-established models,
and inaugurated what may be termed the most modern phase of English This was also very much the case in his admirable Church music.
anthems, which, although they are now, as it were, household words in every good choir, were looked upon as dangerous novelties when the earlier of
them were
are not
first
composed.
It is not that they are unsuited to the service
of the sanctuary, or at all secular in style, for that they
most assuredly
but they are full of very original harmonies, some of which had ; never been heard of before in this country, and a few of which must be
deemed experiments in harmonisation of somewhat doubtful success. Now we have become accustomed to these modernisms, but when Wesley first ventured upon them many old-fashioned professors were shocked at what
innovations.
they deemed unwarrantable licences, and joined in condemning them as " The It was thus, doubtless, that his finest anthem, Wilderness/' failed to secure the Gresham Prize in 1834, for which
..e
was
opposition, however, "Wesley's Church music soon acquired that popularity and general appreciation to which i!; is unAnd we may well condone the contrapuntal laches questionably entitled.
a candidate.
In spite of
all
unquestionably contains, when we consider the wonderful power and originality it displays, the successful manner in
and harmonic crudities which
it
1294
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
which the sense and accent of the words are attended
to,
the
beauty of the melodies which abound in it, and the frequent find in it of breadth and grandeur, sometimes amounting to true sublimity.
Besides his Church music, however,
uncommon instances we
and part-songs, not to He was also the composer of organ pieces of very considerable merit, but
often of exceeding difficulty, all written in his
Wesley also composed some good glees mention a few very fine songs of great beauty.
own
Yet
peculiar style.
his models,
it
It
is
evident that he
his
made Bach, Spohr, and Mendelssohn

up on that
triple foundation.
and that
music
is
built
to call
him an
imitator, still Jess a plagiarist,
would not be just as his own individuality was
able to make itself apparent in all his varied works. "Wesley was also the author of some clever letters and pamphlets on subjects connected with
wonderful power of fugal It were much to extemporisation, in which he was unrivalled in his day. be wished that this faculty were more cultivated amongst modern English musicians than it appears to be now-a-days. On the whole, was a
a
cathedrals.
He
inherited from his father
Wesley
man who
supplied a connecting link between the
Old and
New
Schools of
English Ecclesiastical Music,

in his compositions, a very
and who displayed, both in his playing and
which
will render his
unusual amount of talent of a very high order, name permanent among those who have distinguished
themselves in the annals of English musical history. Among the composers of oratorios we cannot pass over Henry Hugo Pierson (otherwise Pearson), who was born at Oxford in 18] 5, and died at
Leipzig in 1873.
He was
after studying first at
not intended for the musical profession, but Harrow and then at Trinity College, Cambridge, had
thoughts of entering upon a medical career. While at Cambridge, however, his musical talent became so evident that he changed his studies, and worked at musical composition under Attwood and Arthur Corfe. In 1839
he went to Germany and became a pupil of Rinck, Tomaschek, and At Leipzig he met Mendelssohn, and also became Eeissiger. acquainted with Meyerbeer, Spohr, and Schumann. In 1844 he accepted the Reid
Professorship of Music in the University of Edinburgh, but he soon gave up in order to go back to Germany, where he mostly resided during the rest of his life. He at one time published of his minor comthis
many
under the pseudonym of " His greatest Edgar Mansfeldt." work was an oratorio, Jerusalem, brought out at the Norwich Festival in
positions
MODERN ENGLISH
1852 with marked
success.
MUSIC.
1295
He
on the subject of Hezekiah.

ever
finished,
subsequently composed a second oratorio But it does not appear that this work was
Festival in 1869.
although certain portions were performed at a Norwich In 1854 Pierson composed music to the second part of
This was greatly appreciated in
Goethe's Faust.
Germany.
He
also
wrote two operas, a few part-songs, and many single songs of great merit. Pierson appears to have been much more valued in Germany than in
England, which accounts for

abroad.
his
spending the greater part of his

claims a place here
Charles
life
Another
oratorio composer
who
is
Edward
Horsley (born in 1821
and died
in 1876),
whose
father,
William Horsley,
we have
Leipzig.
already mentioned in this chapter.
He was
a pupil of his father
and of Moscheles in London, and of Hauptmann and Mendelssohn at

Charles Horsley
is
best
known by
his oratorios,
David, Joseph,
and Gideon.
besides several composed In pianoforte pieces, chamber music, and sundry songs and part-songs. 1860 he went to Australia, and subsequently settled in New York, where
also
But he
a cantata, Comus,
he died.
Nor can we
pass over the

in
name
of Dr.
Henry John Gauntlett, who was
born in 1806 and died
1876.
He was
originally a solicitor, but afterwards
devoted himself entirely to music. As an organist he was well known, and he it was who inaugurated the wonderful improvement in the construction
of organs in this country,
when the
old
the manuals, and the short pedal-board
and imperfect with " return
compass of pedal-pipes," were
GG
gradually superseded by the true
compass,
now
universally adopted.
He
composed anthems and hymns, many of which are still favourites, and was also the author of several musical pamphlets, and a few minor compositions.
Dr. Gauntlett was the second musician
who
first
received a degree of
Mus. Doc.
from the Archbishop of Canterbury, the
having been Dr. John Blow. The next name which comes before us is that of the Rev. John
Bacchus Dykes, whose hymn-tunes, &c., are probably more popular than those of any other English composer. Dykes was born at Hull in 1823,
He took the degree of B.A. at CamIn 1861 the University of Durham conferred on him the degree of Mus. Doc., this being one of the earliest degrees After serving as an assistant curate in music awarded by that University.
and died at
St.
Leonards in 1876.
bridge in 1817,
and M. A. in 1851
]296
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
at
Mai ton,
in Yorkshire, he
Durham
Durham,
Cathedral in 1849.
still
was appointed minor canon and precentor of In 1862 he became vicar of St. Oswald's,
retaining his minor canonry, though not the precentorship. a cathedral service in F and several good anthems ; but it is composed as a composer of metrical hymn-tunes that he is best and most deservedly
He
known. He had a very fine power of extemporisation on the organ and on the pianoforte, and was in every respect a thoroughly well-educated
musician.
It are
is
time
now
and
to turn to several admirable English musical
men who
first
still
living,
whom we
have therefore placed
last.
Of
these the
in point of date,
farren.
and also in importance, is Sir George Alexander MacThis excellent and talented man was born in London in 1813, and
first
was a pupil
of his father, then of Charles Lucas,
and thirdly of Cipriani
Royal Academy of Music, of which institution he became a in 1834, and Principal in 1876. In the year 1875, on the death professor of Stern dale Bennett, Macfarren was elected his successor as Professor of
Potter, at the
Music in the University of Cambridge, and in the following year he graduated as Bachelor and Doctor of Music by accumulation in that
University.
It
is
The honour
of knighthood
was conferred upon him
in
1883.
probable that no English musician has ever done so much good work for the improvement and advancement of the science and art of music in
England
as Macfarren.
greatest credit to himself,
His whole career has not only been one of the but also of the utmost benefit to music and
a teacher, a lecturer, or a didactic
musicians.
writer,
it is
Whether
as a composer,
impossible to over-estimate the value of his efforts in the good cause of sweet sounds, and undoubtedly his name will be handed down to future generations among the greatest men who have devoted their time and talents to the -development of musical art. There is no branch of music
His oratorios, St. Jo/in Joseph (1877), and King David (1883), are admirable works, destined, to live; and of these and other of his more recent works the merit is enhanced by the sad fact of his total blindness at the time of their His cantatas, Lenora (1852), Old composition. May-Day (1857), C/mxfwas (1860), Freya's Gift (1863), and The Lady of the Lake (1877), are equally excellent and effective. He has also composed much orchestral music of great excellence. This includes seven symphonies
the Baptist
in
which he has not done good and fruitful work. (IMS), The Resurrection (1876),
THE ORGAN AT KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

24
MODERN ENGLISH
and many
music.
MUSIC.
1297
overtures. Nor has he been less successful with his chamber As an English opera-writer, Macfarren did much in the earlier
it is
part of his career, and
to be lamented that his dramatic works have
been so completely laid on the shelf; they deserved a better fate.

farren has also composed services and anthems,
in our cathedrals.
sitions
Mac-
many
of
which are in use
His songs, part-songs, and other smaller vocal compoare too numerous to be mentioned in detail; but, like his larger and many of them will
works, they bear the impress of high talent,
Lastly, Macfarren's name will live probably long retain their popularity. to future ages in his valuable contributions to musical literature. His " " Six Lectures on " his Rudiments at
of
Harmony/'
Harmony
delivered
the Royal Institution, his " Eighty Musical Sentences/' his work (C On the Construction of a Sonata/' his " Treatise on Counterpoint/' his various
articles in different periodicals,
all
and
his various analyses of classical
works
most valuable matter, for which English musicians cannot be too grateful. On the whole, then, Sir George Alexander Macfarren must be admitted to b3 deserving of occupying an exalted niche
these constitute a
of
mass
England's musical worthies. living composer whose name we must by no means omit is Sir George Job Elvey, who was born at Canterbury in 1816, and was a pupil first of Highmore Skeats, and then of his elder brother, Dr. Stephen
in the gallery of
The next
Elvey (born 1805 and died 1860), for thirty years organist of New College, Oxford. George Elvey certainly made the most of his opportunities, and
was appointed organist of
St; George's
only twenty-two years of age. till his retirement in 1882. He took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Oxford in 1838, and of Mus. Doc. in 1840. In 1871 he received the honour of
Chapel, Windsor, in 1838, when This honourable post he continued to hold
He has been a very prolific composer of useful and effective knighthood. anthems and other sacred compositions, some of which are of a very high standard of merit, and will long retain their popularity. He imderstands
making the inner parts of his choruses and pleasant to sing, an art often somewhat neglected by interesting younger composers. His counterpoint is always good, and his style massive
the art of writing well for voices,
and striking. Perhaps sometimes we may detect in his works too rigid an adherence to the ultra-Handelian method of composition which prevailed when he was a young man; but by this we do not intend by any means
1298
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
to accuse
tion
him of plagiarism. He has published an oratorio, The Resurrecand Ascension, and some pieces for the organ, songs, and glees. Another Church composer who comes before us in this place is Edward John Hopkins, perhaps one of the best living authorities on the subject
of organ-construction.
He
was born
in 1818,
and educated
in the
Chapel
Royal under William Hawes, also studying under T. F. Walmisley, of whom we have spoken above. After holding several organ appointments,
In 1882 he he was elected organist of the Temple Church in 1843. obtained the degree of Mus. Doc. from the Archbishop of Canterbury, He is the and a similar degree in 1886 from the University of Toronto.
composer of several excellent and effective services and anthems, as well as But he is best known as of some most useful compositions for the organ. the joint author, with the late Dr. Rimbault, of a work of considerable
value, of
which the
title is
"The Organ,
its
History and Construction/'
published in 8vo in
1855, and of which other editions have appeared in
1870 and 1877.
He
has also lectured on the same subject, and contributed
some very useful articles about organs and organ-building to Grove's " He has acquired a great reputation also as one Dictionary of Music."
of our best
We
Church organists. must now mention a very clever composer,
chiefly of instrumental
music of various kinds, Charles Edward Stephens (born 1821), who is a nephew of the celebrated singer, Catherine Stephens, afterwards Countess
of Essex.
teacher,
Mr. Stephens
is
is
well
known
as a very successful pianist
and
some very excellent chamber music for and stringed instruments, as well as some pianoforte good pieces for the He has likewise composed a for organ and for pianoforte solo.
also the author of
and
symphony
and some services and anthems, besides sundry part-songs, glees, and single songs. His music deserves to be better known than it has
orchestra,
hitherto been.
Henry David
Charles
Leslie
was born
is
in
1822,
and studied music under
composer of two oratorios, two cantatas, two operas, an orchestral symphony and overture, a few anthems, a number of very good But it is as a successful part-songs, and some single songs. trainer and conductor of choirs that he is best known. His celebrated
the
'
Lucas.
Leslie
Leslie
national
Choir" gained the first prize for part-singing at the Paris InterCompetition in 1878 no slight honour. In this respect he stands
MODERN ENGLISH
MUSIC.
1299
on a lofty eminence, and has done a great deal of good service to. the cultivation and appreciation of choral music in London and elsewhere.
Following our chronological order, we now come to Sir Robert Prescott He received his Stewart, who was born in Dublin in the year 1825.
musical education in the choir of Christ Church Cathedral in that city, and
became organist of the same
in
1844, at which time he also received the
appointment of organist at Trinity College, Dublin. To these appointments he added that of organist of St. Patrick's Cathedral in 1852,
having taken the degree of Mus. Doc. at Dublin the preceding year. In 1871 he received the honour of knighthood an honour which was well
deserved.
He
is
known
as the composer of two cantatas,
two
odes,
two
cathedral services, and several effective anthems.
He
has also
won more
than one prize for glees and part-songs, and has delivered many valuable lectures on musical subjects in his capacity of Professor of Music at the
University of Dublin, which
office
he has
filled
most
efficiently since the
year 1861.
He
is
an exceptionally good organist, and

is
his
admirable style
of accompanying a choral service
beyond praise. Probably one of the most accomplished executants on the organ now He held organ living is William Thomas Best (born at Carlisle in 1826). churches and chapels successively, but has made appointments at several
his
name
chiefly
by
his
at St. George's Hall, Liverpool,
admirable performances on the magnificent organ where he has been organist since 1856.
He
has composed and arranged a vast
number
of pieces for his instrument
in a masterly
manner, and has thus
laid all lovers of
the organ under a
deep obligation.
He
has also published some pianoforte music; nor has he
neglected sacred vocal art, having composed services, anthems, and hymns,
which have been widely used. But his fame rests mainly on his wonderful skill as an organist, where he need fear no rival in England or
some
of
on the Continent.
In the year 1830 was born Sir Herbert Stanley Oakeley, who has done He is the very good work for the advancement of music in Scotland.
second son of Sir Herbert Oakeley, Baronet, and brother of the present Sir Charles Oakeley, Baronet. He was educated at Rugby, and Christ
Church, Oxford, where he graduated as B.A. in 1853 and M.A. in 1856. He had always evinced great talent for music from his early boyhood, but
did not
make
the most of his powers
till
he went to study in Germany,
E 3 3 E 2
1300
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
under Plaidy, Moscheles, and Papperitz, at Leipzig; under J. Schneider In 1865 of Dresden, for the organ; and under Breidenstein at Bonn.
he succeeded John Donaldson as Professor of Music in the University of Edinburgh, which has ever since been the principal scene of his labours.
On
the occasion of the inaugm*ation of the
monument
to the late Prince
In Consort at Edinburgh in 1876, he received the honour of knighthood. 1871 he was made a Mus. Doc. by the Archbishop of Canterbury; in 1879 the University of Oxford conferred on him the same degree, honoris causa ;
while in 1881 he was complimented with that of
of Aberdeen.
LL.D. by
the University
consisting of a
His compositions have been
chiefly vocal,
cathedral service in
flat,
several anthems,
many
songs, part-songs,
and
choruses; but he has also

orchestral pieces.
published some pianoforte music and a few As Professor of Music at Edinburgh he has greatly
advanced the study and appreciation of classical music in the Scottish capital, both by his lectures and classes, and also by the admirable concerts
he has given, especially in connection with the " Reid " festival.
He
is
good pianist and organist, and his organ recitals deserve high praise. Ebenezer Prout is the next composer who comes before us in the order of time. He was born in 1835 at Oundle, in Northamptonshire, and took
the degree of B.A. at
London University
in 1854.
He was
a pupil of
has composed some very excellent works for the orchestra, including four symphonies, and a concerto for organ and orchestra. He has also published some services and anthems, some pianoforte pieces,
Salaman
for the pianoforte.
He
His
little
and some very good chamber music for pianoforte and strings. " Music Primer" on Instrumentation is most admirable and
useful,
and has been translated into German.

critic.
He
is
also well
known
as
an accomplished musical
We
to say a
spoke of John Barnett just now, and we must not omit in this place few words about his nephew, John Francis Barnett, who was born
in 1837,
and studied under Dr. Wylde.
scholarships at the Royal
Academy
of Music,
In 1850 and 1852 he gained and came out as a pianist.
subsequently studied at Leipzig, returning to London in 1859. is now one of the professors at the Royal College of Music. composer he has made his mark by an The
He
He
As
a
oratorio, Raising of Lazarus, and several very good cantatas. He has also produced an orchestral symphony and several concert overtures. His other works consist of
MODERN ENGLISH
pianoforte pieces and songs.
MUSIC.
1301
Probably his most popular composition is his cantata The Ancient Mariner; but his music is always melodious and
thoroughly well written.
The present well-known organist

was born
in 18 10,
of St. Paul's Cathedral,
and was educated
in the choir of that church.
John Stainer, In 1857
two
he became organist of St. Michael's College, Tenbury, where he remained Thence he went to be organist of Magdalen College, Oxford, years.
which post he occupied

1872.
till
he was appointed to St. Paul's Cathedral iu
He
graduated
at
Oxford as Mus.
Bac.
in
in
1859,
B.A.
1863,
Mus. Doc. 1865, and M.A. 1866.

post of organist to the University.
While
Oxford he
also filled the
He has composed an oratorio, two and many cathedral services and anthems. As an author he cantatas, is known the following works: "A Dictionary of Musical Terms" by
(edited conjointly with
Mr.
W.
A. Barrett), 1875;
"A
Theory of Har(music
mony, Founded
"
on the Tempered Scale,"
1869;
The Organ " (music primer), 1877; "The Music of the primer), 1877; Bible," 1879; "Composition" (music primer), 1880; "Tutor for (he His cantatas contain some very effective points, American Organ," 1883. and among his anthems are some of the best we possess. As an organist
he
is
"Harmony"
much and
justly
admired, and
of
he
has
in
service as a
Government inspector
music
schools, to
undoubtedly done good which office he
was appointed in succession to Dr. Hullah in 1882. We come now to a many-sided and most conspicuous English musicianj Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan, who was born in 1842, and received his early
musical training in the Chapel Royal, under the Rev. Thomas Helmore. In " 1856 he was elected to a " Mendelssohn Scholarship at the Royal Academy
of Music,
where he studied under Sir John Goss and Sir
W illiam
7
Sterndale
Bennett for two years.
He
his musical studies there, till 1861,
then spent three years at Leipzig, completing when he returned to London. Here he
very quickly made a name for himself as a composer, as a conductor, and as Principal of the National Training School of Music, which office he held from 1876 to 1881. He received the degree of Doctor of Music, honoris
causa, at Cambridge in 1876, and at Oxford in 1879, and
was knighted
in
1883.
living,
Sullivan
is
and he owes
undoubtedly the most popular English composer now this popularity mainly to his very clever and most
as The
successful operas
and operettas, such
Contrabandists,
Box and Cox t
1302
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Trial by Jury, The Sorcerer, H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance, He is also the comPatience, lolanthe, Princess Ida, and The Mikado.
poser of a large
number
of songs
and part-songs, many
of
which have
But it will not be, probably, by these a well-deserved popularity. will be best known to future generations ; more ephemeral works that he
won
down
he has also composed more serious and classical things, which will hand his name among the best of England's musical worthies. His three
oratorios,
The Prodigal Son,
The Light of the World, The Martyr of
Antioch, his cantatas, and his admirable orchestral compositions, will live
The same may long after his lighter works have gone out of fashion. be said of his Church music, most of which is truly excellent. All that he has done, be it great or small, has always been the work of a thorough
musician
;
and
it
may
be said of
him that
in whatever
walk
of the art
he
has exerted his talent, he has never yet failed to succeed.
Joseph Barnby was born at York in 1838, and was educated in the
choir of
York Minster, and afterwards From 1863 to 1871 he was organist of
in the
St.
Royal Academy of Music. Andrew's Church, Wells Street,
London, where the choral services have always been most carefully and In 1871 he became choirmaster at St. Anne's, Soho, efficiently rendered. London, and four years later he accepted the important post of Director of Musical Instruction at Eton He has College, which he still holds. written an oratorio, Rebekah, which he calls a "sacred besides a
idyll,"
and partand some organ music. songs, He is well known as one of our best conductors and organisers of concerts and choral societies.
;
large
number
of services, anthems,
and hymn tunes
also songs
Scottish composer claims the next place in these pages.

in
Alexander
Edinburgh in 1847. He soon became known as a violinist in Germany, and was elected a king's scholar at the Royal Academy of Music in 1862. He resided in Edinburgh till 1879,
since which time he has lived He has composed principally in Germany. a good deal of pianoforte and other chamber music, as well as vocal pieces of various kinds. But his three greatest works, on which his now well-earned
Campbell Mackenzie was born
reputation rests, are the

oratorio,
two dramatic works, Jason and Colomba, and his The Rose of Sharon, which was brought out with great success at
in 1884-.
the
Norwich Festival
We have
only space for two more living British composers.
One
of
MODERN ENGLISH
these
MUSIC.
1303
an Irishman by birth, Charles Villiers Sianford, who was born iu 1852, and became a pupil of Arthur O'Leary and Sir Robert Stewart iu He Dublin, and afterwards of Reinecke at Leipzig, aud Kiel at Berlin.
is
took his B.A.., with classical honours, at Cambridge, in 1874, and his M.A. In 1873 he was appointed organist of Trinity College, three years later.
Cambridge, and had the degree of Doctor of Music, honoris causa, conferred upon him by the University of Oxford in 1883. Dr. Stanford has published
music of almost every kiud sacred, dramatic, vocal, instrumental, and elementary in which very great talent is displayed, and bids us hope for
many
well
Stanford
future productions of the highest merit from his facile pen. Mr. is one of the at the Royal College of Music, and is also professors
as a
known
good conductor.
The other composer whom we have to mention is Frederic Hymen Cowen. This excellent and popular musician was born in Jamaica in 1852, and came to England when four years old. Here he studied under Sir Julius Benedict
and
John Goss, and afterwards prosecuted his studies in Germany under Hauptmann, Moscheles, and Reineeke. He has written operas, cantatas, and
Sir
oratorio, besides four very
one
admirable symphonies and other orchestral
composer of a good deal of pianoforte music and many very popular songs and part-songs. Did space admit of it there are many other very promising English musicians of whom we could say much ; and there is likewise much more
pieces.
is
He
also the
to be said
to write
concerning those of whose life and works we have only been able mere sketches. But we are obliged, unwillingly, to go on to give
a brief account of English writers about music, historians, biographers, and theorists ; and even of these we can only take a few. In order to do
justice to this
branch of our subject, we must go back to the early part of
the eighteenth century, in order to give some notice of Sir John Hawkins, who was born in 1719 and died in 1789. He was a lawyer by profession,
an amateur musician, and the author of various works which are now forgotten. But he has rendered good service to the art of music by " his well-known History of Music/' which he published in five large quarto volumes in 1776, and which was reprinted in two volumes, 8vo,
but
also
by Novello in 1853. This is a wonderfully accurate work, and contains a great mass of useful information. Unfortunately, it is somewhat illIn consequence arranged, and is not written in a very interesting style.
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
was for a long time almost superseded by Dr. Burney's more popular history, of which we must now go on to speak. He received an Charles Burney was born at Shrewsbury in 1726. school of his native town, and afterwards at excellent education at the free
of these blemishes it
the public school at Chester.
While
at the latter place he studied music
under Baker, organist of Chester Cathedral, and subsequently in London under Dr. Arne. In 1749 he became organist of St. Dionis Backchurch,
in the City of at
London, and two years later he held a similar appointment Lynn Regis. He accumulated the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music at Oxford in 1769, and spent the greater part of the three following
years in travels in Italy,
collecting materials for his great
Germany, and the Netherlands, with a view of " Of his foreign "History of Music. travels he published very entertaining and well-written accounts, of which " The Present State of the titles were Music in France and Italy, or the
Journal of a Tour through those Countries," &c. &c., 8vo, 1771; and " The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, and United
Province, or the
Journal of a Tour through those
Countries/' &c. &c.,

are,
they sink into " General insignificance by the side of Dr. Burney's magnum opus, the " in four History of Music large quarto volumes, of which the first came out
vols.
8vo,
1773.
But
interesting as these
works
in 1776,
and the
is
last in
1789.
From a
literary point of
view this im-
portant work
It
is
vastly superior to the rival
work by
is
Sir
John Hawkins.
written in a
much more
readable style, and
far better arranged.
But
as a history
it is
omitted, and
when given
space
is
not by any means so trustworthy. Dates are often are not unfrequently erroneous; the criticisms,
a want
of
though often
elaborate, betray
musical discrimination
details.
Still
it
is
and
very
much
valuable
wasted on
trivial
excellent work,
enjoyed.
and deserves the long course of popularity which it has " In 1785 Burney published an Account interesting and valuable
of the Musical
&c. &c., in
Commemoration
is
Performances in Westminster Abbey and the Pantheon, of Handel/'' This work is one of his best
writings, and
of considerable value
and
interest
still.
He
also published
many
other biographical, historical, and critical works, and some musical
compositions, long since forgotten.
Dr. Burney died at Chelsea in 1814. histories of music by Hawkins and Burney were a storehouse of facts of which authors availed themselves in the compilation of many
The
MODERN ENGLISH
smaller historical works.
deserve mention, unless
it
MUSIC.
1305
Among
these
plagiarists
and imitators none
what above the common
be Dr. Thomas Busby, whose works rise somelevel. Busby was jaorn in 1755 and died in 1838.
He was
a pupil of Battishill, and composed an oratorio, three odes, and a few
dramatic pieces, all of which have long since passed out of memory. He also was the author of a small " Dictionary of Music/' published in 1786 ; a " Grammar of Music/' published in 1818 a " General History of Music/' published in two 8vo volumes in 1819; "Anecdotes of Musicians/' in
;
vols.,
12mo,
in
1825
and a few smaller works.
In these publications
Busby copied Burney and Hawkins freely ; but his own critical remarks, few in number unfortunately, are superior to those of either of his predecessors.
He was
now
certainly a sound
and well-read musician, and had some
reputation as an organist.
We come
in 1802,
this he
to a
man who
musical taste and knowledge.
has done a great deal to improve English John Ella was born at Thirsk, in Yorkshire,
and was originally intended for the profession of the law; but
abandoned in favour of music, for which he had evinced a very early
predilection.
He
orchestras of
it
London
began his musical career as a violinist in the principal but he also cultivated music theoretically, studying ;
under Attwood and Fetis.
The year 1845 was a memorable one
for him,
and for the art of music in England, for he then established his celebrated " Musical Union/' as well as his most useful " Musical Winter Evenings," both of which continued to flourish till his retirement in 1880. He pub" Lectures on Dramatic Music and Musical Education Abroad lished and
at
Home/' in 1872; "Musical Sketches Abroad and at Home," 1869-78; " Records of the Musical Union," consisting of analytical programmes,
and biographical notices, 1845-78; and some smaller brochures, of considerable value and interest. At the meetings of the Musical
criticisms,
all
to perfection
Union the very best and most classical chamber music was always executed by the most gifted performers of the day, and thus the taste for
that high style of art was fostered

fashion
;
among
the leaders of amateur taste and
obvious that by this means a very powerful impetus was to the cultivation of the best classical style of music. It is therefore given
it is
and
not too
to say that the appreciation of really good music has been and improved by Mr. Ella to an extent which demands the encouraged warmest acknowledgment. Many are the artists and many are the
much
1306
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
classical
works which obtained a
first
hearing in London through the agency
of Ella's Musical Union.
Henry
Fothergill Chorley claims mention here as a writer about music.
He
was. born in
1808 and died

in
in
1872.
He
wrote musical
articles,
1830 nearly till his death. notices, on subjects connected with music, such as He also published many works "Music and Manners in France and Germany/' 3 vols. 8vo, 1841; " Modern German Music, Recollections and Criticisms/' 3 vols. 8vo, 1854;
and criticisms
the Athena tint from
"Thirty Years' Musical Recollections/' 2 vols. 8vo, 1862; many librettos His works are well written, and his supplied to composers, &c. &c. criticisms generally, though, not always, fair. Many of his views are now
considered obsolete.
In quite a different line the English musical world is much indebted to the next author who comes before us. William Chappell was born in 180'J,
and was brought up to the music publishing business. He devoted himself, however, to antiquarian pursuits and researches, chiefly connected with " music. In 1840 he was one of the founders of the "
English
Per.-y
In the same year he founded the Musical Antiquarian Society, Society. when he also became a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He rescued
England from the unjust stigma cast upon her of possessing no indigenous f( Collection of National popular music, by the publication, in 1838, of a English Airs, Consisting of Ancient Song, Ballad, and Dance Tunes/' of which a second part appeared in 1839, and a third in 1840. This was followed by a still more useful work of the same kind, entitled " Popular Music of the Olden Time," in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1845 and 1859. published
This
is,
unquestionably, a most valuable and important book, and forms an
epoch in the history of our national folk-songs. volume of Chappell's of a
In 1874 appeared the
first
"History
Music,"
work
of very considerable
learning and research, of which no further continuation has as yet appeared, which is greatly to be lamented. On the whole, William Chappell may
iairly claim to
be recognised as the most learned musical antiquarian
we
possess.
come to a great (born 1812 and died 1884).
We now
name among English
musicians,
John Hullah
His musical studies were commenced under
William Horsley in 1829, and completed at the Royal Academy of Music in 1832. He then became celebrated as a successful teacher of vocal music
MODERN ENGLISH
in classes
MUSIC.
1307
became Musical Instructor
on the Wilhelm system, which he imported from France. He in Sir James Kay Shuttleworth's Training
College at Battersea in 1840, and in the following year he taught music on the same system to schoolmasters in Exeter Hall. In 1817 he established
musical classes in St. Martin's Hull, which continued for about three years. He held the post of Professor of Vocal Music at King's College, London,
from 1844 to
1874, and combined therewith similar appointments at Queen's College, London, and Bedford College. In 1858 he was appointed He also held the honourable post of Musical organist of the Charterhouse.
Inspector of Training Schools for the United Kingdom from 1872 to 1883. In 1870 he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh.
larise
His published works are both numerous and useful. We would particu" Method of the following Teaching Singing by Wilhelm," 8vo, " Grammar of Vocal 1842 (second edition 1850) Music," &c., 8vo,
:
1843;
fi
"Duty
"
;
and Advantages of
Grammar
of Musical
Learning to Sing," 8vo, 1846; Harmony/' 8vo, 1853 (new edition and exercises,
(a course of lectures at the Royal " Lectures on the Third or Transition Period of " Cultivation of the edition 1865
1873)
History of
Modern Music "

;
Institution), 8vo, 1862
Musical History/' 8vo,
(second
1876);
Speaking Voice," 8vo, 1870 (second edition 1874); terpoint;" "Musical Notation;" "Music in the
"Grammar
House,"
of
Coun1877.
8vo,
Hullah also composed some operettas, and published good collections of songs and part-music. Some of his own single songs have also achieved popuBut it is as the inaugurator of the vast improvement which has larity.
taken place of late years in pur church and school choirs throughout the length and breadth of the country that Mullah's name will be best re-
membered; and although some persons may prefer other systems yet even they must in fairness acknowledge the great debt we owe
for setting
to his,
to
him
first
on foot the rapid progress which has taken place since he
established his vocal classes.
One
of our best musical antiquarians
was Edward Francis Rimbault.
He was
born in 1816 and died in 1876.
He composed and
arranged
much
music for the organ, as well as for the pianoforte and the harmonium ; but it is not on his music that his fame depends, but rather on his admirable
literary labours
on subjects connected with music. These are, indeed, so numerous that we cannot do more than allude 'to the more conspicuous
1308
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
been mentioned in connection with
among them.
One
of these has already
his collaborateur Dr. E. J.
the History Hopkins, their great joint work on
and Construction of the Organ. On this subject Rimbault published He edited several volumes of several smaller works of considerable value. of ancient English music for the Musical Antiquarian Society, and
reprints
also a
volume of old English
services
For the Motett Society he edited three volumes of services and
and anthems.
anthems mostly adapted to English words from the works of Italian Church comsixteenth and seventeenth posers of the
centuries.
But he
from
did good
oblivion
work
chiefly
in rescuing
many
sacred
and secular ^compositions by English comand Jacobean posers of the Elizabethan
Though not always quite accurate, he was generally so, and his zeal and yet perseverance in ransacking archives and
age.
disinterrinoc5
ancient
MSS.
are
above
all
praise.
Fig. 300.
Sir
In 1842
he became an
F.S.A.
George Grove.
and also a Doctor of Philosophy

holm.
at Stock-
The
is
last English writer on musical subjects
whom we
shall
mention
He was born in 1820, and was originally a civil George Grove. but in 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and engineer,
Sir
three years later he devoted himself to the Crystal Palace Company, in connection with which he acted as secretary, manager, and director for
about thirty years. The admirable analytical programmes of the Crystal Palace Concerts, signed " G.," were written by him, and in conjunction with
their excellent conductor,
Mr. Manns,
Sir
George Grove may be credited
with the main part of the success which these celebrated concerts attained. In 1883 he was appointed the first Principal of the newly-founded Royal College of Music, and on the inauguration of that institution he received
the honour of knighthood.
In 1885 the University of Glasgow conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D., in addition to that of D.C.L., which he already held from the This is not the of Durham.
University
place to enlarge
upon
his valuable labours
and writings
in connection
with
MODERN ENGLISH
MUSIC.
1309
Dr. Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," nor with his exertions as one of the original promoters of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Probably his
most valuable work

he
is
the editor.
the "Dictionary of Music and Musicians/' of which Many of the best articles in this most useful book are
is
of his writing.
It only remains for us
now
to
give a hasty sketch of some of the
Musical Institutions of England, which have had a very great share in improving our national taste in matters musical.
There can be no doubt that a very important step was taken in the
cultivation
.of
native talent in
of Music.
Royal Academy
England by the foundation, in 1822, of the This most excellent institution, after many
in securing a Royal Charter of Incorporation in 1830. In 1864 a yearly grant of .500 was obtained from Government to subsidise the small funds of the Academy.
struggles against pecuniary difficulties, succeeded
This, however, was withdrawn in 1867, And, in consequence, it was almost determined to resign the charter and close the institution. By the strenuous
was averted, and the Academy was reconstructed under the presidentship of the late Lord Dudley. In 1868 the Government grant was restored, and is still in force, since which time the Academy has continued to flourish, and has mainexertions of the professional of the staff this calamity
members
tained
its
great influence for good.

in
The
first
principal
was Dr. Crotch,
1823 and resigned in 1832 ; then followed Cipriani Potter, 1832 to 1859; Charles Lucas, 1859 to 1866; Sir William Sterndale Bennett, 1866 to 1875; and Sir George Alexander Macfarren, who has
held the post from 1875 to the present day.
who was appointed
Among
has trained,
the
many excellent vocalists whom the Royal Academy of Music we may mention Arthur Edward Shelden Seguin (born 1809,
died 1852), an extremely good bass singer, and his wife, Ann Seguin, nee Childe, an equally successful soprano ; also Mrs. Alfred Shaw, nee Postans
(born 1814,
tralto;
died 1876),
who made a good name
for herself as a con-
and Miss Dolby, afterwards
Mme.
Sainton
(born
al-;o
1821,
died
1885), celebrated as a contralto.
The Academy has
trained
:
many
Henry
eminent instrumentalists, of
whom we may
mention the following
Gamble Blagrove
class violoncellist
(born 1811, died 1872), perhaps the best
known
violinist
England has produced;

;
Charles Lucas (born 1808, died 1869),

in
a first;
John Thomas (born
1826), celebrated as a harpist
1310
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Thomas John Harper
virtuoso on the trumpet), (son of the celebrated inherited all his father's skill, and equalled him in his reputation
who
and
.William Lovell Phillips (born 1816, died 1860), well known as a violoncello But perhaps the greatest success of the Academy has been in the
player.
When we mention walls. composers who have been trained within its such names as Sir William Sterndale Bennett, Sir George A. Macfarren,
R. Brinlry Richards, John Hullah, and last, but by no means least, Sir Arthur Sullivan, besides many others who have been already spoken of in
previous pages,
we
shall
have no
difficulty in
of good which the cause of music in Royal Academy of Music.
this
showing the immense amount country has received from the
another institution, the Royal College of Music, bas been under most favourable circumstances and Royal patronage, inaugurated under the able presidency of Sir George Grove, and with a powerful staff of It is too early as yet to speak of its results, but it promises to teachers.
late years
Of
furnish us with well-trained performers of every description,
and
will be,
no
doubt, a most valuable agent in promoting the advancement of the art of
music in England. Of other kindred institutions, such as Trinity College, London, and the Guildhall School of Music, we have not space to say much.
But
it
fluence
cannot be but they must each in their degree exercise a great inon the art for good. The same may be said of the excellent College
of Organists,
which we heartily wish God-speed.

rather
But
is
it is
not by any of
directly culti-
these institutions that the taste of the British public

vated.
It
is
most
that this
by opportunities of hearing the best music well done can best be achieved. In the early part of the present century
the only institutions which aimed at such an object were the Italian opera, the Concerts of Ancient Music, and the Philharmonic Society. The first
impulse to Italian opera in London had been given early in the eighteenth All the greatest dramatic singers, century, as we have already shown.
principally foreign indeed,
opera.
though sometimes
native,
were heard
in Italian
Such names
as
Mme. Mara,
Mrs. Billington, and others in the latter
part of the last century, were followed the far-famed soprano, our own
such artists as Grassini,
up in Italian opera by Catalani, Braham, equally celebrated as a tenor, and Then came the epoch of Pisaroni, and others.
Pasta, Malibran, Grisi, Persiani,
and their male contemporaries, Rubini, Mario, Tamburini, and Lablache, forming such a combination of talent as
MODERN ENGLISH
will probably
still
MUSIC.
1311
never be brought together again, and which many of us can remember with delight. And after these were others, such as the
the matchless soprano Jenny Lind (now and many more whom to name is almost superGoldschmidt), such names, fluous, as they belong more or less to the present generation that is, as Tietjens, Faure, Giuglini, Trebelli, and Albani, for whose pre-
magnificent contralto Alboni,
Mme.
sentation to English ears
we
are indebted to Italian opera.
Nor
are
we
without almost equal indebtedness to English opera for bringing before us such singers as Parepa, Marie Roze, and Joseph Maas. At the same time,
the Triennial Festivals at the Cathedrals of Worcester, Gloucester, and
Hereford have been of nearly as

of the provinces,
much
use in introducing
some
of the best
of our English and foreign singers and instrumentalists to the inhabitants
wide
area.
To
these
and thus spreading a taste for good music through a very must be added the eminently successful festivals held
every third year at Birmingham, not to mention those at Norwich and
many
other local centres.

institutions, there
Then, besides these various

for the
have been others intended
encouragement
of a pure taste for serious
and
classical
is
various kinds.
Of
these, the first
which claims notice
music of " Concerts the
of Ancient Music,"
institution, founded in 1776, of which the fundamental rule was that no music composed within the previous
an excellent
twenty years should be performed. At these concerts the highest style of music, both secular and sacred, was performed in the best possible manner by an excellent orchestra and chorus, and all the best singers of the daywere employed as
this account first
soloists.
It
was at these concerts that the writer of
heard those
Lindley, the violoncellist, the Concerts of Ancient Music that Catalani and Miss Stephens (afterwards
two incomparable and inseparable performers, and Dragonetti, the contra-bassist. It was at
their debuts.
Countess of Essex)
made
It
is
not creditable to English
these admirable concerts public taste to record the ultimate cessation of
through want of adequate support. The next society which we must mention
Society/' which was
is
the "Philharmonic
founded in London in the year 1813 for the enProbably no couragement and performance of music for the orchestra. musical institution has had so uninterrupted a career of success in this
country as the Philharmonic Society.
None has produced
so
many new
1312
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
works of
serving
to hold
first-class excellence,
nor given a
first
hearing to so
many
de-
artists.
its
This
own amid
admirable Society still flourishes, and contrives the crowd of rival institutions which have sprung
up
of
late years in
our midst for the advancement of kindred objects.
Of some of these institutions we must now go on to speak. The first which claims notice is the Sacred Harmonic
excellent organisation
Society.
This
was originated in 1 832, and its objects were, chiefly, the performance of oratorios and other great sacred choral works in the best In 1834 the Society, after sundry migrations, made its possible manner.
home
at Exeter
Hall, in the Strand, where
it
remained
till
1880.
The
chorus consisted mainly of amateurs, and the orchestra included the best executants to be found in London, while care was taken to secure first-class
vocalists for the solos, &c.
In 1837 the
first
steps were taken
by
this
Society for the formation of

library in
what ultimately grew to be the
finest musical
England. This library has recently been purchased for the Royal The first conductor of the Sacred Harmonic Society College of Music. was Joseph Surman, who was succeeded (after a short interval), in 1848,
by Sir Michael Costa. 700 efficient performers.
Soon after this the band and chorus numbered
In 1857 the
first
Handel Festival was organised

;
by
this Society at the Crystal Palace at
Sydenham
the marvellous success
of this " monster gathering/' and of all the Handel Festivals which have In 1880 the succeeded it, is too well known to need further notice here.
Society had to leave their old quarters at Exeter Hall, owing to a change of proprietorship, and this soon led to the dissolution of the institution, a
result greatly to be deplored in the interests of the art.
in
The massive way
which Handel's oratorios were rendered by the Sacred Harmonic band and chorus was grand in the extreme, nor can those who have had the
privilege of attending these performances easily forget the effect produced
at
them by such
filled
;
singers as
Mme.
the
Clara Novello (whose ringing soprano

Crystal Palace
as
voice
the vast space of
no other has ever
done)
or that prince
to the popularity of
among Braham
tenors,
Sims Beeves, the worthy successor

;
or Santley, the justly celebrated baritone

;
or Miss
Miss Dolby, afterwards married to the excellent violinist, Prospere Sainton, who also formed a principal feature in the Sacred Harmonic orchestra, Then we must not the " Musical Union " which we have
or
M.
B. Hawes, the contralto
forget
MODEKN ENGLISH
MUSIC.
1313
already alluded to, in speaking of John Ella. This society was inaugurated in 1844, and had for its object the presentation to its members of the best
possible
performances of classical chamber music.
Probably no similar
society, here or abroad, has ever maintained so uniformly high a standard of excellence, both in the choice and in the performance of chamber compositions, as Ella's
Musical Union.
When we
mention that 75
first-rate
instrupianists, 112 performers on stringed instruments, and 27 on wind ments, every one of them of the very best, have been heard (many of them
England) at these concerts, it will be seen what a great influence this society has had in spreading and encouraging a taste for highclass music among the nobility and the upper class of society in London.
for the first time in
Still, this
was
after all but a limited sphere of
good
influence.
It
was
for another institution to carry a similar good influence into other strata of society, and thus to improve the taste of a vast number
reserved
of
otherwise would have been without any opportunities The firm of music pubof becoming familiar with high-class music. Messrs. Chappell and Co., were the projectors of the Monday lishers,
persons
who
Never Popular Concerts, by which this great end has been achieved. before in England had it been possible to hear the best instrumental
chamber music performed by the very best artists for the sum of one At these concerts the public had opportunities of hearing such shilling. as Charles Halle, Arabella Goddard, Mme. Schumann, Herr von pianists Billow, and others equally great. There, too, were constantly heard
Joachim and Mme. Norman-Neruda, the celebrated violinists, or the no less well-known violoncellist Piatti. And although at first the attendance
hardly seemed to justify the continuance of so bold and novel an experiment, yet at length these concerts completely answered to their name, and
became popular indeed; so much so, that in 1865 additional Popular Concerts of exactly the same kind began to be given also on Saturdays, a practice which has prevailed ever since with the most marked success.
There are yet many other societies and associations which have in their But space forbids us to enlarge upon degree tended to a similar result.
them further
in this place.
We must, however, before we conclude this chapter, say a few words about the astonishing improvement which has taken place in the Church music of England during the last half-century. This is mostly due to the
Y F F P
J314
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
formation of choral unions and associations in connection with the different dioceses or archdeaconries, and may be considered to have been indirectly a
the well-known system of teaching music consequence of the spread of These choral to large classes which was introduced by Dr. John Hullah.
unions employ teachers who go about among the various parish choirs, training them upon a uniform system, and thus preparing them for collective meet-
where great effects are produced by the ings at various central churches, In some cathebodies of the rural choristers who join in the service. large
two thousand voices have sometimes been thus brought together with the happiest results. The whole country has been now brought under this excellent organisation, more or less, and a vastly increased interest in
drals over
Church music has been the natural

heard in
result.
Choral services
may now
be
many a village church, where formerly only a few bad voices roared or howled to the accompaniment of a barrel-organ, or to that of a
few rural
of this
fiddlers in a gallery.
It is impossible to overrate the importance

it is
onward step from every point of view, and
a pleasant feature
in
to contemplate in the general aspect of musical culture
and development
England.
From what has been mentioned

the love of music
is
in this chapter, it is surely evident that
We have now good increasing apace amongst us. music by English composers of every kind sacred and secular, vocal and have admirable instrumental, dramatic, ecclesiastical, or martial.
We
organists, pianists, violinists, vocalists, &c.,
nation in the world.

of
what
is
really
fit to compete with any other have also an ever-increasing popular appreciation good, which cannot but lead to even more satisfactory
We
results in the future.
When, therefore, we find England stigmatised as an essentially unmusical country, not only by foreigners, but also by Englishmen who
ought to know better, we can confidently point to the facts here sketched out, and claim them as irrefragable proofs that such a low estimate of our
national taste and powers
is
in truth nothing less than a calumny.
F.
A. G. O.
INDEX.
Abert, Joseph, composer, 1215 Abt, Franz, song writer, 1050, 1217 Abyngton, Henry, 804 Acbmed ben Muhamed, writer on music, 91 Adam, A. Ch., French comic opera composer, 1098
Anfossi, P., 1131 Animuccia, Gio"., 373
Anton, 75
Antonia, Maria, of Saxony, 727 Apollo (Phcebus), patron deity of Egyptian song, 37 Apostles of Netherland School, 354 d'Aquila, Marco, composer, 497 Aquinos, Thomas, known as "Dr. Angelicus," 204 Arabians, their knowledge of harmony, 89 Archilei, Vittoria, a singer, 523 Arion, 127 Ariosti, Attilio, 800 Aristonimos, 156 Aristote, old French writer, 292 Aristotle, Greek, 113 Aristotle, German, 399 Aristoxenos, 126 Arkadelt, Jacob, a famous Dutch master, 343; his compositions, 372 Arnaud, Abbe, 835 Arne, Thomas Augustine, English opera coin poser, 916 d'Arneiro, Ferreira, Portuguese composer, 1265 Arrietta, Juan, Spanish writer, 1264
Adam, famous Church
vocalist of sequences, 203 A. lam vonFulda, 202, 433
and composer
Adams, T., composer, 1282 Adufe, an Israelitic timbrel, 64 Êschylus, 143 Agazzari, Ag., 534
d'Agoult, Countess, friend of Liszt, known as a gifted writer under the name of Daniel Stern, 1190 Agricola, Alex., motet writer, 361 Agujari, Lucrezia, singer, 1268 Aichinger, Gregor, German composer, 617 Aist, Dietmar von, 239 Albani, soprano, 1311
.
il'Albert,
Eugene, pianist, 1270
Alberti, Domenico, 543 Albinoni, Tommasso, violinist and composer, 545 Alboni, M., contralto, 1005, 1137 Albrechtsberger, J. G., 731, 879 Albrici, B., 653
Ars organandi,
Albuzzi-Todeschini, Teresa, 732 Alc.rus, 127, 131
Alcock, John, Church composer, 925 Aldrich, Henry, 753 d'Alembert, Jean le Rond, 836 Alfred, King of England, 399 Alkan, Ch. H. B., 1105 Alkman, 129 Allard, D., violinist, 1272 Allegri, Gregorio, 69, 85, 172, 366, 512 Altnikol, J. Ch., 781 Alvsleben, M. Otto, singer, 1267 Alygius, 156
Amati, violin maker, 530 Ambros, A. W., historian, 1223 Ambrose, St., 181 Ambrosian or authentic scales, 185 Amiot, 11
Ammergau, 771
A. B., composer, 618 Amorevoli, Angelo, tenor, 703 Amphion, 118 Anacker, 1201 Ander, Al., singer, 1270 Ane, Hartmann von, 245 Anerio, Felice and Giovanni, Italian composers, 512
earliest attempts at part-writing 207 Arston, Hugh, English composer, 668 Artot, Desiree, singer, 1269 Artus (aux Couteaux), composer, 591 Artusi, G. M., 521 Asapli, 72, 84 Ashwell, Thomas, 668, 681 Assyrians, Instruments of, 55 Astarte, 56 Aston, H., 668 Astorga, Emanuele, Church composer, 577 Athenodor, 156 Attwood, T., 1287 Auber, D. F. E., French opera composer, 1058; the father of modern French opera, his Mananiello, 1066 ; his operas analysed, 1096 Auxcouste, 612 Averie, 681 Avicenna, 91
Ammon,
B
Babbi, Gregorio, singer, 703 Babylonians, Music of, 56 Bach, A. Magdalina, 777
Bach, Christopher, 639, 770, 771 Bach, Christopher Friedr., 792
F F F F 2
1316
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Bellini, Vincenzo, 1131
Fried ir.ann, !!' Hans, 771 Heinrich, C37 Joh., 775 Joh. Ambros, 773 Joh. Christopher, 636, 773 Joh. Mich., 636 Joh. Sebastian, his work, 768 ; originator his progenitors, of a new period in art, 7tt9 his organ playing, 789 ; his hand771 775 ; his 48 prewriting, 780 ; marries, ludes and fugues, 776 remarries, 777 ; his emoluments, 778 contention with Leipzig Town Council, 779 ; his compositions, 780 ; Frederick the Great and Bach, 781 ; dies, 783 ; amalgamation of his works, 783 ; summary, 794 Bach, Maria Barbara, 775 Bach, Michael, 638, 771
Bach, Bach, Bach, Bach, Bach, Bach, Bach, Bach,
his
Norma
considered.
; composer, 909 Benedict, J., German pianist and composer, 1259, 1287 Benet, J., composer, 684 Benevoli, Orazio, 515 Bennett, Sir Sterndale, 1035 ; English com-
1132 Ben da, Franz, 989 Benda, George, 728
poser, 1249, 1283, 1309, 1310 Benoit, Peter, Flemish composer, 1256
Bach, Phil. Em., 781 Bach, Veit, 771 Bachelor degree in music, 671 Bader, C., tenor, 1004, 1025, 1027
Bai, Tomaso, 36(5
Baillot, Fr., violinist, 1101 Bailly du Rollet, 834
Balfe, Michael William, opera composer, 1248,
1279
Banchieri, A., organist, 546 Bnck, C., critic, 1038 Banister, Gilbert, English com poser, 668 '-* Barak, (54 Barbaja, 1128 Bardi, Giov., Count de Beruio, 516; proprietor of the opera, 521 Barer, H., 953
.
part-
Bargiel,
Woldemar, pupil of
S.
Dehn, 1029,
composer, 1203
and pub546 964 Biirmann, Heinrich, Barnby, J., 1302 Barnett, J., 1281 Barnett, J. F., 1300 Baroque in music, 408 Barrow, 11 Bassani, G. , violin composer, 532 Bateson, T., composer, 685 Batten, D. A., English composer, 739 Battishill, J., composer, 925 Becker, Albert, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1213 Becker, K. F., 1217, 1229 Beech, 681 Beethoven, Ludwig von, 927 ; instrumental his symphonies, 930932 ; an music, 929 ardent republican, his birth, 934; early works, 935 ; the generosity of three of his patrons, 936 fond of the country, 937 ; his generosity, 940; his compositions, 942 analysis of his symphony form, 943 ; choral symphony form, 945 his religion, 947 his domestic worries, 948 ; his bearing towards nobility, 952 Behaim, 253 Bela, Keler, composer, 1266 Bellermann, Fr., 1224 Bellermann, H., 1224. 1226 Belli, Giov., 732
Bariola, Ottavio, organist, composer,
lisher,
; ; ; ; ;
Benserade, ballet writer, 592 Berchem, Jacob, 371 Bergen, Phil., 392 Berger, Ludwig, 973, 1024 Beriot, Ch. A. de, violinist, 1104 Berlioz, Hector, on Gluck, 849, 1040, 1163; birth, 1165 ; his first compositions, 116<> ; remarkable scoring, 1167 ; programme music, 1168 ; his criticism on Eichard Wa;rifer, 1168 ; as a litterateur, 1170 Bernachi, 704 Bernard of Clairvaux, famous Church vocalist and composer of sequences, 203 Bernard!, called Senesino (mezzo-soprano), 703 Bernasconi, later Wagele. A., prima donna 709 Bernhard, the German organ builder, 547, 548 Berti, organist, 546 Bertini, pianist and composer, 1105 Berton (father), early French opera composer, 1059 Berton, H. M. (son), French composer, 1062 Best, W. T., composer, 1299 Betz, Franz, singer, 1185, 1270 Bevin, Elway, English composer, 737 Bharata (demi-god), 33 Bianciardi, Franc., 494 Biber, H. F. von, Venetian master, 589, 623; improver of the sonata form, 623 Eillington, Mrs., singer 1310
Binchois, Egidius. or Gilles de Bins, theorist and composer, 317, 357 Bini, Italian violinist, 707
Bird, Wm., see Byrd Bird, writer on Hindoo music, 24 Bisconti, Catarina, singer, 703 Bishop, Sir H., composer, 1276 Bitter, K. H., 1227 Bizet, G., French opera composer, 1242 Blagrove, H. G., violinist, 1309
Blaise, St., 182
early
Blanc, Ad., 1240 Blangini, G., 1094 " Blest Pair of Sirens," Smith, 1276 Blitheman, William, 687 Blow, Dr., 752 " Blow, Gentle Gales," Bishop, 1277
"Blow, Warder, Blow," Callcott, 1275 Blume, H., baritone, 1025, 1027 Blumner, Martin, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1218
Boccherini, Luigi, composer, 707 Bockh, A., 1224
Bodensehatz, Ehrhard,
Boes (Buus), Jakob van, organist and composer,

371
Boesset, Antoine, composer and ballet writer, 591 Boethius, 396
German composer, 614
INDEX.
Bohemian Girl, The, Balfe, 1280 Bolmie, Magnus, collector, 1228 Boieldieu, F. A., French opera composer, 1067,
1087
Boi'to,
1317
"By
Byrd
Arbour," Horsley, 1276 Bird or Byrde), William, composer, 678, 681

(or
Celia's
English
Arrigo, Italian opera composer, 1230 Balfe, 1280 Hononcini, G. B., 543 Bononcini, or Buononcini, composer, 702, 912,
Bondman, The,
C
Caccini, Giulio, composer, singer, and author, 522 Calcott, John ^yall, Dr., glee writer, 919, 1275
1029 Bontempi, G. A., 653 Bordoni, Faustina (see Hasse, F.), singer, 703 Borghesi, organist, 546 Borodin, Alex., Kussian composer, 1260 Bortnianski, D., Russian composer, 1260 Both, Jean, 989 Box and Cox, Sullivan, 1301 Boyce, William, sacred composer, 922 Braham, John, English tenor, 1270, 1310 Brahms, Joh., composer, 1042 ; his birth, 1198 ; his works discussed, 1200, Brambach, Jos., 1217 Bramston, 681 Brandt, Karoline (Karl Maria von Weber's wife), 964 Brandt, Mariana, singer, 1267 Bratfisch, musik-director, 1035 Breitkopf and Hiirtel, 899, 901 Brendel, Franz, one of Wagner's biographers, 1186 ; and historian, 1224 Hreteuil, 1062 Breuning, Steph. von, 934, 942 Bride of Dunkerron, The, Smart, 1287 Brohsart, Hans von, pianist and composer, 1192, 1212 Broschi, Carlo, called Farinelli, soprano, 703 Brossard, Sebastian de, 612 Brown, English composer, 668 Bruch, Max, composer, 1207 Briihl, Graf (Count), 1118
Briill,
Caldara, Antonio, opera composer, 544 Calvisius, Sethus (Jak. Kallwitz), see Kallwitz, 477
Calzabigi, Raniero, 830
Iguaz,
10!t',
Brumel, Ant., Netherland composer, 339 Brunelli, 615
comG., of Pisa, violinist, 707; poser, 1139 Bruni, Caletti (gee Cavalli, Fr.), 535 Biichner, E., 1035 Bulesz, singer, 1270 Hull, Dr. John, 687 ; author of "God Save the
Brunetti,
Cambert, Robert, first French operatic composer, 592 'ampana, song writer, 1240 Campra, Andrea, 602 Cannabich, Chr., X7."> Canon, Use of, 286 Cantus firmus, used by Evangelical composers of the Reformation period, 428 Canzonets, first use of them, 232 ( <i f >tinty, The, Crotch, 1290 Carafa, M., opera composer, 1094 Carestini (Cusanino), contralto, 703 Carey, Henry, the first who sang "God Save the King," and supposed to be the real composer of it, 914 Ciirissimi, Giacomo, originator of the Cantata da Camera (oratorio), 515 Carl ton, R., composer, 684 Carmen, 314 Caron, Firmin, 298, 317 Carpani, G. 879 Casella, I'., 368 Caselli, 704 Castanets, used by the Israelites, 73 Castil-Blaze, French composer. 124 (i Catalani, Aug., singer, 1026, 1136 Catel, Ch. S., French historian, theorist, 1106 Caustun, English composer, 67> Cavaliere, Emilio del, ducal superintendent of fine arts, 521 first writer of a play the whole of which was told in music, 523 Cavalli, Francesco, opera writer, 535 Cavendish, M., -composer, 685
(
Cecilia, St., 174, 178
Celano,
Thomas
I.,
of,
writer of Italian sequence,
204
Celestine
Cellini,
King, "737
Bull, Ole, Scandinavian violinist, 1271 Biilow, Cosima von, after Cosima Wagner, 1184 Kiilow, Hans von, eminent pianist and Wagnerian conductor, 1186 ; pupil of Liszt, 1212,
Pope, 189
515
1313 Bungert, Aug., 1216 Buouoncini, Giov., 603, 912 Burbure, L. de, Belgian historian, 1256 Burck, Joachim, Protestant composer, 478 Biirde-Ney, J., 1133 Burgmiiller, Norb., pupil of M, Hauptmann, 1032, 1050 Burlington, Count, 807 Burney, Dr. C., 1304 Burton, Avery, 668 Busby, Dr. T., 1305 Busnois, Ant. de, harmonist and theorist, 318, 321, 356 Buxtehude, Dietrich, celebrated organist, 029
Cerma'k, Luid., composer, 1266 Cernohorsky, Bohuslav, 1261 Cesaris, 314 Cesti, Marc Antonio, 536 Chaldaeans, Music of, 56
Chalil, 91
Chamber music, Schumann and Mendelssohn,

685, 1051
Duke of, 757 Chappell, William, historian, 556, 559, 1306 Chapuy, Lorenz, 265
Chandos,
286,
395,
400,
Charlemagne, Emperor, 193 Charles I. of England, 740 Charles X., 1072 Charlier, Jean, 277 Che", Chinese stringed instrument, 1 Chelard, H., French comic opera composer, 1098
."
1318
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Chelys, Greek stringed instrument, 148 Cheng, Chinese wind instrument, 15
Cherubim, M.
1058, 1059
L.
;
Mendelssohn taken to, 1030, and Napoleon I., 1060 sacred

: ;
and opera composer, 1109 ; idealist, 1114 Chevalier de Guise, 593 Chevillard, 1272 Chezy, Helmine von, 9C6 Chifonie (nee Organistrum), 195 Chinese, 7 Chiron, 118 Chladni, F., 609, 1232 Chopin, Frederick, pianist and composer, 1041 creator of a new pianoforte style, 1043 ; possessed a most poetical and refined nature, 1042 ; raises the dance form into an artform, 1043 ; his works, 1044 ; birth, his respect for women, 1045 ; on Mendelssohn, 1046 ; in London, 1047, 1263 Chorale, its introduction into the Protestant
Church, 430
Chorley, H., critic, 1251, 1306 Choron, Alex., profound French theorist, 1106 Chouquet, A. G., musical savant, 1247 Christmas, Macfarren, 1296 Chromatic scale, first extensive use of, 491 Chrysander, Frederick, biographer, 821, 1229
Chrysostomus, 180 Church music and English writers, 401, 920, 1314 Church song, introduction of popular secular melodies, 309 Cratinus, 156 Ciconia, Johannes, of Lieges, composer and poet, 356 Cimarosa, Dom., opera composer, 701 Cithar, Greek instrument, 148 Clark, Jeremiah, organist, 756
Clark-Whitfield, J., 1291 Clauss, Wilhelmine, pianist, 1024, 1207 Clavicembalo, forerunner of the pianoforte, 499 Clavichord, 583
Clemens non Papa, Netherland writer, 345 dementi, Muzio, 909 Cobbold, W., composer, 685 Coclicus, Adrian Petit, 343
Colasse, 596 Colbran, Mile., 1128 College of Organists, 1310
Cornysh, William, English composer, 668 Cornysh, William, Junr., English composer, 668 Corsi, Jac., 521 Cortesi, Francesco, Italian opera composer, 1236 Costa, Sir Michael, Italian conductor and composer, 1249, 1312 Coszmann, B., violoncellist, 1273 Cotton, John, English writer, 560 Coucy, Chatelain de, 233 Counterpoint, first use of, 278 Country church choirs, 926 Couperin, Armand Louis, organist, 611 Couperin, Francois, composer for organ and piano, 611 Couperin, Louis, organist, 611 Couperin, Louise, singer, 611 Couperin, Marg. Antoin., pianist, 611 Couperin, Nicholas, organist, 611 Coussemaker, F. D., musical historian, 275, 1256 Couteaux, Maitre aux, better known by his sobriquet Artus, composer, 591 Cowen, F. H., 1303 Cramer, F. B., pianist and composer, 1249 Crane, William, 804 Crates, 152 Cratinus, 156 Crescentini, G., singer, 1135 Creyghton, Dr. K., 754 Cristofori, Bartolom., inventor of the pianoforte, 587 Croce, Giovanni, Venetian master, 494, 685 Croft, William, 756, 921 Crotch, W., composer, 1290, 1300 Crotta, 396 Crout (French), see Rota, 196 Crwt (Welsh), see Rota, 196 ; ancient violin of Wales, 396 Curschmann, K. Fr., pupil of Moritz Haupfcmann, 1032, 1050 Cusanino (see Carestini), 703 Cuzzoni, Francesca, singer, 704 Cymbals, 77 Cyprian, 180 Czartoryska, Katharine, 1047 Czerny, K., composer, 1262
D
Da Da
capo, invented by Tenaglia. 575 Foggia, 615 Dalayrac, N., French comic opera composer, 1080
Colomba, Mackenzie, 1302 Commer, Franz, 616
Compere, Louis, Netherland composer, 339 Comus, 0. Horsley, 1295 Concertos, best English written were by Dr.
Arne,
Damm, Damon
153
Fr.,
of
John Stanley,
John Alcock, and
1235 Athens, musical tutor of Socrates,

Leopold, composer School, 1211
of
"William Felton, 919 Conduit, musical form, 284 Constantin, 180 Conti, Francesco, 69(5 Contrabandutt, The, Sullivan, 1301 Cooke, Dr. Benjamin, glee writer, 919 Cooper, Dr., 681 Copurario, John, 738 Corbrand, 681 Corelli, Arcang., 532, 552 Corneille, Thomas, 596 Cornelius, Peter, composer of the New School, 1210 Cornello, Antonio del, 520
Damrosch,
the
German
New
Danby. glee writer, 919 Dance tune, Old English, 554 Daughter of St. Mark, The, Balfe, 1280 David, Fel., violinist and composer, 1100,' 1244
David, Ferd., 1032; violinist, pupil of Spoln, 1033 David, King, 65, 66, 67 Davis, Robert, 681 Davy, Richard, English composer, 668 Day, John, composer, 675 De Ahna, violinist, 1272 Deborah, 64
German
INDEX.
1319
De Handle,
Dehn,
R., writer, 561 Siegfried, theorist and historian, 1232 Deiters, H., 1251 Dc'jazet, 1105 Delaborde, J. B., French comic opera composer,
Dussek, 1024
Dux
1079
De De De
(Ducis), Benedict or Hertoghs, Netherland composer, 344 Dvohik, Anton, composer, 1262 Dygon, John, English composer, 671 Dykes, Rev. J. B., composer, 1295
la Croix, Pierre, 297 la Guerre, Marin, 602 la Hale, Adam, 591, 1076
E
Eberlin, J. F., 875 Eberstorff, Peter, 264
Delibes, Leo, French opera composer, 1243 Demantius, Christoph., theorist, 619 Derabukkeh, Islamitic drum, 109
Desaides, 1077
Desbordes, singer, 1063

Descartes, 604
Desmarets, 602
Des Pres, Josquin, 340, 342, 358 Dessauer, Jos., composer, 1050 Destouches, A. C., 602 Devrient, Ed., 1031 Devrient, Schroeder-, great dramatic singer, 1022 Diaphonic system, propagated in Italy, 209 Dibdin, 0., composer, 1282 Dido and ^-Eneas, Purcell, 751 Dietrich, A., pupil of M. Hauptmann, 1032, 1204 Dio Cassius, 41 Diodorus, 157, 176 Diodorus (monk), musician, 165 Dionysos, 121 Diruta, Girolamo, organist, 546 Discantus, Origin of, 214 Dittersdorf Karl von, composer and comic opera
,
writer,
!H)'.I
"Dixit Domiuus," "Wesley, 128!) Doctor of Music, first use of title, 563
Dohler, Theodore, 1262
Doles,
.1
dlia in Friedr.,
i
composer, 716
Dommer, Arrey
von, liistorian, 1224
Donati, B., Venetian composer, 494, 615 Doni, Battista, 521 Donizetti, Gaetano, opera composer, 1133 works analysed, 1134 Donndorf, 1030
Dorer, 123
Dorffel, A., 1229 Dorn, Heinr., 1036 Dowland, John, composer, 688
his
Eccard, Johannes, Protestant composer, 479 Eck, Franz, violinist, 984 Eckert, K., 1116 ; composer, 1209 Edward Vl. of England, good amateur musician, 674 Eeden, Van der, 934 Egyptians, a musical people, 34 Ehrlich, Heinrich, musical savant, 1235 Eitner, Robert, 1229 Ella, J., 1305 Elleviou, 1063 Eloy, 317 Elvey, Sir G. J., composer, 1297 Engel, Gustave, musical savant, 1235 English music early, 395 ; in the Middle Ages, 552 ; in reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary, 664 ; in reign of Elizabeth, 675; 1600-1660, 733; after Restoration', 746 ; old songs, 913 Enzemiiller, 615 Ephraim, St., 182 "Epigones," 1193 Erard, J. Baptiste, wealthy and renowned pianoforte manufacturer, 1115 Erato, 120 Erbach, Christian, organist and composer, 616 Erdody, Marie, 952 Ernst, Heinr. Wilh., violinist, 993 Eslava, Don Miguel Hilarion, Spanish composer and writer, 1265 Essipoff, Annette, Russian pianist, 1270 Este, Michael, 684
:
Este,
Thomas,
(is .)
Esterhazy, Karoline, 861 Esterhazy, Prince Haydn enters the service of the Esterhazy family, 861
:
Draghi of Ferrara, Dragonetti, contrabassist, 1311 Driiseke, Felix, composer, 1212 Dreyschock, Al., 12(i2 Drobisch, M. W., 609 Drouet, L., flautist, 1104
."i.'lti
Ethan, 72
Ethiopians, Music of, 53 Euclid, 156 Euripides, 144, 831 Euterpe, 120
Duchemin, 373 Dufay, G., head of the Gallo-Belgic School, 300

Dufour, French violinist violoncellist, 984 IMiinanoir I. and II., 266 Dumont, Henri, composer, 5!>1 Duni, F. R,, 1077 Dnnstable, J., theorist and composer, 562 Dupont, F. A., 1035 Duport, L., violoncellist, 1100 Duprez, Louis, great French tenor, 107(> Durante, Francesco, Church composer, 577 Durastani, singer, 703
Diirer, Albrecht,
"Exultate Deo," Wesley, 1289 Eyck, H. van, 320, 771

;
his compositions, 308 ; introduces secular melodies into Church song, 309
F
Faccio, Franco, 1239 Farina, Carlo, violin composer, 531 Farinelli (see Broschi, Carlo), 703
and
Farmer, J., composer, 684 Farnaby, Giles, 687

Farrant, Richard, English composer, 679 Fasch, K. F., composer, 1025 Faszmann, Aug., singer, 1025, 1027 "Father of Heroes," Calcott, l-7'<
Fattorini, organist.
">li'>
7%
Faugues, Vincentius (1415 A.D.), composer, 317; his compositions, 356
1320
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Gallus (Handl), German composer, 614 Galuppi, Baldassare, excellent composer of opera buffa, 543, 701 Gamucci, 1240 Gandharven, 21 Garcia, Manuel, 704, 1104 Garcia, Pauline Viardot, singer, 704, 1005, 1104 Garlande, Jean de, theorist and composer, 286 ; his theory, 292 Gasparini, Gaetano, 1240 Gasparo di Salo, 530 Gastoldi, G. G., Venetian composer, 494, 615 Gatti, Teobaldo, 602 Gauntlett, Dr. H. J., composer, 1295 Gaveaux, P., 1080 Gavinies, P., 1100 Generali, P., opera composer, 1131 Gennzinger, Frau von, 878 George II., 822 George IV., 1128 Gerarde, D., writer, 667 Gerbert, Hornau, 294 Gerhardt, Paul, 431 Gerle, H., 624 Germiniani, A., 533 Gernsheim, Fr., pupil of Moritz Hauptmann, 1032 ; composer, 1209 Gervinus, G. G., 1230 Gesius, Bartholomew, 479 Gevaert, F. A., savant, 1257 Geyer, Fl., theorist, 1232 Gibbons, E., composer, 684 Gibbons, Orlando, 687, 734, 748 Gideon, C. Horsley, 1295 Gi?a, a dance, 908 Gilbert, 595 Giles, Nath., 805 Ginguene, P. L., 836 Giuglini, singer, 1311 Gladkowska, Const., singer, 1045 Glareanus, C. F., 339 Glasenapp, one of Wagner's biographers, 1186 Glee, origin in England, English glee, 917, 919 Glinka, M. J. von, pupil of Siegfried Dehn, 1029 Russian composer, 1259 Glover, C. W., composer, 1282 Glover, S., composer, 1282 Gluck, Alex., 823 Gluck, Chr. Wilib., known as Chevalier de Gluck, 823 ; early lessons, 824 ; first operas, 825 ; in London, 825 ; marries, in Italy, Marianna Perrin, 827 his works, 828838 ; birth of the music-drama, 830 ; his views of what opera should be, 832 ; his popularity, 835 ; Gluckists, 835 a consideration of his operas, 838 ; wise words, 845 847 ; a poet, 845 ; as a conductor, 848 ; fearless, 848 his influence upon subsequent great masters, 850, 851 ; his death, 851 Gluck, Marie Anna, 827 Gluck, Walburga, 1067 " God Bless the Prince of Wales," 1287 "God Save the King," origin of, 914 ; Beet hoven's opinion of the melody, 914 Godard, Benjamin, French composer, 1246 Goddard, A., pianist, 1313 Goes, Damian, a Portuguese tone-master, 361 Goethe, J. W. von, 1010
; ; ; ;
Faure, singer, 1311 Faustina (see Hasse, Faustina), 568 1200 Fay, Count Stephan, Hungarian historian, HOG Fayolle, F. J. M., theorist, 668 Fayrfax, Robert, English composer, Ferat, 24 738 Ferrabosco, Alfonso, Ferrari, D., Italian violinist, 707 Festa, Constanzo, 503 celebrated critic, 1256 Fe'tis, F. J., historian, Fibich, Zdenko, composer, 1263 1282 Field, John, English composer, 1043, 1249, Fievee, 1088 54o Figured bass, in Church music, 534, Fillago, organist, 546 Fink, Heinrich, song writer, 440 Fink, Herm., 440 Fioravanti, Val., 701 Flavian, 176 Florimo, Franc., composer, 1239 Flotow, Friedr'. von, opera composer, 1003 Flutes, used by Egyptians, 52 Fo-Hi, 8 Folk-music, The rise of, 226 Folz, 253 Ford, 738 Fording, 681 Forkel, J. N., 294, 698 Francesina, singer, 703 Franchomme, A., 1047 ; violoncellist, 1272 Franck, Melchior, sacred composer, 633 Franco of Cologne, early writer on harmony, 216 ; first to adopt the signs longa, brevis, the maxima or duplex lonya, 217 ; and the mensural theory, 270 Franco of Paris, theorist, 293 Franz, Robert, song writer, 1202 Frasi, singer, 703 Frauenlob, Heinrich, 249Frederick George, 480 Frederick William III., 1116 Frederick William IV., 1118 Frege, Livia, 1036 French comic opera, its growth, 1077 French opera, Auber, Halevy, Rossini, Meyerbeer, Gluck, Spontini, Cherubini, 1058 Frescobaldi, G., organist, 546, 548 Freya's Gift, Macfarren, 1296 Friedlander, Max, 975 Froberger, Job. Jakob, organist and composer, 619 first employs modern five-line staff, 621 " From Oberon in Fairyland," Stevens, 1276 Fugger, Jacob, merchant prince, 616 Fugue, initiatory stages, 496 ; Kuhnau, 633 Fiirnberg, Baron, 861 Fiirstenau, A. B., 967, 1228 Furstenau, K., 1228 Kiirstenau, M., 1228 i-'ux, Job.. Jos., sacred and operatic composer, <>57
;
G
Gabrieli, Andrea, poser, 492, 614 Gabrieli, Giovanni, Gade, Niels, 1034;
Galilei,
Venetian master and comcomposer and organist, 493 Danish composer, 1252 composer, lutist, mathe-
Vincenzo,
matician,
and
litterateur, 521
INDEX.
1321
Goetz, Herm., composer, 1221 Goetze, Franz, tenor, 1270 "Go, Idle Boy," Callcott, 1275 Goldmark, Karl, composer, 1220 Goldschmidt, A., pupil of Moritz Hauptmann, 1032 ; composer of the New German School, 1210 Gollinelli, S., piano composer, 1240 Goltermann, G., violoncellist, 1273
Guzmann, 1047
Gyrowetz, Adalbert, opera composer, 719
TTT
Gombert, Nikolas, early Church writer, 344, 360 Gomez, C., composer, 1266
Gordigiani, composer, 1240 Goss, Sir J., composer, 1291 Gossec, Fr. Jos., 1058 ; French opera composer, 1061 Gottfried von Strasburg, 245
Goudimel, Claude, Netherland writer, 34o ; founder of a School at Home, 373 his compositions, 374 Ch. F., sacred and opera composer, 1241 Gounod, <iouvy, Theod., composer, 1209 <iradener, Karl, composer, 1204 Grainmann, K., opera composer of the New
;
German
Habeneck, 1245 Hadlaub, 253 Hagen, F. H., critic, 1226 Hiihnel, E. J., 614 Halevy, J. F. E., French opera composer, 1058 his birth, 1075 operas discussed, 1097 Halle, Charles, German pianist, 1250, 1313 Swedish composer, 1254 Hallstrom, J., Hamboys, first receiver of the title of Doctor of Music, 563 Hammerschmidt, Andreas, composer, 635 Hamshere, English composer, 668 Handel, George Fr., 795; compared with Bach, 796 birth, 799 studies law, 800 fights a in England, duel, 801 ; first operas, 802 804 his income, 806 his English patrons, founded in Haymarket, 806; opera-house 807; his works 808, 809; Parliamentary opposition to him, 809 more works, 810 ;
;
; ;
School, 1210
Grassi-Bach, Mme., 793 Grassini, singer, 1135, 1310 Graun, Karl H., violinist, 707, 714 "Great God of Love," Pearsall, 1279 their scales, 132 ; their {ireeks, Music of, 118 instruments, 148 Greene, Maurice, composer, 921 Gregorian chant, 184 Gregory the Great, 183, 189, 415 Grell, Ed., composer, 1025, 1217 Gre'try, A. E. M., French opera composer, 1082 Greville, Rev. Richard, glee writer, 919 Grieg, Edward, Norwegian composer, 1253 Grig, Morgan, 681 Grille, organist, 546 Crimaldi (Nicolini), singer, 703 Grimm, F. M., 610 Grimm, Otto, composer, 1215 <irisi, Giuditta, singer, 1137 Grisi, Giulla, great singer, 1005, 1137, 1310 Gritti, Doge, 369 Grove, Sir G., writer, 1308 ( riitzmacher, Fr., violoncellist, 1273 Guadagni, 831 Guanimi, Giuseppe, organist, 546 Guarducci, Tomaso, tenor, 703 (iiiarnerius, William, 362 Guerre, Marin de la, 602 Guglielmi, Pietro, opera composer, 700 Guicciardi, Julia, 952 ( uidiccioni, Laura, a poetess, 523 Guido of Arezzo, attempts at harmony notation, said to have originated solfeggi, 209 author of several works on musical theory and practice, 213 Guignon, Jean Pierre (1741 A.n.), 266 Guildhall School of Music, 1310 Guilds, French, of the fourteenth century, 350 Guinneth, John, 681 <;iinipeltzhaiiner, Adam, German songwriter, Off Gumprecht, Otto, 1228 (Jura. Dr. K.. singer, 1270 Gurlilt, Corn., German composer, 1213
; ; i
;
analysis of his compositions, 810819 ; his relation to the oratorio considered, 814 his charities and temper, 821 ; Mozart scores four of Handel's oratorios, 820 Handlo, Robert de, an English writer on music,
;
fourteenth century, 561 Hanslick, Ed., critic, 1234 "
Norseman," Pearsall, 1279 " Hardy Heard Ye Not? " Goss, 1278 Hark,
;
"Hark, 'tis the Indian Drum," Bishop, 1277 Harmony, known to the Egyptians, 46 its growth, 278 in Wales, 398 known to the English, 552 advances under Rameau, 608
; ; ;
its
climax, 767
Harp, most important of Egyptian instruments, 49 Harper, J., 1310

Harpsichord, precursor of the piano, 585, 587 Harrach, Count, 881 Harriers- Wippern, L., 1207 Hartmann, Emil, Danish composer, 1253 Hartung, organist, 984 Hasler, Leo Hans, German Church composer, 616 Hasse, Faustina, 713 Hasse, Joliann Adolf, composer, 712 Hassler, Hans Leo, 460, 568, 1226, 1229 Hasur (Asor Nassor), Hebraic cithar, 70 Hatton, J. L., composer, 1278 Hauptmann, Moritz, historian, (!2(J, 1031 Hausmann, R., violoncellist, 1273 Hawes, Miss, 1312 Hawkins, Sir J., 1303 Haydn, Jos., 852 ; father of the modern orchestra, 853 ; he and Mozart, humour in music, the father of musical humour, 856 elevates vast works, chamber music, .v~>ii sonata form, 857; his younger contemporaries fOS story of called him "Father Haydn." his life, 858 ; service in Ksterha/y family, 861 ; marries, his works, 862 ; in London, 864 ; a consideration of his compositions, 867 ; raises the string ipiartett, S76 ; his his relations temper and character, 877 with Mozart, 878 his religion, 879 ; number of his compositions, 880
;
; :
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Huber, Hans, 1213 Huber, Joseph, composer, 1212, 1216 Hucbald, Ubaldus, 289, 395 Hullah, J., 1251, 1309, 1310 Hummel, Joh. Nep., pianist and composer, 1043 Humour in music, Haydn father of, 856 Humphrey (or rather Humfrey), composer, Hunt, T., composer, 685 Hunten, Franz, pianist, 1041, 1099 Hykaert (Ykaert), Bernhard, 362 Hymnology, Early Christian, 183
to Joseph, 717 Hayes, Dr. William, glee writer, 919, 923 son of Dr. William Hayes, 924 Hayes, Philip, Hay market opera-house founded, 807 Heath, English composer, 676 Heather, or Heyther, founder of Professorship at Oxford, 740 Hebenstreit, Pantaleon, 731 Heidegger, 808 Heidel, 821 Heimsoeth, theorist and historian, 1224 Heine, H., 1092 Heinefetter, Sabina, 990 Heinichen, J. D., 705 Heinrich of Meiszen, 248 Heinrich of Beldeke, 239 Helena, Empress, 180 Heliogabalus, 165 Hell, Th., 970 Hellborn, Dr. H. K. von, 1231 Helmholz, H., professor of acoustics, 1232 Heman, 72, 84 Henry VIII. of England, composer, 664 Henschel, George, singer, 1270 Hensel, Fanny, 1024 Henselt, Ad., composer, 1043 Herbeck, Joh., composer, 1215 Hercules, 835 Herold, L. J. F. French opera composer, 1093 ; Le Pre aux Clercs, 1095 Herz, Henry, 1041 ; pianist, 1099 Herzogenberg, Heinrich von, 1222 Hesse, A., a great organist and composer, 994, 1049 Hczekiah, Hatton, 1279 Hierotheus, Bishop of the Greek Church, 180 Hilarius (Hilary), Bishop of Poitiers, 180 Hiller, Adam, operetta composer, 1002 Killer, Ferd., 1034, 1039, 1204 Hiller, Johann Adam, 711, 716, 1201 Hilton, John, composer, 680 Hindoos, 7 ; their scales related to those of the ancient Greeks, 24 ; their number and names, 24 Hippeau, Edm., 1167 Hiuen, Chinese wind instrument, 15 Hiuen-kou, Chinese giant drum, 13 Hobrecht, Jacob, Netherland composer, 339 Hochberg, Count B., 1222 Hodges, 681 Hofer, 624 Hoffmann, H., pupil of Dehn, 1029 ; opera composer of the New German School, 1210 Hofhaimer, Paul, 433 Hollander, Chr. Jan, composer, 375 Holmes, J., composer, 684 Holstein, Franz von, pupil of M. Hauptmann,
Haydn, Michael, brother
909..
750-
Ignatius, St., 176 Imitation, when used, 285 " In exitu Israel," Wesley, 1289 Ingeborg, wife of Hans von Bronsart, pianist and composer, pupil of Liszt, 1212
Ingegneri,
M. A., 526
Inglott, 687
music, employment of it 111 churches, 494 Sullivan, 1302 lolanthc, Irish melodies, 915 German composer of theIsaak, Heinrich, fifteenth century, 433 38 Isis-Hathor, Islamites. 85 ; their instruments, 106 Isouard, Nic., French opera composer, 1086 Israelites, 58 ; possessed a knowledge of harmony, 75 ; characteristic tunes. 81 " I was glad," Attwood, 1289
Instrumental
Jacket, English writer, 681 Jackson, W., composer, 1275 Jacopone, early Italian composer, 204 Jacquet, Elis. Claude, 002 Jadasohn, Sal., pupil of M. Hauptmann, 1032 ? professor at Leipzig, 1206 Jadin, H., opera composer, 1101 Jadin, L. E., French comic opera composer,
1080, 1101 Jahn, Otto, biographer, 899, 1230 Jan, K. von, 1224 Jannequin, Clement, realistic composer, 358, 853 Jans, Christian, Netherland composer, 346 Japanese, 7 Jason, Mackenzie, 1302 Jeanrenaud, Cecilia, Mendelssohn's wife, 103 1 Jeduthun, 84 Jenkins, John, lutenist, 754 Jensen, Adolf, composer, 1203 Jerusalem, Pierson, 1294 Jesius, 815 Jews of fame as musicians Meyerbeer, Mendelssohn, Moscheles, H. Herz, Halevy, Ferdinand Hiller, J. Rosenhain, Schulhoff. Felicien David, Goldmark, and Anton Rubinstein, 995 Joachim, Amalie, singer, 12C8 Joachim, Jos., violinist and pupil of Moritz Hauptmann, 1032, 1034, 1270, 1313
:
1032, 1221 Humilius, G. A., 793 Hooper, 687 Hopifer, Bernhardt, composer, 1215 Hopkins, E. J., composer, 1298 Horn, C. E., composer, 1282 Horn, Golden, used by Hindoos, 32 Horsley, C. E., composer, 1295 Horsley, W., composer, 1276 Hothby, English writer, 563 Houpfeld, 875
INDEX.
Johannes von Salzburg, 430 John, theorist, 201 Johnson, Edward, (>S~ Jomelli, Nicolo, Neapolitan opera composer, 698
.lone*, Kobert, (J81
J,,*<),h,
Kramer, 848
K rates
V. Horsley, 1295
II.,
.^ph
205, 867 Macfarren, 1296 des Pres, Netherland composer and Josquin theorist, 340 ; his compositions, 342, 358 Jony, librettist, 10(53 Juan IV., of Portugal (King), patron of art and composer, wrote in orthodox manner, 579 Jubal, inventor of stringed and wind instruments, 00 Jullien, M., 1247
Jiixr/ilt,
Kade, Otto, historian, 1227 Kalkbrenner, Friedr. , pianist, 1105

Kalliiiatha, 2
1
(gee Crates), 152 Kratinos (Cratinus), 156 Joh. Ludwig, 794 Krebs, Krebs, Marie, ]>iauist, 1270 Kretscluner, Kdmund, composer, 1220 Kreutzer, Konradin, %9, 992 Kreutzer, Rod., 1006; violinist, 1100 Krischna, 22 Krug, Arnold, composer, New German School, 1213 Kr'uger, Ed., theorist and historian, 1224, 1225 Kiicken, Fr. W., song composer, 1050 Kufferath, J. H., 989 Kuhnau, Johann, 588, composer, and said to be the inventor of the sonata form in many parts, 632 Kullak, Theod., pupil of S. Dehn, 1029 Kurenberger, 239 Kurz, comic actor, 859 Kusse, Siegmund, opera-composer, 724
Kalliwoda, Wenzeslaus, composer, 100G, 1051 Kallwitz, Jakob, mathematician, chronologist, composer, and musical savant, 477 Kang-Hi, 9 Karasowsky, Moritz, biographer of Chopin, 1047 Karl August, Grand Duke of Weimar, 847 KastiuT. (J., musical savant, 1247 Kauer, Ferd., 980 Keiser, Reinhard, composer of 120 operas, 725 Kelei, Bela, 1266 Kemengeli, Islamitic stringed instrument, 95 Kent, James, Church writer, 924 Keol, J. K., organist and composer, 619
Kiel, Friedrich, pupil of S.
Labitzky, Jos., dance composer, 1051 Lablache, L., singer (bass), 1005, 1310 Laborde, B. de, historian and theorist, 1105 Lachner, Franz, composer, 881, 970, 980 Lachner, Ignaz, 979 Lachner, Vincenz, 979 Lacombe, L. B., 1105; composer, 1245 Lady of the Lake, Macfarren, 1296
J. F., 836 Lahoussaye, French violinist, 707 H. Cl., 1132 Lalande, Lalouette, 597 La Mara (Marie Lipsius), 1228 Lamia, celebrated flute-player, 156, 166 Landino, Francesco, 312 Landsberg, 1120 Lane, Sir Ed. William, Egyptian historian, 43 Lanner, J., dance composer, 1051 La Rote, instrument (see Rota), 196, 340
La Harpe,
Dehn, 1029, 1032,
1217 Kiesewetter, R. G., 41, 289, 825 Kilmansegge, Baron von, 804 Kin. an old Chinese stringed instrument, 8; used by Japanese, 18 Kindersley, Robert, 738 AY/i.'/ Arthur, J'urcell, 751 King, Chinese instrument, 13 ; also Nio-King, i:;. :w
Kin I tin-ill, Macfarren, 1296 " King Harry VIII. 's Pavyn," 665
1,1
Kinnor,
little triangular-shaped harp, 60 Kirby, Dr., 681 Kirchner, Tlieoil., composer, 1204 KirnlKTg.T, J. Ph., 617, 731 Kittel, J. Chr., <;.>.".
Kittl, Friedr., 12(12 Klein, Bernh., composer, 1048 Klrngri. Alex., 104't Klopstock, Fr. G., 1194
Klughardt, August, composer, 1215 Knorr, Jul., 1037 Kochel, Ludwig von, Chevalier, antiquary and musical historian, 1229 Kdnigslow, C., violinist, 1272 Konrad of Wiirzburg, 245 Korner, Theodore, 973 K">ter, Louise, 1267 Kostlin, H., 1224 Kdstlin, Carl, musical savant, 1235 Kozeluch, L., composer, 901
de, Netherland composer, 327, 330, 340 Lasos, arranged dithyrambic contests, 132 Lassen, Edward, opera composer of the New German School, 1211 Lassus, Ferdinand, 391 Lassus, Orlandus, the greatest of the Netherhis celebrated land tone-poets, 346-376 Penitential Psalms, 378 ; most prolific of all 382 composers, Lassus, Rudolf, 391, 619 Laube, H., 1180 Lauffensteiner, 624 Lauska, Meyerbeer's master, 9% Lauterbach, Job., violinist, 1272 Lawes, Henry, composer, 741 " Lay a Garland," Pearsall, 1279 Leclair, J. M., violinist, 1100 Ledebur, K., lexicographer, 1235 Le Fage, de, 511 Legrenzi, Giovanni, 536 Lehman, Lilli, singer, 1267 Leighton, Sir William, 738 Leiiora, Macfarren, 12%
;
La Rue, P.
1324
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Luzzoni, singer, 703 Lwoff, A., Russian composer, 1260 Lyre, used by Egyptians, 51
1261 Lenz, William von, musical litterateur, Leo Leonardo, prolific Neapolitan composer, 578 Leonard, H., 1110 Leoni, Leone, Venetian master, 494
Leonin (Magister Leoninus), early French composer and organist, 290 Leslie, H. D., 1298 Lesiieur, J. Franc., 1058 ; French opera composer, 1064 915 Leveridge, first English opera composer, Levi, Hermann, Wagnerian conductor, 1186 Liberati, Antonio, 515 Lichnowski, Prince, 953 Lind, Jenny, singer, 1004, 1311 Lindblad, F., 1254 Lindley, 1311 Lindpaintner, P. J., composer, 1006 Linley, G., composer, 1282 Linley, T., composer, 1275 Linley, T., Junr., composer, 1275 Linley, W., composer, 1275 Linos, 39 Lipinski, K. J. von, violinist, 993, 1272 Lipsius, Marie (La Mara), 1228 Lisley, J., composer, 685 Liszt, Franz, as a literary man, 1040 ; pianist and composer, 1086 SchuLiterary activity among great musicians mann, Karl Maria von Weber, Franz Liszt, Kichard Wagner, Berlioz, 1040 Lobe, J. C., theorist, 1232, 1233 Ix>bkowitz, Prince, 824, 953 Lobwasser, Ambrosius, 476 Locatelli, P., 552 Lock, Matthew, composer of chamber music, 755 Loder, E. J., composer, 1281 Logier, J. B., 1105 Logroscino, Nicolo, opera bouffe composer, 589 Lolli, Ant., opera writer, 540 Lolli of Bergamo, violinist, 707 Lombardim, Maddalena, violinist, 707 Lorenzo (il Magnifico), 434, 517 Lortziug, Alb., opera composer, 1001 Lossius, Lukas, German hymn composer, 476 Lotti, Antonio, 172 Louis XIV., 599 Lowe, Karl, song composer, 976 Lowe, Sophie, singer, 1004 Lucas, C., 1309 Lucca, Pauline, singer, 1004, 1267 Ludford, 681 Ludwig I. of Bavaria, 392 Ludwig II. of Bavaria, 851
:
M
Maas, J. singer, 1311 Mace, Thomas, lutenist, 755 Macfarren, Nathalie, now Lady Macfarren, 1248 Macfarren, Sir George, composer, 1248, 1296, 1309, 1310 Machaut, Guillaume de, poet and musician, 298, 590 Mackenzie, A. C., 1302 Macrobius, 166 Madrigal, invented by Willaert, 367, 682 Maflueroy, Clotilde, 1088 Maggini, G. P., 530 Magoudi, Hindoo guitar, 32 Mahu, Steph., 460 Maillart, Aim, composer, 1242 Maldeghem, Van, 1255 Malibran, Alex., 1104 Malibran, M., singer, 1005, 1104, 1310 Mallinger, Mathilde, singer, 1267 Malten, Theresa, singer, 1185 Mancina, Giambattista, tenor, 703 Manelli, Fr., 535 Maneros, 38 Manfredi, Italian violinist, 707 Mangold, K., 1222 Mannerism, 954 958 Mantius, Ed., singer, 1025, 1027 Mara (see Schmeling, Elis.j, 715, 716 Mara, singer, 1310 Marais, Marin, a dramatic composer, 601 Marbecke, John, 668 a celebrated comMarcello, Benedetto, 543 poser of Psalms, 545 Marchand, Louis, Court organist, 604 Marchart, 687 Marchesi, L., singer, 1135 Marchetti, Sil., 1239 Marchetto da Padova, early writer on theory (1307 A.D.), 219 Marenzio, Luca di, 524 Maria Antonia, 727 Maria, Giov., 515 Maria Theresa, Gluck's patroness, 834 Marie Antoinette, 846 Marini, Biagio, violin composer, 531 Mario, singer, 1310 Maritana, Balfe, 1281 Marius, 730 Marmontel, A. F., 836, 1105 Marpurg, F. W., piano maker, 731 Marschner, Heinr., composer of opera, 970, 1043 Marson, G., 684 Marsyas, celebrated flute player, 120 Martinez, Marianne von, 860 Martini, composer, 909
,
Lulli, Giov. Batt., or Lully, violinist
and com-
poser, 593
the French
his compositions, 596 ; father of opera, 002, 1057, 1059
Lin-line, Balfe, 1281
Luther, M., and the music of Protestant Church, 417 ; his skill as a polyphonic writer, 446 ; his power of detecting incorrect passages and offences against strict canonical part450 ; was a practical musician, writing, 453 ; a flautist and organist, 456 ; his original compositions, 458 ; letter addressed to his friend Senfel, 488 Luzzaschi, Farrarese. considered the greatest organist of his time, 546
philosopher, Giambattista, priest, mathematician, musical historian, contra706 puntist, Martini, P. A., French opera composer, 1079 Martini, Padre, 829, 904 Marx, Ad. B., theorist and historian, 1028, 1232
Martini,
INDEX.
1325
Maschera of Cremona, organist, noted for fugue imitations of the French canzone, 546 Mason, John, 671, 681 Masse Victor, French opera composer, 1244 Massenet, J., French opera composer, 1243
1 ,
Milder, singer, 1185
Milder-Hauptmann, P. A.,
Milleville, Alex., organist, Milleville, Franz, organist,
singer,
1025
546 546
;
Mastersingers, 248
Milton, J., composer, 685 Minnesingers (see Folk-music), 226
their music,
Materna, Amalie, singer, 1185 Mattel, 1124 Mattheson, Johann, composer, and friend of Handel, 801 Ma intuit, Jacques, French composer, 591 Maiirer, Ludw. Wilh., violin composer, 993 Mail Queen, Tlie, Bennett, 1285 Mayrhofer, 974 Miiyseder, Joseph, symphonist, 1006 Ma/./occhi, Gebr., 515 Medes, Music of, 56
238 Miriam, (!4 Mislivecek (Venturini), 709 Mitterwurzer, A., singer, 1185 Mizler, L. Oh., 663 Monday Popular Concerts, 1313
Monochord or trumscheit,
21 il
Mflnd. C. N., French opera composer, 1082, 1084 Mei, Girolamo, Italian writer and theorist, 522 Mfilainl, Jacob, German composer, 614 Meinardus, Ludwig, 1218
Melzi, 1'rince, 824
Mendel, Hermann, lexicographer, 1235 Mendelssohn, Felix, 1007 ; and Schumann comhis pianoforte compositions, pared, 1008 a failure as an opera composer, 1010 100!) decided classic, 1010 oratorios, 1011 is a
;
influenced by the great masters, 1014 his songs, 1017 ; his birth and early works, 1024 ; connected with the theorists, musical historian and antiquary S. Dehn, and Mar\, 1028 ; besides musical knowledge had a sound education, 1030 his tutors, 1030 iakru to Paris, his compositions, 1030 ;
; ;
meets Moscheles in London, 1031 Leip/ig and the Gewandhaus concerts, 1031; his St. Paul, 1034 Elijah and the Birmingham Festival, 1036 folk-song, 1043* Meheghini, Italian violinist, 707 Raphael, painter, 698 Menter, Sophie, pianist, 1270 Mercadante, S., opera composer, 1131 Merkel, Gustavo, organist and composer, 1210 Mt'isrime, Marie, theorist, 591, 604 Merulo, Claudio, famous organist, 495 Mestrini, N., of Milan, violinist, 707 Metastasio, operatic librettist, 860 Methfessel, A. G., 1050 Metrical ]>salmody, 688 Mi-ttenleiter, J. G., organist, collector, 1220 .Mi-tiernich, Prince, 1128 as a his birth, 994 Meyerbeer, Giac., 981 his compositions pianist, his operas, 9% analysed, 99S said to be connected witli the introduction of certain brass instruments, 1005, 1058 Middle Ages, The development of music in the,
; ; ;
,
Mpnsigny, P. A., Frencli comic opera composer. 1078 Monte, Pliilippus de, Netherland writer, 347. 392, 393 Monteclair, 602 Monteverde, Claudio, early opera writer, 525 originator of the modern orchestra, 527 Monticelli, 732 Morales, Chr., composer, 582 Moravie, Jerome de, old French theorist, 295 Morlacchi, Fr., composer, 1135 Morley, Thomas, composer, 680 Mornington, Lord, glee writer, 919 Morzin, Count, 861 Moscheles, Ign., 1031 pianist and composer, 1033. 1043 Moschus, 1-17 Moses, acquainted with music, 60 Mosevius, I. Th., 1048 Mosonnyi, Michael, composer, 1266 Moszkowski, M., 1263 Motet, 281 Moulu, Pierre, 343 Mountain Sylph, The, Barnett, 1281 Mouret, Joseph, 602 Mouton, Jean, composer, 343 Mozart, Constance (inie Weber), 903, 962 Mozart, Leopold, 875, 902 Mozart, Wolf., 882 the most universal of th'six great tone-poets, 884 see 885 887 the mirthful in music, 886 ; invents the conversational opera, 889 also the romantir opera, 890; the fairy opera, 892; his com 901 his birth, his filial positions, 894 marries under the devotion, 902 painful anxieties for daily bread, 904 Italian hatred, 904 early skill in invents the art-song, '.Hi* position, 908 on Beethoven, 909 ; his love for Haydn,
: ; ; ;
;
911.
Muffat, George, composer, 623
organ composer,
623
Muffat, Gottlieb, composer, 681 Muhamed ben Issa, 92 Midler, 973 Mi.ller-Hartung, 1273 Miiller, Ottfried, 1224 Miiller, Wenzel, fairy burlesque writer, 900 Munday, John, 687 Muris, Jean de, French theorist, 297 Musical drama, 516 ; birth of the music-drama. 830 Musical Union, 1312 Musiol, Robert, lexicographer, 1236 "Mynheer van Dunck," Bishop, 1277
168
Mii-ksch, J. A., 1036 Mk'ksch, Marie, singer, 704 Mifi-zvvynsky, tenor, 1270
Mihalovioh, B. . 1162 Mikado, The, Sullivan, 1302 Milano, Francesco da, composer, 497 Milanollo, Maria, violinist, 1103 Milanollo, Teresa, violinist, 1103
1326
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
N
Nablium, an ancient harp of Phoenician
origin,
Naldini, Sante, 512 Nanini, Bernardo, 373, 503 Nanini, Giov. Maria, fellow-pupil of Palestrina,
503, 512
Napoleon I., 1060 Naprawnik, Edward, composer, 1263

Nardini, Pietro, Italian violinist, 707 Nareda, god of Hindoo music, 20 Nares, James, Church writer, 924 Nationality in music, Gluck, 845, Haydn, 857 Naumann, Emil, pupil of Moritz
Jlfuyp
Oettingen, A., theorist, 1232 Offenbach, J., opera bouffe composer, 1244 Oh Who will o'er the Downs with Me ? " Pearsall, 1279 Okeghem J 325; real founder of the Nether land School, 327, 358 Oldfield, Thomas, 687 " Old Mayday," Macfarren, 1296 " grant the Kin S a lon S Life," Att wood,
!
?$
-L^0i7
Olympos,
J.,
127
Omar, Caliph, 105

Onslow, G., 1051 ; composer of French chamber music, 1102 Opera, early stage of, 368 ; its beginnin<- 516 the first, 524 called drama per musica' melodrama, 52o ; introduction of word re535 over a hundred petition, composed bv Alessandro Scarlatti, 572 origin of opera butfa, opera comic, 589 opera serin, 58!) 592 ; under Rameau, 606 ; first Schiiltz,
; ; ; ;
Hauptmann,
Naumann, Ernst, German violinist, 707, 1204 Naumann, Johann Gottlieb, composer, 718
Neefe, Chr. G., 934 Nefyr, Arabian trumpet, 110 Neithard, Heinr., 1035
Neri, Filippo, organist, 533, 546
Nero, 164 Neruda, Norman-,
of
violinist, 1104, 1272,
1313
Neswadba, Joseph, composer, 1263

Neszler, Viktor, opera composer, 1222
881 attempt at Christian notation, 182 624 Neusiedler, Newark, William, English composer, 668 New Romantic School, 1143 Newton, Dr., 681 Ngai-Tai, 9 Nichelmann, Chr., 875 Nicholson, .R., composer, 684 Nicode, L., 1213 Ni0 Ott ' rganist and P era composer, 1002
Neukomm,
Neumes,
S.,
first
Nicolini (see Grimaldi), 703 Niemann, Albert, great tenor, 1004, 1185 Nietzsche, Fr., 1186
1270
Night Dancers, The, Loder, 1281 Nikomachus, 156 Nilsson, Christine, singer, 1133 1269
Nisard, Th., 394 Nithart of Reuenthal, 245
697, 704 ; Gluck, 830 ; birth of the music-drama, 830 conversational ; opera invented by Mozart, 889; also romantic opera by Mozart, 890; Mozart fairy opera 892 ; first English the Grand opera, 915 Opera and Meyerbeer, 998 ; Berlin opera, 102o ; the Grand Opera, Paris, and the .trench comic romantic opera, 1056 1077 Oratorio, initiatory stages of, 515 ; Handel's relation to it, 814 ; Mendelssohn as the renovator, 1048 Orchestra, the modern, first steps towards formation of, 527 ; increased, 539, 582 ; improvement under Rameau, 606 arrangement of at Dresden, 729; Haydn, father of the modern orchestra, 853 ; Schumann a writer tor orchestra, 1018 Organ, growth and development of, 193 largest Anglo-Saxon times at Winchester, .398 ; Bach the greatest performer, 789 improvement in playing it, 546 of the Middle Ages, 548 ; destroyed in England, 747 Organistrum, 195
, , ; ;
'
Nohl, Ludwig, 1186 Norcome, D., composer, 684
Nordraak, Rikard, 1254
Norman, John, composer, 668
Norman Norman
music, 400
(or Nisard),
Notation, specimens of the
Theodore, theorist, 1256 Neume, 198 ; origin
earlj
Novello, Clara, soprano, 1312
Nottebohm, M. G., biographer, 1231 Houmt, Ad., great French tenor, 1076
(see Ars organandi), 207 Orgeny, Agl., singer, 1269 Orpheus, 118 Ortiz, Diego, composer, 582 Orwel, Robert, 681 " O Saviour of the World," Goss, 1292 Osiander, Lucas, 460, 470 Osiris, 37 Ossian, 1253 'Ossian's Hymn," 1298 O Taste and See,"Goss, 1292 Goss, Otto, Jul., 1217 Oulibicheff, Alexander von, musical litterateur,
' (
Organum
J-^bl
Ouseley
Sir F. A. G., historian
and composer,
O
Oakeley, Sir H. S., composer, 1299 Oboe, used by Chinese, 18
Oxford school of music founded by Alfred the

Great, 201
Oclande, 681
^ftSîrs,''
281;
.r
Pachelbel, Johann, organist and composer, 638

acini, LT.,
n^l
INDEX.
1:3:!
Padilla y Ramos, 12G9 Paer, Ferd., opera composer, 703, 1123 Paesiello (sir Puisiello)
Philidor, F. A. D., 1076 ; French comic opera writer, 1077 Philip, Sir Thomas, English composer, 66S
Philis,
Paganini, Nicolo, great violinist, 1139 ; selftaught, 1140 Pagin, French violinist, 707 Paisiello, Giovanni, comic opera composer, 700, 999, 1060, 1061, 1123 Paita, Giovanni, tenor, 703 his style, 505 founds a Palestrina, G. P., 503 school at Home, 506 ; his compositions, 507
; ;
Jeanne. 1090
Phillipps, \V. L., 1310 Phillips, Peter, 6*7
Phoenicians, Music of, 56 Phrygians and Lydians, Music of, Phrynis, 146 Pianoforte, its predecessors, 499
of,
.">('
Pallavicini, C., 536 Pallavicino, B., Venetian composer, 494
Pan, 127 Panseron, A., singing master, 1104 Papier, Rosa, singer, 1269 Parabosco, 371 Parbuti, 23 Parepa, singer, 1311 Paris, the first purely national school of music,
270
Part-writing, first attempts at,
204, 491
;
ela-
borated working of, 545 I'nxi-al Jir/iHO, Hatton, 1278 Pasdeloup, 1245 Pashe, 681 Pasi, Antonio, singer, 703 Pasquini, 15., 422 Pasta, Guiditta, 1133, 1137 Pastourelle, 233 Patience, Sullivan, 1302 Patihi, singer, 732 Patti, Adelina, singer, 1269 Patti, Carlotta, singer, 1269
Patti, Salvator, Italian tenor, father of Carlotta
and Adelina,
ll>t>9
!.'.'>.")
Paul, Osk., lexicographer, 1 Paumann, Conr., 433 Paxton, S., glee writer, 919 "Peace to the Souls of the Heroes," 1275
Pearsall, R. L., 1279
Pearson, Martin, ($87 Pedal bass, used by Chinese, 12 Pedrotti, C., composer, 1239
IVnhyn, W.,397 Pepusch, John Christopher, of German birth, 757 Pergin, Marianna, Gluck's wife, 827 Pergolesi, Giov. Matt., sacred and opera composer, <i97
Pepin, King, 193 Peri, Ach., 987 Peri, .Tacopo, writer of the
/:'
/>/</ /'</',
called
first opera, 524 ; his Tragedia per Musica, or
Tragicomedia, 525 Pericles, 143

Perotin, early French composer and organist, 291 Perrin, P., French opera composer, 595 Persiani, Fanny, singer, 1005, 1137, 1310 Persians, Music of, 56 Persons, 681 Persuis, Loiseau de, French opera composer, 1066 Peruzzi, singer, 703 Pes, or ground bass, 221 Pescetti, 543 Pevernage, Andreas, part-song writer, 348 Pfretzschner, 1035 Philharmonic Society, 1311 Philidor, 1061
; early history 583 ; invented by Cristofori, 587 ; invention of hammer mechanism, 731 ; Bach's 48 preludes and fugues, 786 Mendelssohn and Schumann, 1009 Piccini, Nicoli, opera composer, 699; "Piccinists,"836 Pien-tschung, Chinese bell instrument, 13 PiiTohon, see La Rue, P. de Pierson, H., composer, 1294 Pierson, Martin, composer, 744 Pietri, Giovanni, 687 Pilkinson, Francis, 738 Pi HII fore, Sullivan, 1302 Pindar, 140 Pinsuti, Ciro, composer, 1239 Pipe, Shepherd's, 260 Pirates of Penzance, Sullivan, 1302 Pisaroni, singer, 1310 Pisendel, George, 728 Pisistratos, 142 Pistocchi, Antonio, founder of a school of singing, 704 Pius IX., 1192 Plagal or oblique scales, 185 Planer, M. (Richard Wagner's first wife), 1181 Plato, 134 Plectrum, Greek instrument, 148 Pleyel, J. J., 881 Pleyel, M. F. D., pianist, 1105 Po-fou, Chinese small dnim, 15 Poglietti, Alessandro, 658 Pohl, K. F., biographer, 1231 Polchau, G., 1228 Polidoro, Fed., Italian composer, 1239 Polietti, or Poglietti, composer, 658 Polledro, G. B., violinist, 1141 Polymnestus, 134 Polyphony, its growth, from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, 2(59 as used by Jos,|iiiii des Pres, 328, 491 its climax, 767 Ponchietti, Am., Italian opera composer, 1236 Popeliniere, 605 married Sophie D., violoncellist, Popper, Menter, 1271 Nic., composer, 697 Porpara, Porta, Costanzo, 369 Potocka, Countess, 1047 1309 , composer, 1283, Potter, P. C. Pougin, Arthur, musical savant, 1247 Power, Leonel, 681 Praeger, Ferdinand, composer of the New (it-rman school, 1213 ; litterateur and critic, 1250
; ; ;
Praetorius, Hieronymus, 195, 628, Prastorius, Jakob (see Schultz, J.), 349 Praetorius, Michael, composer and historian, 639
"Praise the Lord, O my Soul," 1292 Pratinas, 143 Princess Ida, Sullivan, 1302 Proch, Heinrich, 1050
1328
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Eichafort, Jean, 343 Richards, H. B., composer, 1287, 1310 Richardson, Ferdinand, 687 Richter, G. F., theorist, 1234 Richter, Hans, Wagnerian conductor, 1186 Ricordi, publisher, Milan, 1135 Riedel, Hermann, song writer and conductor,
"Professor of Music," first used in England, 201 Programme music, 1052 ; the resuscitator of, 1168 Proske, K., collector, 122G Protestants adopt Catholic hymuology and Gregorian melodies, 428 Prudent, E., pianist, 1105 Psalter, Greek instrument, 148 Psaltery, Israelitic instrument, 75 Ptolemy, 126 Pugnani, G., of Turin, violinist, 707 Purcell, Henry, English composer, 751 Puschmann, 253 Pyggot, 681 Pythagoras, added an eighth string to the sevenstringed lyre of Terpander, 130, 139
1212
Riedel, Karl, composer of the School, 1212
New
Gen:.<iu
Riehl.W. H., theorist, 1234 Riemann, H., lexicographer, 1235

Ries, Ferdinand, 938, 1189 Ries, Frz., composer, 1216 Ries, Hubert, 939 Riese, singer, 1270 Riese, Dr. Karl, 1239 Rietsehel, G., 968 Rietz, Jul., violoncellist, 1034, 1206 Righini, Vincenzo, 703 Rimbault, E. F., writer, 673, 1308
Q
Quanz, Joh. Joach., flautist, 662, 728 "Queen of the Valley," Callcott, 1275 Quinault, Phil., 596
Rinck, J. Ch. H., 1049

Rinuccini, Ottavio, poet, 521 Risby, 681 Ritschl, Fr. W., 1231
Ritter, A. G., 1049 Robert, King of France, writer and singer of sequences, 203 Roger, Hippolyte, 1090 Rochlitz, Fr., 660, 964 Rococo in music, 408 Rode, Pierre, violinist, 1101 Roeckel, Friiulein, the lady to whom Beethoven made an offer which was declined, she being engaged to Hummel, whom she married, 952 Roger, G. H., tenor, 1005, 1090 Roi, Jean de (see Regis), 356 Roland, Lattre (see Lassus, Orl. ), 346 Roland's horn, 259 Romani, Felice, 1132 Romanina, singer, 703 Romans, music of 158; their instruments, 159 Romberg, Andreas, violinist and composer, 993 Romberg, Bernhardt, violoncellist and composer. 993 Rondo (Rondeau), 282 Roquette, O., librettist, 1188 Rore, Cyprian van, Netherland writer, 345, 369 Rosenpliit, 253 Rose of Castile, The, Balfe, 1280 Rose of Sharon, Mackenzie, 1302 Rosetti (see Rosier, Franz), 536 Rosier, Franz, 709 Rossini, G., 1041 opera composer, 1058 ; Guillaume Tell, 1072 compared with Cherubim and Spontini, 1122 ; his birth, 1123 ; his operas, 1124 ; his humour, 1125 ; his inappropriate tone painting, 1127 ; in London, 1128 ; his disgust of the world, 1130 Rota, favoured instrument of English minstrels, French Trouveres, German Minne- and Meister-singers, 196 Rouget de 1'Isle, 1061 Roundelays, 233 Rousseau, J. J., 836 Royal Academy of Music, 1309 Royal College of Music, 1310 Roze, Maria, singer, 1311
, ;
R
famous German tenor, 715 Rabanus, Maurus, 202 Radecke, Robert, composer, 1209 Radziwill, Prince, 1046 Raff, Joachim, composer, New German School, 1214 Raimondi, P., composer, 1135 Raising of Lazarus, Barnett, 1300 Rameau, Jean Philippe, great French opera composer, 602, 1057, 1059 Ramos, Padilla y, Spanish singer, 1270 Rappoldi, Ed., violinist, 1272 Rehab, Islamitic stringed instrument, 95 Rebekah, Barnby, 1302 Rebel (see Organistrum), 195 Reber, H. Napoleon, composer, 1245 Rebling, Gustave, 1049 Redford, 681 Regis, Joh. (Jean), 356 Reicha, Anton, French comic opera composer. 1086 Reichardt, J. Fr. song composer, 909 Reicher-Kindermann, singer, 1185 Reinecke, Karl, composer, 1205 Reinken, Joh. Ad., organist, 349, 629 Reinmar, Hagenau, 245, 482 Reinmar of Zweter, the Minnesinger, 246 Reinthaler, K., composer, 1208 Reise, Carl, librettist, 1239 Reissiger, J. G., composer, 1006, 1048 Reiszmann, A., historian and composer, 1224,
Raaff, Anton,
,
;'
1234
Rellstab, Ludwig, critic, 1118 Jteturrecticn and Ascension, The, Elvey, 1298 Resurrection, The, Macfarren, 1296
"Return, Blest Days," Smith, 1276 Rezio, Mile., singer, 1167
Rhau, George, 460 Rheinberger, Joseph, 1219 Ribecchino, instrument of the violin kind, 523 Ricci, F. opera composer, 1136 Ricci, L. opera composer, 1136
, ,
INDEX.
1329
Rubebe, stringed instrument of the Trouveres, 258 Rubelle (see Organistrum), 195 Rubinelli, singer, 1135 Rubini, G. B., tenor, 1005, 1137, 1310 Rubinstein, Anton, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029 ; great pianist and composer, 1259 Rudolph, Archduke, 614, 936 Rudortf, Ernst, 1209 Rufsr, Ph. B., 1213 Rungenhagen, C. Fr., 1025 Ruplf (see Ruppich), 455 Ruppich, 455 Rust, W., biographer, 1230 Ruziezka, organist, teacher of Schubert, 971
S
Sabillon, Robert de, distinguished dechanteur,
292
Sablieres, de (Sieur), 595
Sacchini, Gasparo, opera composer, 700, 851 Sachs, Hans, 250

Sacrati, 536
Sacred Harmonic Society, 1312 Sagittarius (see Schiitz, H.), 049 ,S<. John the Baptist, Macfarren, 1290 Suinton-Dolby, 1309 Sainton, P., 1312 Saint-Saens, O., 1084, 1245 ; pianist, organist, and composer, 1245 Sala, Nic., 1114 Saldoni, B., Spanish writer, 1264 Salieri, A., 909, 991 Sulo (nee Gasparo), 530 Salomon, Joh., violinist, 864, 868 Samise, Jajwnese lute, 18 Sammartini, G. B., of Milan, great violinist, 707 Sand, George, 104(5 ; she and Chopin, 1047 Santa, Stella, singer and wife of Lotti, 543 Santley, baritone, 1312 Sappho, 127, 130 Sarasate, P. de, violinist and composer, 1264 Saratelli, Giuseppe, 543 Sarti, Giuseppe, 589 ; opera composer, 702, 909 Satanclla, Balfe, 1280 Sax, Adolphe, 1005 Saxon music, 398 Scandellus, Antonius, German hymn composer, 476, 815 Scaria, Emil, singer, 1185 Scarlatti, Alessandro, prolific Neapolitan com571 ; father of Italian operatic poser, writers, 574 ; his compositions, 576 Scarlatti, Domenico, 768, 803, 874 Schiiffer, Julius, composer, 1216 Schah, Iwan, Hindoo musician, 30 Schaller, 973 Scharwenka, Phil., composer, 1216 Scharwenka, Xaver, pianist and composer, 1216 Schaul, Baptist, composer, 707 Scheibe, J. A., 725, 875 Scheible, Nepom., 1049 Scheidemann, Heinrich, organist, 349, 627, 650 Scheidler, 024 Scheidler, Dorette, 989 Scheidt, Samuel, organist, 349, 627, 650 Schein, Joh. Herm., composer, 635
Schenk, J., opera writer, 909 Schernberk, Theod., 423 Schicht, J. G., composer, 720 Schikaneder, E. J., 894 Schild, Melchior, organist, 349 Schindler, Ant., 624, 951 Schletterer, H. M., historian, 1227 Schlottmann, Louis, composer, 1216 Schmeling, Elisabeth, known as Mara, 715 Schmid, Anton, biographer, 1232 Schmidt, Gustave, composer, 1006 Schmitt, Aloys, 1204 Schneider, Fr., 1048 Schneider, Joh., organist, 1220 Schnorr, Carolsfeld von, singer, 1185 Schofar, sacred Temple horn, 61 Scholtz, Hermann, composer, 1043 Scholz, Bernh., pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1221 Sohroeder-Devrient, Wilhelmine, singer, 1185 Schrb'ter, Christopher Gottlieb, piano maker, 731 Schroter, Corona, 731 Schubert, Frz., 958 birth and early works, 971; his songs, 973 ; his operas, 973 ; his geniality, 974 ; his songs analysed, 976, 1043 Schuch-Proska, Clementine, singer, 1269 Schulhoff, Jules, pianist and composer, 1043, 1047 Schultz, Jakob, organist, 349, 628 Schulz, J. A. P., song composer, 969
;
Schumann, Clara, Schumann's wife, great pianist (gee Wieck, Clara), 1013, 1313 Schumann, Robert, 1007 a failure as an opera
;
composer, 1010 ; his style, 1011 ; his appreciation of Mendelssohn, 1013 ; his songs, 1017 ; as a writer, 1018 ; his birth and early foundation of his musical paper, life, 1036 Neue Zeitschrift fiir Afusik, 1037 his criticism, 1037 ; marries, his compositions, classic 1038 ; his praise of women, 1040 a in the New Romantic School, his musical paper, 1041 ; his opinion of Chopin, 1042, 1043 Schunke, L. 1037 Schuster, Joseph, composer, 719 Schiitz, Heinrich, first German composer of opera, 649 ; his compositions, 653, 815 Schwartzendorff (see Martini), 1079 Scottish airs, 915 Scribe, librettist, 1095 Sebastian of Weimar, 815 " See the Chariot," Horsley, 1276 Seguin, A., singer, 1309 Seguin, Mrs., singer, 1309 Seidler, Karol, singer, 1025 Selby, 681 Selnecker, Nikolaus, 4 Sembrich, Marcella, singer, 1268 Semper, G., 1182 Senesino (see Bernardi), 703 German composer of the Senfel, Ludwig, Reformation, 438, 488 Senkrah, A., 1273 Serinda, Hindoo instrument, 32 Servais, Francois, Belgian violoncellist and composer, 1255 Servantes, songs of the Middle Ages, 233 Setzkorn, 624 Seyffert, Paul, organist, 349
; ; ; ,
.
G G G G
133U
HISTORY OF MUSICV
Sforza, Galeazzo, Duke of Milan, 357 Sgambati, G., composer, pupil of Liszt, 1240 Shaw, Mrs., singer, 1309 Sheppard, John, English composer, 6G8, 674 Sheryngham, English composer, 668 Shield, W., composer, 1275 Siao, Chinese pan-pipes, 15 Sieber, F., 12K9 Sie(/e of Rochdle, Balfe, 1280 "Sigh no More, Ladies," Stevens, 1276 Sigismondi, G., 1114 Silbermann, Gottfr., piano and organ builder, 729 Silcher, Fred., song writer, 1050 Sims Reeves, tenor, 1312 Sistrum (Kemkem or Isis clapper), Egyptian instrument, 52 "Sleep, gentle Lady," Bishop, 1277 Smart, H., composer, 1286 Smart, Sir George, 968, 1286 Smetana, Fr., composer, 1263 Smith, J. Chr., 820 Smith, J. S., 1276 Smithson, Henrietta, 1166 Solfeggi (Solfaing), its invention, 209 Sonata da Camera and Sonata da Chiesa, development of, 533, 588 ; form of, 588 ; improved by Biber, 623 ; form in many parts, 632 ; two thousand composed by Sammarelevated by Haydn, 857 ; growth tini, 707 of the form under Haydn, 874 Beethoven and sonata form, 931, 945 Song-dances, composed by Meiland, 615 ; artsong invented by Mozart, 908 ; old English songs, 557, 913 Son tag, Henriette, singer, 1025 Sophie Charlotte, 800 Sophocles, 113 Sorcerer, Sullivan, 1302 Sourdeac, Marquis de, 595 Spangler, 859 Speier, Wilh., 1051 Spervogel, 239 Spiesz, Herminee, singer, 1269 Spinetto, forerunner of the pianoforte, 499 Spitta, Ph.-> 1230 Spotforth, R., glee writer, 919 Spohr, L., 981 ; compared with Meyerbeer, 982 ; romantic opera composer, his birth, 983 ; his violin-playing, 984 ; marries, 989 ; in London, 989 ; his compositions considered, 990 ; programme music, 991 Spontini, G. L. P., 1058, 1059 ; opera composer, 1062, 1067 ; realist, 1114 ; as a conductor, 1116 Staden, Joh. Gottlieb, composer, 722 Stadler, Fr. Ant., 875 Stainer, Gebr., 329, 476 Stainer, J., 1301 Stamatz, 1105 Stamitz, K., 728, 857 Stanford, C., 1303 Steffani, Agostino, 815 Stephani, 479 Stephens, C. E., composer, 1298 Stevens, E., composer, 1276 Stevenson, Sir J. A., composer, 1282 Stewart, Sir R. P., composer, 1299
; ;
Stockel, Clara, 990 Stockhausen, Julius, singer, 1270 Stollberg, 973 Stb'lzel, inventor of the veiitil horn, 1006 Stone, English composer, 676 Storace, S., 1275 Strada, Anna Maria, singer, 703 Stradella, Allessandro, Neapolitan composer,
571
Stradivari, Ant., 530 Straeten, Edmund van
der,
musical savant.
1257
Straube, 624 Strauss, J., 1051 Strausz, Richard, 1222 Strogers, Nicholas, 687 Strozzi, Pietro, poet and composer, 521, 592 Stuton, 681
Style,
954958
Suard, 836 Suite, constituent parts, Cll Sullivan, A. S., English composer, 1250,1301, 1310 " Sumer is icumen in," 221 Suszmayr, Frz. H., 909 Svendsen, Johann, Norwegian composer, 1253 Swelinck, Jan Pieters, Protestant Netherland writer and organist, 348, 687 Swert, J. de, Belgian violoncellist, 1255 Swieten, G. van, 935 Sybilla, Duchess of Wurtemburg, 622 Syfert, Paul, 628 Sylvester II. (Pope), 180, 204 Symphonic (see Organistrum), 195 Sympson, C., composer, 755
Table music in Germany, 267 Tadblini, opera composer, 1131 Tiiglichsbeck, Thomas, composer, 1006 Talisman, The, Balfe, 1280 Tallis, English composer, 676 Tambourine, 109 Ta'mburini, Ant., 1005; singer, 1137, 1310 Tamtam, Chinese gong, 14 ; used by the Hindoos,
B3I
Tannhduser, 1172 Tapherumnes, 40 Tapissier, 298, 314 Tare, Hindoo trombone, 32 Tartini, Giuseppe, violinist and composer, 706 Taubert, W., 1052 pianist and composer, 1206 Taverner, John, 668, 681 Tcheidt, organist, 349 Tchoung-fou, Chinese time-beating instrument,
;
Telemann, G. Phi], composer, 712
Tenaglia, inventor of Da capo, 575 Tenor, origin of term, 215 Tenzone, quarrelsome or contentious songs, 233
Teophrastus, 151 Terpander, 127, 138 Terpsichore, 120 Terradellas, D., 698 Teschner, 704
Tesi, Vittoria, singer, 703
Testwood, 681
Thais, 155
INDEX
Thalberg, S., pianist, 1190 Thaletas, 129 Thamyris, 122 Thayer, A. W., biographer, 1251
1331
"The Cloud-capped Towers," Stevens, 1276 Theinred, Aeldred, English writer, 562 "There is Beauty on the Mountain," Goss, 1278 Thespis, 143 Thibaut, A. Fr. J., 234
Thibaut of Champagne, a troubadour, 233 Thomas, Ambroise, 1105; French opera composer, 1243 Thomas, J., harpist, 1309 Thome, 681 Thorough bass, Invention of, 533
Thuret, " Thyrsis, when he left me," Callcott, 1275 Tichatschek, Joseph, great tenor, 1004, 1185 Tieffenbrucker, Kaspar, violin maker, 529 Tietjens, singer, 1311 Tilesius, Hieron., 423 Timaeus, 152 Timotheus, 147, 156 Tine tor, Johann, celebrated Netherland theorist, 340 his compositions, 3(31 Tisdall, W., 687 Tisias, to him is ascribed the division of the chorus into three parts, called strophe, antistrophe, and epode, 131 Todi, L., singer, 703 Tomaczek, J. W., composer, 1262
;
Ulrich, Hugo, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1215 Ulrich von Lichtenstein, 245 Unger, Karol, 939 Ungle, 681 Urban, H., 1213
V
Vaccai, N., composer, 1135 Vaet, Jacob, composer, 375 Valentini, G., 1054 Vaqueras, 361 Vecchi, Orazio, 1226 Venice, Tone school established Venturini (see Mislivecek), 709
at,
363
(iOo
Veracini, Francesco, r>r>2, 98") Verdi, Giuseppe, Italian opera composer, 1236 Verdelot, Ph., Netherland writer, 370 Verdonck, Cornelius, part-song writer, 348
Verhulst, Jean, Dutch composer, 12.15 Viadana, Lodovico, first master to employ figured bass in Church music, 534 Viardot-Garcia, Pauline, 1104 Vidal, A., 1247 Vielle, favourite instrument of the Trouveres.
254
Vierling, George, composer, 1219
Vieuxtemps, Henri, Belgian comiwser, celebrated

violinist,
125o
Villoteau, G., historian, valuable work on the music of the Oriental nations, 1105
Tumkins, Thomas, 687, 742 Torelli, Giuseppe, violin composer, 532, 592 " To see his Face," Bishop, 1277 Tosi, Francesco, tenor, 703 Tourette, Cecile, 1110 Traetta, Tommasso, opera composer, 700 Travers, John, composer of sacred music. 923
Trebelli, 1311
Trial by Jury, 1302 Trigon, Greek lyre, 148 Trinity College, 1310
Tritto, 1114 Troubadours (see Folk -music), 226 Trulm, Hieronymus, pupil of S. Delm, 1029 Tschaikowsky, P., Russian composer, 1260 Tsche, Chinese flute, 15 Tscheng, Chinese and Japanese instrument,
Tschirch, \Vilh., 1213, 1217 Tua, Teresa, 1273 Tuclway, T., 750 Tunstede, Simon, English writer, 561 Tuotilo, renowned monk, 202 Turges, Edmund, English composer, 668 Turner, W., 7.M) Tuscan School, 516 Tutor, English composer, 668 Tye, Dr. English composer, 668
,
Tyrtaeus, 127
Vina, Hindoo instrument, 19 ; description of, 31 Vincent, Alex., French composer, 1247 Vinci, Leonardo da, opera composer, 698 Viola, Delia, 369 Violin, first instruments of the kind, 256 ; improvements in, 528 Violino, Viola d'amore, Viola da braccia, Viola da gamba, 528 Violoncello, 540 Viotti, G. B., violinist, 1100, 1139 Virdung, Sebastian, 58<i Virginal, precursor of the piano, 584 Visconti, Catarina, singer, 703 Vitali, Antonio, violin composer, inventor of tne variation form, 532 Vitali, Battista, violin composer, 532, 552 Vitruvius, 193 Vi try, Philippe de, 296 Vittoria, T. L. da, Neapolitan composer, 581 Vivaldi, Antonio, a great violinist, composer, and writer of operas, 545 Vivier, horn player, 1104 Vogel, Heinrich, singer, 1185, 1270 Vogel, Therese, singer, 1185 Vogler, AbbcS, %3 Vogt, Jean, composer, 1216 Volkmann, Robert, composer, 1200 Voltaire, 846 Vulpius, cantor at Weimar, 619
U
Ubaldus (Hucbald, or Hugbald, 840930 A.D.), Benedictine monk and founder of an harmonic theory, 206 Ugab, a flute, 60
W
Wagele, Antoine, 709 Wagenseit, G. Ch., 875
Wagner, Albert, 1181

"Wagner, Cosima, 1184 Wagner, David, 1235
1332
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Wieniawski, H., violinist, 1271 Wieprecht, W. F., instrument maker, 1005 Wilbye, J., 685 Wilderness, The, Goss, 1292 Wilhelm of Poitiers (10871127 A.D.), a famous troubadour, 232 Wilhelmj, A., great violinist, 1034, 1270 Wilkinson, 681 Willaert, Adr., Netherland writer, 345, 363, and compositions for two choirs, 364; his advances in harmony, 365; the alternating chant first used in the service of the Psalms, 365 his compositions for twelve and fifteen voices, the inventor of the madrigal, 367 Wilt, Max, 1267 Winter, Peter von, opera composer, 719 Winterfeld, Karl von, historian, 1226 Wise, M., 750 Wittgenstein, Countess Karoline, 1191 Witzlav, Prince, 242, 243 Wolfram von Eschenbach, 174, 245 Wolzogen, Hans von, 1186 Woman of Samaria, The, Bennett, 1285 Wuerst, Rich., 1035 ; composer, 1207 Wiillner, Franz, 1217
;
niece of Richard, "\Vagner, Johanna, great singer,
Wagner? Eichard, a
the
Tannand the Flying Dutchman, 1171 hanser and Lohengrin, 1172 the Meisterdes Nibelsinyer, Tristan und Isolde, Ring 1173 ungen, his musical dramas analysed, his art criticism upon Wagner, 1176
;
;
New Romantic
and poet, 1040, 1084, 1163 ; School, 1171 ; his Rienzi
theories argued, 1177; his great literary his birth, his love for Weber, ; 1179 ; his early studies, 1180 ; marries, 1181 ; order of his compositions, 1182 1280 Wallace, W. V., English composer, 1249, Walmisley, T. A., 1292 Walmisley, T. F., 1292
activity, 1178
Walter, G., singer, 1270 Walter, instrument maker, G50 Walther, Job., composer and friend of Luther, 472 ; harmonises sacred melodies, 473 Walther, J. Ch., 875 Walther von Vogelweide, 245 Warrock, Thomas, 687 Wasielewski, J., 1035 Webbe, Samuel, glee writer, 919 Weber, Aloysia, 1269 Weber, Karl Maria von, 958 ; birth, early comFreipositions, 963 ; as a conductor, Der xchiitz, 965 he and Beethoven, 966 ; studies in London, 967 ; a romantic comEnglish his poser, 968 ; his instrumentation, 968 ; songs, 969 ; his influence on modern music, 970 ; a renowned critic, 1040 Weber, Max von, 1232 Weelkes, T., composer, 685 Weigl, Joseph, composer, 720 Weinlig, Christian Theod., master of 'Richard Wagner, 720 Weiss, S. L., 624 Weissensee, prolific composer, 618 Weitzmann, K. Frederick, 1186 Weldon, John, Church music composer, 757 Welsh harp, 367 Welsh music, 396, 914 Wesley, S., composer, 1289 Wesley, S. S., composer, 1293 Westphal, Rud., 1224, 1225 "When the Wind Blows," Bishop, 1277 " " Where art thou, Beam of Light ? 1277 " While Fools their Time," Smith, 1276 Whitbroke, English composer, 676 White, 681 " Who " shall win my Lady Fair ? Pearsall, 1279 Wieck Clara (see Schumann), pianist, 1036 Wieck, Fred., 1036 Wieck, Marie, pianist, 1036
;
X
Xenokrates, 155
Ya-ku, Chinese small drum, 14 " Ye Spotted Snakes," Stevens, 1276 Ykaert (see Hykaert, B.), 362 Yo, Chinese clarionet, 15 Yuen-lo, Chinese instrument, 13
Zachau, F. W., 821 Zachino, 609 Zarlino, G., 349 Zeelandia, H. de, harmonist of the Gallo-Belgic School, 306 Zelenka, Joh. Dism., composer, 658 Zelter, Fred., 1031 Ziani, P. A., 536 Zimmermann, J. G., pianist, 1104 Zingarelli, A., 1000, 1135 Zollner, K., 1217 " '' Zopf in music, 690 Zumbusch, 953 Zumsteeg, J. R., discoverer of the ballad form of the Schubert kind, 976
THE END.
PRINTED BY CASSKLL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, B.C.
BINDING SECT. SEP
1 91966
ML 160 N 2963 1886 v.5

Music
Naumann, Emil The history of music

I
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
EDWARD JOHNSON
MUSIC LIBRARY

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Professor of Music in the University of Oxford.

Merits of portraits rcproaurcfc in |)Ijoto0rftintrc, an& Numerous illustrations.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN

INFLUENCE OF THE GERMAN GENIUS EPOCH ON ITALY AND

OPEKA OP PARIS AND THE FUENCH COMIC ROMANTIC

CHERUBIM, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL

XXXIX. THE PRESENT

MODERN ENGLISH Music

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS IN VOL. V.

SIGNOR PIATTI MDME. NORMAI^-NERODA SIGNOR BOTTESINI

283. G. L. P. Spontini, Portrait of 284. Gioachino Rossini, Portrait of

276. E. N. Me'hul, Portrait of 277. F. A. Boieldieu, Portrait of

1047 1063 1066 1069 1085 1085

295. Sarasate, Portrait of 296. Pauline Lucca, Portrait of 297. 298.

and Maria Milanollo

281. Malibran Garcia, Portrait of

1087 1091 -.. 1093 1102 .. 1103

Joseph Joachim, Portrait of Wilhelmj, Portrait of

FELIX MENDELbSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.

Meyerbeer, closes with Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann.

Wagner, though belonging

exceptional position in the history of music, be treated of in a succeeding

exhibit that naivete to be found in the works of

the great tone-poets

no place in their works, which

which characterise the national mind.

feature distinguishing Spohr

was unable to portray so

lacking that specifically

Spohr, have gained a far wider popularity.

The national character appears

the same period, since they possess

many of their predecessors many mental qualities

their points of difference are such that each supplies

over the dramatic style

most closely with the innermost

composition the works* of his predecessors.

but by their excellence.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.

orchestral accompaniment, since the

Whilst Schubert and Spohr " of Sound

to stand on a level with Mendelssohn and

being established by his three string quartetts, Op. 41, his

skilfully finished, cannot be

regards inventive power and passion.

chumann and Mendelssohn

are entitled to take the lead as composers

of classical pianoforte music since Beethoven.

ten years of his career as a composer (1829

results are his

and " Kreisleriana."

Mendelssohn's pianoforte compositions

are glimpses of an artistic imagination, which never reveal the sentiment

innermost soul, and

music to the Midsummer Night's Dream and Antigone has retained

the result of their

school and college training but

of general culture since