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superfuel
Copyright © Richard Martin, 2012.
All rights reserved.

First published in 2012 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a

Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this
is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered
in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire
RG21 6XS.

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ISBN 978-0-230-11647-4

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Martin, Richard, 1958–

A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library.

Design by Letra Libre, Inc.

First edition: May 2012

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America.

Introduction 1
1 The Lost Book of Thorium Power 9
2 The Thunder Element 33
3 The Only Safe Reactor 55
4 Rickover and Weinberg 81
5 The Birth of Nuclear Power 101
6 The End of Nuclear Power 121
7 The Asian Nuclear Power Race 143
8 Nuclear’s Next Generation 167
9 The Business Crusade 193
10 What We Must Do 215

Acknowledgments 241
Notes 243
Index 257
 Introduction

O
ne day in June 2009, I hiked along the Clinch River in northern
Tennessee to what was once supposed to be the site of the most ad-
vanced nuclear power plant in the world. With my companions—John
Kutsch, the owner of an engineering design firm in Chicago; Bruce Patton, a
scientist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory 30 miles or so up the road; and
Kirk Sorensen, an engineer at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville,
Alabama—I clambered over a dilapidated chain-link fence and walked down
the dirt road that followed the meandering river. It was the first really steamy
day of summer. The woods were loud with crickets and desultory birdsong,
and a double-crested cormorant launched itself off the surface of the sluggish
river. We were trespassing on federal property, but it seemed unlikely that
anyone would care. We passed the foundation of an old guard shack cov-
ered in foliage. It was like the setting for a postapocalyptic movie, except we
weren’t being pursued by zombies.
After a mile or so we came to a wide clearing on the inner curve of a
horseshoe bend in the river. Obviously manmade, it was empty save for grass
and gravel and a few arborvitae trees. Nothing stirred.
“Eight billion dollars,” said Sorensen. “That’s what you’re looking at.”
What we were looking at was the abandoned site of the Clinch River
Breeder Reactor. Planned in the 1960s, Clinch River was originally conceived
as the prototype of a new class of futuristic nuclear reactors that would cre-
ate more fuel than they consumed. The project officially began in 1970 and
finally was abandoned in 1983, after innumerable studies, reports, and rheto-
ric, plus the eight billion dollars that Sorensen mentioned. Once advertised as
2 SuperFuel
the future of power generation in the United States, Clinch River is now syn-
onymous with technological hubris and the failed promise of atomic power.
We were standing in the graveyard of the U.S. nuclear power industry.
As we ambled back toward our cars, Sorensen—who at that time was
studying for a master’s degree in nuclear engineering at the University of
Tennessee—talked about the folly of U.S. nuclear policy and about the little-
known element that could transform it.
“Thorium was the alternate path,” he said. “It’s a safer, more abundant
fuel that could’ve revolutionized nuclear power. The problem is, it has almost
nothing in common with what we’re doing now.”
I was on assignment for Wired magazine, and that trip, which encom-
passed a round of interviews at Oak Ridge and a driving tour of the Tennessee
Valley Authority’s extensive power-generation facilities, including the massive
Watts Bar Nuclear Generating Station 25 miles or so to the south, was my
introduction to the thorium power movement. This book is the outcome of
the journey that started on that hot summer day in Tennessee.
I’ve written for Wired for ten years, and I’ve often joked that every story
in the magazine has to use the word revolutionary. Thorium power actually
seemed to justify that label. The more I learned about the lost history of tho-
rium—especially the successful creation of a thorium-powered reactor at Oak
Ridge in the 1960s and the career of the Oak Ridge director Alvin Weinberg,
who championed safe thorium reactors and lost his job for it—the more
astonished and outraged I became. Here was an inexpensive, safe, abundant
energy source that could power every city on Earth, with enough left over for
hundreds of millions of electric vehicles, for several millennia. And we were
sitting on it, essentially doing nothing. It was insane. And the small band of
technologists I was traveling with that day seemed like the only ones who
were actually trying to bring the technology back to life, with zero encour-
agement from the government and plenty of disdain from the nuclear power
industry.

TH90 • TH90 • TH90

In a way this book was born not when I first saw a mention of thorium power
online (in a guest post written by Charles Barton Jr., on the website The Oil
Drum) but decades before, when I was in high school, backpacking in the
 Introduction 3
Ozark Mountains of northwest Arkansas. I grew up in Little Rock, and my
friends and I spent many, many weekends trekking through the Ozarks and
camping in the thick forests that cover the deep gorges formed by the Buffalo
River and its watershed.
For several years we went out every January 1 for a New Year’s backpack-
ing trip. The Ozarks are spectacular in the winter. Daytime temperatures
fall into the teens, the creeks are frozen over so the hiking is easy (but not so
solid that water’s unavailable), and sunlight glitters through the bare elms,
oaks, and walnuts. The solitude and stillness are absolute. Downed wood is
plentiful in the Ozarks, and at night we built bonfires. Sitting around the
fire, surrounded by the dark and frozen wilderness, forces on you a powerful
impression of the energy that sustains our fragile lives. Backpacking requires
you to carry with you all the fuel to sustain you for the length of the trek—
for your camp stove, for your body, for igniting the energy stored in all that
downed wood. Much time in the woods is spent calculating energy: How
much should I eat now? How much wood do we need to gather? How much
clothing should I wear to stay warm without sweating too much? How am
I going to light my camp stove if my matches get damp? Will my flashlight
batteries last?
I’m an early riser in the wilderness, and I used to awaken in the zero-
degree dawn to light the morning fire. Relight it, actually: I prided myself on
being able to restart the fire from the previous night’s still-glowing embers,
rather than using a match. That’s when I began to wonder about energy.
From where does it come? How is it that the glowing coals store their energy
through the subfreezing night? Is energy infinite—could we ever burn all the
dead wood this forest sheds? And so my thoughts ran until the sun came over
the ridge and my companions emerged from their tents.
In a dim and intuitive way, I understood that energy knows no extinc-
tion, only transformation; that the energy in the wood, released as fire, is the
same as the energy that fuels the stars that still throbbed in the lightening sky;
that transformations of energy lie at the heart of all living things, and that
energy lives in all things, no matter how dumb or inanimate.1
Later I pursued more defined answers through my work. I’d been cover-
ing energy for more than two decades, and it was increasingly hard to see a
way out of our current fix. In 1987, during one of the periodic crashes that
4 SuperFuel
regularly decimated the oil industry back then, I spent a month driving the
Gulf Coast, from Houston to the Florida Keys, to write about the people
whose lives had been upended when the price of a barrel of oil went from
$50 to $20 in a little more than a year. A decade later I was one of the first
Western journalists in Central Asia to cover the Caspian Sea oil boom. I’d
gone 600 feet underground to report on the world’s richest uranium mine, at
MacArthur River in northern Saskatchewan, and I’d flown across the frozen
North Slope of Alaska to write about new horizontal drilling techniques that
were pulling oil from under the permafrost near the Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge. In 2001, a month after 9/11, I went to London to interview Royal
Dutch Shell’s team of futurists, the Scenarios Group. A couple of years later I
was in the empty hull of an oil tanker in a New Orleans shipyard reporting on
the plague of “super-rust” that was eating away the industry’s supertankers. I’d
come to respect, even admire, some of the people in the oil industry who I’d
interviewed. But it was increasingly obvious that global climate change was
going to wreak widespread havoc on, if not the complete destruction of, our
oil-addicted society. I liked driving a car, and I liked being able to fly across
the Pacific in a day. I didn’t want to go back to a pre-fossil fuel economy.
For all the promise of renewable energy sources and all the hype lavished
on them, it was clear that wind, solar, geothermal, biofuel, and such stood
no chance of replacing a significant amount of carbon-based sources in time
to significantly slow down the relentless heating of the planet. Only one
source is clean enough, inexpensive enough, and abundant enough to do
this: nuclear power. And despite the talk of a nuclear renaissance, nuclear
power was going nowhere. Thorium has the potential to change that. After
my Wired story on thorium ran in December 2009, thorium got little atten-
tion. An occasional newspaper feature or article in the science press would
appear touting its promise, but no one else in the mainstream media was
covering it in a systematic way. Here was a story that needed covering on an
ongoing basis, and I was the only one on the thorium beat.
There was another factor at work. The thorium power movement was
not static. In 2009 when I was reporting the Wired story, the thorium-heads,
as I call them, were advocates, geeks, dreamers. They seemed like the kind of
guys (they were all guys) who wrote letters to the editor of Popular Science.
They had passion but no power, beliefs but no business plans. Their ideas
 Introduction 5
were powerful, but they lacked the means to accomplish their desired ends.
They discussed arcane topics in nuclear physics and materials science end-
lessly in online forums, conversations that never reached beyond the thorium
community. As Kutsch, a pragmatist, liked to say, they were “building a boat
in a basement.”
Gradually that started to change. By the summer of 2011, when I was
deep into the writing of this book, developments around thorium power were
happening too fast for me to keep up. My story had played a small role in
that—it helped Kirk Sorensen, who was featured in that story, get a job as the
chief nuclear technologist at the nuclear supplier Teledyne Brown. Later he
founded the thorium power start-up Flibe Energy. Groups like the Thorium
Energy Alliance, a nonprofit formed by John Kutsch, moved the cause for-
ward, too. Mainly, though, it was the involvement of actual business people
(like George Langworth, featured in chapter 8), with actual business plans
that had the potential to attract actual funding, that turned thorium power
from a small movement of a dedicated few into a worldwide, if diffuse, pro-
gram to build real reactors. Something big was afoot, and I was in position to
witness it and tell the world about it.

TH90 • TH90 • TH90

All this was happening against the backdrop of two wars in the Middle East, the
rise of China as an economic superpower, total political paralysis in Washing-
ton, the worst financial crash since the Great Depression, and oil prices that
looked to be headed permanently beyond the $100-a-barrel mark. In other
words, most Americans did not have time to concern themselves with the
disappearance of the Arctic ice cap or the inundation of South Pacific islands
because of global warming. Few of the major accomplishments in American
history have ever been achieved purely out of concern for the environment or
for future generations. What I came to understand, though, is that thorium
power is connected to just about all these issues and has the potential to solve,
or at least address, many of the big problems we face as a nation and a society.
The development of safe, clean, essentially limitless thorium power tech-
nology could help right the U.S. trade imbalance with China. By supplying
inexpensive electricity and desalinated water, thorium power could help cure
some of the ills that still face the economies of the Middle East after the
6 SuperFuel
Arab Spring. By creating jobs, calling forth a surge in technological innova-
tion, and slashing the price of electricity, thorium power could help put the
economy back on a sustainable track while providing opportunity and hope
to millions of increasingly disenfranchised young people. It’s a nonpartisan
energy source that both Republicans and Democrats could get behind. Sup-
plying clean, inexpensive electricity could help us wean ourselves from the
ruinous dependence on imported oil. And so on.
It sounds like I believe that thorium is a panacea. And many in the en-
ergy industry will dismiss this book as a piece of misguided hype. The one
question I hear more than any other when I describe thorium’s potential is:
“So why aren’t we using it now?” The nuclear power establishment—the nu-
clearati, as I call them in this book—turns that question around as an argu-
ment against thorium: “If it was so great, we’d already be using it.” This book,
in a sense, is a long demonstration of why that’s not so and why the structure
of the nuclear power industry, its origins at the end of World War II, and its
historical subservience to the interests of the military have prevented thorium
from taking a place in the portfolio of world energy sources.

TH90 • TH90 • TH90

A few words about the terms “energy” and “power”: Often used interchange-
ably, they’re actually distinct. Put most simply, power is defined as energy
expended or spent during a specific time interval. Think of a ton of wood. A
certain amount of energy is stored in the wood. When the wood is burned,
it releases energy in the form of heat. Energy is measured in joules; a ton of
wood might have 18 billion joules of energy stored. If you burn that ton at a
rate of one stick an hour, you’d release that energy at a certain rate, measured
in joules per second—usually called watts. That rate is power. If you burn all
the wood at once in a single conflagration, you get a higher level of power,
but the total amount of energy doesn’t change. Power is the rate at which
energy is released.
Energy can be stored; power is an instantaneous measure. Energy can
change its form; power cannot. To oversimplify, energy is the potential and
power is the output. A thorium atom has a certain amount of energy stored
within it. The rate of power output of a nuclear plant is usually measured in
megawatts: a thousand-megawatt reactor, for example. The amount of energy
 Introduction 7
actually released in a nuclear reactor is called the burnup. As I will show,
the burnup achieved in thorium reactors is much higher than that of ura-
nium. This is a major reason why thorium is such a better nuclear fuel than
uranium.
I use “power” and “energy” in this book mostly according to their origi-
nal meanings. The confusion of the two in the popular mind, though, leads
to some misconceptions that affect our ideas about, and our policy toward,
energy and power. We don’t have an energy crisis. We have a power crisis.
There is plenty of energy on Earth—streaming down from the sun, stored in
deep geothermal reservoirs, packed into thorium atoms—to power human
society effectively forever. The crisis lies in turning it into power—creating
an output that can do work. Oil and coal, lying relatively close to the surface,
easy to burn, with a high energy content by volume, were the easy sources
to develop. With them we embarked on the Industrial Revolution, brought
light and air-conditioning to millions of people around the world, fashioned
a mobile car-based society, went to the moon and back, and built gleaming
cities of skyscrapers where lights burn 24 hours a day. Now comes the hard
part.
The choices we have to make are not easy ones. Thorium is no panacea,
but of all the energy sources on Earth, it is the most abundant, most readily
available, cleanest, and safest. We can’t afford not to develop it. We also can’t
afford to continue making power choices based on politics, ignorance, pseu-
doscience, and the dominance of the rich over the poor. At its core this book
is not just about a wondrous element that has the potential to solve our power
crisis. It’s about the choices we make as a society.
 READ IT FIRST

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