The Objective-C Programming Language

The Objective-C Programming Language
Contents
Introduction 7
Who Should Read This Document 7 Organization of This Document 8 Conventions 8 See Also 9 The Runtime System 9 Memory Management 9
Objects, Classes, and Messaging 10

The Runtime System 10 Objects 10 Object Basics 10 id 11 Dynamic Typing 11 Memory Management 12 Object Messaging 12 Message Syntax 13 Sending Messages to nil 15 The Receivers Instance Variables 16 Polymorphism 16 Dynamic Binding 17 Dynamic Method Resolution 17 Dot Syntax 17 Classes 19 Inheritance 19 Class Types 23 Class Objects 25 Class Names in Source Code 30 Testing Class Equality 31
Defining a Class 33
Source Files 33 Class Interface 34 Importing the Interface 35
2011-10-12 | 2011 Apple Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Contents
Referring to Other Classes 36 The Role of the Interface 37 Class Implementation 37 Referring to Instance Variables 39 The Scope of Instance Variables 40 Messages to self and super 43 An Example: Using self and super 45 Using super 47 Redefining self 47
Protocols 50
Declaring Interfaces for Others to Implement 50 Methods for Others to Implement 51 Declaring Interfaces for Anonymous Objects 52 Nonhierarchical Similarities 53 Formal Protocols 54 Declaring a Protocol 54 Optional Protocol Methods 54 Informal Protocols 55 Protocol Objects 56 Adopting a Protocol 57 Conforming to a Protocol 57 Type Checking 58 Protocols Within Protocols 59 Referring to Other Protocols 60
Declared Properties 62
Overview 62 Property Declaration and Implementation 62 Property Declaration 63 Property Declaration Attributes 64 Property Implementation Directives 67 Using Properties 69 Supported Types 69 Property Redeclaration 69 Core Foundation 70 Subclassing with Properties 70 Runtime Difference 71
Categories and Extensions 73
Contents
Adding Methods to Classes 73 Extensions 74
Associative References 76
Creating Associations 76 Retrieving Associated Objects 77 Breaking Associations 77 Complete Example 78
Fast Enumeration 80
The forin Syntax 80 Adopting Fast Enumeration 81 Using Fast Enumeration 81
Enabling Static Behavior 83

Default Dynamic Behavior 83 Static Typing 83 Type Checking 85 Return and Parameter Types 85 Static Typing to an Inherited Class 86
Selectors 88
Methods and Selectors 88 SEL and @selector 88 Methods and Selectors 89 Method Return and Parameter Types 89 Varying the Message at Runtime 89 The Target-Action Design Pattern 90 Avoiding Messaging Errors 91
Exception Handling 93
Enabling Exception-Handling 93 Exception Handling 93 Catching Different Types of Exception 94 Throwing Exceptions 95
Threading 96 Document Revision History 98
Contents
Glossary 102
Figures and Listings
Objects, Classes, and Messaging 10

Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2 Figure 1-3 Listing 1-1 Some drawing program classes 20 Rectangle instance variables 21 The inheritance hierarchy for NSCell 27 Implementation of the initialize method 30
Defining a Class 33
Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2 The scope of instance variables (@package scope not shown) 41 The hierarchy of High, Mid, and Low 45
Declared Properties 62
Listing 4-1 Listing 4-2 Listing 4-3 Declaring a simple property 63 Using @synthesize 67 Using @dynamic with NSManagedObject 68
Associative References 76
Listing 6-1 Establishing an association between an array and a string 76
Exception Handling 93
Listing 10-1 An exception handler 94
Threading 96
Listing 11-1 Listing 11-2 Locking a method using self 96 Locking a method using a custom semaphore 97
Introduction
The Objective-C language is a simple computer language designed to enable sophisticated object-oriented programming. Objective-C is defined as a small but powerful set of extensions to the standard ANSI C language. Its additions to C are mostly based on Smalltalk, one of the first object-oriented programming languages. Objective-C is designed to give C full object-oriented programming capabilities, and to do so in a simple and straightforward way. Most object-oriented development environments consist of several parts:
An object-oriented programming language A library of objects A suite of development tools A runtime environment
This document is about the first component of the development environmentthe programming language. This document also provides a foundation for learning about the second component, the Objective-C application frameworkscollectively known as Cocoa. The runtime environment is described in a separate document, Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide .
Who Should Read This Document

The document is intended for readers who might be interested in:
Programming in Objective-C Finding out about the basis for the Cocoa application frameworks
This document both introduces the object-oriented model that Objective-C is based upon and fully documents the language. It concentrates on the Objective-C extensions to C, not on the C language itself. Because this isnt a document about C, it assumes some prior acquaintance with that language. Object-oriented programming in Objective-C is, however, sufficiently different from procedural programming in ANSI C that you wont be hampered if youre not an experienced C programmer.
Introduction Organization of This Document
Organization of This Document

The following chapters cover all the features Objective-C adds to standard C.
Objects, Classes, and Messaging (page 10) Defining a Class (page 33) Protocols (page 50) Declared Properties (page 62) Categories and Extensions (page 73) Associative References (page 76) Fast Enumeration (page 80) Enabling Static Behavior (page 83) Selectors (page 88) Exception Handling (page 93) Threading (page 96)
A glossary at the end of this document provides definitions of terms specific to Objective-C and object-oriented programming.
Conventions
This document makes special use of computer voice and italic fonts. Computer voice denotes words or characters that are to be taken literally (typed as they appear). Italic denotes words that represent something else or can be varied. For example, the syntax:
@interfaceClassName (CategoryName )
means that @interface and the two parentheses are required, but that you can choose the class name and category name. Where example code is shown, ellipsis points indicates the parts, often substantial parts, that have been omitted:
- (void)encodeWithCoder:(NSCoder *)coder { [super encodeWithCoder:coder]; ...
Introduction See Also
See Also
If you have never used object-oriented programming to create applications, you should read Object-Oriented Programming with Objective-C . You should also consider reading it if you have used other object-oriented development environments such as C++ and Java because they have many expectations and conventions different from those of Objective-C. Object-Oriented Programming with Objective-C is designed to help you become familiar with object-oriented development from the perspective of an Objective-C developer. It spells out some of the implications of object-oriented design and gives you a flavor of what writing an object-oriented program is really like.
The Runtime System

Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide describes aspects of the Objective-C runtime and how you can use it. Objective-C Runtime Reference describes the data structures and functions of the Objective-C runtime support library. Your programs can use these interfaces to interact with the Objective-C runtime system. For example, you can add classes or methods, or obtain a list of all class definitions for loaded classes.
Memory Management
Objective-C supports three mechanisms for memory management: automatic garbage collection and reference counting:
Automatic Reference Counting (ARC), where the compiler reasons about the lifetimes of objects. Manual Reference Counting (MRC, sometimes referred to as MRR for manual retain/release), where you are ultimately responsible for determining the lifetime of objects. Manual reference counting is described in Advanced Memory Management Programming Guide .
Garbage collection, where you pass responsibility for determining the lifetime of objects to an automatic collector. Garbage collection is described in Garbage Collection Programming Guide . (Not available for iOSyou cannot access this document through the iOS Dev Center.)
Objects, Classes, and Messaging
This chapter describes the fundamentals of objects, classes, and messaging as used and implemented by the Objective-C language. It also introduces the Objective-C runtime.
The Runtime System

The Objective-C language defers as many decisions as it can from compile time and link time to runtime. Whenever possible, it dynamically performs operations such as creating objects and determining what method to invoke. Therefore, the language requires not just a compiler, but also a runtime system to execute the compiled code. The runtime system acts as a kind of operating system for the Objective-C language; its what makes the language work. Typically, however, you dont need to interact with the runtime directly. To understand more about the functionality it offers, though, see Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide .
Objects
As the name implies, object-oriented programs are built around objects. An object associates data with the particular operations that can use or affect that data. Objective-C provides a data type to identify an object variable without specifying a particular class of the object.
Object Basics
An object associates data with the particular operations that can use or affect that data. In Objective-C, these operations are known as the objects methods; the data they affect are its instance variables (in other environments they may be referred to as ivars or member variables ). In essence, an object bundles a data structure (instance variables) and a group of procedures (methods) into a self-contained programming unit. In Objective-C, an objects instance variables are internal to the object; generally, you get access to an objects state only through the objects methods (you can specify whether subclasses or other objects can access instance variables directly by using scope directives, see The Scope of Instance Variables (page 40)). For others to find out something about an object, there has to be a method to supply the information. For example, a rectangle would have methods that reveal its size and position.
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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Objects
Moreover, an object sees only the methods that were designed for it; it cant mistakenly perform methods intended for other types of objects. Just as a C function protects its local variables, hiding them from the rest of the program, an object hides both its instance variables and its method implementations.
id
In Objective-C, object identifiers are of a distinct data type: id. This type is the general type for any kind of object regardless of class and can be used for instances of a class and for class objects themselves.
id anObject;
For the object-oriented constructs of Objective-C, such as method return values, id replaces int as the default data type. (For strictly C constructs, such as function return values, int remains the default type.) The keyword nil is defined as a null object, an id with a value of 0. id, nil, and the other basic types of Objective-C are defined in the header file objc/objc.h.
id is defined as pointer to an object data structure:
typedef struct objc_object { Class isa; } *id;
Every object thus has an isa variable that tells it of what class it is an instance. Since the Class type is itself defined as a pointer:
typedef struct objc_class *Class;
the isa variable is frequently referred to as the isa pointer.
Dynamic Typing
The id type is completely nonrestrictive. By itself, it yields no information about an object, except that it is an object. At some point, a program typically needs to find more specific information about the objects it contains. Since the id type designator cant supply this specific information to the compiler, each object has to be able to supply it at runtime. The isa instance variable identifies the objects classwhat kind of object it is. Objects with the same behavior (methods) and the same kinds of data (instance variables) are members of the same class.
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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging
Objects are thus dynamically typed at runtime. Whenever it needs to, the runtime system can find the exact class that an object belongs to, just by asking the object. (To learn more about the runtime, see Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide .) Dynamic typing in Objective-C serves as the foundation for dynamic binding, discussed later. The isa variable also enables objects to perform introspectionto find out about themselves (or other objects). The compiler records information about class definitions in data structures for the runtime system to use. The functions of the runtime system use isa to find this information at runtime. Using the runtime system, you can, for example, determine whether an object implements a particular method or discover the name of its superclass. Object classes are discussed in more detail under Classes (page 19). Its also possible to give the compiler information about the class of an object by statically typing it in source code using the class name. Classes are particular kinds of objects, and the class name can serve as a type name. See Class Types (page 23) and Enabling Static Behavior (page 83).
Memory Management
In any program, it is important to ensure that objects are deallocated when they are no longer neededotherwise your applications memory footprint becomes larger than necessary. It is also important to ensure that you do not deallocate objects while theyre still being used. Objective-C offers three mechanisms for memory management that allow you to meet these goals:
Automatic Reference Counting (ARC), where the compiler reasons about the lifetimes of objects. Manual Reference Counting (MRC, sometimes referred to as MRR for manual retain/release), where you are ultimately responsible for determining the lifetime of objects. Manual reference counting is described in Advanced Memory Management Programming Guide .
Garbage collection, where you pass responsibility for determining the lifetime of objects to an automatic collector. Garbage collection is described in Garbage Collection Programming Guide . (Not available for iOSyou cannot access this document through the iOS Dev Center.)
Object Messaging
This section explains the syntax of sending messages, including how you can nest message expressions. It also discusses the scope or visibility of an objects instance variables, and the concepts of polymorphism and dynamic binding.
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Message Syntax
To get an object to do something, you send it a message telling it to apply a method. In Objective-C, message expressions are enclosed in brackets:
[receiver message]
The receiver is an object, and the message tells it what to do. In source code, the message is simply the name of a method and any parameters that are passed to it. When a message is sent, the runtime system selects the appropriate method from the receivers repertoire and invokes it. For example, this message tells the myRectangle object to perform its display method, which causes the rectangle to display itself:
[myRectangle display];
The message is followed by a ; as is normal for any statement in C. Because the method name in a message serves to select a method implementation, method names in messages are often referred to as selectors. Methods can also take parameters, sometimes called arguments . A message with a single parameter affixes a colon (:) to the name and puts the parameter right after the colon:
[myRectangle setWidth:20.0];
For methods with multiple parameters, Objective-C's method names are interleaved with the parameters such that the methods name naturally describes the parameters expected by the method. The imaginary message below tells the myRectangle object to set its origin to the coordinates (30.0, 50.0):
[myRectangle setOriginX: 30.0 y: 50.0]; // This is a good example of // multiple parameters
A selector name includes all the parts of the name, including the colons, so the selector in the preceding example is named setOriginX:y:. It has two colons, because it takes two parameters. The selector name does not, however, include anything else, such as return type or parameter types.
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Important The subparts of an Objective-C selector name are not optional, nor can their order be varied. In some languages, the terms named parameters and keyword parameters carry the implications that the parameters can vary at runtime, can have default values, can be in a different order, and can possibly have additional named parameters. None of these characteristics about parameters are true for Objective-C. For all intents and purposes, an Objective-C method declaration is simply a C function that prepends two additional parameters (see Messaging in the Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide ). Thus, the structure of an Objective-C method declaration differs from the structure of a method that uses named or keyword parameters in a language like Python, as the following Python example illustrates:
def func(a, b, NeatMode=SuperNeat, Thing=DefaultThing): pass
In this Python example, Thing and NeatMode might be omitted or might have different values when called. In principle, a Rectangle class could instead implement a setOrigin:: method with no label for the second parameter, which would be invoked as follows:
[myRectangle setOrigin:30.0 :50.0]; // This is a bad example of multiple parameters
While syntactically legal, setOrigin:: does not interleave the method name with the parameters. Thus, the second parameter is effectively unlabeled and it is difficult for a reader of this code to determine the kind or purpose of the methods parameters. Methods that take a variable number of parameters are also possible, though theyre somewhat rare. Extra parameters are separated by commas after the end of the method name. (Unlike colons, the commas are not considered part of the name.) In the following example, the imaginary makeGroup: method is passed one required parameter (group) and three parameters that are optional:
[receiver makeGroup:group, memberOne, memberTwo, memberThree];
Like standard C functions, methods can return values. The following example sets the variable isFilled to YES if myRectangle is drawn as a solid rectangle, or NO if its drawn in outline form only.
BOOL isFilled; isFilled = [myRectangle isFilled];
Note that a variable and a method can have the same name.
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One message expression can be nested inside another. Here, the color of one rectangle is set to the color of another:
[myRectangle setPrimaryColor:[otherRect primaryColor]];
Objective-C also provides a dot (.) operator that offers a compact and convenient syntax for invoking an objects accessor methods. The dot operator is often used in conjunction with the declared properties feature (see Declared Properties (page 62)) and is described in Dot Syntax (page 17).
Sending Messages to nil

In Objective-C, it is valid to send a message to nilit simply has no effect at runtime. There are several patterns in Cocoa that take advantage of this fact. The value returned from a message to nil may also be valid:
If the method returns an object, then a message sent to nil returns 0 (nil). For example:
Person *motherInLaw = [[aPerson spouse] mother];
If the spouse object here is nil, then mother is sent to nil and the method returns nil.
If the method returns any pointer type, any integer scalar of size less than or equal to sizeof(void*), a float, a double, a long double, or a long long, then a message sent to nil returns 0. If the method returns a struct, as defined by the Mac OS X ABI Function Call Guide to be returned in registers, then a message sent to nil returns 0.0 for every field in the struct. Other struct data types will not be filled with zeros. If the method returns anything other than the aforementioned value types, the return value of a message sent to nil is undefined.
The following code fragment illustrates a valid use of sending a message to nil.
id anObjectMaybeNil = nil;
// this is valid if ([anObjectMaybeNil methodThatReturnsADouble] == 0.0) { // implementation continues... }
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The Receivers Instance Variables

A method has automatic access to the receiving objects instance variables. You dont need to pass them to the method as parameters. For example, the primaryColor method illustrated above takes no parameters, yet it can find the primary color for otherRect and return it. Every method assumes the receiver and its instance variables, without having to declare them as parameters. This convention simplifies Objective-C source code. It also supports the way object-oriented programmers think about objects and messages. Messages are sent to receivers much as letters are delivered to your home. Message parameters bring information from the outside to the receiver; they dont need to bring the receiver to itself. A method has automatic access only to the receivers instance variables. If it requires information about a variable stored in another object, it must send a message to the object asking it to reveal the contents of the variable. The primaryColor and isFilled methods shown earlier are used for just this purpose. See Defining a Class (page 33) for more information on referring to instance variables.
Polymorphism
As the earlier examples illustrate, messages in Objective-C appear in the same syntactic positions as function calls in standard C. But, because methods belong to an object, messages dont behave in the same way that function calls do. In particular, an object can be operated on by only those methods that were defined for it. It cant confuse them with methods defined for other kinds of object, even if another object has a method with the same name. Therefore, two objects can respond differently to the same message. For example, each kind of object that receives a display message could display itself in a unique way. A Circle and a Rectangle would respond differently to identical instructions to track the cursor. This feature, referred to as polymorphism, plays a significant role in the design of object-oriented programs. Together with dynamic binding, it permits you to write code that might apply to any number of different kinds of objects, without you having to choose at the time you write the code what kinds of objects they might be. They might even be objects that will be developed later, by other programmers working on other projects. If you write code that sends a display message to an id variable, any object that has a display method is a potential receiver.
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Dynamic Binding
A crucial difference between function calls and messages is that a function and its parameters are joined together in the compiled code, but a message and a receiving object arent united until the program is running and the message is sent. Therefore, the exact method invoked to respond to a message can be determined only at runtime, not when the code is compiled. When a message is sent, a runtime messaging routine looks at the receiver and at the method named in the message. It locates the receivers implementation of a method matching the name, calls the method, and passes it a pointer to the receivers instance variables. (For more on this routine, see Messaging in Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide .) This dynamic binding of methods to messages works hand in hand with polymorphism to give object-oriented programming much of its flexibility and power. Because each object can have its own version of a method, an Objective-C statement can achieve a variety of results, not by varying the message but by varying the object that receives the message. Receivers can be decided as the program runs; the choice of receiver can be made dependent on factors such as user actions. When executing code based upon the Application Kit (AppKit), for example, users determine which objects receive messages from menu commands such as Cut, Copy, and Paste. The message goes to whatever object controls the current selection. An object that displays text would react to a copy message differently from an object that displays scanned images. An object that represents a set of shapes would respond differently to a copy message than a Rectangle would. Because messages do not select methods until runtime (from another perspective, because binding of methods to messages does not occur until runtime), these differences in behavior are isolated to the methods themselves. The code that sends the message doesnt have to be concerned with them; it doesnt even have to enumerate the possibilities. An applications objects can each respond in its own way to copy messages. Objective-C takes dynamic binding one step further and allows even the message thats sent (the method selector) to be a variable determined at runtime. This mechanism is discussed in the section Messaging in Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide .
Dynamic Method Resolution

You can provide implementations of class and instance methods at runtime using dynamic method resolution. See Dynamic Method Resolution in Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide for more details.
Dot Syntax
Objective-C provides a dot (.) operator that offers an alternative to square bracket notation ([]) to invoke accessor methods. Dot syntax uses the same pattern that accessing C structure elements uses:
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myInstance.value = 10; printf("myInstance value: %d", myInstance.value);
When used with objects, however, dot syntax acts as syntactic sugarit is transformed by the compiler into an invocation of an accessor method. Dot syntax does not directly get or set an instance variable. The code example above is exactly equivalent to the following:
[myInstance setValue:10]; printf("myInstance value: %d", [myInstance value]);
As a corollary, if you want to access an objects own instance variable using accessor methods, you must explicitly call out self, for example:
self.age = 10;
or the equivalent:
[self setAge:10];
If you do not use self., you access the instance variable directly. In the following example, the set accessor method for age is not invoked:
age = 10;
If a nil value is encountered during property traversal, the result is the same as sending the equivalent message to nil. For example, the following pairs are all equivalent:
// Each member of the path is an object. x = person.address.street.name; x = [[[person address] street] name];
// The path contains a C struct. // This will crash if window is nil or -contentView returns nil. y = window.contentView.bounds.origin.y; y = [[window contentView] bounds].origin.y;
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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Classes
// An example of using a setter. person.address.street.name = @"Oxford Road"; [[[person address] street] setName: @"Oxford Road"];
Classes
An object-oriented program is typically built from a variety of objects. A program based on the Cocoa frameworks might use NSMatrix objects, NSWindow objects, NSDictionary objects, NSFont objects, NSText objects, and many others. Programs often use more than one object of the same kind or classseveral NSArray objects or NSWindow objects, for example. In Objective-C, you define objects by defining their class. The class definition is a prototype for a kind of object; it declares the instance variables that become part of every member of the class, and it defines a set of methods that all objects in the class can use. The compiler creates just one accessible object for each class, a class object that knows how to build new objects belonging to the class. (For this reason its traditionally called a factory object .) The class object is the compiled version of the class; the objects it builds are instances of the class. The objects that do the main work of your program are instances created by the class object at runtime. All instances of a class have the same set of methods, and they all have a set of instance variables cut from the same mold. Each object gets its own instance variables, but the methods are shared. By convention, class names begin with an uppercase letter (such as Rectangle); the names of instances typically begin with a lowercase letter (such as myRectangle).
Inheritance
Class definitions are additive; each new class that you define is based on another class from which it inherits methods and instance variables. The new class simply adds to or modifies what it inherits. It doesnt need to duplicate inherited code.
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Inheritance links all classes together in a hierarchical tree with a single class at its root. When writing code that is based upon the Foundation framework, that root class is typically NSObject. Every class (except a root class) has a superclass one step nearer the root, and any class (including a root class) can be the superclass for any number of subclasses one step farther from the root. Figure 1-1 illustrates the hierarchy for a few of the classes used in a drawing program.
Figure 1-1 Some drawing program classes
NSObject Graphic Image Text Shape Line Rectangle Square Circle
Figure 1-1 shows that the Square class is a subclass of the Rectangle class, the Rectangle class is a subclass of Shape, Shape is a subclass of Graphic, and Graphic is a subclass of NSObject. Inheritance is cumulative. So a Square object has the methods and instance variables defined for Rectangle, Shape, Graphic, and NSObject, as well as those defined specifically for Square. This is simply to say that an object of type Square isnt only a square, its also a rectangle, a shape, a graphic, and an object of type NSObject. Every class but NSObject can thus be seen as a specialization or an adaptation of another class. Each successive subclass further modifies the cumulative total of whats inherited. The Square class defines only the minimum needed to turn a rectangle into a square. When you define a class, you link it to the hierarchy by declaring its superclass; every class you create must be the subclass of another class (unless you define a new root class). Plenty of potential superclasses are available. Cocoa includes the NSObject class and several frameworks containing definitions for more than 250 additional classes. Some are classes that you can use off the shelf and incorporate them into your program as is. Others you might want to adapt to your own needs by defining a subclass. Some framework classes define almost everything you need, but leave some specifics to be implemented in a subclass. You can thus create very sophisticated objects by writing only a small amount of code and reusing work done by the programmers of the framework.
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The NSObject Class

NSObject is a root class, and so doesnt have a superclass. It defines the basic framework for Objective-C
objects and object interactions. It imparts to the classes and instances of classes that inherit from it the ability to behave as objects and cooperate with the runtime system. A class that doesnt need to inherit any special behavior from another class should nevertheless be made a subclass of the NSObject class. Instances of the class must at least have the ability to behave like Objective-C objects at runtime. Inheriting this ability from the NSObject class is much simpler and much more reliable than reinventing it in a new class definition. Note Implementing a new root class is a delicate task and one with many hidden hazards. The class must duplicate much of what the NSObject class does, such as allocate instances, connect them to their class, and identify them to the runtime system. For this reason, you should generally use the NSObject class provided with Cocoa as the root class. For more information, see NSObject Class Reference and the NSObject Protocol Reference .
Inheriting Instance Variables

When a class object creates a new instance, the new object contains not only the instance variables that were defined for its class but also the instance variables defined for its superclass and for its superclasss superclass, all the way back to the root class. Thus, the isa instance variable defined in the NSObject class becomes part of every object. isa connects each object to its class. Figure 1-2 shows some of the instance variables that could be defined for a particular implementation of a Rectangle class and where they may come from. Note that the variables that make the object a rectangle are added to the ones that make it a shape, and the ones that make it a shape are added to the ones that make it a graphic, and so on.
Figure 1-2
Class NSPoint NSColor Pattern ... float float BOOL NSColor ...
Rectangle instance variables

isa; origin; *primaryColor; linePattern; width; height; filled; *fillColor; declared in NSObject declared in Graphic declared in Shape
declared in Rectangle
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A class doesnt have to declare instance variables. It can simply define new methods and rely on the instance variables it inherits, if it needs any instance variables at all. For example, Square might not declare any new instance variables of its own.
Inheriting Methods
An object has access not only to the methods defined for its class but also to methods defined for its superclass, and for its superclasss superclass, all the way back to the root of the hierarchy. For instance, a Square object can use methods defined in the Rectangle, Shape, Graphic, and NSObject classes as well as methods defined in its own class. Any new class you define in your program can therefore make use of the code written for all the classes above it in the hierarchy. This type of inheritance is a major benefit of object-oriented programming. When you use one of the object-oriented frameworks provided by Cocoa, your programs can take advantage of the basic functionality coded into the framework classes. You have to add only the code that customizes the standard functionality to your application. Class objects also inherit from the classes above them in the hierarchy. But because they dont have instance variables (only instances do), they inherit only methods.
Overriding One Method with Another

Theres one useful exception to inheritance: When you define a new class, you can implement a new method with the same name as one defined in a class farther up the hierarchy. The new method overrides the original; instances of the new class perform it rather than the original, and subclasses of the new class inherit it rather than the original. For example, Graphic defines a display method that Rectangle overrides by defining its own version of display. The Graphic method is available to all kinds of objects that inherit from the Graphic classbut not to Rectangle objects, which instead perform the Rectangle version of display. Although overriding a method blocks the original version from being inherited, other methods defined in the new class can skip over the redefined method and find the original (see Messages to self and super (page 43) to learn how). A redefined method can also incorporate the very method it overrides. When it does, the new method serves only to refine or modify the method it overrides, rather than replace it outright. When several classes in the hierarchy define the same method, but each new version incorporates the version it overrides, the implementation of the method is effectively spread over all the classes.
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Although a subclass can override inherited methods, it cant override inherited instance variables. Because an object has memory allocated for every instance variable it inherits, you cant override an inherited variable by declaring a new one with the same name. If you try, the compiler will complain.
Abstract Classes
Some classes are designed only or primarily so that other classes can inherit from them. These abstract classes group methods and instance variables that can be used by a number of subclasses into a common definition. The abstract class is typically incomplete by itself, but contains useful code that reduces the implementation burden of its subclasses. (Because abstract classes must have subclasses to be useful, theyre sometimes also called abstract superclasses.) Unlike some other languages, Objective-C does not have syntax to mark classes as abstract, nor does it prevent you from creating an instance of an abstract class. The NSObject class is the canonical example of an abstract class in Cocoa. You never use instances of the NSObject class in an applicationit wouldnt be good for anything; it would be a generic object with the ability to do nothing in particular. The NSView class, on the other hand, provides an example of an abstract class, instances of which you might occasionally use directly. Abstract classes often contain code that helps define the structure of an application. When you create subclasses of these classes, instances of your new classes fit effortlessly into the application structure and work automatically with other objects.
Class Types
A class definition is a specification for a kind of object. The class, in effect, defines a data type. The type is based not just on the data structure the class defines (instance variables), but also on the behavior included in the definition (methods). A class name can appear in source code wherever a type specifier is permitted in Cfor example, as an argument to the sizeof operator:
int i = sizeof(Rectangle);
Static Typing
You can use a class name in place of id to designate an objects type:
Rectangle *myRectangle;
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Because this way of declaring an object type gives the compiler information about the kind of object it is, its known as static typing. Just as id is actually a pointer, objects are statically typed as pointers to a class. Objects are always typed by a pointer. Static typing makes the pointer explicit; id hides it. Static typing permits the compiler to do some type checkingfor example, to warn if an object could receive a message that it appears not to be able to respond toand to loosen some restrictions that apply to objects generically typed id. In addition, it can make your intentions clearer to others who read your source code. However, it doesnt defeat dynamic binding or alter the dynamic determination of a receivers class at runtime. An object can be statically typed to its own class or to any class that it inherits from. For example, because inheritance makes a Rectangle object a kind of Graphic object (as shown in the example hierarchy in Figure 1-1 (page 20)), a Rectangle instance can be statically typed to the Graphic class:
Graphic *myRectangle;
Static typing to the superclass is possible here because a Rectangle object is a Graphic object. In addition, its more than that because it also has the instance variables and method capabilities of Shape and Rectangle objects, but its a Graphic object nonetheless. For purposes of type checking, given the declaration described here, the compiler considers myRectangle to be of type Graphic. At runtime, however, if the myRectangle object is allocated and initialized as an instance of Rectangle, it is treated as one. See Enabling Static Behavior (page 83) for more on static typing and its benefits.
Type Introspection
Instances can reveal their types at runtime. The isMemberOfClass: method, defined in the NSObject class, checks whether the receiver is an instance of a particular class:
if ( [anObject isMemberOfClass:someClass] ) ...
The isKindOfClass: method, also defined in the NSObject class, checks more generally whether the receiver inherits from or is a member of a particular class (whether it has the class in its inheritance path):
if ( [anObject isKindOfClass:someClass] ) ...
The set of classes for which isKindOfClass: returns YES is the same set to which the receiver can be statically typed.
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Introspection isnt limited to type information. Later sections of this chapter discuss methods that return the class object, report whether an object can respond to a message, and reveal other information. See NSObject Class Reference for more on isKindOfClass:, isMemberOfClass:, and related methods.
Class Objects
A class definition contains various kinds of information, much of it about instances of the class:
The name of the class and its superclass A template describing a set of instance variables The declarations of method names and their return and parameter types The method implementations
This information is compiled and recorded in data structures made available to the runtime system. The compiler creates just one object, a class object, to represent the class. The class object has access to all the information about the class, which means mainly information about what instances of the class are like. Its able to produce new instances according to the plan put forward in the class definition. Although a class object keeps the prototype of a class instance, its not an instance itself. It has no instance variables of its own and it cant perform methods intended for instances of the class. However, a class definition can include methods intended specifically for the class objectclass methods as opposed to instance methods. A class object inherits class methods from the classes above it in the hierarchy, just as instances inherit instance methods. In source code, the class object is represented by the class name. In the following example, the Rectangle class returns the class version number using a method inherited from the NSObject class:
int versionNumber = [Rectangle version];
However, the class name stands for the class object only as the receiver in a message expression. Elsewhere, you need to ask an instance or the class to return the class id. Both respond to a class message:
id aClass = [anObject class]; id rectClass = [Rectangle class];
As these examples show, class objects can, like all other objects, be typed id. But class objects can also be more specifically typed to the Class data type:
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Class aClass = [anObject class]; Class rectClass = [Rectangle class];
All class objects are of type Class. Using this type name for a class is equivalent to using the class name to statically type an instance. Class objects are thus full-fledged objects that can be dynamically typed, receive messages, and inherit methods from other classes. Theyre special only in that theyre created by the compiler, lack data structures (instance variables) of their own other than those built from the class definition, and are the agents for producing instances at runtime. Note The compiler also builds a metaclass object for each class. It describes the class object just as the class object describes instances of the class. But while you can send messages to instances and to the class object, the metaclass object is used only internally by the runtime system.
Creating Instances
A principal function of a class object is to create new instances. This code tells the Rectangle class to create a new rectangle instance and assign it to the myRectangle variable:
id myRectangle;
myRectangle = [Rectangle alloc];
The alloc method dynamically allocates memory for the new objects instance variables and initializes them all to 0all, that is, except the isa variable that connects the new instance to its class. For an object to be useful, it generally needs to be more completely initialized. Thats the function of an init method. Initialization typically follows immediately after allocation:
myRectangle = [[Rectangle alloc] init];
This line of code, or one like it, would be necessary before myRectangle could receive any of the messages that were illustrated in previous examples in this chapter. The alloc method returns a new instance and that instance performs an init method to set its initial state. Every class object has at least one method (like alloc) that enables it to produce new objects, and every instance has at least one method (like init) that prepares it for use. Initialization methods often take parameters to allow particular values to be passed and have keywords to label the parameters (initWithPosition:size:, for example, is a method that might initialize a new Rectangle instance), but every initialization method begins with init .
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Customization with Class Objects

Its not just a whim of the Objective-C language that classes are treated as objects. Its a choice that has intended, and sometimes surprising, benefits for design. Its possible, for example, to customize an object with a class, where the class belongs to an open-ended set. In AppKit, for example, an NSMatrix object can be customized with a particular kind of NSCell object. An NSMatrix object can take responsibility for creating the individual objects that represent its cells. It can do this when the matrix is first initialized and later when new cells are needed. The visible matrix that an NSMatrix object draws on the screen can grow and shrink at runtime, perhaps in response to user actions. When it grows, the matrix needs to be able to produce new objects to fill the new slots that are added. But what kind of objects should they be? Each matrix displays just one kind of NSCell, but there are many different kinds. The inheritance hierarchy in Figure 1-3 shows some of those provided by AppKit. All inherit from the generic NSCell class.
Figure 1-3 The inheritance hierarchy for NSCell
NSObject NSCell NSBrowserCell NSButtonCell NSMenuCell NSActionCell NSTextFieldCell NSSliderCell NSFormCell
When a matrix creates NSCell objects, should they be NSButtonCell objects to display a bank of buttons or switches, NSTextFieldCell objects to display fields where the user can enter and edit text, or some other kind of NSCell? The NSMatrix object must allow for any kind of cell, even types that havent been invented yet. One solution to this problem would be to define the NSMatrix class as abstract and require everyone who uses it to declare a subclass and implement the methods that produce new cells. Because they would be implementing the methods, users could make certain that the objects they created were of the right type. But this solution would require users of the NSMatrix class to do work that ought to be done in the NSMatrix class itself, and it unnecessarily proliferates the number of classes. Because an application might need more than one kind of matrix, each with a different kind of cell, it could become cluttered with NSMatrix subclasses. Every time you invented a new kind of NSCell, youd also have to define a new kind of NSMatrix. Moreover, programmers on different projects would be writing virtually identical code to do the same job, all to make up for the failure of NSMatrix to do it.
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A better solution, and the solution the NSMatrix class adopts, is to allow NSMatrix instances to be initialized with a kind of NSCellthat is, with a class object. The NSMatrix class also defines a setCellClass: method that passes the class object for the kind of NSCell object an NSMatrix should use to fill empty slots:
[myMatrix setCellClass:[NSButtonCell class]];
The NSMatrix object uses the class object to produce new cells when its first initialized and whenever its resized to contain more cells. This kind of customization would be difficult if classes werent objects that could be passed in messages and assigned to variables.
Variables and Class Objects

When you define a new class, you can specify instance variables. Every instance of the class can maintain its own copy of the variables you declareeach object controls its own data. There is, however, no class variable counterpart to an instance variable. Only internal data structures, initialized from the class definition, are provided for the class. Moreover, a class object has no access to the instance variables of any instances; it cant initialize, read, or alter them. For all the instances of a class to share data, you must define an external variable of some sort. The simplest way to do this is to declare a variable in the class implementation file:
int MCLSGlobalVariable;
@implementation MyClass // implementation continues
In a more sophisticated implementation, you can declare a variable to be static, and provide class methods to manage it. Declaring a variable static limits its scope to just the classand to just the part of the class thats implemented in the file. (Thus unlike instance variables, static variables cannot be inherited by, or directly manipulated by, subclasses.) This pattern is commonly used to define shared instances of a class (such as singletons; see Creating a Singleton Instance in Cocoa Fundamentals Guide ).
static MyClass *MCLSSharedInstance;
@implementation MyClass
+ (MyClass *)sharedInstance {
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// check for existence of shared instance // create if necessary return MCLSSharedInstance; } // implementation continues
Static variables help give the class object more functionality than just that of a factory producing instances; it can approach being a complete and versatile object in its own right. A class object can be used to coordinate the instances it creates, dispense instances from lists of objects already created, or manage other processes essential to the application. In the case when you need only one object of a particular class, you can put all the objects state into static variables and use only class methods. This saves the step of allocating and initializing an instance. Note It is also possible to use external variables that are not declared static, but the limited scope of static variables better serves the purpose of encapsulating data into separate objects.
Initializing a Class Object

If you want to use a class object for anything besides allocating instances, you may need to initialize it just as you would an instance. Although programs dont allocate class objects, Objective-C does provide a way for programs to initialize them. If a class makes use of static or global variables, the initialize method is a good place to set their initial values. For example, if a class maintains an array of instances, the initialize method could set up the array and even allocate one or two default instances to have them ready. The runtime system sends an initialize message to every class object before the class receives any other messages and after its superclass has received the initialize message. This sequence gives the class a chance to set up its runtime environment before its used. If no initialization is required, you dont need to write an initialize method to respond to the message. Because of inheritance, an initialize message sent to a class that doesnt implement the initialize method is forwarded to the superclass, even though the superclass has already received the initialize message. For example, assume class A implements the initialize method, and class B inherits from class A but does not implement the initialize method. Just before class B is to receive its first message, the runtime system sends initialize to it. But, because class B doesnt implement initialize, class As initialize is executed instead. Therefore, class A should ensure that its initialization logic is performed only once, and for the appropriate class.
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To avoid performing initialization logic more than once, use the template in Listing 1-1 when implementing the initialize method.
Listing 1-1 Implementation of the initialize method
+ (void)initialize { if (self == [ThisClass class]) { // Perform initialization here. ... } }
Note Remember that the runtime system sends initialize to each class individually. Therefore, in a classs implementation of the initialize method, you must not send the initialize message to its superclass.
Methods of the Root Class

All objects, classes and instances alike, need an interface to the runtime system. Both class objects and instances should be able to introspect about their abilities and to report their place in the inheritance hierarchy. Its the province of the NSObject class to provide this interface. So that NSObject methods dont have to be implemented twiceonce to provide a runtime interface for instances and again to duplicate that interface for class objectsclass objects are given special dispensation to perform instance methods defined in the root class. When a class object receives a message that it cant respond to with a class method, the runtime system determines whether theres a root instance method that can respond. The only instance methods that a class object can perform are those defined in the root class, and only if theres no class method that can do the job. For more on this peculiar ability of class objects to perform root instance methods, see NSObject Class Reference .
Class Names in Source Code

In source code, class names can be used in only two very different contexts. These contexts reflect the dual role of a class as a data type and as an object:
The class name can be used as a type name for a kind of object. For example:
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Rectangle *anObject;
Here anObject is statically typed to be a pointer to a Rectangle object. The compiler expects it to have the data structure of a Rectangle instance and to have the instance methods defined and inherited by the Rectangle class. Static typing enables the compiler to do better type checking and makes source code more self-documenting. See Enabling Static Behavior (page 83) for details. Only instances can be statically typed; class objects cant be, because they arent members of a class, but rather belong to the Class data type.
As the receiver in a message expression, the class name refers to the class object. This usage was illustrated in several of the earlier examples. The class name can stand for the class object only as a message receiver. In any other context, you must ask the class object to reveal its id (by sending it a class message). This example passes the Rectangle class as a parameter in an isKindOfClass: message:
if ( [anObject isKindOfClass:[Rectangle class]] ) ...
It would have been illegal to simply use the name Rectangle as the parameter. The class name can only be a receiver. If you dont know the class name at compile time but have it as a string at runtime, you can use NSClassFromString to return the class object:
NSString *className; ... if ( [anObject isKindOfClass:NSClassFromString(className)] ) ...
This function returns nil if the string its passed is not a valid class name. Class names exist in the same namespace as global variables and function names. A class and a global variable cant have the same name. Class names are the only names with global visibility in Objective-C.
Testing Class Equality

You can test two class objects for equality using a direct pointer comparison. It is important, though, to get the correct class. There are several features in the Cocoa frameworks that dynamically and transparently subclass existing classes to extend their functionality (for example, key-value observing and Core Data do thissee Key-Value Observing Programming Guide and Core Data Programming Guide respectively). In a
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dynamically-created subclass, the class method is typically overridden such that the subclass masquerades as the class it replaces. When testing for class equality, you should therefore compare the values returned by the class method rather than those returned by lower-level functions. Put in terms of API, the following inequalities pertain for dynamic subclasses:
[object class] != object_getClass(object) != *((Class*)object)
You should therefore test two classes for equality as follows:

if ([objectA class] == [objectB class]) { //...
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Defining a Class
Much of object-oriented programming consists of writing the code for new objectsdefining new classes. In Objective-C, classes are defined in two parts:
An interface that declares the methods and properties of the class and names its superclass An implementation that actually defines the class (contains the code that implements its methods)
Each of these parts is typically in its own file. Sometimes, however, a class definition spans several files through the use of a feature called a category . Categories can compartmentalize a class definition or extend an existing one. Categories are described in Categories and Extensions (page 73).
Source Files
Although the compiler doesnt require it, class interface and implementation are usually in two different files. The interface file must be made available to anyone who uses the class. A single file can declare or implement more than one class. Nevertheless, its customary to have a separate interface file for each class, if not also a separate implementation file. Keeping class interfaces separate better reflects their status as independent entities. Interface and implementation files typically are named after the class. The name of the implementation file has the .m extension, indicating that it contains Objective-C source code. The interface file can be assigned any other extension. Because its included in other source files, the name of the interface file usually has the .h extension typical of header files. For example, the Rectangle class would be declared in Rectangle.h and defined in Rectangle.m. Separating an objects interface from its implementation fits well with the design of object-oriented programs. An object is a self-contained entity that can be viewed from the outside almost as a black box. Once youve determined how an object interacts with other elements in your programthat is, once youve declared its interfaceyou can freely alter its implementation without affecting any other part of the application.
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Defining a Class Class Interface
Class Interface
The declaration of a class interface begins with the compiler directive @interface and ends with the directive @end. (All Objective-C directives to the compiler begin with @ .)
@interface ClassName : ItsSuperclass // Method and property declarations. @end
The first line of the declaration presents the new class name and links it to its superclass. The superclass defines the position of the new class in the inheritance hierarchy, as discussed under Inheritance (page 19). Methods and properties for the class are declared next, before the end of the class declaration. The names of methods that can be used by class objects, class methods, are preceded by a plus sign:
+ alloc;
The methods that instances of a class can use, instance methods, are marked with a minus sign:
- (void)display;
Although its not a common practice, you can define a class method and an instance method with the same name. A method can also have the same name as an instance variable, which is more common, especially if the method returns the value in the variable. For example, Circle has a radius method that could match a radius instance variable. Method return types are declared using the standard C syntax for casting one type to another:
- (float)radius;
Parameter types are declared in the same way:

- (void)setRadius:(float)aRadius;
If a return or parameter type isnt explicitly declared, its assumed to be the default type for methods and messagesan id. The alloc method illustrated earlier returns id. When theres more than one parameter, the parameters are declared within the method name after the colons. Parameters break the name apart in the declaration, just as in a message. For example:
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- (void)setWidth:(float)width height:(float)height;
Methods that take a variable number of parameters declare them using a comma and ellipsis points, just as a function would:
- makeGroup:group, ...;
Property declarations take the form:

@property (attributes) Type propertyName;
Properties are discussed in more detail in Declared Properties (page 62). Note Historically, the interface required declarations of a classs instance variables, the data structures that are part of each instance of the class. These were declared in braces after the @interface declaration and before method declarations:
@interface ClassName : ItsSuperclass { // Instance variable declarations. } // Method and property declarations. @end
Instance variables represent an implementation detail, and should typically not be accessed outside of the class itself. Moreover, you can declare them in the implementation block or synthesize them using declared properties. Typically you should not, therefore, declare instance variables in the public interface and so you should omit the braces.
Importing the Interface

The interface file must be included in any source module that depends on the class interfacethat includes any module that creates an instance of the class, sends a message to invoke a method declared for the class, or mentions an instance variable declared in the class. The interface is usually included with the #import directive:
#import "Rectangle.h"
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This directive is identical to #include, except that it makes sure that the same file is never included more than once. Its therefore preferred and is used in place of #include in code examples throughout Objective-Cbased documentation. To reflect the fact that a class definition builds on the definitions of inherited classes, an interface file begins by importing the interface for its superclass:
#import "ItsSuperclass.h"
@interface ClassName : ItsSuperclass // Method and property declarations. @end
This convention means that every interface file includes, indirectly, the interface files for all inherited classes. When a source module imports a class interface, it gets interfaces for the entire inheritance hierarchy that the class is built upon. Note that if there is a precompa precompiled headerthat supports the superclass, you may prefer to import the precomp instead.
Referring to Other Classes

An interface file declares a class and, by importing its superclass, implicitly contains declarations for all inherited classes, from NSObject on down through its superclass. If the interface mentions classes not in this hierarchy, it must import them explicitly or declare them with the @class directive:
@class Rectangle, Circle;
This directive simply informs the compiler that Rectangle and Circle are class names. It doesnt import their interface files. An interface file mentions class names when it statically types instance variables, return values, and parameters. For example, this declaration
- (void)setPrimaryColor:(NSColor *)aColor;
mentions the NSColor class.
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Defining a Class Class Implementation
Because declarations like this simply use the class name as a type and dont depend on any details of the class interface (its methods and instance variables), the @class directive gives the compiler sufficient forewarning of what to expect. However, when the interface to a class is actually used (instances created, messages sent), the class interface must be imported. Typically, an interface file uses @class to declare classes, and the corresponding implementation file imports their interfaces (since it needs to create instances of those classes or send them messages). The @class directive minimizes the amount of code seen by the compiler and linker, and is therefore the simplest way to give a forward declaration of a class name. Being simple, it avoids potential problems that may come with importing files that import still other files. For example, if one class declares a statically typed instance variable of another class, and their two interface files import each other, neither class may compile correctly.
The Role of the Interface

The purpose of the interface file is to declare the new class to other source modules (and to other programmers). It contains information they need to work with the class (programmers might also appreciate a little documentation).
The interface file tells users how the class is connected into the inheritance hierarchy and what other classesinherited or simply referred to somewhere in the classare needed. Through its list of method declarations, the interface file lets other modules know what messages can be sent to the class object and instances of the class. Every method that can be used outside the class definition is declared in the interface file; methods that are internal to the class implementation can be omitted.
Class Implementation
The definition of a class is structured very much like its declaration. It begins with an @implementation directive and ends with the @end directive. In addition, the class may declare instance variables in braces after the @implementation directive:
@implementation ClassName { // Instance variable declarations. } // Method definitions. @end
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Instance variables are often specified by declared properties (see Declared Properties (page 62)). If you dont declare additional instance variables, you can omit the braces:
@implementation ClassName // Method definitions. @end
Note Every implementation file must import its own interface. For example, Rectangle.m imports Rectangle.h. Because the implementation doesnt need to repeat any of the declarations it imports, it can safely omit the name of the superclass.
Methods for a class are defined, like C functions, within a pair of braces. Before the braces, theyre declared in the same manner as in the interface file, but without the semicolon. For example:
+ (id)alloc { ... }
- (BOOL)isFilled { ... }
- (void)setFilled:(BOOL)flag { ... }
Methods that take a variable number of parameters handle them just as a function would:
#import <stdarg.h>
...
- getGroup:group, ... {
va_list ap;
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va_start(ap, group); ... }
Referring to Instance Variables

By default, the definition of an instance method has all the instance variables of the object within its scope. It can refer to them simply by name. Although the compiler creates the equivalent of C structures to store instance variables, the exact nature of the structure is hidden. You dont need either of the structure operators (. or ->) to refer to an objects data. For example, this method definition refers to the receivers filled instance variable:
- (void)setFilled:(BOOL)flag { filled = flag; ... }
Neither the receiving object nor its filled instance variable is declared as a parameter to this method, yet the instance variable falls within its scope. This simplification of method syntax is a significant shorthand in the writing of Objective-C code. When the instance variable belongs to an object thats not the receiver, the objects type must be made explicit to the compiler through static typing. In referring to the instance variable of a statically typed object, the structure pointer operator (->) is used. Suppose, for example, that the Sibling class declares a statically typed object, twin, as an instance variable:
@interface Sibling : NSObject { Sibling *twin; int gender; struct features *appearance; }
As long as the instance variables of the statically typed object are within the scope of the class (as they are here because twin is typed to the same class), a Sibling method can set them directly:
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- makeIdenticalTwin { if ( !twin ) { twin = [[Sibling alloc] init]; twin->gender = gender; twin->appearance = appearance; } return twin; }
The Scope of Instance Variables

To enforce the ability of an object to hide its data, the compiler limits the scope of instance variablesthat is, limits their visibility within the program. But to provide flexibility, it also lets you explicitly set the scope at four levels. Each level is marked by a compiler directive:
Directive @private @protected Meaning
The instance variable is accessible only within the class that declares it. The instance variable is accessible within the class that declares it and within classes that inherit it. All instance variables without an explicit scope directive have @protected scope. The instance variable is accessible everywhere. Using the modern runtime, an @package instance variable has @public scope inside the executable image that implements the class, but acts like @private outside. The @package scope for Objective-C instance variables is analogous to private_extern for C variables and functions. Any code outside the class implementations image that tries to use the instance variable gets a link error. This scope is most useful for instance variables in framework classes, where @private may be too restrictive but @protected or @public too permissive.
@public @package
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Figure 2-1 illustrates the levels of scoping.

Figure 2-1 The scope of instance variables (@package scope not shown)
The class that declares the instance variable
@private
@protected A class that inherits the instance variable
@public
Unrelated code
A scoping directive applies to all the instance variables listed after it, up to the next directive or the end of the list. In the following example, the age and evaluation instance variables are private; name, job, and wage are protected; and boss is public.
@interface Worker : NSObject { char *name; @private int age; char *evaluation; @protected id job; float wage; @public id boss; }
By default, all unmarked instance variables (like name above) are @protected.
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All instance variables that a class declares, no matter how theyre marked, are within the scope of the class definition. For example, a class that declares a job instance variable, such as the Worker class shown above, can refer to it in a method definition:
- promoteTo:newPosition { id old = job; job = newPosition; return old; }
Obviously, if a class couldnt access its own instance variables, the instance variables would be of no use whatsoever. Normally, a class also has access to the instance variables it inherits. The ability to refer to an instance variable is usually inherited along with the variable. It makes sense for classes to have their entire data structures within their scope, especially if you think of a class definition as merely an elaboration of the classes it inherits from. The promoteTo: method illustrated earlier could just as well have been defined in any class that inherits the job instance variable from the Worker class. However, there are reasons why you might want to restrict inheriting classes from directly accessing an instance variable:
Once a subclass accesses an inherited instance variable, the class that declares the variable is tied to that part of its implementation. In later versions, it cant eliminate the variable or alter the role it plays without inadvertently breaking the subclass. Moreover, if a subclass accesses an inherited instance variable and alters its value, it may inadvertently introduce bugs in the class that declares the variable, especially if the variable is involved in class-internal dependencies.
To limit an instance variables scope to just the class that declares it, you must mark it @private. Instance variables marked @private are only available to subclasses by calling public accessor methods, if they exist. At the other extreme, marking a variable @public makes it generally available, even outside of class definitions that inherit or declare the variable. Normally, to get information stored in an instance variable, other objects must send a message requesting it. However, a public instance variable can be accessed anywhere as if it were a field in a C structure. For example:
Worker *ceo = [[Worker alloc] init];
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Defining a Class Messages to self and super
ceo->boss = nil;
Note that the object must be statically typed. Marking instance variables @public defeats the ability of an object to hide its data. It runs counter to a fundamental principle of object-oriented programmingthe encapsulation of data within objects where its protected from view and inadvertent error. Public instance variables should therefore be avoided except in extraordinary cases.
Messages to self and super

Objective-C provides two terms that can be used within a method definition to refer to the object that performs the methodself and super. Suppose, for example, that you define a reposition method that needs to change the coordinates of whatever object it acts on. It can invoke the setOrigin:: method to make the change. All it needs to do is send a setOrigin:: message to the same object that the reposition message itself was sent to. When youre writing the reposition code, you can refer to that object as either self or super. The reposition method could read either:
- reposition { ... [self setOrigin:someX :someY]; ... }
or:
- reposition { ... [super setOrigin:someX :someY]; ... }
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Here, self and super both refer to the object receiving a reposition message, whatever object that may happen to be. The two terms are quite different, however. self is one of the hidden parameters that the messaging routine passes to every method; its a local variable that can be used freely within a method implementation, just as the names of instance variables can be. super is a term that substitutes for self only as the receiver in a message expression. As receivers, the two terms differ principally in how they affect the messaging process:
self searches for the method implementation in the usual manner, starting in the dispatch table of the
receiving objects class. In the example above, it would begin with the class of the object receiving the reposition message.
super is a flag that tells the compiler to search for the method implementation in a very different place.
It begins in the superclass of the class that defines the method where super appears. In the example above, it would begin with the superclass of the class where reposition is defined. Wherever super receives a message, the compiler substitutes another messaging routine for the objc_msgSend function. The substitute routine looks directly to the superclass of the defining classthat is, to the superclass of the class sending the message to superrather than to the class of the object receiving the message.
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An Example: Using self and super

The difference between self and super becomes clear when using a hierarchy of three classes. Suppose, for example, that we create an object belonging to a class called Low. The superclass of Low is Mid; the superclass of Mid is High. All three classes define a method called negotiate, which each class uses for its own purpose. In addition, Mid defines an ambitious method called makeLastingPeace, which itself employs the negotiate method. The classes and those methods are illustrated in Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2 The hierarchy of High, Mid, and Low
superclass High negotiate
superclass Mid negotiate makeLastingPeace
superclass Low negotiate
Suppose that the implementation of makeLastingPeace (in the Mid class) uses self to indicate the object to send the negotiate message to:
- makeLastingPeace { [self negotiate]; ...
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When a message is sent to a Low object to perform the makeLastingPeace method, makeLastingPeace sends a negotiate message to the same Low object. The messaging routine finds the version of negotiate defined in Low, the class of self. However, if the implementation of makeLastingPeace instead uses super as the receiver,
- makeLastingPeace { [super negotiate]; ... }
the messaging routine finds the version of negotiate defined in High. It ignores the class (Low) of the object that received the makeLastingPeace message and skips to the superclass of Mid, because Mid is where makeLastingPeace is defined. Neither implementation finds the Mid version of negotiate. As this example illustrates, super provides a way to bypass a method that overrides another method. Here, the use of super enabled makeLastingPeace to bypass the Mid version of negotiate that redefined the High version of that method. Not being able to reach the Mid version of negotiate, as just described, may seem like a flaw, but under the circumstances its intentional:
The author of the Low class intentionally overrode the Mid version of negotiate so that instances of Low (and its subclasses) would invoke the redefined version of the method instead. The designer of Low didnt want Low objects to perform the inherited method. The author of the Mid method makeLastingPeace, in sending the negotiate message to super (as shown in the second implementation), intentionally skipped over the Mid version of negotiate (and over any versions that might be defined in classes like Low that inherit from Mid) to perform the version defined in the High class. The designer of the second implementation of makeLastingPeace wanted to use the High version of negotiate and no other.
The Mid version of negotiate could still be used, but it would take a direct message to a Mid instance to do so.
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Using super
Messages to super allow method implementations to be distributed over more than one class. You can override an existing method to modify or add to it and still incorporate the original method in the modification:
- negotiate { ... return [super negotiate]; }
For some tasks, each class in the inheritance hierarchy can implement a method that does part of the job and passes the message on to super for the rest. The init method, which initializes a newly allocated instance, is designed to work like this. Each init method has responsibility for initializing the instance variables defined in its class. But before doing so, it sends an init message to super to have the classes it inherits from initialize their instance variables. Each version of init follows this procedure, so classes initialize their instance variables in the order of inheritance:
- (id)init { self = [super init]; if (self) { ... } }
Its also possible to concentrate core functionality in one method defined in a superclass and have subclasses incorporate the method through messages to super. For example, every class method that creates an instance must allocate storage for the new object and initialize its isa variable to the class structure. Allocation is typically left to the alloc and allocWithZone: methods defined in the NSObject class. If another class overrides these methods (a rare case), it can still get the basic functionality by sending a message to super.
Redefining self
super is simply a flag to the compiler telling it where to begin searching for the method to perform; its used
only as the receiver of a message. But self is a variable name that can be used in any number of ways, even assigned a new value.
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Theres a tendency to do just that in definitions of class methods. Class methods are often concerned not with the class object, but with instances of the class. For example, many class methods combine allocation and initialization of an instance, often setting up instance variable values at the same time. In such a method, it might be tempting to send messages to the newly allocated instance and to call the instance self, just as in an instance method. But that would be an error. self and super both refer to the receiving objectthe object that gets a message telling it to perform the method. Inside an instance method, self refers to the instance; but inside a class method, self refers to the class object. This is an example of what not to do:
+ (Rectangle *)rectangleOfColor:(NSColor *) color { self = [[Rectangle alloc] init]; // BAD [self setColor:color]; return self; }
To avoid confusion, its usually better to use a variable other than self to refer to an instance inside a class method:
+ (id)rectangleOfColor:(NSColor *)color { id newInstance = [[Rectangle alloc] init]; // GOOD [newInstance setColor:color]; return newInstance; }
In fact, rather than sending the alloc message to the class in a class method, its often better to send alloc to self. This way, if the class is subclassed, and the rectangleOfColor: message is received by a subclass, the instance returned is the same type as the subclass (for example, the array method of NSArray is inherited by NSMutableArray).
+ (id)rectangleOfColor:(NSColor *)color { id newInstance = [[self alloc] init]; // EXCELLENT [newInstance setColor:color]; return newInstance; }
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See Creating and Initializing Objects for more information about implementing initializer and related methods.
49
Protocols
Protocols declare methods that can be implemented by any class. Protocols are useful in at least three situations:
To declare methods that others are expected to implement To declare the interface to an object while concealing its class To capture similarities among classes that are not hierarchically related
Declaring Interfaces for Others to Implement

Class and category interfaces declare methods that are associated with a particular classmainly methods that the class implements. Informal and formal protocols, on the other hand, declare methods that are independent of any specific class, but which any class, and perhaps many classes, might implement. A protocol is simply a list of method declarations, unattached to a class definition. For example, these methods that report user actions on the mouse could be gathered into a protocol:
- (void)mouseDown:(NSEvent *)theEvent; - (void)mouseDragged:(NSEvent *)theEvent; - (void)mouseUp:(NSEvent *)theEvent;
Any class that wanted to respond to mouse events could adopt the protocol and implement its methods. Protocols free method declarations from dependency on the class hierarchy, so they can be used in ways that classes and categories cannot. Protocols list methods that are (or may be) implemented somewhere, but the identity of the class that implements them is not of interest. What is of interest is whether or not a particular class conforms to the protocolwhether it has implementations of the methods the protocol declares. Thus objects can be grouped into types not just on the basis of similarities resulting from inheriting from the same class, but also on the basis of their similarity in conforming to the same protocol. Classes in unrelated branches of the inheritance hierarchy might be typed alike because they conform to the same protocol. Protocols can play a significant role in object-oriented design, especially when a project is divided among many implementors or it incorporates objects developed in other projects. Cocoa software uses protocols heavily to support interprocess communication through Objective-C messages.
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Protocols Methods for Others to Implement
However, an Objective-C program doesnt need to use protocols. Unlike class definitions and message expressions, theyre optional. Some Cocoa frameworks use them; some dont. It all depends on the task at hand.
Methods for Others to Implement

If you know the class of an object, you can look at its interface declaration (and the interface declarations of the classes it inherits from) to find what messages it responds to. These declarations advertise the messages it can receive. Protocols provide a way for it to also advertise the messages it sends. Communication works both ways; objects send messages as well as receive them. For example, an object might delegate responsibility for a certain operation to another object, or it may on occasion simply need to ask another object for information. In some cases, an object might be willing to notify other objects of its actions so that they can take whatever collateral measures might be required. If you develop the class of the sender and the class of the receiver as part of the same project (or if someone else has supplied you with the receiver and its interface file), this communication is easily coordinated. The sender simply imports the interface file of the receiver. The imported file declares the method selectors the sender uses in the messages it sends. However, if you develop an object that sends messages to objects that arent yet definedobjects that youre leaving for others to implementyou wont have the receivers interface file. You need another way to declare the methods you use in messages but dont implement. A protocol serves this purpose. It informs the compiler about methods the class uses and also informs other implementors of the methods they need to define to have their objects work with yours. Suppose, for example, that you develop an object that asks for the assistance of another object by sending it helpOut: and other messages. You provide an assistant instance variable to record the outlet for these messages and define a companion method to set the instance variable. This method lets other objects register themselves as potential recipients of your objects messages:
- setAssistant:anObject { assistant = anObject; }
Then, whenever a message is to be sent to the assistant, a check is made to be sure that the receiver implements a method that can respond:
51
Protocols Declaring Interfaces for Anonymous Objects
- (BOOL)doWork { ... if ( [assistant respondsToSelector:@selector(helpOut:)] ) { [assistant helpOut:self]; return YES; } return NO; }
Because, at the time you write this code, you cant know what kind of object might register itself as the assistant, you can only declare a protocol for the helpOut: method; you cant import the interface file of the class that implements it.
Declaring Interfaces for Anonymous Objects

A protocol can be used to declare the methods of an anonymous object, an object of unknown class. An anonymous object may represent a service or handle a limited set of functions, especially when only one object of its kind is needed. (Objects that play a fundamental role in defining an applications architecture and objects that you must initialize before using are not good candidates for anonymity.) Objects are not anonymous to their developers, of course, but they are anonymous when the developer supplies them to someone else. For example, consider the following situations:
Someone who supplies a framework or a suite of objects for others to use can include objects that are not identified by a class name or an interface file. Lacking the name and class interface, users have no way of creating instances of the class. Instead, the supplier must provide a ready-made instance. Typically, a method in another class returns a usable object:
id formatter = [receiver formattingService];
The object returned by the method is an object without a class identity, at least not one the supplier is willing to reveal. For it to be of any use at all, the supplier must be willing to identify at least some of the messages that it can respond to. The messages are identified by associating the object with a list of methods declared in a protocol.
You can send Objective-C messages to remote objectsobjects in other applications.
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Protocols Nonhierarchical Similarities
Each application has its own structure, classes, and internal logic. But you dont need to know how another application works or what its components are to communicate with it. As an outsider, all you need to know is what messages you can send (the protocol) and where to send them (the receiver). An application that publishes one of its objects as a potential receiver of remote messages must also publish a protocol declaring the methods the object will use to respond to those messages. It doesnt have to disclose anything else about the object. The sending application doesnt need to know the class of the object or use the class in its own design. All it needs is the protocol. Protocols make anonymous objects possible. Without a protocol, there would be no way to declare an interface to an object without identifying its class. Note Even though the supplier of an anonymous object doesnt reveal its class, the object itself reveals it at runtime. A class message returns the anonymous objects class. However, theres usually little point in discovering this extra information; the information in the protocol is sufficient.
Nonhierarchical Similarities
If more than one class implements a set of methods, those classes are often grouped under an abstract class that declares the methods they have in common. Each subclass can reimplement the methods in its own way, but the inheritance hierarchy and the common declaration in the abstract class capture the essential similarity between the subclasses. However, sometimes its not possible to group common methods in an abstract class. Classes that are unrelated in most respects might nevertheless need to implement some similar methods. This limited similarity may not justify a hierarchical relationship. For example, you might want to add support for creating XML representations of objects in your application and for initializing objects from an XML representation:
- (NSXMLElement *)XMLRepresentation; - initFromXMLRepresentation:(NSXMLElement *)xmlString;
These methods could be grouped into a protocol and the similarity between implementing classes accounted for by noting that they all conform to the same protocol. Objects can be typed by this similarity (the protocols they conform to), rather than by their class. For example, an NSMatrix instance must communicate with the objects that represent its cells. The matrix could require each of these objects to be a kind of NSCell (a type based on class) and rely on the fact that all objects that inherit from the NSCell class have the methods needed to respond to NSMatrix messages. Alternatively,
53
Protocols Formal Protocols
the NSMatrix object could require objects representing cells to have methods that can respond to a particular set of messages (a type based on protocol). In this case, the NSMatrix object wouldnt care what class a cell object belonged to, just that it implemented the methods.
Formal Protocols
The Objective-C language provides a way to formally declare a list of methods (including declared properties) as a protocol. Formal protocols are supported by the language and the runtime system. For example, the compiler can check for types based on protocols, and objects can introspect at runtime to report whether or not they conform to a protocol.
Declaring a Protocol
You declare formal protocols with the @protocol directive:
@protocol ProtocolName method declarations @end
For example, you could declare an XML representation protocol like this:
@protocol MyXMLSupport - initFromXMLRepresentation:(NSXMLElement *)XMLElement; - (NSXMLElement *)XMLRepresentation; @end
Unlike class names, protocol names dont have global visibility. They live in their own namespace.
Optional Protocol Methods

Protocol methods can be marked as optional using the @optional keyword. Corresponding to the @optional modal keyword, there is a @required keyword to formally denote the semantics of the default behavior. You can use @optional and @required to partition your protocol into sections as you see fit. If you do not specify any keyword, the default is @required.
@protocol MyProtocol
54
Protocols Informal Protocols
- (void)requiredMethod;
@optional - (void)anOptionalMethod; - (void)anotherOptionalMethod;
@required - (void)anotherRequiredMethod;
@end
Note In Mac OS X v10.5, protocols cannot include optional declared properties. This constraint is removed in Mac OS X v10.6 and later.
Informal Protocols
In addition to formal protocols, you can also define an informal protocol by grouping the methods in a category declaration:
@interface NSObject ( MyXMLSupport ) - initFromXMLRepresentation:(NSXMLElement *)XMLElement; - (NSXMLElement *)XMLRepresentation; @end
Informal protocols are typically declared as categories of the NSObject class, because that broadly associates the method names with any class that inherits from NSObject. Because all classes inherit from the root class, the methods arent restricted to any part of the inheritance hierarchy. (It is also possible to declare an informal protocol as a category of another class to limit it to a certain branch of the inheritance hierarchy, but there is little reason to do so.) When used to declare a protocol, a category interface doesnt have a corresponding implementation. Instead, classes that implement the protocol declare the methods again in their own interface files and define them along with other methods in their implementation files. An informal protocol bends the rules of category declarations to list a group of methods but not associate them with any particular class or implementation.
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Protocols Protocol Objects
Being informal, protocols declared in categories dont receive much language support. Theres no type checking at compile time nor a check at runtime to see whether an object conforms to the protocol. To get these benefits, you must use a formal protocol. An informal protocol may be useful when all the methods are optional, such as for a delegate, but (in Mac OS X v10.5 and later) it is typically better to use a formal protocol with optional methods.
Protocol Objects
Just as classes are represented at runtime by class objects and methods by selector codes, formal protocols are represented by a special data typeinstances of the Protocol class. Source code that deals with a protocol (other than to use it in a type specification) must refer to the corresponding protocol object. In many ways, protocols are similar to class definitions. They both declare methods, and at runtime theyre both represented by objectsclasses by instances of Class and protocols by instances of Protocol. Like class objects, protocol objects are created automatically from the definitions and declarations found in source code and are used by the runtime system. Theyre not allocated and initialized in program source code. Source code can refer to a protocol object using the @protocol() directivethe same directive that declares a protocol, except that here it has a set of trailing parentheses. The parentheses enclose the protocol name:
Protocol *myXMLSupportProtocol = @protocol(MyXMLSupport);
This is the only way that source code can conjure up a protocol object. Unlike a class name, a protocol name doesnt designate the objectexcept inside @protocol(). The compiler creates a protocol object for each protocol declaration it encounters, but only if the protocol is also:
Adopted by a class, or Referred to somewhere in source code (using @protocol())
Protocols that are declared but not used (except for type checking as described below) arent represented by protocol objects at runtime.
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Protocols Adopting a Protocol
Adopting a Protocol
Adopting a protocol is similar in some ways to declaring a superclass. Both assign methods to the class. The superclass declaration assigns it inherited methods; the protocol assigns it methods declared in the protocol list. A class is said to adopt a formal protocol if in its declaration it lists the protocol within angle brackets after the superclass name:
@interface ClassName : ItsSuperclass < protocol list >
Categories adopt protocols in much the same way:

@interface ClassName ( CategoryName ) < protocol list >
A class can adopt more than one protocol; names in the protocol list are separated by commas.
@interface Formatter : NSObject < Formatting, Prettifying >
A class or category that adopts a protocol must implement all the required methods the protocol declares, otherwise the compiler issues a warning. The Formatter class above would define all the required methods declared in the two protocols it adopts, in addition to any it might have declared itself. A class or category that adopts a protocol must import the header file where the protocol is declared. The methods declared in the adopted protocol are not declared elsewhere in the class or category interface. Its possible for a class to simply adopt protocols and declare no other methods. For example, the following class declaration adopts the Formatting and Prettifying protocols, but declares no instance variables or methods of its own:
@interface Formatter : NSObject < Formatting, Prettifying > @end
Conforming to a Protocol
A class is said to conform to a formal protocol if it adopts the protocol or inherits from another class that adopts it. An instance of a class is said to conform to the same set of protocols its class conforms to. Because a class must implement all the required methods declared in the protocols it adopts, saying that a class or an instance conforms to a protocol is equivalent to saying that it has in its repertoire all the methods the protocol declares.
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Protocols Type Checking
Its possible to check whether an object conforms to a protocol by sending it a conformsToProtocol: message.
if ( ! [receiver conformsToProtocol:@protocol(MyXMLSupport)] // Object does not conform to MyXMLSupport protocol // If you are expecting receiver to implement methods declared in the // } MyXMLSupport protocol, this is probably an error ) {
(Note that there is also a class method with the same nameconformsToProtocol:.) The conformsToProtocol: test is like the respondsToSelector: test for a single method, except that it tests whether a protocol has been adopted (and presumably all the methods it declares implemented) rather than just whether one particular method has been implemented. Because it checks for all the methods in the protocol, conformsToProtocol: can be more efficient than respondsToSelector:. The conformsToProtocol: test is also like the isKindOfClass: test, except that it tests for a type based on a protocol rather than a type based on the inheritance hierarchy.
Type Checking
Type declarations for objects can be extended to include formal protocols. Protocols thus offer the possibility of another level of type checking by the compiler, one thats more abstract since its not tied to particular implementations. In a type declaration, protocol names are listed between angle brackets after the type name:
- (id <Formatting>)formattingService; id <MyXMLSupport> anObject;
Just as static typing permits the compiler to test for a type based on the class hierarchy, this syntax permits the compiler to test for a type based on conformance to a protocol. For example, if Formatter is an abstract class, the declaration
Formatter *anObject;
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Protocols Protocols Within Protocols
groups all objects that inherit from Formatter into a type and permits the compiler to check assignments against that type. Similarly, the declaration
id <Formatting> anObject;
groups all objects that conform to the Formatting protocol into a type, regardless of their positions in the class hierarchy. The compiler can make sure only objects that conform to the protocol are assigned to the type. In each case, the type groups similar objectseither because they share a common inheritance, or because they converge on a common set of methods. The two types can be combined in a single declaration:
Formatter <Formatting> *anObject;
Protocols cant be used to type class objects. Only instances can be statically typed to a protocol, just as only instances can be statically typed to a class. (However, at runtime, both classes and instances respond to a conformsToProtocol: message.)
Protocols Within Protocols

One protocol can incorporate other protocols using the same syntax that classes use to adopt a protocol:
@protocol ProtocolName < protocol list >
All the protocols listed between angle brackets are considered part of the ProtocolName protocol. For example, if the Paging protocol incorporates the Formatting protocol
@protocol Paging < Formatting >
any object that conforms to the Paging protocol also conforms to Formatting. Type declarations such as
id <Paging> someObject;
and conformsToProtocol: messages such as
59
Protocols Referring to Other Protocols
if ( [anotherObject conformsToProtocol:@protocol(Paging)] ) ...
need to mention only the Paging protocol to test for conformance to Formatting as well. When a class adopts a protocol, it must implement the required methods the protocol declares, as mentioned earlier. In addition, it must conform to any protocols the adopted protocol incorporates. If an incorporated protocol incorporates still other protocols, the class must also conform to them. A class can conform to an incorporated protocol using either of these techniques:
Implementing the methods the protocol declares Inheriting from a class that adopts the protocol and implements the methods
Suppose, for example, that the Pager class adopts the Paging protocol. If Pager is a subclass of NSObject as shown here:
@interface Pager : NSObject < Paging >
it must implement all the Paging methods, including those declared in the incorporated Formatting protocol. It adopts the Formatting protocol along with Paging. On the other hand, if Pager is a subclass of Formatter (a class that independently adopts the Formatting protocol) as shown here:
@interface Pager : Formatter < Paging >
it must implement all the methods declared in the Paging protocol proper, but not those declared in Formatting. Pager inherits conformance to the Formatting protocol from Formatter. Note that a class can conform to a protocol without formally adopting it, simply by implementing the methods declared in the protocol.
Referring to Other Protocols

When working on complex applications, you occasionally find yourself writing code that looks like this:
#import "B.h"
60
Protocols Referring to Other Protocols
@protocol A - foo:(id <B>)anObject; @end
where protocol B is declared like this:

#import "A.h"
@protocol B - bar:(id <A>)anObject; @end
In such a situation, circularity results and neither file will compile correctly. To break this recursive cycle, you must use the @protocol directive to make a forward reference to the needed protocol instead of importing the interface file where the protocol is defined:
@protocol B;
@protocol A - foo:(id <B>)anObject; @end
Note that using the @protocol directive in this manner simply informs the compiler that B is a protocol to be defined later. It doesnt import the interface file where protocol B is defined.
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Declared Properties
The Objective-C declared properties feature provides a simple way to declare and implement an objects accessor methods.
Overview
You typically access an objects properties (in the sense of its attributes and relationships) through a pair of accessor (getter/setter) methods. By using accessor methods, you adhere to the principle of encapsulation (see Mechanisms Of Abstraction in Object-Oriented Programming with Objective-C ). You can exercise tight control of the behavior of the getter/setter pair and the underlying state management while clients of the API remain insulated from the implementation changes. Although using accessor methods therefore has significant advantages, writing accessor methods is a tedious process. Moreover, aspects of the property that may be important to consumers of the API are left obscuredsuch as whether the accessor methods are thread-safe or whether new values are copied when set. Declared properties address these issues by providing the following features:
The property declaration provides a clear, explicit specification of how the accessor methods behave. The compiler can synthesize accessor methods for you, according to the specification you provide in the declaration. Properties are represented syntactically as identifiers and are scoped, so the compiler can detect use of undeclared properties.
Property Declaration and Implementation

There are two parts to a declared property, its declaration and its implementation.
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Declared Properties Property Declaration and Implementation
Property Declaration
A property declaration begins with the keyword @property. @property can appear anywhere in the method declaration list found in the @interface block of a class. @property can also appear in the declaration of a protocol or category.
@property (attributes) type name;
The @property directive declares a property. An optional parenthesized set of attributes provides additional details about the storage semantics and other behaviors of the propertysee Property Declaration Attributes (page 64) for possible values. Like any other Objective-C type, each property has a type specification and a name. Listing 4-1 illustrates the declaration of a simple property.
Listing 4-1 Declaring a simple property
@interface MyClass : NSObject @property float value; @end
You can think of a property declaration as being equivalent to declaring two accessor methods. Thus
@property float value;
is equivalent to:
- (float)value; - (void)setValue:(float)newValue;
A property declaration, however, provides additional information about how the accessor methods are implemented (as described in Property Declaration Attributes (page 64)). You can also put property declarations in class extensions (see Extensions (page 74)). For example, you could declare the value property shown previously as follows:
@interface MyClass : NSObject @end
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@interface MyClass () @property float value; @end
This is useful if you want to hide the declaration of private properties.
Property Declaration Attributes

You can decorate a property with attributes by using the form @property(attribute [, attribute2, ...]). Like methods, properties are scoped to their enclosing interface declaration. For property declarations that use a comma-delimited list of variable names, the property attributes apply to all of the named properties. If you use the @synthesize directive to tell the compiler to create the accessor methods (see Property Implementation Directives (page 67)), the code it generates matches the specification given by the keywords. If you implement the accessor methods yourself, you should ensure that it matches the specification (for example, if you specify copy you must make sure that you do copy the input value in the setter method).
Accessor Method Names

The default names for the getter and setter methods associated with a property are propertyName and setPropertyName : respectivelyfor example, given a property foo the accessors would be foo and , setFoo:. The following attributes allow you to specify custom names instead. They are both optional and can appear with any other attribute (except for readonly in the case of setter=).
getter=getterName
Specifies the name of the get accessor for the property. The getter must return a type matching the propertys type and take no parameters.
setter=setterName
Specifies the name of the set accessor for the property. The setter method must take a single parameter of a type matching the propertys type and must return void. If you specify that a property is readonly and also specify a setter with setter=, you get a compiler warning. Typically you should specify accessor method names that are key-value coding compliant (see Key-Value Coding Programming Guide )a common reason for using the getter decorator is to adhere to the isPropertyName convention for Boolean values.
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Writability
These attributes specify whether or not a property has an associated set accessor. They are mutually exclusive.
readwrite
Indicates that the property should be treated as read/write. This attribute is the default. Both a getter and setter method are required in the @implementation block. If you use the @synthesize directive in the implementation block, the getter and setter methods are synthesized.
readonly
Indicates that the property is read-only. If you specify readonly, only a getter method is required in the @implementation block. If you use the @synthesize directive in the implementation block, only the getter method is synthesized. Moreover, if you attempt to assign a value using the dot syntax, you get a compiler error.
Setter Semantics
These attributes specify the semantics of a set accessor. They are mutually exclusive.
strong
Specifies that there is a strong (owning) relationship to the destination object.

weak
Specifies that there is a weak (non-owning) relationship to the destination object. If the destination object is deallocated, the property value is automatically set to nil. (Weak properties are not supported on OS X v10.6 and iOS 4; use assign instead.)
copy
Specifies that a copy of the object should be used for assignment. The previous value is sent a release message. The copy is made by invoking the copy method. This attribute is valid only for object types, which must implement the NSCopying protocol.
assign
Specifies that the setter uses simple assignment. This attribute is the default. You use this attribute for scalar types such as NSInteger and CGRect.
retain
Specifies that retain should be invoked on the object upon assignment. The previous value is sent a release message. In OS X v10.6 and later, you can use the __attribute__ keyword to specify that a Core Foundation property should be treated like an Objective-C object for memory management:
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@property(retain) __attribute__((NSObject)) CFDictionaryRef myDictionary;
Atomicity
You can use this attribute to specify that accessor methods are not atomic. (There is no keyword to denote atomic.)
nonatomic
Specifies that accessors are nonatomic. By default, accessors are atomic. Properties are atomic by default so that synthesized accessors provide robust access to properties in a multithreaded environmentthat is, the value returned from the getter or set via the setter is always fully retrieved or set regardless of what other threads are executing concurrently. If you specify strong, copy, or retain and do not specify nonatomic, then in a reference-counted environment, a synthesized get accessor for an object property uses a lock and retains and autoreleases the returned valuethe implementation will be similar to the following:
[_internal lock]; // lock using an object-level lock id result = [[value retain] autorelease]; [_internal unlock]; return result;
If you specify nonatomic, a synthesized accessor for an object property simply returns the value directly.
Markup and Deprecation

Properties support the full range of C-style decorators. Properties can be deprecated and support __attribute__ style markup:
@property CGFloat x AVAILABLE_MAC_OS_X_VERSION_10_1_AND_LATER_BUT_DEPRECATED_IN_MAC_OS_X_VERSION_10_4; @property CGFloat y __attribute__((...));
If you want to specify that a property is an outlet (see outlet in iOS, and outlet in OS X), you use the IBOutlet identifier:
@property (nonatomic, weak) IBOutlet NSButton *myButton;
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IBOutlet is not, though, a formal part of the list of attributes. For more about declaring outlet properties, see Nib Files.
Property Implementation Directives

You can use the @synthesize and @dynamic directives in @implementation blocks to trigger specific compiler actions. Note that neither is required for any given @property declaration. Important If you do not specify either @synthesize or @dynamic for a particular property, you must provide a getter and setter (or just a getter in the case of a readonly property) method implementation for that property. If you do not, the compiler generates a warning.
@synthesize
You use the @synthesize directive to tell the compiler that it should synthesize the setter and/or getter methods for a property if you do not supply them within the @implementation block. The @synthesize directive also synthesizes an appropriate instance variable if it is not otherwise declared.
Listing 4-2 Using @synthesize
@interface MyClass : NSObject @property(copy, readwrite) NSString *value; @end
@implementation MyClass @synthesize value; @end
You can use the form property=ivar to indicate that a particular instance variable should be used for the property, for example:
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@synthesize firstName, lastName, age=yearsOld;
This specifies that the accessor methods for firstName, lastName, and age should be synthesized and that the property age is represented by the instance variable yearsOld. Other aspects of the synthesized methods are determined by the optional attributes (see Property Declaration Attributes (page 64)). Whether or not you specify the name of the instance variable, the @synthesize directive can use an instance variable only from the current class, not a superclass. There are differences in the behavior of accessor synthesis that depend on the runtime (see also Runtime Difference (page 71)):
For the legacy runtimes, instance variables must already be declared in the @interface block of the current class. If an instance variable of the same name as the property exists, and if its type is compatible with the propertys type, it is usedotherwise, you get a compiler error. For the modern runtimes (see Runtime Versions and Platforms in Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide ), instance variables are synthesized as needed. If an instance variable of the same name already exists, it is used.
@dynamic
You use the @dynamic keyword to tell the compiler that you will fulfill the API contract implied by a property either by providing method implementations directly or at runtime using other mechanisms such as dynamic loading of code or dynamic method resolution. It suppresses the warnings that the compiler would otherwise generate if it cant find suitable implementations. You should use it only if you know that the methods will be available at runtime. The example shown in Listing 4-3 illustrates using @dynamic with a subclass of NSManagedObject.
Listing 4-3 Using @dynamic with NSManagedObject
@interface MyClass : NSManagedObject @property(nonatomic, retain) NSString *value; @end
@implementation MyClass @dynamic value; @end
NSManagedObject is provided by the Core Data framework. A managed object class has a corresponding
schema that defines attributes and relationships for the class; at runtime, the Core Data framework
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Declared Properties Using Properties
generates accessor methods for these as necessary. You therefore typically declare properties for the attributes and relationships, but you dont have to implement the accessor methods yourself and shouldnt ask the compiler to do so. If you just declared the property without providing any implementation, however, the compiler would generate a warning. Using @dynamic suppresses the warning.
Using Properties
Supported Types
You can declare a property for any Objective-C class, Core Foundation data type, or plain old data (POD) type (see C++ Language Note: POD Types). For constraints on using Core Foundation types, however, see Core Foundation (page 70).
Property Redeclaration
You can redeclare a property in a subclass, but (with the exception of readonly versus readwrite) you must repeat its attributes in whole in the subclasses. The same holds true for a property declared in a category or protocolwhile the property may be redeclared in a category or protocol, the propertys attributes must be repeated in whole. If you declare a property in one class as readonly, you can redeclare it as readwrite in a class extension (see Extensions (page 74)), in a protocol, or in a subclass (see Subclassing with Properties (page 70)). In the case of a class extension redeclaration, the fact that the property was redeclared prior to any @synthesize statement causes the setter to be synthesized. The ability to redeclare a read-only property as read/write enables two common implementation patterns: a mutable subclass of an immutable class (NSString, NSArray, and NSDictionary are all examples) and a property that has a public API that is readonly but a private readwrite implementation internal to the class. The following example shows using a class extension to provide a property that is declared as read-only in the public header but is redeclared privately as read/write.
// public header file @interface MyObject : NSObject @property (readonly, copy) NSString *language; @end
// private implementation file @interface MyObject () @property (readwrite, copy) NSString *language;
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Declared Properties Subclassing with Properties
@end
@implementation MyObject @synthesize language; @end
Core Foundation
As noted in Property Declaration Attributes (page 64), prior to Mac OS X v10.6 you cannot specify the retain attribute for non-object types. If, therefore, you declare a property whose type is a CFType and synthesize the accessors as illustrated in the following example:
@interface MyClass : NSObject @property(readwrite) CGImageRef myImage; @end
@implementation MyClass @synthesize myImage; @end
then in a reference-counted environment, the synthesized set accessor simply assigns the new value to the instance variable (the new value is not retained and the old value is not released). Simple assignment is typically incorrect for Core Foundation objects; you should not synthesize the methods but rather implement them yourself.
Subclassing with Properties

You can override a readonly property to make it writable. For example, you could define a class MyInteger with a readonly property, value:
@interface MyInteger : NSObject @property(readonly) NSInteger value; @end
@implementation MyInteger
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Declared Properties Runtime Difference
@synthesize value; @end
You could then implement a subclass, MyMutableInteger, which redefines the property to make it writable:
@interface MyMutableInteger : MyInteger @property(readwrite) NSInteger value; @end
@implementation MyMutableInteger @dynamic value;
- (void)setValue:(NSInteger)newX { value = newX; } @end
Runtime Difference
In general the behavior of properties is identical on both modern and legacy runtimes (see Runtime Versions and Platforms in Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide ). There is one key difference: the modern runtime supports instance variable synthesis whereas the legacy runtime does not. For @synthesize to work in the legacy runtime, you must either provide an instance variable with the same name and compatible type of the property or specify another existing instance variable in the @synthesize statement. With the modern runtime, if you do not provide an instance variable, the compiler adds one for you. For example, given the following class declaration and implementation:
@interface MyClass : NSObject @property float noDeclaredIvar; @end
@implementation MyClass @synthesize noDeclaredIvar; @end
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Declared Properties Runtime Difference
the compiler for the legacy runtime would generate an error at @synthesize noDeclaredIvar; whereas the compiler for the modern runtime would add an instance variable to represent noDeclaredIvar.
72
Categories and Extensions
A category allows you to add methods to an existing classeven to one for which you do not have the source. Categories are a powerful feature that allows you to extend the functionality of existing classes without subclassing. Using categories, you can also distribute the implementation of your own classes among several files. Class extensions are similar, but allow additional required APIs to be declared for a class in locations other than within the primary class @interface block.
Adding Methods to Classes

You can add methods to a class by declaring them in an interface file under a category name and defining them in an implementation file under the same name. The category name indicates that the methods are additions to a class declared elsewhere, not a new class. You cannot, however, use a category to add additional instance variables to a class. The methods the category adds become part of the class type. For example, methods added to the NSArray class in a category are included as methods the compiler expects an NSArray instance to have in its repertoire. Methods added to the NSArray class in a subclass, however, are not included in the NSArray type. (This matters only for statically typed objects because static typing is the only way the compiler can know an objects class.) Category methods can do anything that methods defined in the class proper can do. At runtime, theres no difference. The methods the category adds to the class are inherited by all the classs subclasses, just like other methods. The declaration of a category interface looks very much like a class interface declarationexcept the category name is listed within parentheses after the class name and the superclass isnt mentioned. Unless its methods dont access any instance variables of the class, the category must import the interface file for the class it extends:
#import "ClassName.h"
@interface ClassName ( CategoryName ) // method declarations @end
73
Categories and Extensions Extensions
Note that a category cant declare additional instance variables for the class; it includes only methods. However, all instance variables within the scope of the class are also within the scope of the category. That includes all instance variables declared by the class, even ones declared @private. Theres no limit to the number of categories that you can add to a class, but each category name must be different, and each should declare and define a different set of methods.
Extensions
Class extensions are like anonymous categories, except that the methods they declare must be implemented in the main @implementation block for the corresponding class. Using the Clang/LLVM 2.0 compiler, you can also declare properties and instance variables in a class extension. A common use for class extensions is to redeclare property that is publicly declared as read-only privately as readwrite:
@interface MyClass : NSObject @property (retain, readonly) float value; @end
// Private extension, typically hidden in the main implementation file. @interface MyClass () @property (retain, readwrite) float value; @end
Notice that (in contrast to a category) no name is given in the parentheses in the second @interface block. It is also generally common for a class to have a publicly declared API and to then have additional methods declared privately for use solely by the class or the framework within which the class resides. Class extensions allow you to declare additional required methods for a class in locations other than within the primary class @interface block, as illustrated in the following example:
@interface MyClass : NSObject - (float)value; @end
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Categories and Extensions Extensions
@interface MyClass () { float value; } - (void)setValue:(float)newValue; @end
@implementation MyClass
- (float)value { return value; }
- (void)setValue:(float)newValue { value = newValue; }
@end
The implementation of the setValue: method must appear within the main @implementation block for the class (you cannot implement it in a category). If this is not the case, the compiler emits a warning that it cannot find a method definition for setValue:.
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Associative References
Associative references, available starting in Mac OS X v10.6, simulate the addition of object instance variables to an existing class. Using associative references, you can add storage to an object without modifying the class declaration. This may be useful if you do not have access to the source code for the class, or if for binary-compatibility reasons you cannot alter the layout of the object. Associations are based on a key. For any object you can add as many associations as you want, each using a different key. An association can also ensure that the associated object remains valid for at least the lifetime of the source object.
Creating Associations
You use the Objective-C runtime function objc_setAssociatedObject to make an association between one object and another. The function takes four parameters: the source object, a key, the value, and an association policy constant. Of these, the key and the association policy merit further discussion.
The key is a void pointer. The key for each association must be unique. A typical pattern is to use a static variable. The policy specifies whether the associated object is assigned, retained, or copied, and whether the association is be made atomically or non-atomically. This pattern is similar to that of the attributes of a declared property (see Property Declaration Attributes (page 64)). You specify the policy for the relationship using a constant (see objc_AssociationPolicy and Associative Object Behaviors).
Listing 6-1 shows how you can establish an association between an array and a string.
Listing 6-1 Establishing an association between an array and a string
static char overviewKey;
NSArray *array = [[NSArray alloc] initWithObjects:@"One", @"Two", @"Three", nil]; // For the purposes of illustration, use initWithFormat: to ensure // the string can be deallocated
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Associative References Retrieving Associated Objects
NSString *overview = [[NSString alloc] initWithFormat:@"%@", @"First three numbers"];
objc_setAssociatedObject ( array, &overviewKey, overview, OBJC_ASSOCIATION_RETAIN );
[overview release]; // (1) overview valid [array release]; // (2) overview invalid
At point 1, the string overview is still valid because the OBJC_ASSOCIATION_RETAIN policy specifies that the array retains the associated object. When the array is deallocated, however (at point 2), overview is released and so in this case also deallocated. If you try to, for example, log the value of overview, you generate a runtime exception.
Retrieving Associated Objects

You retrieve an associated object using the Objective-C runtime function objc_getAssociatedObject. Continuing the example shown in Listing 6-1 (page 76), you could retrieve the overview from the array using the following line of code:
NSString *associatedObject = (NSString *)objc_getAssociatedObject(array, &overviewKey);
Breaking Associations
To break an association, you typically call objc_setAssociatedObject, passing nil as the value. Continuing the example shown in Listing 6-1 (page 76), you could break the association between the array and the string overview using the following line of code:
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Associative References Complete Example
objc_setAssociatedObject(array, &overviewKey, nil, OBJC_ASSOCIATION_ASSIGN);
Given that the associated object is being set to nil, the policy isnt actually important. To break all associations for an object, you can call objc_removeAssociatedObjects. In general, however, you are discouraged from using this function because it breaks all associations for all clients. Use this function only if you need to restore an object to pristine condition.
Complete Example
The following program combines code from the preceding sections.
#import <Foundation/Foundation.h> #import <objc/runtime.h>
int main (int argc, const char * argv[]) {
@autoreleasepool { static char overviewKey;
NSArray *array = [[NSArray alloc] initWithObjects:@ "One", @"Two", @"Three", nil]; // For the purposes of illustration, use initWithFormat: to ensure // we get a deallocatable string NSString *overview = [[NSString alloc] initWithFormat:@"%@", @"First three numbers"];
objc_setAssociatedObject ( array, &overviewKey, overview, OBJC_ASSOCIATION_RETAIN ); [overview release];
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Associative References Complete Example
NSString *associatedObject = (NSString *) objc_getAssociatedObject (array, &overviewKey); NSLog(@"associatedObject: %@", associatedObject);
objc_setAssociatedObject ( array, &overviewKey, nil, OBJC_ASSOCIATION_ASSIGN ); [array release];
} return 0; }
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Fast Enumeration
Fast enumeration is a language feature that allows you to efficiently and safely enumerate over the contents of a collection using a concise syntax.
The forin Syntax

The syntax for fast enumeration is defined as follows:
for (
Type newVariable in expression ) { statements }
or Type existingItem ;
for (
existingItem in expression ) { statements }
In both cases, expression yields an object that conforms to the NSFastEnumeration protocol (see Adopting Fast Enumeration (page 81)). The iterating variable is set to each item in the returned object in turn, and the code defined by statements is executed. The iterating variable is set to nil when the loop ends by exhausting the source pool of objects. If the loop is terminated early, the iterating variable is left pointing to the last iteration item. There are several advantages to using fast enumeration:
The enumeration is considerably more efficient than, for example, using NSEnumerator directly. The syntax is concise. Enumeration is safethe enumerator has a mutation guard so that if you attempt to modify the collection during enumeration, an exception is raised.
Because mutation of the object during iteration is forbidden, you can perform multiple enumerations concurrently.
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Fast Enumeration Adopting Fast Enumeration
In other respects, the feature behaves like a standard for loop. You can use break to interrupt the iteration and continue to advance to the next element.
Adopting Fast Enumeration

Any class whose instances provide access to a collection of other objects can adopt the NSFastEnumeration protocol. The collection classes in the Foundation frameworkNSArray, NSDictionary, and NSSetadopt this protocol, as does NSEnumerator. It should be obvious that in the cases of NSArray and NSSet the enumeration is over their contents. For other classes, the corresponding documentation should make clear what property is iterated overfor example, NSDictionary and the Core Data class NSManagedObjectModel provide support for fast enumeration; NSDictionary enumerates its keys, and NSManagedObjectModel enumerates its entities.
Using Fast Enumeration

The following code example illustrates using fast enumeration with NSArray and NSDictionary objects.
NSArray *array = [NSArray arrayWithObjects: @"one", @"two", @"three", @"four", nil];
for (NSString *element in array) { NSLog(@"element: %@", element); }
NSDictionary *dictionary = [NSDictionary dictionaryWithObjectsAndKeys: @"quattuor", @"four", @"quinque", @"five", @"sex", @"six", nil];
NSString *key; for (key in dictionary) { NSLog(@"English: %@, Latin: %@", key, [dictionary objectForKey:key]); }
You can also use NSEnumerator objects with fast enumeration, as illustrated in this example:
NSArray *array = [NSArray arrayWithObjects:
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Fast Enumeration Using Fast Enumeration
@"one", @"two", @"three", @"four", nil];
NSEnumerator *enumerator = [array reverseObjectEnumerator]; for (NSString *element in enumerator) { if ([element isEqualToString:@"three"]) { break; } }
NSString *next = [enumerator nextObject]; // next = "two"
For collections or enumerators that have a well-defined ordersuch as an NSArray or an NSEnumerator instance derived from an arraythe enumeration proceeds in that order, so simply counting iterations gives you the proper index into the collection if you need it.
NSArray *array = <#Get an array#>; NSUInteger index = 0;
for (id element in array) { NSLog(@"Element at index %u is: %@", index, element); index++; }
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Enabling Static Behavior
This chapter explains how static typing works and discusses some other features of Objective-C, including ways to temporarily overcome its inherent dynamism.
Default Dynamic Behavior

By design, Objective-C objects are dynamic entities. As many decisions about them as possible are pushed from compile time to runtime:
The memory for objects is dynamically allocated at runtime by class methods that create new instances. Objects are dynamically typed. In source code (at compile time), any object variable can be of type id no matter what the objects class is. The exact class of an id variable (and therefore its particular methods and data structure) isnt determined until the program runs. Messages and methods are dynamically bound, as described in Dynamic Binding (page 17). A runtime procedure matches the method selector in the message to a method implementation that belongs to the receiver.
These features give object-oriented programs a great deal of flexibility and power, but theres a price to pay. In particular, the compiler cant check the exact types (classes) of id variables. To permit better compile-time type checking, and to make code more self-documenting, Objective-C allows objects to be statically typed with a class name rather than generically typed as id. Objective-C also lets you turn off some of its object-oriented features in order to shift operations from runtime back to compile time. Note Messages are somewhat slower than function calls, typically incurring an insignificant amount of overhead compared to actual work performed. The exceptionally rare case where bypassing the dynamism of Objective-C might be warranted can be proven by use of analysis tools like Shark or Instruments.
Static Typing
If a pointer to a class name is used in place of id in an object declaration such as
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Enabling Static Behavior Static Typing
Rectangle *thisObject;
the compiler restricts the value of the declared variable to be either an instance of the class named in the declaration or an instance of a class that inherits from the named class. In the example above, thisObject can be only a Rectangle object of some kind. Statically typed objects have the same internal data structures as objects declared to be of type id. The type doesnt affect the object; it affects only the amount of information given to the compiler about the object and the amount of information available to those reading the source code. Static typing also doesnt affect how the object is treated at runtime. Statically typed objects are dynamically allocated by the same class methods that create instances of type id. If Square is a subclass of Rectangle, the following code would still produce an object with all the instance variables of a Square object, not just those of a Rectangle object:
Rectangle *thisObject = [[Square alloc] init];
Messages sent to statically typed objects are dynamically bound, just as messages to objects typed id are. The exact type of a statically typed receiver is still determined at runtime as part of the messaging process. A display message sent to the thisObject object:
[thisObject display];
performs the version of the method defined in the Square class, not the one in its Rectangle superclass. By giving the compiler more information about an object, static typing opens up possibilities that are absent for objects typed id:
In certain situations, it allows for compile-time type checking. It can free objects from the restriction that identically named methods must have identical return and parameter types. It permits you to use the structure pointer operator to directly access an objects instance variables.
The first two possibilities are discussed in the sections that follow. The third is covered in Defining a Class (page 33).
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Enabling Static Behavior Type Checking
Type Checking
With the additional information provided by static typing, the compiler can deliver better type-checking services in two situations:
When a message is sent to a statically typed receiver, the compiler can make sure the receiver can respond. A warning is issued if the receiver doesnt have access to the method named in the message. When a statically typed object is assigned to a statically typed variable, the compiler makes sure the types are compatible. A warning is issued if theyre not.
An assignment can be made without warning, provided the class of the object being assigned is identical to, or inherits from, the class of the variable receiving the assignment. The following example illustrates this:
Shape *aShape;
Rectangle *aRect;
aRect = [[Rectangle alloc] init]; aShape = aRect;
Here aRect can be assigned to aShape because a rectangle is a kind of shapethe Rectangle class inherits from Shape. However, if the roles of the two variables are reversed and aShape is assigned to aRect, the compiler generates a warning; not every shape is a rectangle. (For reference, see Figure 1-2 (page 21), which shows the class hierarchy including Shape and Rectangle.) Theres no check when the expression on either side of the assignment operator is of type id. A statically typed object can be freely assigned to an id object, or an id object to a statically typed object. Because methods like alloc and init return objects of type id, the compiler doesnt ensure that a compatible object is returned to a statically typed variable. The following code is error-prone, but is allowed nonetheless:
Rectangle *aRect; aRect = [[Shape alloc] init];
Return and Parameter Types

In general, methods in different classes that have the same selector (the same name) must also share the same return and parameter types. This constraint is imposed by the compiler to allow dynamic binding. Because the class of a message receiver (and therefore class-specific details about the method its asked to perform), cant
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Enabling Static Behavior Static Typing to an Inherited Class
be known at compile time, the compiler must treat all methods with the same name alike. When it prepares information on method return and parameter types for the runtime system, it creates just one method description for each method selector. However, when a message is sent to a statically typed object, the class of the receiver is known by the compiler. The compiler has access to class-specific information about the methods. Therefore, the message is freed from the restrictions on its return and parameter types.
Static Typing to an Inherited Class

An instance can be statically typed to its own class or to any class that it inherits from. All instances, for example, can be statically typed as NSObject. However, the compiler understands the class of a statically typed object only from the class name in the type designation, and it does its type checking accordingly. Typing an instance to an inherited class can therefore result in discrepancies between what the compiler thinks would happen at runtime and what actually happens. For example, if you statically type a Rectangle instance as Shape as shown here:
Shape *myRectangle = [[Rectangle alloc] init];
the compiler treats it as a Shape instance. If you send the object a message to perform a Rectangle method,
BOOL solid = [myRectangle isFilled];
the compiler complains. The isFilled method is defined in the Rectangle class, not in Shape. However, if you send it a message to perform a method that the Shape class knows about such as
[myRectangle display];
the compiler doesnt complain, even though Rectangle overrides the method. At runtime, the Rectangle version of the method is performed. Similarly, suppose that the Upper class declares a worry method that returns a double as shown here:
- (double)worry;
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Enabling Static Behavior Static Typing to an Inherited Class
and the Middle subclass of Upper overrides the method and declares a new return type:
- (int)worry;
If an instance is statically typed to the Upper class, the compiler thinks that its worry method returns a double, and if an instance is typed to the Middle class, the compiler thinks that worry returns an int. Errors result if a Middle instance is typed to the Upper class: The compiler informs the runtime system that a worry message sent to the object returns a double, but at runtime it actually returns an int and generates an error. Static typing can free identically named methods from the restriction that they must have identical return and parameter types, but it can do so reliably only if the methods are declared in different branches of the class hierarchy.
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Selectors
In Objective-C, selector has two meanings. It can be used to refer simply to the name of a method when its used in a source-code message to an object. It also, though, refers to the unique identifier that replaces the name when the source code is compiled. Compiled selectors are of type SEL. All methods with the same name have the same selector. You can use a selector to invoke a method on an objectthis provides the basis for the implementation of the target-action design pattern in Cocoa.
Methods and Selectors

For efficiency, full ASCII names are not used as method selectors in compiled code. Instead, the compiler writes each method name into a table, then pairs the name with a unique identifier that represents the method at runtime. The runtime system makes sure each identifier is unique: No two selectors are the same, and all methods with the same name have the same selector.
SEL and @selector

Compiled selectors are assigned to a special type, SEL, to distinguish them from other data. Valid selectors are never 0. You must let the system assign SEL identifiers to methods; its futile to assign them arbitrarily. The @selector() directive lets you refer to the compiled selector, rather than to the full method name. Here, the selector for setWidth:height: is assigned to the setWidthHeight variable:
SEL setWidthHeight; setWidthHeight = @selector(setWidth:height:);
Its most efficient to assign values to SEL variables at compile time with the @selector() directive. However, in some cases, you may need to convert a character string to a selector at runtime. You can do this with the NSSelectorFromString function:
setWidthHeight = NSSelectorFromString(aBuffer);
Conversion in the opposite direction is also possible. The NSStringFromSelector function returns a method name for a selector:
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Selectors Varying the Message at Runtime
NSString *method; method = NSStringFromSelector(setWidthHeight);
Methods and Selectors

Compiled selectors identify method names, not method implementations. The display method for one class, for example, has the same selector as display methods defined in other classes. This is essential for polymorphism and dynamic binding; it lets you send the same message to receivers belonging to different classes. If there were one selector per method implementation, a message would be no different from a function call. A class method and an instance method with the same name are assigned the same selector. However, because of their separate domains, theres no confusion between the two. A class could define a display class method in addition to a display instance method.
Method Return and Parameter Types

The messaging routine has access to method implementations only through selectors, so it treats all methods with the same selector alike. It discovers the return type of a method, and the data types of its parameters, from the selector. Therefore, except for messages sent to statically typed receivers, dynamic binding requires all implementations of identically named methods to have the same return type and the same parameter types. (Statically typed receivers are an exception to this rule because the compiler can learn about the method implementation from the class type.) Although identically named class methods and instance methods are represented by the same selector, they can have different parameter types and return types.
Varying the Message at Runtime

The performSelector:, performSelector:withObject:, and performSelector:withObject:withObject: methods, defined in the NSObject protocol, take SEL identifiers as their initial parameters. All three methods map directly into the messaging function. For example,
[friend performSelector:@selector(gossipAbout:) withObject:aNeighbor];
is equivalent to:
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Selectors The Target-Action Design Pattern
[friend gossipAbout:aNeighbor];
These methods make it possible to vary a message at runtime, just as its possible to vary the object that receives the message. Variable names can be used in both halves of a message expression:
id SEL helper = getTheReceiver(); request = getTheSelector();
[helper performSelector:request];
In this example, the receiver (helper) is chosen at runtime (by the fictitious getTheReceiver function), and the method the receiver is asked to perform (request) is also determined at runtime (by the equally fictitious getTheSelector function). Note performSelector: and its companion methods return an object of type id. If the method thats performed returns a different type, it should be cast to the proper type. (However, casting doesnt work for all types; the method should return a pointer or a type compatible with a pointer.)
The Target-Action Design Pattern

In its treatment of user-interface controls, AppKit makes good use of the ability to vary both the receiver and the message at runtime.
NSControl objects are graphical devices that can be used to give instructions to an application. Most resemble
real-world control devices such as buttons, switches, knobs, text fields, dials, menu items, and the like. In software, these devices stand between the application and the user. They interpret events coming from hardware devices such as the keyboard and mouse and translate them into application-specific instructions. For example, a button labeled Find would translate a mouse click into an instruction for the application to start searching for something. AppKit defines a template for creating control devices and defines a few off-the-shelf devices of its own. For example, the NSButtonCell class defines an object that you can assign to an NSMatrix instance and initialize with a size, a label, a picture, a font, and a keyboard shortcut. When the user clicks the button (or uses the keyboard shortcut), the NSButtonCell object sends a message instructing the application to do something. To do this, an NSButtonCell object must be initialized not just with an image, a size, and a label, but with directions on what message to send and who to send it to. Accordingly, an NSButtonCell instance can be initialized for an action message (the method selector it should use in the message it sends) and a target (the object that should receive the message).
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Selectors Avoiding Messaging Errors
[myButtonCell setAction:@selector(reapTheWind:)]; [myButtonCell setTarget:anObject];
When the user clicks the corresponding button, the button cell sends the message using the NSObject protocol method performSelector:withObject:. All action messages take a single parameter, the id of the control device sending the message. If Objective-C didnt allow the message to be varied, all NSButtonCell objects would have to send the same message; the name of the method would be frozen in the NSButtonCell source code. Instead of simply implementing a mechanism for translating user actions into action messages, button cells and other controls would have to constrain the content of the message. Constrained messaging would make it difficult for any object to respond to more than one button cell. There would either have to be one target for each button, or the target object would have to discover which button the message came from and act accordingly. Each time you rearranged the user interface, you would also have to reimplement the method that responds to the action message. An absence of dynamic messaging would create an unnecessary complication that Objective-C happily avoids.
Avoiding Messaging Errors

If an object receives a message to perform a method that isnt in its repertoire, an error results. Its the same sort of error as calling a nonexistent function. But because messaging occurs at runtime, the error often isnt evident until the program executes. Its relatively easy to avoid this error when the message selector is constant and the class of the receiving object is known. As you write your programs, you can make sure that the receiver is able to respond. If the receiver is statically typed, the compiler performs this test for you. However, if the message selector or the class of the receiver varies, it may be necessary to postpone this test until runtime. The respondsToSelector: method, defined in the NSObject class, tests whether a receiver can respond to a message. It takes the method selector as a parameter and returns whether the receiver has access to a method matching the selector:
if ( [anObject respondsToSelector:@selector(setOrigin::)] ) [anObject setOrigin:0.0 :0.0]; else fprintf(stderr, "%s cant be placed\n", [NSStringFromClass([anObject class]) UTF8String]);
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Selectors Avoiding Messaging Errors
The respondsToSelector: runtime test is especially important when you send messages to objects that you dont have control over at compile time. For example, if you write code that sends a message to an object represented by a variable that others can set, you should make sure the receiver implements a method that can respond to the message. Note An object can also arrange to have messages it receives forwarded to other objects if it doesnt respond to them directly itself. In that case, from the callers perspective, the object appears to handle the message directly, even though it handles the message indirectly by forwarding it to another object. See Message Forwarding in Objective-C Runtime Programming Guide for more information.
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Exception Handling
The Objective-C language has an exception-handling syntax similar to that of Java and C++. By using this syntax with the NSException, NSError, or custom classes, you can add robust error-handling to your programs. This chapter provides a summary of exception syntax and handling; for more details, see Exception Programming Topics .
Enabling Exception-Handling
Using GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) version 3.3 and later, Objective-C provides language-level support for exception handling. To turn on support for these features, use the -fobjc-exceptions switch of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) version 3.3 and later. (Note that this switch renders the application runnable only in Mac OS X v10.3 and later because runtime support for exception handling and synchronization is not present in earlier versions of the software.)
Exception Handling
An exception is a special condition that interrupts the normal flow of program execution. There are a variety of reasons why an exception may be generated (exceptions are typically said to be raised or thrown ), by hardware as well as software. Examples include arithmetical errors such as division by zero, underflow or overflow, calling undefined instructions (such as attempting to invoke an unimplemented method), and attempting to access a collection element out of bounds. Objective-C exception support involves four compiler directives: @try, @catch, @throw, and @finally:
Code that can potentially throw an exception is enclosed in a @try{} block. A @catch{} block contains exception-handling logic for exceptions thrown in a @try{} block. You can have multiple @catch{} blocks to catch different types of exception. (For a code example, see Catching Different Types of Exception (page 94).) You use the @throw directive to throw an exception, which is essentially an Objective-C object. You typically use an NSException object, but you are not required to. A @finally{} block contains code that must be executed whether an exception is thrown or not.
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Exception Handling Catching Different Types of Exception
This example depicts a simple exception-handling algorithm:

Cup *cup = [[Cup alloc] init];
@try { [cup fill]; } @catch (NSException *exception) { NSLog(@"main: Caught %@: %@", [exception name], [exception reason]); } @finally { [cup release]; }
Catching Different Types of Exception

To catch an exception thrown in a @try{} block, use one or more @catch{}blocks following the @try{} block. The @catch{} blocks should be ordered from most-specific to least-specific. That way you can tailor the processing of exceptions as groups, as shown in Listing 10-1.
Listing 10-1 An exception handler
@try { ... } @catch (CustomException *ce) { ... } @catch (NSException *ne) { // 2 // 1
// Perform processing necessary at this level. ...
} @catch (id ue) { ...
94
Exception Handling Throwing Exceptions
} @finally { // 3
// Perform processing necessary whether an exception occurred or not. ... }
The following list describes the numbered code lines:

1. 2. 3.
Catches the most specific exception type. Catches a more general exception type. Performs any clean-up processing that must always be performed, whether exceptions were thrown or not.
Throwing Exceptions
To throw an exception, you must instantiate an object with the appropriate information, such as the exception name and the reason it was thrown.
NSException *exception = [NSException exceptionWithName: @"HotTeaException" reason: @"The tea is too hot" userInfo: nil]; @throw exception;
Important In many environments, use of exceptions is fairly commonplace. For example, you might throw an exception to signal that a routine could not execute normallysuch as when a file is missing or data could not be parsed correctly. Exceptions are resource-intensive in Objective-C. You should not use exceptions for general flow-control, or simply to signify errors. Instead you should use the return value of a method or function to indicate that an error has occurred, and provide information about the problem in an error object. For more information, see Error Handling Programming Guide . Inside a @catch{} block, you can rethrow the caught exception using the @throw directive without providing an argument. Leaving out the argument in this case can help make your code more readable. You are not limited to throwing NSException objects. You can throw any Objective-C object as an exception object. The NSException class provides methods that help in exception processing, but you can implement your own if you so desire. You can also subclass NSException to implement specialized types of exceptions, such as file-system exceptions or communications exceptions.
95
Threading
Objective-C provides support for thread synchronization and exception handling, which are explained in this chapter and in Exception Handling (page 93). To turn on support for these features, use the -fobjc-exceptions switch of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) version 3.3 and later. Note Using either of these features in a program renders the application runnable only in Mac OS X v10.3 and later because runtime support for exception handling and synchronization is not present in earlier versions of the software.
Objective-C supports multithreading in applications. Therefore, two threads can try to modify the same object at the same time, a situation that can cause serious problems in a program. To protect sections of code from being executed by more than one thread at a time, Objective-C provides the @synchronized() directive. The @synchronized()directive locks a section of code for use by a single thread. Other threads are blocked until the thread exits the protected codethat is, when execution continues past the last statement in the @synchronized() block. The @synchronized() directive takes as its only argument any Objective-C object, including self. This object is known as a mutual exclusion semaphore or mutex. It allows a thread to lock a section of code to prevent its use by other threads. You should use separate semaphores to protect different critical sections of a program. Its safest to create all the mutual exclusion objects before the application becomes multithreaded, to avoid race conditions. Listing 11-1 shows code that uses self as the mutex to synchronize access to the instance methods of the current object. You can take a similar approach to synchronize the class methods of the associated class, using the class object instead of self. In the latter case, of course, only one thread at a time is allowed to execute a class method because there is only one class object that is shared by all callers.
Listing 11-1 Locking a method using self
- (void)criticalMethod { @synchronized(self) { // Critical code.
96
Threading
... } }
Listing 11-2 shows a general approach. Before executing a critical process, the code obtains a semaphore from the Account class and uses it to lock the critical section. The Account class could create the semaphore in its initialize method.
Listing 11-2 Locking a method using a custom semaphore
Account *account = [Account accountFromString:[accountField stringValue]];
// Get the semaphore. id accountSemaphore = [Account semaphore];
@synchronized(accountSemaphore) { // Critical code. ... }
The Objective-C synchronization feature supports recursive and reentrant code. A thread can use a single semaphore several times in a recursive manner; other threads are blocked from using it until the thread releases all the locks obtained with it; that is, every @synchronized() block is exited normally or through an exception. When code in an @synchronized() block throws an exception, the Objective-C runtime catches the exception, releases the semaphore (so that the protected code can be executed by other threads), and rethrows the exception to the next exception handler.
97
Document Revision History
This table describes the changes to The Objective-C Programming Language .
Date 2011-10-12
Notes Minor updates and corrections regarding current use of declared properties. Edited for content and clarity. Updated to show the revised initialization pattern. Added discussion of associative references. Corrected minor errors. Updated article on Mixing Objective-C and C++. Updated description of categories. Significant reorganization, with several sections moved to a new Runtime Guide. Corrected typographical errors. Corrected typographical errors. Made several minor bug fixes and clarifications, particularly in the "Properties" chapter. Extended the discussion of properties to include mutable objects. Corrected minor errors. Provided an example of fast enumeration for dictionaries and enhanced the description of properties.
2010-12-08 2010-07-13 2009-10-19 2009-08-12 2009-05-06 2009-02-04 2008-11-19
2008-10-15 2008-07-08 2008-06-09
2008-02-08 2007-12-11 2007-10-31
98
Date 2007-07-22
Notes Added references to documents describing new features in Objective-C 2. Corrected minor typographical errors. Clarified the discussion of sending messages to nil. Clarified the description of Code Listing 3-3. Moved the discussion of memory management to "Memory Management Programming Guide for Cocoa." Corrected minor typographical errors. Corrected minor typographical errors. Clarified use of the static specifier for global variables used by a class. Clarified effect of sending messages to nil; noted use of ".mm" extension to signal Objective-C++ to compiler. Corrected typo in language grammar specification and modified a code example. Corrected the grammar for the protocol-declaration-list declaration in External Declarations . Clarified example in Using C++ and Objective-C instances as instance variables .
2007-03-26 2007-02-08 2006-12-05 2006-05-23
2006-04-04 2006-02-07 2006-01-10 2005-10-04
2005-04-08
2004-08-31
Removed function and data structure reference. Added exception and synchronization grammar. Made technical corrections and minor editorial changes. Moved function and data structure reference to Objective-C Runtime Reference . Added examples of thread synchronization approaches to Synchronizing Thread Execution .
99
Date
Notes Clarified when the initialize method is called and provided a template for its implementation in Initializing a Class Object . Added exception and synchronization grammar to Grammar . Replaced conformsTo: with conformsToProtocol: throughout document.
2004-02-02
Corrected typos in An exception handler .
2003-09-16
Corrected definition of id.
2003-08-14
Documented the Objective-C exception and synchronization support available in Mac OS X version 10.3 and later in Exception Handling and Thread Synchronization . Documented the language support for concatenating constant strings in Compiler Directives . Moved Memory Management before Retaining Objects . Corrected the descriptions for the Ivar structure and the objc_ivar_list structure. Changed the font of function result in class_getInstanceMethod and class_getClassMethod. Corrected definition of the term conform in the glossary. Corrected definition of method_getArgumentInfo. Renamed from Inside Mac OS X: The Objective-C Programming Language to The Objective-C Programming Language .
2003-01-01
Documented the language support for declaring constant strings. Fixed several typographical errors. Added an index.
2002-05-01
Mac OS X 10.1 introduces a compiler for Objective-C++, which allows C++ constructs to be called from Objective-C classes, and vice versa.
100
Date
Notes Added runtime library reference material. Fixed a bug in the Objective-C language grammars description of instance variable declarations. Updated grammar and section names throughout the book to reduce ambiguities, passive voice, and archaic tone. Restructured some sections to improve cohesiveness. RenamedfromObjectOrientedProgrammingandtheObjective-CLanguage to Inside Mac OS X: The Objective-C Programming Language .
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Glossary
unlimited number of subclasses. Through its superclass, each class inherits from those above it in the hierarchy. instance In the Objective-C language, an object that belongs to (is a member of ) a particular class. Instances are created at runtime according to the specification in the class definition. instance method In the Objective-C language, any method that can be used by an instance of a class rather than by the class object. instance variable In the Objective-C language, any variable thats part of the internal data structure of an instance. Instance variables are declared in a class definition and become part of all objects that are members of or inherit from the class. interface The part of an Objective-C class specification that declares its public interface, which includes its superclass name, instances variables, and public-method prototypes. Interface Builder A tool that lets you graphically specify your applications user interface. It sets up the corresponding objects for you and makes it easy for you to establish connections between these objects and your own code where needed. link time The time when files compiled from different source modules are linked into a single program. Decisions made by the linker are constrained by the compiled code and ultimately by the information contained in source code. message In object-oriented programming, the method selector (name) and accompanying parameters that tell the receiving object in a message expression what to do. message expression In object-oriented programming, an expression that sends a message to an object. In the Objective-C language, message
expressions are enclosed within square brackets and consist of a receiver followed by a message (method selector and parameters). method In object-oriented programming, a procedure that can be executed by an object. mutex Short for mutual exclusion semaphore . An object used to synchronize thread execution. namespace A logical subdivision of a program within which all names must be unique. Symbols in one namespace do not conflict with identically named symbols in another namespace. For example, in Objective-C, the instance methods of a class are in a unique namespace for the class. Similarly, the class methods of a class are in their own namespace, and the instance variables of a class are in their own namespace. nil In the Objective-C language, an object id with a value of 0. object A programming unit that groups together a data structure (instance variables) and the operations (methods) that can use or affect that data. Objects are the principal building blocks of object-oriented programs. outlet An instance variable that points to another object. Outlet instance variables are a way for an object to keep track of the other objects to which it may need to send messages. polymorphism In object-oriented programming, the ability of different objects to respond, each in its own way, to the same message. procedural programming language A language, such as C, that organizes a program as a set of procedures that have definite beginnings and ends.
104
Glossary
protocol In the Objective-C language, the declaration of a group of methods not associated with any particular class. See also formal protocol, informal protocol. receiver In object-oriented programming, the object that is sent a message. reference counting A memory-management technique in which each entity that claims ownership of an object increments the objects reference count and later decrements it. When the objects reference count reaches zero, the object is deallocated. This technique allows one instance of an object to be safely shared among several other objects. remote message A message sent from one application to an object in another application. remote object An object in another application, one thats a potential receiver for a remote message. runtime The time after a program is launched and while its running. Decisions made at runtime can be influenced by choices the user makes. selector In the Objective-C language, the name of a method when its used in a source-code message to an object, or the unique identifier that replaces the name when the source code is compiled. Compiled selectors are of type SEL. static typing In the Objective-C language, giving the compiler information about what kind of object an instance is, by typing it as a pointer to a class. subclass In the Objective-C language, any class thats one step below another class in the inheritance hierarchy. Occasionally used more generally to mean any class that inherits from another class. Also used as a verb to mean the process of defining a subclass of another class.
superclass In the Objective-C language, a class thats one step above another class in the inheritance hierarchy; the class through which a subclass inherits methods and instance variables. synchronous message A remote message that doesnt return until the receiving application finishes responding to the message. Because the application that sends the message waits for an acknowledgment or return information from the receiving application, the two applications are kept in sync. Compare asynchronous message.
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The Objective-C Programming Language

Objects, Classes, and Messaging 10

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Categories and Extensions 73

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Adding Methods to Classes 73 Extensions 74

Enabling Static Behavior 83

Threading 96 Document Revision History 98

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Figures and Listings

Objects, Classes, and Messaging 10

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Who Should Read This Document

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Introduction Organization of This Document

Organization of This Document

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Introduction See Also

The Runtime System

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging

The Runtime System

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Objects

the isa variable is frequently referred to as the isa pointer.

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging

Sending Messages to nil

// this is valid if ([anObjectMaybeNil methodThatReturnsADouble] == 0.0) { // implementation continues... }

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging

The Receivers Instance Variables

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging

Dynamic Method Resolution

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Object Messaging

myInstance.value = 10; printf("myInstance value: %d", myInstance.value);

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Classes

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Classes

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Classes

The NSObject Class

Inheriting Instance Variables

Rectangle instance variables

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Classes

Overriding One Method with Another

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Objects, Classes, and Messaging Classes