SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH CENTER OF KURDISTAN

CENTRE DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE DU KURDISTAN (CRSK)

Association de Loi 1901 RDA NW212005346, 4 Rue de Saverne, 21000 DIJON FRANCE Dr Ali KILIC

Prsident Doctor of Philosophical Sciences [email protected] Mobile : 0033631556896

January 6, 2012

Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan

And 80.me Anniversary academician Prof.Dr. Nadir Nadirov and The International Year of Chemistry

The Symposium of the International Commission for the History of Chemistry modern (CHMC) as part of the Year, under the aegis of IUPAC and UNESCO was held in Paris on the occasion of the Year centenary of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry awarded to Marie Curie, has posed many questions. The Academy of Sciences organizes the Symposium on history of chemistry which will coincide with 80.eme Anniversary academician Nadir Nadirov. First, how to adapt new technologies to conserve and highlight the use of traditional sources and objects as well as new? Then, how historians they adapt their methods search for new sources and use these technologies? These two questions are about business than science they coincide with the anniversary of Kurdish academician Prof. Dr. Nadir Nadirov one hand and also the conference of the Academy of Sciences on History of Chemistry to be held January 19, 2012. The question that arises is why the nomination Marie Curie Academy Science in 1911 sparked a debate, not decided on the merits, but on access for women in the five academies that are part of Academy of Sciences? Why Darwin was not elected Academy of Sciences for three years before his death when he was admitted to Section of Mechanics who don 'have anything in his specialty? Why in 1922, thirty-five members of the Academy of Medicine for direct elections to Marie Curie free as an associate member when she was not specialty Mechanics in Medicine as Charles? All candidates for vacant seat desist for her. It is awarded "in recognition of the part she taken to the discovery of radium, and a new medication, Brachytherapy ". Marie Curie was not provided doctor, that Charles Darwin did not the mechanical as it happens that the growing, but she participated in the work of Academy, in particular a report on the danger of radiation in 1925. However, the centenary of the Nobel Prize for Marie Sklodowska Curie in chemistry had mainly Franco-Polish Academies of Sciences of two countries and their companiesm have learned Chemistry respective jointly decided to honor Marie Sklodowska Curie in throughout the year 2011, also declared by the United Nations' International Year of Chemistry " This is why we celebrate 80. Anniversary of our dear compatriot Nadir Nadirov Karimovich known globally is a historical and scientific fact for the People of Kurdistan. History, because it's the first time in the history of Kurdistan, Kurdish is a recognized academician by the National Academy of Sciences Republic of Kazakhstan, and member of the International Engineering Academy, Honorary oil from the USSR, Nadir Nadirov Karimovich is invented the USSR State Prize
2

winner, and Distinguished Scientist of the Kazakh SSR, Outstanding Engineer of the twentieth century, the knight, "SPI Gold Medal" and the title of "Marshal of science" with the award of medals of Napoleon (France), winner of numerous national awards, academic degrees and honorary awards. With a fruitful scientific activity Karimovich Nadir quickly became the pride of the Kurdish people, the public persona of and world renowned in 1957 as a graduate student, NK Nadirov meeting in Moscow with the legendary Mustafa Barzani, for the restoration of civil and political rights of the Kurdish population of the USSR in 1960-1990. But because of the revisionist policies of the CPSU and politics hegemony of U.S. imperialism and the CIA in the Middle and Near East our people has been a chemical genocide in South Kurdistan. This Genocide in Kurdistan continued north by the bombers of the State of F35 imperialist Turkey with the help of NATO and the U.S. and the EU. Over 500 guerrillas of the National Liberation Movement have been the subject of use of chemical weapons and biological bacterirological. F35 of the State Major Turkish bombed the village has killed 35 civilians Robotsi which 19 are Children. Glten Kisanak Kurdish MP in Turkish Parliament has accused the government of the AKP and the Turkish state of having committed crimes against Humanity, war crimes and crimes of genocide .1Scientific, because it's the first time, a Kurd has become a pioneering founder of the new science, where he made many discoveries, among scientists in the field of petrochemicals. Academician NK Nadirov took the title of "Honorary oil from the USSR" (This is appropriate only production workers) in the period Soviet, which is an academician of Sciences of the USSR oil and Kazakhstan in the world. Colleagues (five generations - from students to teachers), he called the owner of numerous public, academic and community awards, honors and awards, the "father of science oil from Kazakhstan. "But in these activities and scientific academic there was not subjects Kurds and Kurdish was used for science interests of the State of Kazakhstan, not the People of Kurdistan. In these circumstances it is very honorable academician Nadirov awarded medals. We know that May 27, 2011 in Kazakhstan, the Ministry of Education and Science of RK due to 65th anniversary Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan, Academician NK Nadirov, received Grand Gold Medal of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Of Kazakhstan "For an important contribution to the evolution of science." But the Minister of Internal Affairs of Kazakhstan has not authorized the demonstration Kurds to the Turkish Embassy. However, in October 2011, the academician NK Nadirov received the
3

medal Grand Gold - the highest award of the International Academy of Engineering"For his personal contribution to development cooperation science and technology internationally. "Finally, academician Nadir Nadirov Karimovich is the first among the Kurds Soviet Es Doctor Science Chimical. Professeur Nadir N. was in the spring of 1983 he was elected academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR (Now the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan). Renowned scholar is one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences of Bashkortostan, a member of the International Academy of Engineering(Moscow), the National Academy of Engineering of the Republic of Kazakhstan. But the founder of the Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan. The truth is that the Kurdish scientist began studying the physicochemical properties of natural sorbents (bleaching clays) in Siberia and the Far East (primarily in the field, on the location and in the laboratory), to develop new methods to activate them for use in the economy rather than imported. "The science, biology, chemistry" - the mysterious words of the future benefit of the famous Neftekhimik. His doctoral thesis on "Survey natural sorbents in Siberia and the Far East for the refining and hydrogenation of soybean oil, "NK Nadirov defended March 6, 1967 meeting special council at KSU them. Kirov (now the National University Kazakh. Al-Farabi). Winner of State Prize of the Kazakh SSR in the Science and Technology, 1980; Worker Emeritus of Science and technology of the Kazakh SSR, in 1982. He received the Prix International Academician IM Gubkin in 1983.1983, "Inventor of the USSR" in 1985. "Honorary oil from the USSR" (the only scientist), and 1991 works are (2). In this context, we CRSK, Research Center Scientific Kurdistan 80.me we celebrate Anniversary 1 academician Nadir Nadirov and the International Year of Chemistry. We consider the chemistry, is no exception to this progression even if the whole process can be the result of a single, even though the encounter 1. 2 N.K. Nadirov, A.P. Popov, Protein from Petroleum, U.S. Joint Publications Research Service, Springfield, Virginia, 1974. 2. N.K. Nadirov, N. S. Nametkin, Podsolevye nefti Prikaspisko vpadiny, 302 pp., Izdvo Nauka Kazakhskoi SSR, 1983.(in Russian) 3. N.K. Nadirov, N. Markovich,
1

, 334 pp., 1991.

4. N.K. Nadirov, Kurds of Kazakhstan, 556 pp., 2003 (in Russian). 5. N.K. Nadirov, Tengiz: more nefti, more problem, 2003, ISBN 9965405085.
4

ideas and observations remains profitable, even if the error is sometimes slid along the way, even if the scientists were able to curb antagonisms development, scientific progress inexorably as the Men's curiosity is boundless. The first steps of an empirical chemical and a philosophy seeking to unravel the mysteries of why the date of antiquity. Alchemy and philosophers, the passage of medicine by plants to medicine by drugs that mimic nature and from the organic synthesis, the needs of men that led to the birth of industry before all is said, the birth of the atomic theory are all of which are part of the history of chemistry. The other Chemistry is primarily the creation science of molecules and materials which everything else depends. It is she who shapes the world in concretewhich we live (drugs, cosmetics, polymers, plastics, glass, etc. .. ). Our future takes shape around the molecules and materials invented in chemical laboratories and these possible worlds are infinitely as many potential chemical transformation of matter and companies is high and both the central question in chemistry, positive science par excellence, are characterized by their practical utility potential. The chemistry is, let us not forget, also one of the industries dominant on the planet. Chemistry according to Marc Fontecave,2 3 is also unique in the multiplicity border it shares with other disciplines (life sciences and health, physical and materials, engineering sciences, earth sciences and environment) and this gives him the opportunity to intervene original and relevant to virtually all major challenges of humanity's Twenty-first century (food, energy, health, environment).Science is now asked to identify strategies completelyinnovative, clean, economical, effective and above all, lasting for production of fuels, electricity, materials. It is obvious that the chemistry, now called the "green", will play a major role in the development of this new science. It will translate into processes new synthesis his concern for potential toxicity of solvents, products and reagents, the use of renewable starting materials, and finally the waste reduction and associated energy expenditure. These objectives require both a deepening of the concepts fundamentals and methods of chemistry and a research development technology. During this session some of these aspects will be illustrated whether research on catalysis and hydrogen, synthesismolecules, materials, nanotechnology and analytical methods of matter. First of all chemistry is only, perhaps, to have as many borders
2

M. Fontecave, Professor at the College de France, Membre Academy of the Sciences

with all other disciplines and this gives him an opportunity to intervene of original and relevant manner on virtually every major challenges humanity of the twenty-first century (food, energy, health, environment, ...). In Indeed, if today disciplines have become essentially interdependent, the chemistry is probably the one that most often and deeper incursions increased in others, life sciences and health, physical and materials, engineering sciences, earth sciences and the environment, all of which continuously urge the. The development of these interfaces is undoubtedly one of the issues most important of contemporary science. Unfortunately it is not Certainly the French research is equal to that ambition as Chemistry, in the heart of the scientific challenges of the future barrierscultural and organizational multidisciplinarity are strong, both Training is compartmentalized, as international competition and limitation means led to the scientific communities to curl up on Chemistry by its unique position at the crossroads of disciplines can play this role in forging mix. Requested, the chemistry is because it is above all the creation science of molecules and materials on which everything else. It is she who shapes the concrete world in which we live (drugs, cosmetics, polymers, plastics, glass, to name some chemical compounds in our universe). Our future takes shape around the molecules and materials invented in chemistry labs and these are infinitely many possible worlds as the potential chemical transformation of matter and companies both large and is fundamental questions posed by chemicals, positive science par excellence, are characterized by their practical potential. The chemistry is, lest we forget not, as an industry that, in France, second sector after automotive, represents a hundred billion euros in sales for more than one thousand businesses and 250,000 employees, which we ranked second in Europe and fifth worldwide. Chemistry has, on the other hand, is unique it is given a universal language and fraternal, practiced and understood in luminous matter we are made, from that which surrounds us, of it is finally possible. This language is based on an original alphabet, the of the periodic proposed in 1869 by the Russian chemist Mendeleyev and tells us what we are and where we can go. It unifies the biological sciences and physical sciences and binding if the living can be understood in rational terms is largely, is too often forgotten often, because it is expressed in the language of chemistry. If it is now to build a sustainable society in which men satisfy their needs but still without compromising the future generations future, science will be asked to identify strategies completely innovative, clean, economical, effective and above all, lasting for production of fuels, electricity, materials. It is obvious that the chemistry, now called the "green", will play a major role in the development of this new science. It will translate into processes
6

new synthesis his concern for potential toxicity of solvents, products and reagents, the use of renewable starting materials, and finally the waste reduction and associated energy expenditure.This is illustrated in the articles in this issue. This ambition of chemistry for tomorrow will rely in particular on the study and development of new catalytic processes. This is what we said Pierre Braunstein, a historical perspective through the development of catalysis and some examples of his laboratory. According to Pierre Braunstein Member of the Academy of Sciences, Director of CNRS, Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, University of Strasbourg. The chemical sciences are central in our society and it is through them that pass number of solutions to current challenges, whether in the fields of health, food, energy or the environment. Science of creation and transformation of matter, thechemistry offers a choice space for imagination. The synthesis of molecules original and new materials plays a crucial role and engine, with often a major impact in the life sciences orphysical disciplines with which chemistry has close links. Tools and methodologies of chemical synthesis have been evolving, with support theoretical and spectroscopic methods more sophisticated, have enabled dramatic advances. The new concepts developed frommost recent experimental data and the imagination of chemists were the source of exceptional success. The systematic study of the chemistry of transition metals began the nineteenth century and it soon became clear that the new compounds and products were quite different from what chemists were accustomed. The typical behavior of halides of transition metals, such as FeCl2 4H2O, was not the usual ionic compounds such as sodium chloride. It was also clear that these compounds not resemble those typically covalent organic chemistry. Whereas the compounds formed by transition metals have a complex formation, they were therefore called metal complexes. The basis of these studies were presented by Alfred Werner (1866 Mulhouse Zurich 1919) is considered the father of coordination chemistry and received for it the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1913. If Werner complexes, such as [Co (NH3) 6] Cl3 which the metal center is located in a octahedron formed by the ligands NH3, have no connection mtalcarbone, organometallic compounds are in turn characterized by presence of at least one M-C bond. The term "coordination compounds "Refers to the nature of the bonds between the ligands and the (s) center (s) metal (s), metals may also be directly linked by of metal-metal bonds to form clusters, whose existence was notany contemplated at the time of Alfred Werner1. It is the study of the formation and the reactivity of metal-carbon bonds that is central to the concerns of organometallic chemistry and continues to have a major impact on development of homogeneous catalysis.
7

The term catalysis was introduced by the Swedish chemist Berzelius in 1835, but it is thanks to Wilhelm Ostwald (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1909) and Paul Sabatier (1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Victor Grignard for his discovery of organomagnesium) was understood that the mode of action of a catalyst, a substance which increases the rate of a chemical reaction and orients its selectivity without appearing in the final products. It acts only on the kinetic parameters and not thermodynamic of the reaction. The impact catalysis, catalysts and therefore, has become more significant as 60% industrial processes involve catalysis, as well as the production of over 90% of industrial chemicals. The market Global catalysts from 9.3 to 12 billion dollars between 1998 and 2003 and should reach $ 16.3 billion by 2012. Catalysis is intimately linked in nature activities such as digestion and fermentation as well as many other processes enzyme. Also consider the oxidation catalysed by porphyrin iron, to decarboxylation reactions or dehydrogenation alcohols catalyzed by zinc complex, the reduction of dinitrogen N2 ammonia NH3 by nitrogenase, an enzyme-based clusters of iron and fermolybdne, hydrogenases with heart iron or iron-nickel, cobalt role in the formation of carbon-carbon (methylcobalamin, the most active form of vitamin B12) or copper in the oxygen carrier that is hemocyanin. Thus, if one takes into account the chemical processes used by the Nature and the chemical industry, almost everything around us is derived from a way or other chemical processes controlled. Whether itfertilizer required for agriculture involving one of the biggest challenges isfeed a growing world population, of pharmaceuticals,plastics and polymers, fuels and storageenergy, we could not conceive a life of comfort such as ours, and which suck hundreds of millions of human beings, without chemistry. On the occasion of 80. Anniversary of Kurdish Academician Prof. Nadir Nadirov we believe that the evolution of science and technology have never been faster than now. The implications are considerable for scientists and support for the public as well. Faster and communication better scientific results of the academic international community of peers, at the request based institutions and industries as well as political - and policy makers is a real challenge and is therefore a question posed globally. Indeed chemistry plays a central role in modern society because it is closely associated with a major industry that directly or indirectly, provides products that appear in everyday life. However, chemistry,
8

whether the chemical or lala science of chemistry itself, has suffered from a somewhat negative. In fact, chemistry plays a role Unique in the resolution of current problems facing the world faces. Meet the challenges of health, nutrition, energy, and control environmental and natural resource management by process development "green" and cost effectiveness are areas crucial on the agenda e current chemistry. In this sense Manfred T. Reetz3 has experimentally and implemented a new approach to asymmetric catalysis, namely the directed evolution of enantioselective enzymes as catalysts in synthetic chemistry organic and biotechnology. It is based on repetitive cycles of mutagenesis of the gene expression screening and high throughput for enantioselectivity. The most frequently used methods of mutagenesis in emerging field of directed evolution are error-prone PCR (epPCR), the saturation mutagenesis and DNA shuffling, the methods we have used in our original proof of principle study using alipase return in 1996-1997. Subsequently, we applied our approach to other enzymes, and a number of industry groups and academic also contributed to this new field of asymmetric catalysis. However, as in modern synthetic organic chemistry, development methodology is crucial for further progress. The challenge is to devise methods and strategies to probe the space Darwinian more proteins efficiently than before, allowing for faster directed evolution. To this end, we developed an iterative Saturation Mutagenesis (ISM) in its two embodiments: Casting for control and B-FIT enantioselectivity improved thermostability enzymes. To evaluate the effectiveness of these developments methodology, we developed a strategy that allows the deconvolution construction of fitness landscapes. Applications in the transformations using enantioselective lipase, epoxides hydrolases, reductases and monooxygenases as Baeyer-Villigerases 4 will be highlighted in the discours.

Manfred T. Reetz Laboratory Evolution of Stereoselective Enzymes: A Prolific Source of Catalysts for Asymmetric Reactions Max-Planck-Institut fr KohlenforschungKaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Mlheim/Ruhr, Germany 4 References M. T. Reetz: Enzyme, Directed Evolution. In: Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology, Bioprocess, Bioseparation, and Cell Technolgy, (Ed.: M. C. Flickinger), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, 2010, Vol. 1, pp.1-22. M. T. Reetz, S. Wu, H. Zheng, S. Prasad: Directed Evolution of Enantioselective Enzymes: An Uncreasing Catalyst Source for Organic Chemistry. Pure Appl. Chem. 2010, 82, 1575-1584. M. T. Reetz: Laboratory Evolution of Stereoselective Enzymes: A Prolific Source of Catalysts for Asymmetric Reactions. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2010, 49, DOI: 10.1002/anie.201000826. M. T. Reetz, M. Bocola, L.-W. Wang, J. Sanchis, A. Cronin, M. Arand, J. Zou, A. Archelas, A.-L. Bottalla, A. Naworyta, S. L. Mowbray: Directed Evolution of an Enantioselective Epoxide Hydrolase: Uncovering the Source of Enantioselectivity at Each Evolutionary Stage. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 7334-7343.

On the other hand, six Chinese scholars think it is important to understand how biologically active agents, such as complex metals and nanomaterials, recognize their biological targets and the influence of diseases related to process. In their report, they presented at the Trilateral Symposium in Paris on 7-8 October 2010 they summarized the recent progress [1-8] on biomolecular recognition, ligand-induced structural transitions and their applications potential. This work was supported by the NSFC, the Academy Fund Chinese Science and Jilin Province. These academicians Guoqiang Yang in his paper Photoluminescent Properties of Excited State Intramolecular Proton Transfer and Charge Transfer Compounds5 showed that excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) compounds and intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) compounds have attracted much attention for their properties luminescent. The luminescence characteristics of sensitive compounds the environment. For ESIPT compounds, a fast cycle of four levels Photophysics occurs immediately after photoexcitation. The emission state proton transfer gives abnormally high Stokes shift and no self-absorption is detected. ICT for compounds, the emission shows red shift with increasing the solvent polarity. during thistime, significant changes in luminescence properties are observed in the solution to aggregation. For good photo-stability and unique properties luminescent compounds and compounds ESIPT ICT should have a potential intrinsic material luminescents.8 Academician Wen-Hua Sun6 think the Iron, the second the most popular metals in the soil with a lower toxicity than the other metals, has been used more than 3300 years, and now using the basic substance inorganic materials and an effective catalyst for ammonium synthetic. In the past twelve years, iron complexes procatalysts that for the polymerization of olefins have been widely studied, with a focus on 2,6-bis (arylimino) pyridyliron
5

Chuanqi Zhao, Yujun Song, Jie Geng, Jinsong Ren, Xiaogang Qu* Biomolecular Recognitions and Their Potential Applications Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Division of Biological Inorganic Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China [1] X. Li, Y. Peng, J. Ren, X. Qu. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 2006, 103, 19658-19663. [2] H. Yu, X. Wang, M. Fu, J. Ren, X. Qu. Nucleic Acids Res. 2008, 36, 5695-5703. [3] C. Chen, C. Zhao, X. Yang, J. Ren, X. Qu. Adv. Mater. 2010, 22, 389-393. [4] H. Yu, C. Zhao, Y. Chen, M. Fu, J. Ren, X. Qu. J. Med. Chem. 2010, 53, 492-498. [5] Y. Peng, X. Li, J. Ren, X. Qu. Chem. Commun. 2007, 5176-5178. [6] C. Zhao, Y. Song, J. Ren, X. Qu. Biomaterials 2009, 30, 1739-1745. [7] H. Yu, J. Ren, X. Qu. Biophysical J. 2006, 90, 3203-3207. [8] Y. Peng, X. Wang, Y. Xiao, L. Feng, C. Zhao, J. Ren, X. Qu. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 6 Wen-Hua Sun Iron Procatalysts in Ethylene Reactivity Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China

10

complexes.1 achievements iron procatalysts various oligomerization ethylene and the polymerization were examined in many articles.2 In regarding their application, increased responsiveness to ethylene using 2,6-bis (arylimino) procatalyst pyridyliron was conducted for both oligomerization and polymerization. The industrial application expects, however,has not yet been reached. Moreover, the hot topic of developing procatalysts new iron oligomerization and polymerization has become a normal subject, who signs a maturity period of the subject. critical issues the use of iron procatalysts in the polymerization of olefins have been clearly marked with either positive or negative results. for overcome the problems, new models were procatalysts widely explored, some progress has been successfully made.3 Therefore, this is the "iron age" of the real polymerization of olefins, which is very worthy of further research approfondies.7 For Gerhard Erker811 Lewis acids and bases usually form strong adducts when brought together in a solution. However, acids and bases Lewis Lewis can co-exist in a solution when they are sufficiently bulky substituents that prevent their reaction annihilation. These "frustrated Lewis pairs" (FLP) can make patterns remarkable reaction in the solution according to their action. In these examples will be shown when talk mostly very reactive intramolecular frustrated Lewis pairs are used for the binding of small molecules and / or activation. Some of the systems described are able to heterolytic dihydrogen splitting and the use of metal-free hydrogenation catalytic reactions of specific substrates. Carbon dioxide binding Lewis will be discussed in pairs. FLP react with many alkenes and alkynes. Some of these substrates with some rather unusual reaction modes are observed. Eventually, the potential of 1,1-carboboration of highly reactive electrophilic acetylenes with borane is briefly discussed as a new way of non-activated solid cleaving carbon-carbon bonds. Study recent. Physical Sciences; Chemical and Biological were the subject of our analysis on the classification and Computer Science, Foundations Philosophical Computer [1]. Philosophy of biology, chemistry and physics was one of my concerns in the history of science that led to the drafting of a project for the Foundation of the Academy of
7

1 (a) B. L. Small, M. Brookhart, and A. M. A. Bennett, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1998, 120, 4049. (b) 1 (a) B. L. Small, M. Brookhart, and A. M. A. Bennett, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1998, 120, 4049. (b) V. C. Gibson, B. S. Kimberley, A. J. P. White, D. J. Williams, and P. Howard, Chem. Commun., 1998, 313. 2 (a) V. C. Gibson, C. Redshaw and G. A. Solan, Chem. Rev., 2007, 107, 1745. (b) C. Bianchini, G. Giambastiani, I. G. Rios, G. Mantovani, A. Meli and A. M. Segarra, Coord. Chem. Rev., 2006, 250, 1391. (c) V. C. Gibson and S. K. Spitzmesser, Chem. Rev., 2003, 103, 283. 8 Gerhard Erker Frustrated Lewis Pairs: Metal-free Hydrogen Activation and More Universitt Mnster, Germany

11

Science of Kurdistan, with the aim of planning and science programming for the foundation of the State of the Republic of Kurdistan. But neither Mr. Barzani and Mr. Ni Djelal Talabani responded to our request. On 13 May 2008 section of Molecular and Cell Biology, Genomics of the Academy of Sciences organized a conference on epigenetics and cellular memory. This is a new discipline of Molecular and cellular biology, genomics. The question What is Epigenetics? What relationship established with scientific research that I had completed twenty years there? What are the conclusions from the project for founding of the Academy of Kurdistan that we filed in January 2005 to authorities in Kurdistan? Foundation of the Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan Indeed, for researchers and scientists from the case of Kurdistan foundation of the Academy of Sciences and Research Center Scientific Kurdistan, is a matter of scientific managementnamely, it is now the hearts of our science and philosophy for years. The question is:how scientists Kurdistan can remain indifferent to scientific and technical progress since the states that occupy Kurdistan use all new technologies to prevent the Liberation of the Kurdish people. In other words, how and by what means our Researchers can turn these new technologies to change balance of power for the scientific and technical progress is the available to the construction of Kurdistan released. There are several reasons. First of all scientific reason for the organization of science and the objective of the Academy of Sciences. With the scientific revolution and technique, the radical changes taking place in the qualitative system Modern science affect all aspects of relationships and technology highlight the important and complex scientific tasks: Important because they require the need to lay the foundations scientists of a new company by introducing new technologies. That the Scientific and Technical Revolution gave rise a new primacy of science and technology on one of the Technique production, science becomes a decisive factor and most dynamic development of productive forces. Complex, because that "both are critical to maintaining the competitiveness of the economy in crisis, and Once created antagonistic contradictions which "changes technological knowledge on man, in his professional life, on employment must be drastically controlled. "Nowadays, nobody doubts the fact that science can be used man, mankind and all peoples of the world, but at the
12

same time, We find that its results are often used by law dominant to harm humanity and peoples' interests. This creates a serious social problems How to give, a science policy that will encourage development of civilization? How to learn to direct the movement of thought Scientific interest in the sense of man, of humanity and people? In both cases, the question first, concerns the organization of science in society and scientific research, the forecasts of the development of social processes in science and herself. These are applications of science and science that are in Clearly, the principles of Ethics of Science, which became the subject of much scientific research. The truth is that the study of science, is a need for the scientific reality of our time in the history of philosophy, the question of science, was asked by philosophers into two different ways: First, science is a cognitive activity. Second, science is a system of human knowledge with a specific object and a method of investigation proper. It requires the active intervention of the scientific organization of knowledge workersm scientific planning for a new and a new organization of division of scientific work to found the Academy of Sciences Kurdistan. Starting from a dialectical classification based on the Science Division of Humanities, Science of Nature and Science Earth and space, the Academy of Sciences sets its objective as follows: _Adopter Of scientific research programs of action to strengthen the role of science and increasing scientific knowledge and technical classification from a dialectic of science and interdisciplinary scientific interaction, make or cause to conduct scientific research for the advancement of science, to solve new problems or untreated far in the areas of Anatolian Civilizations, to contribute to the preservation of ancient cultures, encourage researchers to carry out work, to subsidize scientific publications and create new research units applied to promote dialogue between scientific and the opening of an international scientific and technical cooperation, organize and supervise education preparatory to research. In Ultimately, the objectives of the scientific organization of
13

Scientific knowledge is to answer the questions of the environment Scientific and highlight the scientific and research units the links between them. The study of the scientific environment 1. What scientific environment are we? 2. What is the scientific potential exists inside and outside the country and what is the level of its scientific organization, technical and academic? 3. What are qualities existing scientific and scientific purpose for which we can reorganize the scientific needs of the country and the region and how we can improve performance in the four Universities of Kurdistan? 4. What are the prospects for an opening for international scientific and technical cooperation for a scientific organization and basic research in considering the challenges and risks? 5. What is our strategic choice and technology in relation to the scientific purpose, political, commercial and how can we develop new methods using new technologies from the organization of scientific knowledge and its international transfer in the process the founding of Kurdish state and facing the development of European science? 5. Structures of the organization's scientific knowledge A) The organization of scientific knowledge in organizing the scientific potential existing in Kurdistan and Mesopotamia B) The nature of the organization and planning and reorganization of science in the process of creating Constituent Assembly and the state in South Kurdistan. C) The definition of scientific and technical tasks main and sub-specialized scientific tasks for the planning of the Society of Kurdistan, Finally, the search is a scientific activity whose purpose is scientific practice. The completion of a scientific research is carried out by a methodology which is either a technical procedure, either a strategy for the scientific purpose or carrying out several tasks. This means that the completion of each task requires the active participation of every scientist specialized in light of data on which apply the scientific objective determined.

14

The free choice of the researcher and scientist is the foundation of development and the development of scientific freedom and academic researcher or scientist is responsible for its choice and the appropriate method in the sector and is obliged to carry out scientific, technical and artistic accordance with its choices. 6. The current direction of science and the scientific purpose of the dissemination of science for a real scientific methodology of the theoretical analysis of the organization of scientific knowledge requires determining the direction of development of science and the study their application areas. In this sense, we believe it is impossible to resolve the issues of reorganization of scientific knowledge and its links with the company is asking these questions in human sciences is a science of nature, as matters purely methodological, which totally disregards the qualities gnosological or as purely gnosological which are totally ignored methodological issues of knowledge and science (ignore the dialectic), either as purely economic issues and policies which completely ignore the application of science to production. On the other hand, it means that the strict application of science to production is a necessity, because the needs of society are composed of the needs of science, whose satisfaction will depend mainly on the level of production, the state of technical, material possibilities and potential scientific society itself. The focus of our scientific approach to the founding of the Centre de la Recherche Scientifique of Kurdistan depends primarily on the reorganization of the human sciences of the natural sciences and earth sciences and space in second place the interpretation of the purpose of basic and applied sciences. That is why we attach great value to science academies of sciences in Europe, especially at the Academy of Sciences of France including the foundations of the founding of the Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan. What is the relationship established between our scientific and academic level of development of science and the Conference of the Academy of Sciences after twenty years of our scientific and academic work? The key issue is that the development of physical sciences. Chemical and biological basis of the diversification of scientific branches of science was my point of departure. First I pay tribute to the President of Academic and Scientific Jury who spoke favorably upon presentation of my thesis. "Lovers traces of surfaces, images of body movement remarkable connoisseur of the arts of science[2] and technology" Franois Dagognet in his speech at the Symposium of Creusot, said "science has not ceased to lay out what is l 'Interiority. The disciplines most innovative operators have pulled their procedures secret, then broken. reproduced and even improved It has suffered from this kidnapping. was. challenged, but he did so far interrupted.. "[3]But the problem is how one of the
15

major development of science is that it is oriented towards the study not only of items already Included in the transformation practice of the mass. production, in everyday experience. Mats also objects whose use practice will in principle only to future stages of historical development. civilization as a whole? In the course of its history, science equated various types of objects systemic, developing knowledge on their properties, on the laws of their operation and transformation. Each type of organization requires systemic objects to be known and understood, a special category grid serving concrete scientific notions that characterize the details of the structure and behaviour of objects in question. Undoubtedly philosophy is capable of creating categorical matrices necessary for scientific research before the science begins to control the types of matching. The application categories developed by philosophy in scientific research concrete enriches and develops it. However, to fix their content again, we need once again to. Reflection on the philosophical science that form a particular aspect of philosophical apprehension of reality in the course do which is developing the device block of philosophy. "But the philosophy is not a science. (.) Its purpose is not this or that particular area of reality. But at the same time philosophy is a science-science general laws of reality.. Here, E. Bitsakis[4] mixing the definition of the dialectic with philosophy. It is distinct and special science is at the same time a science for many reasons he says. "The philosophy has an object; it seeks to identify and formulate laws on this subject: She uses the methods of science. It has a body of knowledge, it has a history, as science-like and at the same time profoundly different ;(...) File The definition of philosophy as science can not conceal its specific character, its relative autonomy by special report on science and its qualitative difference compared to them. The formula science and defines the concepts, philosophy and formula defines the philosophical categories.. "La. confrontation in the history of philosophy[5] and natural sciences can therefore see that philosophy has certain possibilities projected in relation to scientific research, since it is capable of producing in advance categorical structures that will be necessary . "Philosophy can not play its effective role in developing the design of world scientific writing N, Smnov, if it manages to be argued along with other sciences, as their equal, ie as Science special issue with its precise, a litigant also meticulous study and concrete that the object of any science, "[6](3). The contradiction between itself the universal character of human knowledge and his approach necessarily compartmentalized within science, the contradiction between the specification of scientific knowledge and the trend towards integration, that's what makes it so indispensable development d 'A world-scientific' philosophy.

16

The question that arises is what are the mechanisms to ensure such a development class development of science of unity and diversification of their branches of science in general and scientific development of information technology in particular. The answer is not related only to study the nature of philosophical knowledge but also the knowledge engineering. It involves analysis function of philosophy as a theoretical kernel of the design world and the cognitive activity of the elucidation of the relationship between philosophical categories and the culture. The science, scientific and technological revolution have led to deep differences between the various branches specializing in the manufacture of products. But gradually as the growing differentiation and that there always new branches. We see the growing importance of relations between the various branches and their coordination, which call for a centralized function of the economy. At the heart of this scientific development instead of science applied to. all levels of life is crucial. That is why it is necessary to clarify our classification dialectic of science and the place of information technology in the scheme we are proposing is a characteristic of science. First, the classification dialectic of basic sciences division between the natural sciences and human sciences and finally the technical sciences. Then we divide the natural sciences into three parts: 1. The physical and technical sciences 2.The science-technology chemical and biological and mathematics

3. The Earth Sciences. The physical and technical sciences and mathematics divided into six parts: They are: I. scientific computing and automation 2. The mathematics 3. The general physics and astronomy 4. Nuclear physics 5. The physical technique of energy 6. The mechanical and ordering process

17

II. Science chemical-and biological technology are divided into five parts: The general chemistry and technical 2. La. Physico-chemistry and technology of inorganic substances 3. The biochemistry, biophysics and chemical compounds, 4. The physiology 5. The general biology. 111. 1st earth sciences are es following: 1 The geology, geochemistry and geophysics 2. The oceanography, physics of 1 atmosphere The human sciences are divided between: I. The philosophy 2. The story 3. 1 economy and the law 4. literature and linguistics. The development of science was determined by three basic sciences: the physical sciences, chemical sciences and biological sciences. The classification of science and the connection and differentiation of branches scientific computing are inseparable from the scientific process. I. The physical sciences

They are undoubtedly physics and physicists who kicked off the revolution in the natural sciences of our time. The funky and discoveries, the rapid development of physical sciences, particularly after the Second World War, have fertilized and stimulated the development and progress radicals other natural sciences. The inevitable intervention of physics in all divisions of science proceeds in large measure because , takes as subject to study the properties of both the simplest and most general of terms. This is a good reason that physics is called the "mother of. Mechanics. " The progress of physical sciences exerts a direct influence on all the essential elements of modern production - energy base, working tools and technology physics exerts a strong influence on objects of work (and raw materials). This is particularly evident in our time where we see the rise of energy and atomic and nuclear technology, electronic technology and laser technology semiconductors and integrated circuits.
18

One can say without exaggeration that the results of the physical sciences o. served as a starting point for the creation and development of a very large number basic sciences (particularly those that arise at the junction of chemical and physical sciences, biological and physical). and many fundamental scientific disciplines of engineering. The progress of physics have exerted a huge influence on the design of the contemporary world. This is due primarily to the close links uniting physics and. theory of knowledge, Divisions fundamental modern physics, as the study of the structure of matter theory. a relativity, quantum mechanics, are organically linked to the theory of knowledge. The restricted theory of widespread. Relativity of Albert Einstein's theory of e la, quantum mechanics were naturally fundamental theories that have given the departure of scientific theory and modern physics for a large part in all the natural sciences. In contemporary science, Einstein's scientific work, provide a striking example. It proves that the relativity of space, time and movement, one can infer that the mass of a body depends on its speed and thus energy movement. If the speed approaching its limit - 300 000 km / sec - the mass of the body tends to infinity, La. Thesis Einstein that mass of a body at rest depends on its internal energy E had an immense importance. The pier and was the basis of the energy of the scientific revolution. and technical It appeared that if we measured the energy and mass through the normal units, energy is equal to mass multiplied by the square of the speed of light -1. In other words E. = ml The division of the nucleus of uranium reached 3 million times more energy than the chemical reaction of a combustion (1g uranium provides more heat than 3 tons of coal). But it is there. That a small portion of the energy contained in all the mass of matter. Already nuclear energy uses about ten times more than the inner energy particles compared with Atomic Energy of the disintegration of heavy nuclei. The formula Einstein opens up prospects even more remote and grandiose energy use kernel, it contains the following steps of the scientific and technological revolution in the energy field. To get a complete picture of potential energy of matter flowing from the formula of Einstein, just engaging , simple arithmetic. According to Einstein's formula, energy is equal to the mass (say, for example 1g) multiplied by the square of the speed of light -1. The speed of light is 300 000 km / s, or 3.10 cm / s. Consequence 1 = 9.10 cm / s. By multiplying the mass in grams per 1 we get the energy it contains ergs. 1kWh is equal to. 3,6.10 ergs. So the total energy recele in one gram of substance is equal to 9.10 ergs, and divided by 3,6.10, it is equal to 2.5.10 kWh (or 25 million kwh).
19

From the reactions that we are known today, the full realization of this energy is possible only through the clash of matter and antimatter, called by the reaction of annihilation. It was determined that if a particle meets its corresponding antiparticle, they annihilate disappear, while their energy and mass are converted into energy and more full (for example in the radiation), without breaking the law of the conservation, with full realization of all energy, according to Einstein's formula E = ml This exceeds several thousand times the amount of energy per unit mass reached at the nuclear reactions, The revolution in physics has therefore opportunities for turning in technique and in any material production. Another axis of the scientific revolution in physics, closely related. nuclear physics and the atomic energy quantum mechanics, heralds a turning revolutionary technology, technology and production. One can understand the processes leading to fission and nuclear synthesis only, using the theory of quanta. Quantum mechanics was the theoretical basis for development of electronics, and later, generators quantum of light, lasers, ie the fundamental basis of a revolutionary turning already visible in production technology. The opportunities afforded by the use of laser beams are immense. The properties of laser-the opportunity to focus on tiny masses of matter-permit, the leader on a mass thermonuclear (a mixture of deuterium and tritium), to create the conditions for a thermonuclear reaction temperature of tens of millions of degrees and density of fuel exceeding hundreds of times the density of the solid body. This is a promising direction of establishing a thermonuclear energy. The application of laser technology also opens up great prospects. the creation of a method of optical information processing and manufacturing of optical calculators speed operative - known as optoelectronics. This involves replacing a liaison usual cable and wire by an optical link - a light-guide fiber, the manufacture of a 'working optical memory of a great capacity for computers and a' memory) Permanent for information systems. All these ideas and. Discoveries have opened the door has an extraordinary progress of the radio and the procession triomphai of l1ectronique that penetrates literally touti'4es branches of the art and areas of technology.

20

The influence that physics, including quantum theory, has exercised over the chemical sciences, is. this respect very instructive. The classification periodic Mendlev, which was in large measure an empirical law of chemistry, has acquired, with the development. of quantum mechanics and approval model atomic quantum solid theoretical basis, fi is that the arrangement of elements discovered by Mendlev a physical sense. both important and simple. The serial number of an element in the sense mendlevien (physicists call it atomic number) is equal to the number of positive charges or, in other words, the number of protons in the nucleus of atoms of this element. The law Mendlev became one of the laws of atomic physics and nuclear. The quantum theory opens up tremendous opportunities to the physics of solid in the field of action on the fundamental properties of metals and crystal in general. The quantum properties of solids can use the crystal in the manufacture of many instruments of physics. The study of physical phenomena on thin semiconductor films has become an essential element of work to get integrated circuits, hybrid and functional, which directly affects. miniaturization and the microminiaturisation of electronic assemblies and the creation of the last generations of computers. This is the table although incomplete decisive changes in the physical XX century. All we have to say concerns scientific discoveries already. made and their impact already. Visible on the technical and material production, But the revolution in physics continues. The technical means always the most powerful available for research in physics dice continually increasing its possibilities. With a technical research and experimentation increasingly complex, physicists, penetrating into the depths of the micro and macro world, discover new problems and not always resolved in a comprehensive and fundamental importance. The successes in the construction of particle accelerators. energy growing yielded very important data which have raised fundamental problems whose solution will open at. humanity new opportunities. These are primarily the problems of the structure of particles with a strong interaction (adrons), whose most famous are the proton and the neutron. Their properties and their systematic today are well described. from the assumption sublmentaires particles, quarks ... It is quite possible that the energy obtained with the current accelerators is not sufficient to free quarks concentrated in adrons. If this hypothesis is confirmed, it means it will consider alternate methods of energy in the act Basic hundreds or thousands of doing more powerful than that achieved with conventional nuclear reactions, this opens the prospect of a gigantic leap in the potential energy of the universe and perhaps of mankind.
21

Another group again, that the problems of. weak interaction. He may have a fundamental importance not only to understand the microstructure of the material, but also the spatial and temporal structure of our world and, perhaps, for cosmology. In particular, it may be that the solution of major problems with the structure of. Matters will require fundamental review representations of space and time, that penetration in the heart of the micro-world make it possible processes which we now seem improbable I ". In the opinion of physicists, approximation of particles at a distance of 10 - 16 10 - 17 cm may give rise to phenomena of fundamental importance. The distances that order correspond to an energy of about 300 billion lectrovolts in a system whose center of inertia is a particle collision. That is why the study of a package to obtain protons to an energy of 2 to 5 trillion lectrovolts. And new opportunities hitherto unknown yet appear 'clash of heavy nuclei may give rise to phenomena comparable to the shock waves through the action which the nuclear material can go to unusual statements. The scientific researchers report in this regard the possible existence of new forms of nuclear material different from atomic nuclei that we know.

The acceleration of technology creates new phenomena practices purely technological and scientific. Here are some examples: The beams of particles accelerated exerted on many substances very specific that we can not achieve by other methods,sources of gamma rays, electronic accelerators are widely used for sterilization in the medical devices industry for the polymerisation radiation insulation cables, for dfectoscopie large parts in the mechanical industry, etc..;beams of electrons with an intensity of up to one million amps are used in research to control thermonuclear fusion; The accelerated heavy ions can be used in the manufacture of molecular filters virus by irradiation of a plastic film These filters can carry out disinfection of water by simple filtering. These examples that we cited in the field of physics can lead to a new interpretation of the natural sciences and general laws of the world, open new prospects for the new technology and computerization of society and production This revolution in the physical sciences is inseparable in the chemical sciences in the unit dialectical process of scientific knowledge and technical. their applications. 11. The Chemical Sciences
22

The revolution in science has developed chemical on one side of autonomously within the framework of this science, ie in the process of unification and diversification of chemical sciences, and the other, under the power of recent trends in physics and foremost in quantum physics, nuclear physics or highenergy subatomic physics. The technical revolution in chemistry is linked to control of the structure of molecules and consequently the creation of substances structure and properties defined in advance, ie the creation of controlled chemical bonds. Again, integration (or interaction) and usage (differentiation) of recent concepts of physical sciences play a leading role. On the one hand, the scientific application of the architecture of molecules was followed by basic discoveries that, for example, who identified and molecular weight. validation of the notion of valence elements, ie the number of atoms types with which an atom of the element is able to unite to form a stable combination. Thus were made laws of the composition of molecules and laid the theoretical basis for chemical synthesis on the subject. On the other hand, the progress made by science chemical itself is taking advantage of new theories and possibilities offered by scientific branches of modern physics, which brings the first theoretical explanation of the many laws established empirically. That said, the development of science around the middle of the twentieth century has revealed that not only the electron moving creates a magnetic field but that the electron at rest, also a "magnet Basic has a set of properties that allow it to be valentiel, The role of the electron results in a whole range of phenomena in the remarkable. Chemistry crystals, including control of a crystal lattice, inspecting properties semi-conductor and dielectric, the formation of entirely new chemical compounds. The possibility to form molecules and substances naturally required to continue the study of architecture substances and existing molecules, its interrelation with the essential properties of the substance, as well as find ways to act on 'Architecture of molecules. It was intensely studied architecture at this great architect that nature. The essential properties of the material depending on the geometric layout of the same atoms in space (as part of molecules) gave birth to a specific branch of chemistry that deals with the spatial arrangement of atoms in the molecule and the influence of this factor on the geometric properties of matter is the stereochemistry. The emergence of this science was already provided for in the last century by A. Bourtherov, That is why we can ask clearly explain the nature of the diversification of branches of science (physical, chemical, biological) in both the dialectical unity of fundamental interaction and diversity of unity and fight for their ? In other
23

words, if the full knowledge of the structure and laws of the surrounding world has offered to humanity, technology and production, the possibility of creating a controlled and planned, substances and materials with properties defined in advance and necessary to men, is that there will be a scientific answer that will resolve the problem of labour computerized objects - one of the basic elements essential for material production assisted by new technology " ? First, gasoline and specificity of the scientific and technological revolution are expressed in the combination of analysis and explanation of the structure of matter, the nature of reactions and processes that occur in the world surrounding the structure of the process of organic life, functioning mechanisms and the mechanical action on the process of working with processes of a whole. other order as: Action-oriented structure of matter on the synthesis of body properties data in advance on obtaining artificial and monitoring reactions of disintegration and synthesis of light and heavy nuclei; The development and practical use of an information theory, a theory and practice of automatic control systems, machines; The creation of systems for automated data processing, management systems and automated automatic in the complex technical and socio-economic production; A second action-oriented process of organic life ever more important. The characteristics of a material and technical background. Revolution scientific computing with the corollary, the radical changes in relations between man and the environment, define the social aspect of this revolution. It does not affect only the technical and information technology in particular, but it also creates conditions for a radical change in the nature and content of human work in the technological processes in general. Besides, it radically changed the role of man and the role of science-kid in the system of productive forces. A far-reaching social consequences of scientific and technological revolution is what a kid time offers the possibility to increase significantly the free time, which in turn creates conditions for an increase in the level of education and qualification. Life Intellectual men is also profoundly changed they receive a mass and a range of information constantly growing, modern means of transport and communications so extraordinary increase their opportunities to participate in events as varied referring to times or to the most varied, the usual range of consumer goods and services change radically, leading to a change corollary of human needs. All these changes are marked by an extraordinary dynamism of social development.

24

Thus, the scientific revolution creates the physical premises of a development of productive forces, an increase of scientific potential that gives man's disposal the creative possibilities that allow it to intervene to modify and solve social problems Economic essential mode of production. Another exceptionally important premise of the revolution in the natural sciences is the intervention of mathematics and mathematical method in all fields of science. The formulation of the basic laws of physics, chemistry, biology and computer science today is based on mathematics. It is this reality that we want to develop the progress of theoretical chemistry, using the results of physics which have considerably broadened the range of problems studied by the chemical sciences. Car chemistry encompasses areas of the world always new organic and inorganic entering the field of science related form of new sciences boundary. S'enrichissant methods and conclusions of these sciences, while enriching them to the nth time, we want to include the basic guidelines of chemistry. In a first step, we divide the general chemistry into two fundamental parts of the lmento-organic chemistry and the non-organic chemistry. In a second step, we will explore the diversification of scientific branches of chemistry and we want to show the possibility of this distinction in the existing system of science. The complex chemical compounds, geo-chemistry and chemistry of the earth, physical and chemical mechanical, electrochemistry, biochemistry, radiochemistry, chemical physics, chemical kinetics, and to complete the chemistry of solid and agrochemicals. Then we will show the one hand, in developing the chemistry of solid, the problems of chemical classifications of these solids, and secondly, the method of molecular stratification created by researchers of our time, which contributed not only to the development of physical sciences, but also the progress made by the chemical sciences pursue their turn, a huge influence on the truly revolutionary developments taking place in biological sciences .. The development of chemical sciences and classification of branches of science: a) The lmento-organic chemistry, which is a junction of organic chemistry and non-organic The development of this branch has helped create entire families of new polymers organometallic compounds and organic properties still unknown, and d ' adopting technological methods for obtaining polymers incomparably easier and more economical. b) The chemical compounds complexas who will discover many new classes of chemical compounds. She helped create one. Precious metals industry and solve the chemical aspects of nuclear energy, chemical compounds complex plays a crucial role with regard to the development of chemical processes effective technology for treating raw materials .*

25

c) The geochemistry or chemistry of the Earth, which in its research materials and Earth processes based on laws and chemical methods. This science studies the chemical evolution of our planet, seeks to explain the viewpoint chemical origin and history of the Earth, its layers, its terrain, mountains, seas and oceans. d) physico-chemical mechanical linking the mechanical and electrical properties of matter at. its composition and chemical structure. e) electrochemistry, branch of chemistry devoted to the study of the properties of ions containing systems and processes involving ions, taking place at a meeting point of these systems with other bodies, including metals. Can be classified in electrochemistry everything that relates to the liaison between the electrical and chemical phenomena. f) The biochemistry, who studies protein structure and protein molecules, the functions of enzymes, problems and protein synthesis. in the body, the relationship of dependency between the chemical structure and. biological functions (activity) of proteins. La. biochemistry studies of key processes and complex against 1 'immunity and properties of proteins immunisantes g) radiochemistry, which is closely linked to the problems of radio-activity and radioactive isotopes, use of atomic energy. h) The physical chemical, which is interested in applying the results of modern physics, the basic problems of chemistry, and specifically the issues of the structure of atoms and molecules and. studying the mechanism intimate chemical reactions. i) The chemical kinetics, science chemical transformations. who die speeds and directions of the chemical reaction. The development of a general theory of the process chain and the discovery of possibilities to control chemical reactions chain depend on the development of this branch of chemistry.

The progress made by the physical sciences and chemical sciences have an influence on the biological sciences It is from physics and chemistry that biologists dealing with energy efficiency and studying the complex processes that are place in the living organism, and vice versa. chemistry seeks to use biological principles to solve the tasks of chemical synthesis. III The biological sciences Recent discoveries of physics, chemistry and mathematical methods have led to a revolution in the biological sciences. Molecular biology has revolutionized the science of World kids living in proportions that quantum theory has revolutionized the nuclear physics that there are forty years.

26

The intense study of the biological functions of living beings. from the analysis of the structure and molecular interactions gave biochemistry leadership, leading to a relatively new science - molecular biology. In kid time, the establishment of the principle of catalytic functioning of living matter was a fundamental for the development of biological science. Take the seeds in the biological sciences The ferments are in many ways incomparably superior to artificial catalysts. Before their power by any action, thousands of chemical reactions take place in living organisms. Using ferments, in the absence of high temperatures and pressures, millions and billions of times faster in the presence of the best chemical catalysts. The ferments have yet another benefit - the most important. They differ catalysts artificial rationality surprising for their actions, strictly oriented and maximum efficiency. Each closing act in an optimum manner, without finding technological solutions optimal 'in transforming not only one compound or a group of very close. and transforming them in a direction strictly determined.) The discovery and description of a growing number of biochemical reactions put the agenda the task of trying to establish the fundamental principles that govern the nature and interdependence of these reactions. Without that. it was impossible to develop a systematic process alive, countless biochemical terms. The solution of these problems was first linked two basic discoveries made in the thirties and forties and have been essential elements of the revolution in the biological sciences, particularly on the biochemical level. The first is the discovery of "conservation." Energy of biochemical reactions in the form of chemical bonds in a particular matter which received the name of adenosine triphosphate. The second is the discovery of the principle of combination reactions in biological systems, ie that the surplus energy formed in response to a course can be transmitted to another reaction that would not be d 'Itself possible. These two basic discoveries immediately bring the logic in research on the biochemical organization of the activity of cells to distinguish combinations reactions energy. eligible and ineligible. Thus began the assembly of biochemical elements in separate groups or mechanisms intact, and when the researchers took fiai to operate on a certain segment, they found they managed to swallow train, from components, or as Such physiological process whose

27

biochemists had initiated the development thirty years ago. ' " [7] The subsequent progress of science, a deeper penetration of the secrets of life discovered was able to process more complex than photosynthesis and respiration, biochemistry did not yet understand. It was primarily the process of growth and development as well as the phenomena of heredity and its transmission. Neither the methods and experiences of physiology, nor those of biochemistry were unable to highlight the properties of living matter which constitute the substance of these phenomena. Only with the advent of electron microscopy that we put into the unknown world of the infinitesimally small particles of the living cell. Thus the practical results of the revolution. Intervened in physics were a powerful catalyst for the revolution in biology. If the power separator ordinary microscope can achieve a magnification of two to three thousand times, the electron microscope can magnify objects of study of hundreds of thousand times and even more than a million times. The amount converts to quality basic opportunities have opened to the study of microscopic organizations, intimate process taking place in the living cell. In entering ever more deeply into the secrets of the process alive,. biological science learns about the mechanism for the use of genetic information. Thus, biology was brought to explore the giant molecules of organic polymers: nucleic acids, proteins and some carbohydrates, ie training, which play a decisive role in the performance of vital functions essential. The study of these molecules required methods and processes hoc analysis and constituted one of the key orientations of a science booming molecular biology, we talk a little further. The results of the biological chemistry were and still are today an grazing tool knowledge of life processes. But the language of chemistry did not allow itself to penetrate the mysteries of life. The biophysical came to the rescue. The search continued for solving the problem of living has enormous methodological and practical importance for the development and improvement of material production, Academician G. Frank wrote "What we call the living can not be translated into language purely chemical. In addition to the list of reactions involved in the process of exchanging chemical substances, in addition to the catalytic reactions and chemical kinetics of these processes, there must be some organization in space (structure) of all rnacromolculaires, which is beyond the framework representations purely chemical. " [8]

28

This organization, writes G. Frank is not only the location of chemical processes; acting itself is changing, determines their conduct and organise. That is why, alongside the chemistry and molecular approaches, we need what might be called conventional language of 'approaches surmolculaires "These approachessurmolculaires can not already under the sole jurisdiction of chemistry and biochemistry. We are witnessing here are qualitatively different processes and chemicals added to the forces of interaction phenomena characteristics of the system surmolculaire complex. The study of these phenomena is usually biophysics or physical chemical biology " [9] The biological sciences naturally attach particular importance nature of the activities of living organisms and their smallest components in the cell and components of the cell itself. Science has entered into the inframicroscopique structure of the cell, which allowed him to make the most unexpected discoveries, forcing a radical revision of current ideas on the principles biochemical, biophysical and physico-chemical properties of cellular processes. "How is born. a new science, a new specialty? "asks P. Thuiflier thy has not answered both general and satisfactory this question, although various assumptions have been made. " [10] This interpretation seems skeptical, because the development of a new discipline and the birth of a new science does not depend on the identity or the intellectual originality of ideas. Rather, it depends on the character of the nature of the subject of science itself method of exposure in the wider it is the means to achieve an objective, an activity according to a certain orderly fashion. It is by methodological role that tears the veil to the extraordinary complex phenomena of nature, society and the human conscience and directs the science to the release of natural links, objectives, forcing the researcher to stay on Field facts rigorously established. For example, lob jet of molecular biology is to study the events essential activity vital to their elementary levels in the cell and its components, the nucleus and the cytoplasm, in the tiny intra-cellular structures, systems the simplest located on the border of living and not living like virus and bacteriophages, and finally, in systems of biological macromolecular polymers and proteins nuclides acids that carry out its essential functions in training live ... There is a particularly intensive development of molecular biology research related to problems of proliferation, heredity, structure and. properties of macromolecular compounds, their biosynthesis and laws of their reproduction in the process of growth, division and cell development. In other words, bios macromolecular polymers and nucleic acids are essential objects of research in molecular biology.

29

Over the past thirty years, biology has undergone a profound transformation by the convergence of disciplines for a long time remained independent of both the problems they saw as the equipment and methodology they used. Thus, the cellular physiology, genetics, biochemistry, virology, microbiology have melted into a common discipline, which is now known as the molecular biology. It aims to interpret the phenomena that take place within living organisms in office structures and functional interrelationships that occur between macromolecular constituents of the cell. [11] In its first stage, molecular biology has sought to analyze the material the simplest cell, namely the bacterial cell, that some discoveries were made accessible. such a study. In recent years, the elucidation of the main structure of biological macromolecules, proteins and nucleic acids, the interpretation of their functions in terms of structure, recognition of their biosynthetic pathways and their regulations have renewed our knowledge of heredity and cellular mechanisms. " This feels the development and differentiation, more interconnection of science that results, models and methods of some sciences are becoming more widely used in other (for example the use of physical and chemical dodles in biology and medicine), and this shows the problem of interdisciplinary research. Another important feature of the current stage of development of science is to increase the role of constructive elements in scientific knowledge. "On the one hand. In entire body, others share in somatic cell cultures taken from the bodies complex.[12] "Because the discovery of the nature and structure of nuclei acids demonstrates the rationality of the exceptional nature and organization of his creatures, in fact, nucleic acids are composed wholly of four elements: the four nucleotide that does differ from one another by their nitrogen content - adenine, guanine, cytosine, themine. Thus, the tremendous diversity of. life on. Terre A. always a basic biochemical perfectly unique and universal. Moreover, the principle of complementarity, which explains the old secret of heredity, is one of the essential bases. molecular biology with which it was established that in a DNA molecule, the amount of guanine is always equal to. the amount of cytosine, adenine quantity is a gaie. the amount of themine. During the vital activity of the body, the DNA molecules involved in trade undergo many cellular damage under the influence of internal and external factors. Thus, the new directions of development of molecular biology and its revolutionary continuous progress based on solid methodology. "It is the combination of organic synthesis and very fruitful, two methodological approaches. the study of nature and properties of the simplest components of a complex, and the study of the structure, organization, the properties of complex body as a whole, forces and processes that constitute the system as. than anything else.

30

The key question is how simple it gives birth to the complex, what are the forces and laws that are operating here, how to structure new properties of the complex system. It is a focus of scientific research that part of the molecular levels the most primitive and the most basic driving , levels of organization of increasing complexity,. systems with new properties and functions.[13] " The essential feature of this passage from simple to complex is an integrated process, we propose the term of fundamentalism to define the orientation of cognitive science. If one analyses the development of natural sciences, technical and social, one finds much in common in their methodology and practice. Thus, this methodology is it absolutely necessary as regards the creation of automated systems that the development of the vast majority of complex programs, as it is to solve the problems of the relationship between the party and everything between simple and compound. The need for such a methodological approach is more apparent than ever today as regards the solving of economic and socio-economic and development programmes in which we have always dealing with large complex systems to several components . D'oc current problem 1 "fundamentalism" for all the natural sciences, technical and social. The mechanism of development of science in their process of unification of the different branches of science plays an important role in guiding scientific thought and technology of our century. 11 opens two possibilities for developing and refining the material productive forces, through which we can see the development of the revolution in the natural sciences, technical, social interaction and their dialectic in two aspects: First, humanity will affect so focused on the processes of organic life and from it. Raising a colossal effectiveness of social production, and also increase the possibilities of the man himself - the first productive force of society - and the perfect considerably. Secondly, the company will continuously introduce into production the results of technological and organizational organic life> and. From then allow a new scientific and technological revolution which, it has every reason to think, leave it far behind the possibilities opened up by the current scientific and technological revolution. This revolution in the biological sciences wakes up the "technical", "" technology "and the organization of operating systems which exceed in complexity all the systems that man has been able to create and productivity have never seen in practice the global industry at the same time that capacity, an

31

infinite number of dimensions, economic performance and reliability unimaginable. The active phase of the revolution in the biological sciences began, it seems, most recently as physics and chemistry, and its practical results may not be as clear and important that the results achieved by physicists and chemists, but it is already visible today that the possibilities, both cognitive and practical, opened by the revolution in science are of a magnitude that they can serve as a springboard . a new revolution in science and information technology, which means the development of physical sciences, chemical, biological as the basis for development and differentiation branches scientific computing,

MARIE CURIE AND the INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF CHEMISTRY

32

Maria Sklodowska-Curie 1867-1934 Woman of Science and courage, In the history of radioactivity, since its discovery, the name of Curie is at the forefront.

33

Maria Sklodowska was born in Warsaw, November 7, 1867. capital Poland then occupied by the Russians, who are trying to weaken the local elite. Like many intellectuals, Maria is a follower of the doctrine positivist Auguste Comte, the only way forward for them. in a high family of teachers, she led an austere life. bright student, serious, with an astonishing powers of concentration, Maria makes the dream so inconceivable for a woman to pursue research careers. In June 1883 she graduated in Poland's graduation from high school (with the gold medal). The shy Maria arrived in Paris in 1891 to pursue scientific studies. it is received in 1893 the first degree in physics and mathematics. The Curie discovered polonium together in July and radium in December 1898 and show - major discovery - that radioactivity is not the result of a chemical reaction but a property of the element, in fact the atom. In the shed that serves as a laboratory Pierre observed the properties radiation and Maria rather purifies the radioactive elements. "One of our joys was to enter the night in our workshop, so we perceive on all sides the luminous silhouettes of bottles and capsules that contained our products. " A century ago, June 25, 1903, Maria Sklodowska-Curie defended his doctorate at the Sorbonne entitled "Research on substances Radioactive ". She closes his memory:" Our research on new radioactive materials have resulted in a scientific movement, and were the starting point of many works related to research radioactive substances and new to the study of radiation substances known radioactive ". December 10, 1903, in Stockholm, in solemn session, the Academy Royal Sciences of Sweden awards the Nobel Prize for Physics with Henri Becquerel for "the discovery of spontaneous radioactivity" and Peter and Marie Curie "in recognition of extraordinary merits which they have demonstrated by their joint researches on the phenomena of radiation discovered by Professor Becquerel In 1904, Pierre Curie gets a chair of physics at the Sorbonne and in 1905 was elected to the Academy of Sciences. Sexism of the time denied entry to the Academy of Sciences Despite a second Nobel Prize in chemistry it gets 10 December 1911, to have determined the atomic weight of radium. facilitate surgery. Mary organized the first service Mobile X-ray by creating mobile radiological team and hospitals. Itcontinued her studies with her daughter Irene and Dr Claudius Regaud We then use a protective screen for any metal and cloth gloves! Marie Curie was not expressed publicly on issues of general interest, however, was close to his heart as social progress. As Pierre Curie once, it's science it was the

34

most confidence for men have a better life. It was not associated, in general, Om calls submitted to him. The most notable exceptions to this attitude concerning equal rights and duties of women and men, and particular the issue of women's suffrage. Marie Curie was not elected to the Academy of Sciences. Its nomination in 1911 sparked a debate, not decided on the merits on access women in the five academies that are part of the Institute. In 1922, thirty-five members of the Academy of Medicine offer to elect Marie Curie as an associate member free. All candidates for desist vacant chair for her. It is awarded "in recognition of the part she took in the discovery of radium, and a new medication, the Brachytherapy. " Marie Curie was not provided doctor, as it happens that the grows, but she participated in the work of the Academy, in particular a report the danger of radiation in 1925. His daughter Irene fierce as she, in the same laboratory, discovered Frederic Joliot in January with her husband, artificial radioactivity, which also be worth a Nobel Prize. At the origin of cancer treatments and dating techniques of ancient artifacts, rocks and the universe, as molecular biology and modern genetics, radioactivity is also the source of nuclear9 energy and the atomic bomb. According to Marc Fontecave first chemistry is only, perhaps, to have as much, borders with all other disciplines and that it gives the possibility to intervene appropriately and Original virtually all major challenges of the twenty-first century humanity (food, energy, health, environment, ...). While the disciplines are now become essentially interdependent, chemistry is probably the has most often and most deeply intensified its incursions in other, life sciences and health, physics and materials science to engineering, earth sciences and environment, which all seek in the times. The development of these interfaces is undoubtedly one of the most important issues of contemporary science. Chemistry by its unique position at the crossroads of disciplines can play role in forging this mix. Requested, the chemistry is because it is before while the creation science of molecules and materials on which all the
9

By Marc Fontecave Member of the Academy of Sciences, professor at the College de France, "Chair of Chemistry biological processes

35

remains. It is she who shapes the concrete world in which we live (Drugs, cosmetics, polymers, plastics, glass, to name only some chemical compounds in our universe). Our future takes shape around the molecules and materials invented in chemistry labs and these are infinitely many possible worlds as the potential chemical transformation of matter and companies both large and is fundamental questions posed by chemicals, positive science par excellence, are characterized by their practical potential. The chemistry is, lest we forget not, as an industry that, in France, second sector after automotive, represents a hundred billion euros in sales for more than one thousand companies. Chemistry has, on the other hand, is unique in that it is given a universal language and fraternal, practiced and understood around the world, allowing a luminous reading of the material we are made, from that around us, from that which is finally possible. This language is based on an original alphabet, the classification Periodic proposed in 1869 by Russian chemist Mendeleyev and tells us what we are and where we can go. It unifies the biological sciences and binds to the physical sciences and if the living can be understood in terms rational it is in large part, we too often forget, because it is expressed in the language of chemistry. it is now to build a sustainable society in which men satisfy their needs but finally without compromising future generations, science will be sought to find innovative strategies completely, clean, economical, effective and sustainable especially for the production of fuels, electricity, materials. It is evident that chemistry, that which is now called "green" will play a major role in the development of this new science. It result in new methods of synthesizing its concern for the toxicity potential solvents, products and reagents, the use of starting renewable finally waste reduction and spending associated energy. This is illustrated in the articles in this issue. This ambition of chemistry for tomorrow will rely in particular on the study and development of new catalytic processes. This is what we said Peter Braunstein, a historical perspective through the development of catalysis and some examples of his laboratory. The discovery of new catalysts will allow chemical companies to implement reactions even more effective, more selective, cleaner. Another area in which chemistry will play a major role is that of new technologies Energy and the exploitation of renewable energy, solar in particular. Didier Roux tells us that creative solutions for actual energy savings especially in construction depend on the
36

development of new insulation, especially nano-structured. The same it is through the synthesis and optimization of new materials semiconductors, developed in the laboratories of chemistry. The chemistry of life,both bio-organic chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry, has obviously a major role to play in this new context of development of chemistry Green. Much remains to be done to understand the molecular nature of living. In particular the vast repertoire of molecules of life, small molecules (vitamins, neurotransmitters, hormones, cofactors, ....) and macromolecules (especially proteins), is known only partially. Living organisms, especially plants and bacteria, are mines molecular immense and their exploitation should open new horizons, especially with regard to drugs and therapies. Between 1983 and 2005, third of the approximately thousand new molecules approved by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) consisted of natural products or compounds inspired or derived from natural products. This rises to nearly 60% when Considering only anticancer drugs. Finally here some areas of chemistry, with its molecular approach will allow crucial advances. For Jean-Marie Tarascon Member of the Academy of sciences, professor and director of the laboratory and chemical reactivity solids at the University of Picardie, Amiens. Chemistry requires patience and as many attempts, known as experiments, to reveal the secrets and possibilities that exist in the material. It is always led by full ideas and new experiences to realize that the chemist goes to the bench with no explorer. In other words in its Chemistry whole should always keep in mind that its origin is the chemistry of life. Moreover we can hardly be surprised that it is always a careful examination of it are woven the greatest advances in chemistry, at least it was longer the case. Early chemists called "modern" in the front row Antoine Laurent Lavoisier which appears, were the pioneers who fashioned their own tools to implement, within their laboratory, the reactions of the chemistry of life, and this in order to lift the veil on the mysteries of matter. For him the International Year of Chemistry is a unique opportunity for chemists to explain their research and address the need to interact with society so that their talents arts and crafts are more than ever at the service of knowledge and more of humanity. I think that science and technology policies must be treated as means of achieving the national vision of Kurdistan. The objective these policies should not be limited to the growth of the industry using science and technology as a lever. Rather, the goal should be to enable each human being to live a happy life. As history often demonstrates, science always creates new knowledge,
37

advanced understanding of the laws of nature, and awakens human curiosity and ability of imagination. Sometimes, science has the power to change society substantially. Examples of Einstein in 1905 with the thought of the Quantum mechanics has contributed to the progress of science. In all ages, the Science is the light on the horizon. Similarly, there is no guarantee that growth of science and technology in itself make people happy. Establishing science and technology policies, a mentality that only attaches importance to economic growth short-term home based on a conventional concept of values and social structure is too narrow-minded, and can more effectively serve inhibiting to promoting the vision of a dignified nation. In this statement we made at the foundation of Project Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan, after describing the strategy of Kurdistan to establish himself as a dignified nation, allowing him to trust the Middle East. Progress in science and physical science chemical influence on the biological sciences because it is from thephysics and chemistry than biologists with harnessing energy efficiency and the study of complex processes occurring in living organisms, and vice versa. Chemistry sought to use biological principles to solving the tasks of chemical synthesis. III The biological sciences Recent discoveries of physics, chemistry and mathematical methods have led to a revolution in the biological sciences. Molecular biology has revolutionized the science of World kids living in proportions that quantum theory has revolutionized the nuclear physics that there are forty years. The intense study of the biological functions of living beings. from the analysis of the structure and molecular interactions gave biochemistry leadership, leading to a relatively new science - molecular biology. In kid time, the establishment of the principle of catalytic functioning of living matter was a fundamental for the development of biological science. Take the seeds in the biological sciences The ferments are in many ways incomparably superior to artificial catalysts. Before their power by any action, thousands of chemical reactions take place in living organisms. Using ferments, in the absence of high temperatures and pressures, millions and billions of times faster in the presence of the best chemical catalysts.

38

The ferments have yet another benefit - the most important. They differ catalysts artificial rationality surprising for their actions, strictly oriented and maximum efficiency. Each closing act in an optimum manner, without finding technological solutions optimal 'in transforming not only one compound or a group of very close. and transforming them in a direction strictly determined.) The discovery and description of a growing number of biochemical reactions put the agenda the task of trying to establish the fundamental principles that govern the nature and interdependence of these reactions. Without that. it was impossible to develop a systematic process alive, countless biochemical terms. The solution of these problems was first linked two basic discoveries made in the thirties and forties and have been essential elements of the revolution in the biological sciences, particularly on the biochemical level. The first is the discovery of "conservation." Energy of biochemical reactions in the form of chemical bonds in a particular matter which received the name of adenosine triphosphate. The second is the discovery of the principle of combination reactions in biological systems, ie that the surplus energy formed in response to a course can be transmitted to another reaction that would not be d 'Itself possible. These two basic discoveries immediately bring the logic in research on the biochemical organization of the activity of cells to distinguish combinations reactions energy. eligible and ineligible. Thus began the assembly of biochemical elements in separate groups or mechanisms intact, and when the researchers took fiai to operate on a certain segment, they found they managed to swallow train, from components, or as Such physiological process whose biochemists had initiated the development thirty years ago. ' " [7] The subsequent progress of science, a deeper penetration of the secrets of life discovered was able to process more complex than photosynthesis and respiration, biochemistry did not yet understand. It was primarily the process of growth and development as well as the phenomena of heredity and its transmission. Neither the methods and experiences of physiology, nor those of biochemistry were unable to highlight the properties of living matter which constitute the substance of these phenomena. Only with the advent of electron microscopy that we put into the unknown world of the infinitesimally small particles of the living cell. Thus the practical results of the revolution. Intervened in physics were a powerful catalyst for the revolution in biology. If the power separator ordinary microscope can achieve a magnification of two to three thousand times, the electron microscope can magnify objects of study of hundreds of thousand times
39

and even more than a million times. The amount converts to quality basic opportunities have opened to the study of microscopic organizations, intimate process taking place in the living cell. In entering ever more deeply into the secrets of the process alive,. biological science learns about the mechanism for the use of genetic information. Thus, biology was brought to explore the giant molecules of organic polymers: nucleic acids, proteins and some carbohydrates, ie training, which play a decisive role in the performance of vital functions essential. The study of these molecules required methods and processes hoc analysis and constituted one of the key orientations of a science booming molecular biology, we talk a little further. The results of the biological chemistry were and still are today an grazing tool knowledge of life processes. But the language of chemistry did not allow itself to penetrate the mysteries of life. The biophysical came to the rescue. The search continued for solving the problem of living has enormous methodological and practical importance for the development and improvement of material production, Academician G. Frank wrote "What we call the living can not be translated into language purely chemical. In addition to the list of reactions involved in the process of exchanging chemical substances, in addition to the catalytic reactions and chemical kinetics of these processes, there must be some organization in space (structure) of all rnacromolculaires, which is beyond the framework representations purely chemical. " [8] This organization, writes G. Frank is not only the location of chemical processes; acting itself is changing, determines their conduct and organise. That is why, alongside the chemistry and molecular approaches, we need what might be called conventional language of 'approaches surmolculaires "These approachessurmolculaires can not already under the sole jurisdiction of chemistry and biochemistry. We are witnessing here are qualitatively different processes and chemicals added to the forces of interaction phenomena characteristics of the system surmolculaire complex. The study of these phenomena is usually biophysics or physical chemical biology " [9] The biological sciences naturally attach particular importance nature of the activities of living organisms and their smallest components in the cell and components of the cell itself. Science has entered into the inframicroscopique structure of the cell, which allowed him to make the most unexpected discoveries, forcing a radical revision of current ideas on the principles biochemical, biophysical and physico-chemical properties of cellular processes.

40

"How is born. a new science, a new specialty? "asks P. Thuiflier thy has not answered both general and satisfactory this question, although various assumptions have been made. " [10] This interpretation seems skeptical, because the development of a new discipline and the birth of a new science does not depend on the identity or the intellectual originality of ideas. Rather, it depends on the character of the nature of the subject of science itself method of exposure in the wider it is the means to achieve an objective, an activity according to a certain orderly fashion. It is by methodological role that tears the veil to the extraordinary complex phenomena of nature, society and the human conscience and directs the science to the release of natural links, objectives, forcing the researcher to stay on Field facts rigorously established. For example, lob jet of molecular biology is to study the events essential activity vital to their elementary levels in the cell and its components, the nucleus and the cytoplasm, in the tiny intra-cellular structures, systems the simplest located on the border of living and not living like virus and bacteriophages, and finally, in systems of biological macromolecular polymers and proteins nuclides acids that carry out its essential functions in training live ... There is a particularly intensive development of molecular biology research related to problems of proliferation, heredity, structure and. properties of macromolecular compounds, their biosynthesis and laws of their reproduction in the process of growth, division and cell development. In other words, bios macromolecular polymers and nucleic acids are essential objects of research in molecular biology. Over the past thirty years, biology has undergone a profound transformation by the convergence of disciplines for a long time remained independent of both the problems they saw as the equipment and methodology they used. Thus, the cellular physiology, genetics, biochemistry, virology, microbiology have melted into a common discipline, which is now known as the molecular biology. It aims to interpret the phenomena that take place within living organisms in office structures and functional interrelationships that occur between macromolecular constituents of the cell. [11] In its first stage, molecular biology has sought to analyze the material the simplest cell, namely the bacterial cell, that some discoveries were made accessible. such a study. In recent years, the elucidation of the main structure of biological macromolecules, proteins and nucleic acids, the interpretation of their functions in terms of structure, recognition of their biosynthetic pathways and their regulations have renewed our knowledge of heredity and cellular mechanisms. "

41

This feels the development and differentiation, more interconnection of science that results, models and methods of some sciences are becoming more widely used in other (for example the use of physical and chemical dodles in biology and medicine), and this shows the problem of interdisciplinary research. Another important feature of the current stage of development of science is to increase the role of constructive elements in scientific knowledge. "On the one hand. In entire body, others share in somatic cell cultures taken from the bodies complex.[12] "Because the discovery of the nature and structure of nuclei acids demonstrates the rationality of the exceptional nature and organization of his creatures, in fact, nucleic acids are composed wholly of four elements: the four nucleotide that does differ from one another by their nitrogen content - adenine, guanine, cytosine, themine. Thus, the tremendous diversity of. life on. Terre A. always a basic biochemical perfectly unique and universal. Moreover, the principle of complementarity, which explains the old secret of heredity, is one of the essential bases. molecular biology with which it was established that in a DNA molecule, the amount of guanine is always equal to. the amount of cytosine, adenine quantity is a gaie. the amount of themine. During the vital activity of the body, the DNA molecules involved in trade undergo many cellular damage under the influence of internal and external factors. Thus, the new directions of development of molecular biology and its revolutionary continuous progress based on solid methodology. "It is the combination of organic synthesis and very fruitful, two methodological approaches. the study of nature and properties of the simplest components of a complex, and the study of the structure, organization, the properties of complex body as a whole, forces and processes that constitute the system as. than anything else. The key question is how simple it gives birth to the complex, what are the forces and laws that are operating here, how to structure new properties of the complex system. It is a focus of scientific research that part of the molecular levels the most primitive and the most basic driving , levels of organization of increasing complexity,. systems with new properties and functions.[13] " The essential feature of this passage from simple to complex is an integrated process, we propose the term of fundamentalism to define the orientation of cognitive science. If one analyses the development of natural sciences, technical and social, one finds much in common in their methodology and practice. Thus, this methodology is it absolutely necessary as regards the creation

42

of automated systems that the development of the vast majority of complex programs, as it is to solve the problems of the relationship between the party and everything between simple and compound. The need for such a methodological approach is more apparent than ever today as regards the solving of economic and socio-economic and development programmes in which we have always dealing with large complex systems to several components . D'oc current problem 1 "fundamentalism" for all the natural sciences, technical and social. The mechanism of development of science in their process of unification of the different branches of science plays an important role in guiding scientific thought and technology of our century. 11 opens two possibilities for developing and refining the material productive forces, through which we can see the development of the revolution in the natural sciences, technical, social interaction and their dialectic in two aspects: First, humanity will affect so focused on the processes of organic life and from it. Raising a colossal effectiveness of social production, and also increase the possibilities of the man himself - the first productive force of society - and the perfect considerably. Secondly, the company will continuously introduce into production the results of technological and organizational organic life> and. From then allow a new scientific and technological revolution which, it has every reason to think, leave it far behind the possibilities opened up by the current scientific and technological revolution. This revolution in the biological sciences wakes up the "technical", "" technology "and the organization of operating systems which exceed in complexity all the systems that man has been able to create and productivity have never seen in practice the global industry at the same time that capacity, an infinite number of dimensions, economic performance and reliability unimaginable. The active phase of the revolution in the biological sciences began, it seems, most recently as physics and chemistry, and its practical results may not be as clear and important that the results achieved by physicists and chemists, but it is already visible today that the possibilities, both cognitive and practical, opened by the revolution in science are of a magnitude that they can serve as a springboard . a new revolution in science and information technology, which means the development of physical sciences, chemical, biological as the basis for development and differentiation branches scientific computing,

43

THE

CONFERENCE

OF

THE

ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES

On 13 May 2008 next section of molecular and cellular biology, genomics of the Academy of Sciences will organize a conference on epigenetics and cellular memory. This is a new discipline of molecular and cellular biology, genomics. The question that arises What is epigenetics? It is often at Conrad Waddington (1905-1975) attributed the invention of the term "epigenetic" in 1942, to appoint "the branch of biology that studies the cause-effect relationships between genes and their products , Showing the phenotype. " The first mention of epigenetics in literature has emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, but it can be traced back the origin of the concept to Aristotle (384-322 BC. AD). He believed in a epigenesis: ie developing an organic form derived from individual informs. This view was contested the main argument against a form of development from tiny body already trained. Even today, the question of how far we are preprogrammed or shaped by the environment continues to arouse controversy. The field of epigenetics has emerged to fill the gap between innate and acquired. In the twenty-first century, the most common definition of epigenetics is "the study of heritable changes in gene function, taking place without alteration of the DNA sequence." But see what scientists who work in this burgeoning field have to say on the subject "Epigenetics has always been all these weird and wonderful things that genetics is not explain. " [14] "DNA is like a tape recorder carrier of information, but that is useless without a tape recorder[15]. Epigenetics somehow plays the role of tape. According Jrn Walter[16] "I take a photo of a computer and I comparerais DNA to the hard disk and the software epigenome. You can access certain information on the hard drive through the programs installed on the computer. But there are some areas that are protected by passwords and others who are not. I would say that we try to understand why there are passwords for certain areas while others are free to access. "For Gunter Reuter[17]" There are about two metres of DNA into a nucleus that is only a few micrometers. We try to understand the mechanisms that allow access to DNA, despite the tiny size of the kernel. " In essence, genetic and epigenetic switches determine whether genes are active or not. These are proteins encoded by the DNA sequence, called transcription factors, which play the role of genetic switches. The epigenetic switches, they consist of chemical modifications of DNA and histone proteins associated with him, as well as changes in the structure of chromatin, the complex. proteins and DNA that constitutes the chromosomes. Moshe studies the role of these switches in biological processes as diverse as type II diabetes, kidney disease polycystique, development of organs such as heart and liver, and
44

the transformation of cells into cancerous cells. Increasingly the revolution in genetic engineering has invaded space science. "Information management in the kernel requires that a portion of genetic information is extremely compacted in the genome. Moreover, another part of the genetic information must be turned on and walk continuously, as the genes so-called "household" for example. So epigenetics looks a bit like the way it organizes his papers at home: we keep handy those that are used regularly, but range old report cards in boxes that are being Grenier.[18] "You can probably compare the distinction between genetics and epigenetics the difference between writing a book and reading. Once the book is written, the text (genes or information stored in the form of DNA) will be the same in all copies distributed to the public. However, every reader of a book will have a slightly different interpretation of history, which will bring him to emotions and personal projections over the chapters. In a very similar, epigenetics allow several readings of a fixed matrix (the book or the genetic code), giving rise to various interpretations, depending on the conditions under which we interrogate this matrix. " Thomas Jenuwein think that more than 50 years have passed since the first publication by Watson and Crick on the three-dimensional structure of the DNA double helix. Now that the Darwinian theory of evolution has found its way into people's minds, the discovery that DNA code for hereditary characteristics is widely accepted. When Crick left us the extent of media coverage has shown how this concept was recognized well beyond the scientific community. However, we start to realize that the theories of evolution focused on genes have a limited scope. The genetic master plan, just like a complex musical score, remains lifeless without an orchestra of cells (musicians) and their pignotypes (instruments) to interpret. Science lifts the veil today on how to play our partition genetic interpretation is apparently radically different from one generation to another without the DNA sequence has undergone change. The field of epigenetics seeks to determine how the mechanisms regulating the maturation of molecular genes affect the function genomics. Among the epigenetic factors, there are both the spatial organization, such coiling of DNA around proteins called histones (chromatin), biochemical and labelling. There are hundreds of different types of cells in the body. Although each has the same starting point, the characteristics of a neuron are quite different from those of a liver cell. For some 30 000 genes that account the human genome, the importance of silence, as in any orchestral interpretation, should not be underestimated. As the cells grow, their destiny is governed by the selective use and putting in silence genes. This process depends on epigenetic factors. The profiles of DNA methylation plays a role in all sorts of phenomena

45

which genes are turned on and off, whether the stain on a petal purple petunia or development of malignancies. The inability to reduce to silence some genes can generate a dangerous cacophony. An insufficient methylation of DNA can alter the organization of chromatin, which then influence the genes to be put in silence after cell division. An excessive methylation can destroy the work of tumor suppressor genes and DNA repair, which have a protective role. The pimutations of this kind have been observed in all kinds of cancers. These discoveries epigenetic pave the way for the exploration of new therapeutic possibilities. Epigenetics also provides the genetic material means to respond to changing environmental conditions. Although plants have no nervous system nor brain, their cells have the ability to memorize the seasonal changes. In some species biennial, this ability is linked to their ability to bloom in spring, when they detect ambient temperatures more lenient. Research on certain types of watercress have shown that exposure to cold during the winter causes structural changes in chromatin, which reduce the genes of flowering in silence. These genes are reactivated in the spring when the days longer and hotter become suitable for breeding. The environment can also cause changes that will affect future generations. Laboratory studies on mice consanguineous have recently demonstrated that a change of diet may influence their offspring. They may have a brown coat, yellow or spotted depending on how the agouti gene is methylated during embryonic development. When females were in gestation with a diet rich in methyl supplements such as folic acid and vitamin B12, especially their offspring has developed a brown coat. Most small set by the World mice witnesses (who had not received supplements) had a yellow coat. Like the conductor inspires the dynamics of the execution of a symphony, epigenetic factors govern the interpretation of DNA within each cell. Understanding these factors could revolutionize evolutionary biology and development and influence on practices ranging from medicine to agriculture. In response to Watson, "the genetic alphabet would rather God's word and its translation would hand." Moshe YANIV, the Academy of Sciences, Institute Pasteur, Paris has interpreted the question Epigenetics and Development[19] said al clearly "Our text genetic DNA, is the same in all cells of the body. Yet the information given by the text was not read in the same way in our cells, and this contributes to the formation of various tissues and organs that make up our individual. This the cell line is permitted by changes in proteins that coat our DNA, histones, and by methylation of DNA or RNA molecules. These changes lachromatine are transmitted during the duplication of our chromosomes, allowing them to keep

46

in mind during cell division. Abnormalities of these epigenetic changes can lead to various diseases including cancer. This panel discussion will illustrate the recent progress in this new discipline which represents an important shift in our understanding of heredity and the biologica[20]l variety. " As for Adrian Bird[21] he studied Adrian studying the methylation of DNA, ie chemical changes thereof encoding information that is added to that of the DNA sequence. The DNA methylation plays a major role in putting in silence genes and Adrian found proteins that bind to methylated DNA sequences and participate in this mechanism. Mice that lack one of these proteins, MeCP2, develop a disease similar to human neurological disease[22] called Rett syndrome. In seeking to identify the genes that are activated by inappropriately in mice deficient in MeCP2, Adrian hopes to advance therapeutic strategies for this disease. "In his presentation to the Conference of the Academy of Sciences Andrien Bird believes that" DNA vertebrates covalent DNA is modified by methylation of cytosine in the dinucleotide sequence 5'CG3 "and that thought is regarded as a form of cellular memory. One way to understand the "epigenetic" brand, is to study proteins that "read" methyl-CG signals in the genome. MeCP2 is of particular interest that mutations affecting its gene causes Rett syndrome, the most common inherited form of mental retardation affecting women. the molecular level, to speak briefly on the structure and dynamics of MeCP2 binding to methylated DNA. At a higher level of complexity, experiences that test the reversibility of Rett syndrome-like symptoms MeCP2 null-mouse will be described. Combined and molecular neurobiological information supports the idea that the functions of MeCP2 maintain programs gene expression in neurons mature. " [23] Robert Feil would like to know how genes printed, which intended to be activated or deactivated is predetermined by their parental origin, influence the development of the embryo into a fully formed body and that of extraembryonic tissue such as the placenta. A fairly large number of genes have been discovered printed but you do not understand very well how cells know which genes were inherited from the mother or the father. The DNA methylation, a chemical modification of DNA, contributes to this process of recognition in the embryo. Robert seeks to ascertain how changes. The chemical histone proteins could play a role in the formation of the footprint.[24] According to Robert Feil "Among placental mammals, the genome inherited from the mother and one inherited from the father are not functionally equal. They are, during pregnancy, both required for a healthy development of the embryo. The functional necessity of both parental genomes estdue a different marking between the sperm and egg. These epigenetic marks on the parental chromosomes persist during development and allow the allelic expression of certain genes from the copy is maternal or paternal. About a hundred genes are controlled by this phenomenon epigntique called "footprint genomics." Most of these genes under the imprint
47

plays a fundamental role in fetal development and growth, while others affect the behaviour after the birth. Thus, it is not surprising that disturbances pathological del'empreinte genomics lead to disease and behavioural development in humans. Some disturbances in the footprint are also involved in cancer. After an introduction on the biological significance of the impression genomics, I will present some examples of recent research on the molecular mechanisms of the impression genomics. "In other words, the footprint genomics and its role in developments in placental mammals, the maternal and paternal inherited genomes are functionally not the same thing. Both are required for embryonic development and well-being during the gestation period. Techniques need both parental genomes is a consequence of differential "pigntiques marking" in the egg by sperm. These differential marks on the chromosomes (fingerprints) persist in the developing embryo, and after birth, and transmit the presence or the expression of genes from either their mother or father copy. About a hundred genes are controlled by this phenomenon called epigenetics "footprint genomics." Most printed genes known to play a key role in fetal development and growth, others influence behavior after the birth. Not surprisingly, therefore, pathological disturbance footprint genomics gives rise to related to growth and behaviour of disease in humans, and is associated with cancer as well. After you submit the biological significance of footprint genomics, I will present some examples of recent research on the molecular mechanisms underlying. As for Giacomo CAVALLI[25], it uses a fly vinegar as a model organism to study how proteins groups Polycomb Trithorax and regulate development. For an organization to develop properly, the subset of genes has to be activated at the right time and in good cells. The group Polycomb proteins disable certain genes, whereas proteins Trithorax group to activate other. Giacomo has discovered that these are specific DNA elements that determine whether or not certain key genes of development are activated or not by this mechanism when new cells are formed. With the help of colored markers and sophisticated microscopy techniques, Giacomo examine how these elements can ensure that remote areas on chromosomes can come closer to each other. The truth is that "epigenetics respect to the transmission of hereditary characteristics of each cell type in the same body. Many biological processes essential for the development and adult life depend phenomena "epigenetic", ie that different cells and tissues acquire "identities" different, even if the DNA of each cell is identical. These identities are kept permanently throughout the life of cells and are passed on to daughter cells so hereditary. We now know that this is the chromatin structure which is the identity of this cell, which transmits the daughter cells within the same lineage. But the structure of different

48

chromosomal regions is regulated by factors called Polycomb "and" trithorax. " The Polycomb proteins lead to the formation of structures condensed and inactive, while proteins trithorax open the chromatin and allow the DNA to express its genetic information to obtain cellular RNAs and proteins. We showed that the Polycomb proteins and trithorax can transmit a hereditary memory states activated and repressed by their target genes. We seek to understand the mechanisms underlying this memory and their role during normal development and in the context of the emergence of cancers. "In other words in the field of Epigenetics regard to the transmission of hereditary traits that distinguish each type of cell in an organism. Many biological processes depend on epigenetic components that are capable of driving different cells in different cells States fate despite the fact that they share the same DNA sequence. These cellular identities can be transmitted by cell division, this implies cellulairemmoire the regulation of DNA in chromatin emballage.Les proteins Polycomb group (PCG) are able to transmit the cellular memory of silence States of gene expression, while trithorax group (trxG) proteins, silent struggle with a function of activation that allows them target genes to express themselves in the types of cells. Our research showed that these two groups of proteins can transmit the memory gene States of expression throughout development and even through meiosis in descendants. We are therefore trying to decipher the molecular mechanisms that are responsible for the maintenance of this memory under normal conditions development, and understand how the disturbance of memory cell generates diseases such as cancer. " [26] Minoo Rassoulzadegan[27] and his staff of Inserm Unit 636 "Genetics of normal development and pathological" *, describe a mode of inheritance which does not comply with the laws of Mendel. It involves the transfer RNA molecules associated with the genome - in particular the recently discovered class of microARNs-, in the head of sperm. This very special heredity was identified in the case of an epigenetic modification called hereditary paramutation, in mice. The paramutation used in this work affects a gene essential for development whose modification can be followed by a change of colour coat. These results may be closer to work very recent showing the presence of RNA molecules in the human sperm, and bring about their possible functions of the new assumptions. The change is an epigenetic modulation of the expression of genes or groups of genes which, unlike the mutation does not change in structure (nucleotide sequence) of DNA. It is nevertheless passed on a stable during cell division. One of the most studied examples of this kind of variation is the inactivation of one of the X chromosomes in female mammals. This type of change is today considered important in various diseases, including cancer.

49

In plants, a class of epigenetic change is considered as "paramutation". It is characterized by its property to be not only stable during the development of a body (somatic level) but to be transmitted to offspring during cross over several generations (germinal level) with distributions different from those predicted by mendelian. Comments earlier laboratory and an American group suggested they might exist in animals. Heredity paramut character does not follow the rules mendliennes, the majority of offspring showing the change. Although transmission by the mother or the father is also effective, Minoo Rassoulzadegan and his colleagues decided to study the formation of male sexual cells, easier access. There is a state paramut an abnormal accumulation in the precursors of germ cells (spermatids) degradation products of the messenger RNA Kit and two microARNs specific gene. Recently discovered, microARNs constitute a class of complex molecules very small (20-22 nucleotides), each with a specific gene or group of genes. An important role was very recently recognized in controlling the expression of genes at different levels: degradation of messenger RNAs, inhibition of translation and modified structures of the chromatin. This accumulation unusual RNA into precursors germinal led researchers of Inserm to examine sperm from males paramuts. Through various techniques, they observed a significant amount of RNA molecules, while the sperm of normal mice did contain very little. To show that the transmission of epigenetic change was due to the transfer of these RNAs during fertilization, RNA molecules (including two microARNs specific Kit) were introduced by microinjection of a fertilized egg cells from a normal couple (1 stage embryos cell). After relocation in surrogate mothers, a fraction (50 to 60%) of embryos treated produce animals carrying the modification and themselves capable of transmitting it to their offspring. The other microARNs used as witnesses not cause any change of colour coat. ). It is an alteration of the character determined by a gene when it was transmitted by a parent heterozygous who he was facing a form (allele) moved (there was talk of "conversation interchromosomique"). On the one hand, contrary to the law of Mendel, which states that the alleles were left unchanged during segregation during the crossing, is not respected. On the other hand, the amendment is stable and will be transmitted to offspring, although the sequence of nucleotides in the gene "paramut", so the genetic text itself is not modified. The first case of paramutation observed in mice was an amendment to the wild form of a gene (Kit) in the offspring of a heterozygous with a mutated form. The mouse heterozygous (Kit-/Kit +) is characterized by white coat (tail and feet), a class of characters visible, and therefore easily detectable that the likes geneticist since Mendel. This phenotype identical to that of mutant is transmitted in the absence of the allele inducer, so by animals carrying two alleles structurally intact, and that over several generations. The signal inducing altered state was found to be
50

the transfer RNA molecules in the embryo at the moment of fertilization. We observed a significant burden RNA in the sperm of males "paramuts." Experiments reconstruction based on the injection into the egg fertilized mouse normal RNA of these animals, as well as synthetic RNAs and microARNs specific locus, have established their role inducer. We have recently extended this mode of hereditary transmission over several generations of pathological situations, including a pathology in mice reproducing a serious cardiac malformation (Wagner et al., 2008). It can offer a model for diseases so-called "family," observed repeatedly between parents and children or between brothers and sisters, while in many cases, it could not identify a genetic alteration of the text (changing) . Beyond the inheritance of a genetic text, we now consider heredity its modes of reading. " [28] Marcel MECHALI, [29]considers that the harmonious development of an embryo requires a delicate balance between proliferation and differentiation of cells. A similar regulatory control the renewal of our cells in our adult life. Each division is non-seuleument our genome that we must duplicate, but his organization for differentiation incurred. Marcel interested in the role of replication origins in that balance. The research conducted in his laboratory has shown that the origins of replication were regulated during development, in conjunction with a remodeling of chromosomal domains. Marcel also identifies new factors replication, and his team discovered the role of CDT1 and MCM8. How do these factors could be deregulated in cancer is a question asked by his laboratory. In his presentation entitled The inactivation of the X chromosome: how extinguish a chromosome with the NRA Claire ROUGEULLE,[30] Pasteur Institute, Paris says that "The inactivation of the X chromosome is a fundamental process that ensures, among mammals, a strength equivalent gene among individuals male (with 1 X chromosome) and females (with 2 X). The inactivation takes place very early in the early embryonic development of females and is characterized, in fine, by the extinction of transcription in virtually all of some two thousand genes carried by the chromosome affected. The inactivation is often seen as a paradigm of epigenetic regulation insofar as it implies that two homologous chromosomes (the two X chromosomes) behave differently within a nucleus, one active and the other being inactivated . In a surprising, it is known that the main actor of this process is a non-coding RNA, the expression from one of the two X chromosomes leads to inactivation of the latter. How RNA can it extinguish an entire chromosome, and how this RNA is itself controlled are two crucial issues to be discussed. " [31] CONCLUSIONS

51

Our research has asked these questions twenty years ago have been the subject of the Conference of the Academy of Sciences but I can highlight the three basic functions of the Academy of Sciences. Twenty years ago before the jury academic and scientific I submitted the following statement. On what grounds can we ponder over the nature of science classification and what links can we establish between the classification and computer science? Where do the ideas on computer philosophical foundations come from as a base for the foundation of the Academy of Sciences and of the National Center for Scientific and Technical Research of Kurdistan? Do these ideas come from an issue on the historical development of the science classification or do they come from another methodological or epistemological nature? In other words, does the history of the philosophy of science need such a theoretical and philosophical explanation of the issue on the scientific reorganization of knowledge and its foundations? First, how can the opposition between both notions constitute a unity, especially with notions that do not stand in the same context? On one hand science classification is an old issue that goes back to Aristotle and which was a more philosophical issue than a scientific one in the Middle Ages, so that is an encyclopedic issue. On the other hand computer science gets a very varied meaning which has directly no links with the notions of science classification which are not on the same level. . First, a prevailing tendency is found among French and European computer scientists and there is an approach to the definition of "a computer science "or" computer sciences "or" computer scientific branches" which is linked to the definition of technology. The computer scientists of today are looking for the nature of only one science " (the computer science) and they reject the division of the intellect and the differentiation of sciences, their detachment from computer technology, without considering the scientific and technical progress. On one hand this belief of one science coincides with the positivist philosophy which rejects its role of Science of sciences ". On the other hand the tendency stems from the thought of Marx and developed by Engels, defends the unification of the human science with the natural science in order to create one science only.... Under those conditions, "is there one or several computer sciences" J.D Warnier asked. Then he added as far as the axioms and the basic principles are concerned, there is not an only science ". What are the differences between the axioms and the basic principles of computer science and those of philosophy? If there are no differences, how can we study " as many computer branches as we discover branches of the human activity which need word processing that is to say data processing, not only as

52

far as applied sciences are concerned but also in the technological structure of the scientific and computer branches ? How can we tell the fundamental computer science in general from management computers, scientific computers, telecomputers, telematics or the computers of satellites which have different missions? From the computer science analysis, can we introduce the field the classification of techniques that is not made any longer according to the products but to the processes in order to establish links with the science classification ? In other words the classification was interpreted by the philosophers of the 19th century like the connection of sciences and it didn't lead to the reduction of philosophy to an only science as Marx pointed out: how will natural science later embrace human sciences as well as human sciences include natural science, and will there be an only science?" What will be the function of computer science in the fulfillment of the scientific combination? Will there be an "only computer science or several computer sciences within the process of the realization of the combination? But we may ponder over the origin of those computer scientists looking for the nature of an "only science" (computer science) and who reject the diversification and the differentiation of the computer scientific branches. Where do they go to? Which tendency of science do they go to? To an only science as Marx suggests or to the only science developed by the neopositivists of the logical positivism? If those scientists get close to the Marxist conception how will the natural science embrace the human science? But if they get closer to the neopositivist doctrine or to the logical positivism what will their function in the sciences centre be if the human science includes the natural science? Which criteria allow us to distinguish the logical analysis of the science which claims to organize the scientific knowledge within the scope of an "only science"? What is the meaning of the value of an "only science" for the science philosophy of our century? How can we look for the philosophical foundations of computer science if there are some differences between the "axioms and the basic principles" of computer science and philosophy? First question: What is data processing? Is it a science, a technology or various techniques? What are its aims? If it is considered like a science, is there one or several computer sciences? What would its function in the science classification be? If it is considered like a technology and if we define technology like the science of the scientific and the technical rules of the production process, then, what is its function as a physical, technical and mathematical science, in the science classification? What are the differences between technology in general and computer technology? If it is considered as a technical whole, what are its connections with science and the human being? What links can we establish between the science classification and the various application fields of computer science? What is the computer science

53

methodology? What are the features of a pattern of the science classification and computer science? Second question: What is classification? What does the science classification mean nowadays? What are the aims of science? What about their classification) How can they be in harmony with the numerous human experiences. What is the specific characteristic of the issue for the human science philosophy ? Third question: is there a computer science classification? What are the bases of the various scientific branches of computer science? What links can we establish between science classification and the scientific and technical revolution? Fourth question: What are the prospects of the scientific development for a new humanistic civilization and what conclusions can we draw? METHODOLOGY For our philosophical processes, we have used the dialectical method. First, we have pondered over computer science by developing the logical and mathematical basis and the linguistic basis of computer science. Then, we have taken interest in the historical issue of science classification and we have intended to show the connection between science from the natural rules, its outcomes and the objective links between the function of the various sciences within their development and their own changes. Finally, we have studied the physical chemical and biological science as the basis of the differentiation of the scientific branches of computer science. We have analyzed the classic and modern computer system, the dialectical process of human knowledge in philosophy and computer science (the artificial intelligence and the foundations of the scientific knowledge) to establish the links between philosophy and the scientific revolutions and the aspects of a new conception of humanism in the scope of a new science classification. What is data processing is it a science a technology or does it embrace all techniques and tools? According to the Academy of Science, data processing is "the science of the rational processing, especially with automatic information machines considered as the basis of human knowledge in the technical and social fields. "This definition provided by the Academy of Science is our starting point but we have broadened it. First, computer science is a physical, technical and mathematical science linked to the second part of the natural science classification. That implies:

54

1. Computer science is both a rational processing science and a systematic, logical and mathematical science. It needs the analysis of the logical and mathematical basis of computer science (the binary logic and the Boolean logic) 2. Computer science is the science of the automatic data processing with machines and computers. So, it is both a physical computer science and a technological computer science that implicates the other scientific branches like telematics or telecomputers which is linked to the study and the creation of the components and the electrical and mechanical subset that are part of the creation of computers. It requires the analysis of the physical and technological foundations of computer science. 3. As a science of the rational and automatic analysis of information considered as the basis of human knowledge and communication computer science it leads to the creation of several scientific disciplines : the epistemological computer science, the knowledge engineering, the artificial intelligence, Experts systems, the survey of the shape, the synthesis of the word, the interaction between men and machines, the development of the communication engineering in the field of telecomputers and the computer technology of satellites. 4. As an applied science of production, computer s c i e n c e it has some results as far as the production diversification and the scientific work division are concerned. So, we have seen the logical and mathematical foundations of computer science. The Boolean logic is used in the systematization of the scientific knowledge in computers as a tool to argue. It is said that this mathematical logic is also the result of the logical and mathematical thought of Leibniz and that it is the basis of the philosophical and linguistic ideas developed in Ars Comniatoria (1666). Then we have divided the historical activity into four basic periods and we have studied the linguistic foundations of computer science "from Lavoisier's pictures which express the world into a new symbolical or expressive chemistry till the sophisticated classifications from which the living can enter a systematical reason" as Professor Dagognet wrote. The basic idea of his philosophy deals with the ORDER of reality and the linked possibility that the scientific knowledge cultivates. From this point of view we have analyzed the different languages: COBOL, FORTRAN, List Processing, ALGOL, BASIC, PROLOG, PASCAL. The growth of the languages suited to computers relatively corresponds to the needs of society. The scientific improvement based on the fundamental research in science widens the field of the labor force with the differentiation of the software technology.

55

So, we have briefly studied the structure of the computers called digital computers as opposed to analogical computers. They deal with digital information that is to say the continuous and discontinuous analogical and digital information which is the basis of computers classification. This technology gets a final logic in the material and social practical experience of the world. Indeed, "technology implies a reflection on the mode of connection. It is the place of change from the scientific rationality to the rationality of human science. So technology is the science of the control of information (especially scientific information) between men" Nevertheless there is historically a deep and converse connection in an explicit and systematic way between technology and science classification. The most remarkable of these classifications is Ampere's. So what is classification? What is classification? In French, the classification supposes a scientific attention and a theoretical order, I mean, it is built on a rational knowledge on the classified things and it allows one to understand them. Classification is an example of logical process used in science or in practice. Classifications are made according to the basic characteristics of the things. Classification emphasizes the similarity and the differences between things. So, the classification is a cognitive activity whose objective is to divide up the beings according to their similarity. It is a representation of the whole systematic knowledge, especially in science, of a system of divisions and subdivisions. Sometimes, when it is only a matter of organizing things in a system, we base our divisions conveniently even if things have no links between one another. Classification is the share-out of things in several coordinated and subordinated sets. It is the way to organize concepts according to the connections we want to emphasize: connection from gender to species, connection from the whole to the part, genealogical and hierarchical connections and so on ...In the field we deal with three main kinds of classification. First, there is statistics, that is to say the automatic classification that allows us to draw, thanks to algorithm, several partitions according to the individuals. Then there is the biological classification found by Linne. It is based on the obvious similarity between species that are placed in the same set. But this kind of classification is not very common. Finally there is the classification philosophically speaking. So, we have considered in detail four main stages in the development of science and knowledge: the immediate intuition stage, the analysis stage, the synthesis stage based on the former analysis (the upset object of knowledge is mentally pieced together in its entity and in its former reality). At the stage the differentiation of knowledge has been doubly characterized: first, according to
56

the material object, it is different from the former science; then, according to the lower form of the nearest movement thanks to which it is linked to the former science. The characteristics of a science and the differentiation of its knowledge get objective foundations on each new science. Such a connection can be made because the lower form of the movement enters the upper form just as the upper form just as the movement of a molecule enters the physcal state of gas (thermodynamics. So, this dialectical unity of the material movement and of the scientific knowledge on the real world, constitutes a real basis on which you can build a model of the dialectical classification of sciences and you can give each science an accurate definition that can indicate its place in the new sketch of science classification. For example, the nuclear science is a science you can deal with at the edge of its often fleeting experimental facts. This science makes sophisticated materials intervene. The problem posed to the physicians is the following: which model of the nucleus can we propose to explain the observations and the experimentation in keeping with the rules of atomic physics If nuclear physics is a scientific branch of atomic physics, so, it has given rise to energy and has become differentiated from the nuclear chemistry and the other scientific branches of atomic physics. How can we explain the basis of the law of changing from quantity to quality from a science to another as far as the development of the basic contradiction is concerned? Will this contradiction lead up to a new approach of the classification? Which model of science classification can we propose to the problematical unity of the scientific knowledge regarding science computer science in keeping with the nature? Can the atomic model of classification be based on the dialectical (material is both divisible and continuous and at the same time and neither of them) and on the dialectical atomic components, and can we analyze and express any historical experience of science in the unity of the scientific organization of knowledge? In other words, will this approach establish the common foundation of the whole fields of knowledge? Explain the classification of dialectical rules the dialectical contradiction indivisible and unity of the From this viewpoint we have tackled the basic principles of science classification. There are subjective, objective and comparative principles of science classification. First we have seen the subjective principle in Bacon, Hobbes, d'Alembert, Diderot as well as the rational classification in Comte according to the principle of coordination, the natural classification of science in Andre Marie Ampere. Then we have analyzed science classification according to the objective principle in Descartes, Gassendi: the artificial classification in Augustin and Cournot : the characteristics of the development of science classification in Germany thanks to Kant, Scheling, Hegel and the logic of the scientific connection in Marx. Finally we have analysed the dialectical classification based on the principle of subordination in F.Engels.

57

A first thought is based on the positivist thinking of A.Comte that allocates to the "authentic" philosophy a basic function. The positivist philosophy itself is a special science. The connection between philosophy and science is typified in this way: "science has its own philosophy". This connection is due to a definite interpretation of the role of science in culture. Neopositivism as a modern form of positivism deprives philosophy of its object without considering anything but the consciousness of the reality and the everyday or scientific thought. According to the positivist thinking philosophy is conceivable only because it is devoted to the analysis of language by which the mind can express itself. The philosophical analysis does not extend to the objective reality; it is limited to the immediate experience of language. According to the representatives of the logical empirism the phrase "philosophy of science" can apply to the research on philosophical thoughts on science and to the research on the probabilities of science. According to the logical positivism a real scientific philosophy is only conceivable as logical analysis of the scientific language. On one hand this analysis must suppress "metaphysics" (that is to say the traditional philosophy) and on the other hand it must analyze the logical structure of the scientific knowledge to make known the empirically verifiable content of the scientific arguments and concepts. The objective of this analysis is to reorganize the scientific knowledge in a "unique science" that erases the differences between physical, biological and psychological sciences and so on... We must notice that the phrase "philosophy of science" is often used to name the ideas, the criteria and the principles used in the scientific processes. It is called "presupposition". The study of the various scientific presuppositions is the subject of what we call "research on the foundations". This research used scientific methods such as axiomatization, the construction of models and so on... According to some authors (especially those who belong to the strict tradition of neopositivism) the only problems that can be posed about science are about the foundation. According to them the philosophy of science is a synonymous with the research on foundations. Only the adding knowledge is able to embrace the whole intelligible knowledge. The second thought is based on Hegel's idea of foundation as a category of the system of the dialectical logic. In Science of Logic Hegel analyzed the rules and the basic categories of the dialectical logic and the theory of knowledge. He developed the first system of the dialectical logic. The only law for Hegel is the law that unifies the law of gravity and the law of the celestial movement. The standardization of all the laws in the universal attraction is set down in itself. The universal attraction only reads that everything is different from everything; understanding thinks it has
58

found a universal law which is able to tell the reality in its universality. By the way Hegel makes unification include in the conception of development even if he interprets in an idealistic way the main three fields of the object of the human knowledge: the natural world (nature), the historical world (society and its history), the spiritual world (human thought). According to Hegel, foundation is a reflection on essence that is foundation is the real mediation between essence and oneself. Foundation is first the absolute foundation as a basis in general; but more precisely it is determined as a form and a material and it is given contents. As a basic connection it becomes external to itself and it goes to the conditional mediation. Foundation presupposes a condition, but condition presupposes a foundation too. Things in themselves go to the existence thanks to the mediation of the conditional connection. Indeed this "unification in an only conception of development in the natural world as well as in the historical and spiritual world" is the foundation of the Marxist thinking. It is composed of the dialectical materialism, the historical materialism, the political economy, the scientific doctrine of the society which has on one hand overturned the idealistic doctrine of Hegel and on the other hand it has developed a new conception of science classification. So, according to Marx, philosophy can be fulfilled only by the abolition of the proletariat. With its triumph, the proletariat is nevertheless disappearing because of the birth of a society with no class and strictly human. For some people "this society is the real appropriation of the human essence by men and for men. It is the men return to themselves that is to say to social men -it is a total and conscious return which concerns all the wealth of the former development." For the other, it is "a utopia in an anthropological structure of imaginary." But according to Marx this society will put an end to the antagonism between men and nature, between men, between the individual and species, between existence and essence, between negation and assertion of oneself, between liberty and necessity thanks to the application of science to production in the process of the scientific and technological development as a material basis for the realization of the scientific unification. This new conception of science classification developed by Engels is a logical generalization and the reflection of the historical process. Four principles are developed: the principle of the reflection of the natural stages according to which science classification reflects the development of the movement within a peculiar local phenomenon consisting in the successive changes of the various kinds of energy. Then there is the principle of the development of the movement and its subset, according to which science classification is analyzed in a set : first as the reflection of the successive stages of the nature history and then as the natural science history. Then, as the history

59

of the logically generalized and summarized natural science, that's to say as the continuous development of the peculiar sciences. So we have studied the various forms of the mechanical, kinetic, potential and electrical energy from a macroscopic and a microscopic angle, and the caloric and biochemical energy and finally the nuclear energy. With the study of Pauli's principles on the electrons, we have looked at the spectrum of the atoms of valency and we used the vector model for the atoms with dual valency electrons composed of four vectors of orbital momenta 11 and 12 and Spin momenta S 1 and S2. If in a low magnetic field, these vectors combine giving the vector of the total cinetic momentum of the atom J, so, we may find the basic structure of science classification from the elements of the regularity of the atomic spectra of the periodic classification. This process gets universalized, science becomes a direct transforming and productive force and it exerts an influence on natural science as well as on social science. We replace the vector L (natural science) with the vector S (social science) and the quantum number J (unity of all the sciences). In order to note a better interaction between philosophical science and natural science and between social science and technical science, we will take into account the basic interactions between the elementary particles of the nuclear physics that on one hand aims at integrating all the scientific knowledge and on the other hand it aims at differentiating the scientific knowledge from techniques. Considering physics, chemistry and biology as the foundation of the development and the differentiation of the scientific branches in computer science, I have examined the peculiar sciences that reflect the forms of the substance and its movement evolving in an inconsistent way. The inconsistent characteristic of nature development is revealed in the division of nature by phenomena that are both linked to natural factors, to the essence of the natural structure and to the nature of men and society. By the way, we can clearly explain the correlation between physics and chemistry and between the transitive sciences. This correlation directly reflects the connections between the elementary particles and the nucleus and between the atoms and the molecules. The movement of the elementary particles (protons, neutrons, positrons, electrons, eutons, hadrons, mesons, leptons and so on...) is part of the subatomic physics and the nuclear physics but the molecules forming the bodies are part of the molecular physics (superatomic). So, the way science is arranged corresponds to The order of the development of the discrete forms of substance.

60

Finality. Like the atoms, the molecules are both part of chemistry and physics .As far as physics is concerned, the order of the development of the substance. Finally, like the atoms, the of chemistry and physics. As far as molecules are anything but a complex system and the result of the atomic interaction. As far as physics is concerned, molecules are initial "cells" producing the logical aggregates. From this epistemological viewpoint we respond to the advocates of the metaphysical monist approach praising an only science in the field of computer science. The basic issue of natural science is linked to the development of the philosophical thought and to the rapid progress of all the branches of the fundamental research that more and more integrate the fundamental natural science, technical science and even social science. This integration makes the transformative function of science increase the command of the natural forces and it changes science into a direct productive force. Finally it allows social science to improve and strengthen its organic connection with natural science. The place of computer science within our sketch of science classification parts: natural science First, I will divide science into two basic and human sciences. 1. Natural science: - Physics, technique, mathematics - chemistry, technology, biology - earthly science 1) Physics, technique, computing and automation Mathematics: Indeed, I consider as a physical, technological and mathematical science put into the first set of the natural science classification. Then, I will consider the classical science (the positive computer science, the computer science, the systematic and logical science) and the physical and technological computer analytical computer science (the methodological computer science and the applied computer science). The contemporary computer science is divided into: - The computerized management - The computerized medicine - The biocomputer science - The computerized industry - robotics

61

- Telematics - Telecomputers - The scientific computer and the satellites computer science - The nuclear computer science and astrophysics I consider the mathematical science with its subdivisions (mathematics, physics, logical mathematics, applied mathematics and so on...) behind computer science. Finally I consider physics within the set of the physical, technical and mathematical science 1.3 Physics roughly speaking 1.4 Atomic, subatomic and superatomic physics 1.5 The nuclear physics 1.6 The physics on plasma 1.7 the quanta physics 1.8 The high energy physics 1.9 the basic particles physics 1.10 the contemporary physics (optics, spectroscopy, thermodynamics, the theory of magnetism, electricity, electronics, radio and radioactivity) 1.11 Mechanics (undulatory) 1.12 The physical and technical science of energy 1.13 The physical and technical science of mechanics and the control process (cybernetics and the management process) 2) Chemistry, technology, biology: First, I will divide chemistry into two main parts : the organic chemistry and the non organic chemistry. Then, following the analysis made page 323 of this research, I have made the following subdivisions: 2.1 chemistry and technics 2.2 The physical chemistry and the technology of the inorganic substances 2.3 biochemistry, biophysics, the chemistry of the active physiologic compounding (the chemistry of the complex compounding) 2.4 electrochemistry and radiochemistry 2.5 the chemical physics 2.6 The cinetical chemistry

62

2.7 Physiology 2.8 Biology and its subdivisions (microbiology, the molecular biology) 2.9 The science of life: medicine and its scientific branches 3) The earthly science: 3.1 Geology 3.2 Geophysics 3.3 Geochemistry 3.4 Oceanography 3.5 The physics of the atmosphere20 3.6 The physics of the geography 2. Human sciences. As far as human sciences are concerned we discern dialectics at the head of the philosophical science with several subdivisions: logics, epistemology, and esthetics. Then there are history, economy and law and finally literature and linguistics. They are the foundations of our classification. Human sciences are more important than any other science. They are based on the scientific rules that link natural sciences with philosophy and social sciences. Indeed before considering computing and automation as a physical, technical and mathematical science at the head of the first set of the natural sciences classification, it is advisable to tell about the metaphysical monist approach that defends the absolute unity of computer science and denies the division and the diversification of the scientific branches of computer science. The historical approach first takes into account the relative development of computer technology that regards computer as a three dimension "discipline". The first computer science laid down the great inventions. It was little by main ideas going with the invention being different from cybernetics. The second computer science dates back to 1970's. It is characterized by the basic principles and little detached from the computer but without from the 1960's and the setting up of the great centralized systems. It was mainly made by opposition to a certain metaphysical cybernetics. According to this approach computer science will be automated and it will appear like the field especially dedicated to computers and their using. Thus it has become a technique to handle data whereas cybernetics used to ponder over the use of techniques in the modern
63

world. The third computer science deals with the diversification of the means and methods, with the grids and the cohabitation between the small and large systems. Finally, this historical approach has neither a scientific objective nor a gnoseological or methodological one. It is not either a basic proof relating to the scientific and technical development. Lastly, Ph. Dreyfus has divided computer science into 5 main fields. It is a positive approach but it remains in the classical apprehension of computer science: a) The classical computer science and its subdivisions: 1. the positive computer science 2. The analytical computer science 3. The systematical and logical computer science 4. The physical and technological computer science 5. The methodological computer science 6. The applied computer science 1) The positive or analytical computer science is the nearest branch to the precise sciences. Computer science is not only diversified according to the object of the research and to the scientific division of labor but also according to its use within the working system. 2) The systematical and logical computer science looks into the architecture of the computerized systems in which the computers with their central processing unit, their memory and their data input and output step. This classical and traditional approach of Dreyfus is far from looking at the process of the technological development of the systematical and logical computer science that has given rise to telecomputers, telematics, satellites computers and charts. According to Dreyfus there are connections between the physical and technological computer science and telecomputer 3) The physical and technological computer science is relatively out of date. 4) The methodological computer science refers to the research about programming. It has given rise to another scientific discipline from computer science: the artificial intelligence and the acknowledgement of shapes, the synthesis of voice, the engineering of knowledge.

64

5) The applied computer science enters the activities of the modern world. The contemporary computer science is divided into: 1. the computerized management 2. The graphic computer science 3. The computerized medicine 4. The biocomputer science 5. The computerized industry 6. Robotics 7. Telematics 8. Telecomputers 9. The scientific computer technology and data processing relating to satellites 10. The nuclear computer science The rise of the theoretical computer science is the main basis of this science on which computer science is rising. We can distinguish the theoretical computer science from the practical computer science. The difference comes either from inward in the theoretical logic either from outward in the applications. This second stage needs to specify the phenomena in order to set up the rule of the empirical foundations. The third stage is made of hypotheses. The scientific branches of computer technology as concrete aids to verify the hypotheses play a different part from the classical and traditional computer science and they enter into a new stage of the development, changing not only the argument but also the scientific applications of techniques. As far as the scientific philosophy is concerned computer science is a technological science linked to the physical, technical and mathematical science. There is not an only computer science but several scientific branches linked both to the chemical, technological and biological sciences and to the earthly and human sciences. It is different from the classical computer science as far as the scientific ethics is concerned. From the dialectical analysis of computer technology we have introduced the classification of techniques that is no longer made according to the products but to the processes. For this classification we have used physics, chemistry and biology as bases for the diversification of the scientific branches of computer science and their connections within the sketch of the dialectical classification of science. The diversification of the scientific
65

branches of computer science is due to military, economic, political and technological causes. On one hand the application of data processing to the issue on defense has been of effect on the military strategy. And on the other hand, following their research into the "economic and social effects of the investments towards information" the Japanese have made evident the needs of the next informational society. And the traditional computer science cannot provide those needs. So, it has been necessary to think about different computerized systems. So, we will move directly from the third generation of computer to the fifth one. The diversification is also economic: it deals with the output of hardware and its diversification within the process of production with respect to the needs in the competitive market. Pioneer from the local network and Ethernet, the American 3COM, has just carried out a great diversification while launching out into office automation. The firm has indeed decided to launch its own work stations especially made for the networks. It deals with a machine based on 80286 (usually it fits the PCs AT) and some suited circuits providing a 1M0 central memory extendible to 4M0 (...) The company deems its proposal is 30% to 50% cheaper than a classical solution with minicomputers and terminals. 3COM expects to sell 1200 stations in the world for the first year of marketing... But the world market of the local networks has difficulty in getting off the ground. Nevertheless for the first 9 months the business has got a turnover of $79m (+76%) for a $8m net profit with an equal increase. This state asserts that the radical change is not the result of abstract things; on the contrary everything proceeds from the material production and from the exploitation of the main wealth and the development of the labor force. The distinguished characteristic of technique as a commodity is not independent from the differentiation and the connection of capital and the originality of the diversification as a new technique. But this new technology is in opposition with the rules of the capital development. As a whole, the material basis of the production rules the differentiation and the variety of the scientific branches. The diversification is also technical. "Technology is the science of the scientific and technical rules of the production process" What are these scientific and technical rules? What is their function within the production process in the technologically advanced societies where the productive human condition, their labor force, their social relations with foreign powers that lead them and crush them? Men become impotent, got off their social power defining by their international corporality, their so called "private" subjectiveness. So, within the computer process the system of the private appropriation of the collectively produced wealth unavoidably leads to the underdevelopment of the main wealth. What will the results of the scientific and technical revolution be in the new
66

computerized society? How can we resolve the new problems posed by the new situation and to what extent can these universally developed technologies create the conditions for all individuals' growth? In reality the issue on men liberation is raised within a new conception of mankind. It is both the social and objective world in which we live as concrete individuals with our subjectiveness and the growth of the individuality. This individuality has no meaning except if mankind adapts itself to the whole of the external forces with which we have created our own aim. How can we secure men liberation from the direct production process after the control functions have been managed by automated systems? The liberation from the routine can both be a way of self-management in life and in the computerized society and a way of changing the productive basis into an automated system. Robotization provides a new content to the process not only to production but also to the social relationship. To what extent can computerization increase imployment, the importance of the cognitive and creative components in labor and to what extent can it improve the division of the scientific labor? In other words, how can we pose the issue on dialectics in the complete use of the intellectual potential of the human being and the computerized system for an harmonious combination between the artificial intellect in its improving and human thought? How can the unity of dialectics consisting in the division in two of one of them and the learning of these contradictory parts enrich mankind? How can know the unity of dialectics as a method that consists in identifying the contradictory tendencies enriches mankind? As far as the philosophy of the scientific revolutions is concerned the issue of the connection between philosophy and the scientific knowledge is raised from a dialectical analysis and a generalization of natural and human sciences. The methodological analysis of the scientific organization according to the discipline and from science classification is the main structural unity of science but on one hand science classification aims at integrating the scientific knowledge, their union and the discovery of their dialectical connections and on the other hand it aims the differentiation between the scientific and technological knowledge, their branching within the scientific knowledge because it gets several kinds of connections (communication, organization, reflection and so on...) At that stage we must resolve the scientific issue on the scientific organization and the philosophical foundations of computer science over three main levels. Firstly a critic against the dogmatic position was absolutely useful in the scientific history. Then, this critical analysis has led to a new solution for numerous concrete issues on natural sciences as well as on human and technical sciences. It has clarified the way of the natural science development that embraces human sciences to realize an only science using technique to apply it in the productive system so that all the creative possibilities of technical sciences may be at the disposal of human sciences. In the computerized society the
67

dialectical unity of science within an only science is a reality. This is the foundation of all sciences, the scientific and philosophical synthesis included. Indeed, this dialectical unity of the knowledge integration is not a melting of disciplines that have lost their identity but their interaction, their mutual enriching. So, we have been obliged to examine the object of science and especially the object of computer science as a physical, technical and mathematical science (a technologically unified science) in order to establish a system and a theory on science different from the subjective and objective idealism and to make evident the historical realization of an only science. On one hand the dialectical classification of science is the direct continuation of the French philosophers' science classification: d'Alembert, Diderot, Gassandi, Descartes, Saint Simon, A.Comte, A.M Ampere, A. Cournot. On the other hand we have raised the issue on the unity in the foundation of science classification, considering physics, chemistry and biology as the foundation of the basic sciences. As for computer science it is inseparable from the process of the scientific knowledge. But it seems that philosophy cannot play its part in an efficient way within the development of the world scientific conception as well as within the understanding of the philosophical foundation of computer science. Computer science has to emphasize itself among the other science that is to say as a cognitive and permanent activity with its own issue. This social and ethical issue gets four main tendencies: first, science as a peculiar kind of human activity looks for the direct subject of this activity: human being. It is revealed when it becomes less and less socially alienated and more and more "humanly measurable" that is correlative with the qualities and needs of human being not only expressed in objective terms and social outcome but also in subjective qualities. This tendency is the result of a growing appreciation of the human activity. In other words science penetrates more pressingly the social life as well as the individual life. It changes it and it initiates rules and some new and unknown structures. It influences greatly the process: the human being becomes one of the main subjects of the scientific knowledge. Then, this tendency gets a clearer and direct socializations and humanization of the contemporary science included computer science when it reflects some more general processes linked to the need for a social and ethical regulation of science. So, science determines the creative and cognitive activity but this one gives science a new quality, a humanist trend which is quite important for the society and science itself. Without such a trend science and its application can become a dangerous and diabolical power used to destroy life on the Earth. The more science penetrates the mystery the more powerful men are. But its application involves liabilities. It raises the issue on the foundation of the scientific ethics and by the way on the philosophical liability of scientists. Through this issue we have pondered over the philosophical foundation of computer science.
68

Then, the need and the scientific nature of the science classification history has led us to suggest a new interpretation of the classification. The history of science classification needed such an explanation for two reasons: the first is that without raising the historical issue on the classification and without dealing with the issue on its change and on its manifestations in the various scientific fields and above all in computer science, it is impossible to raise the issue on the unity of the philosophical foundation of computer science. The second reason is that "science history deals with an axiological activity with the search after truth. It is at the stage of the issue on the method and the conception that the scientific activity as such appears. That is why the time of the science history can't be a side thread of the time course". So, on one hand according to us "science and culture consist in getting reality with them without getting drowned". And on the other hand we think that science proceeds from the need, the social activities of men with which they can change nature as well as themselves. By the way we can come to the issue on the structure of the scientific knowledge from the angle of the analysis of the conceptual system of science classification or computer science. For example in chemistry and physics, science was formed by itself and its object got specified parallel to the change in the former notions that were too vague in scientific concepts. We can note some phenomena in the other basic fields of the scientific knowledge. The process of formation of the basic sciences shows the general structure of the scientific knowledge. The structure can be the following: science roughly speaking as a sphere of activity for all the scientists; a peculiar branch of science (for example chemistry or physics); a narrow sphere of the scientific activity but independent from the scientist. Finally the value of the existence of over five thousand millions human beings in a world full of fear and contradictions depends on the philosophical answers of our age. These philosophical answers give possibilities to science and to computer science and by multiplying discoveries and astonishing inventions that are able to provide a worthy life to all men. Philosophy and science do not lead to the whole negation of the main wealth, that is to say men themselves, because of a social system, but on the contrary they lead to the truth of the mankind existence that puts an end to all the trouble raised to men condition. It is the part of science and philosophy. The scientific and technical revolution will release men from the automated production. There are some emancipative forces required to men. The problem is how to manage altogether these forces. This is the historic objective of the new humanism. It coincides with the growth of the competitive individualism as B. Brecht notes it: "climbing, always climbing over someone" whereas everybody can peacefully climb altogether. This research is dedicated to the study of the classification of sciences and the philosophical foundations of computing to create the ACADEMY of sciences

69

and a national center for national research of Kurdistan . It concerns its logical, mathematical, linguistic, physical, technological and ethical aspects as a problem of the scientific philosophy of our century. An attempt is made to define the historical nature of the classification of sciences, to interpret its philosophical foundations and to specify its connections with the scientific and technical revolution from a philosophical and methodological point of view. The dialectic analysis of the scientific knowledge of sciences and the philosophical foundations of computing is carried out on five different levels : the first corresponds to the study of all the processes aiming at developing the atomistic model of the classification and with the logical, mathematical, linguistic, physical, technological and ethical foundations of computing ; the second corresponds to some notions of the classification and organization of the scientific system of knowledge up to the fundamental principles of the development of knowledge and sciences; the third corresponds to the historical and scientific approaches of the classification of sciences and the fundamental principles of classification ; the fourth, to the classification of computing and the diversification of the scientific branches of computing (contemporary computing, management computing, graphical computing, medical computing, bio-computing, industrial computing, robotics, telematics and remote-access computing, etc.) ; finally the fifth one which is of highest level represents the general methodology of the philosophy of scientific revolutions which provides the whole structure of the scientific cognitive activity (artificial intelligence and scientific knowledge) and identifies the main types and mechanisms of the dialectics of the process of human knowledge. Consequently, particular attention is given to the revolution of computing, to society and to the method of treating science which makes it possible to show the contents of the Scientific and Technical revolution and to the place that computing occupies in the new outline of the dialectic classification of sciences. In the orientation of the philosophy of scientific revolutions, the socio ethical humanist and scientific approach shows four fundamental tendencies. Firstly, science as a particular form of human activity attempts to unite with itself the direct subject of this activity: man. Secondly, this tendency towards a clearer and more direct socializations and humanization of contemporary science, including computing, reflects more general processes linked with the need for a socio ethical and humanistic regulation of science. Thirdly, the need and the scientific nature of the history of the classification of sciences which obliges us to revalorize a new dialectic and materialistic interpretation of the classification. Fourthly, the question of the new civilization depends on the philosophical response of our time and the question of man's freedom which is posed in a new conception of humanity is both the social and objective world in which we live as concrete individuals, with our subjectivity, and the development of individuality which does not have any sense without the developed humanity that, by our appropriation of all these
70

exterior forces, by which we have created our own end. By which means we can guarantee the liberation of man from the process of direct production following the handing over of the control and monitoring functions to the automatic, autoregulator systems or the liberation from routine work, its transformation into an act of creation in a technology that can become both an self management intervention and an instrument for men in everyday life and in the computerized firm ; it can become both an instrument for transforming productive bases into automatic systems, to the robotization that gives a new content to the process, not only in production but also in social responses. The answer can be given by the scientific philosophers to found the ACADEMY of sciences and a national center for scientific research of Kurdistan I think the new situation created by the possibility of the founding of our Academy offers us tremendous opportunities, but we also imposes important obligations. This brings me to ask you to the next question What are the roles of an Academy of Sciences in a country like Kurdistan in the early 21st century? Why do the authorities of Kurdistan appeal to foreign countries without taking into account the academic potential of their country? I think it is important that the authorities take into consideration the scientific functions structures in Kurdistan, the Kurdish purely science does not exist while the first function, which is also led to the creation of numerous academies to Throughout the world, is to provide scientific advice on matters that may arise citizens and their leaders. The benefits of an Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan are many on this plan: we gather the best expertise on most scientific issues. Like other academies, scientists Kurdistan could give their opinions either by scientific reports on the direction of economic policy in the country. A second function of the Academy of Sciences Kurdistan is to contribute to the development of scientific knowledge. A third important function of the Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan is the representation of the science of Kurdistan within the international scientific world. Participate actively in the work of the International Union for Science (ICSU), the International Inter acadmiques Councils (IAP / IAC) and the European Council of Academies. This council is new and its objective is to promote the understanding and support for Science Our research asked these questions years ago twenty quarts that have the subject of the Conference of the Academy of Sciences but I can put in Clearly the three fundamental functions of the Academy of Sciences.

71

I think the new situation created by the possibility of foundation of our Academy offers us tremendous opportunities, but we also imposes significant obligations. Which leads me to ask before you the following question What are the roles of an Academy of Sciences as a step in Kurdistan in the early 21st century? Why the authorities of Kurdistan appeal to foreign countries without considering the potential Academic of their country? I think we need that the authorities take into account the scientific functions of structures in Kurdistan, Kurdish purely science does not exist when the first function, which is also responsible for the creation of many Academies worldwide, is to advise scientific issues that may arise citizens and their leaders. The advantages of an Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan are multiple in this respect: we bring together the best skills in most subjects scientists. Like the other academies, scientists Kurdistan can give their opinions either by scientific reports on orientation of the economic policy of the country. A second function of the Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan is contribute to the development of scientific knowledge. A third important function of the Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan is the The representation of science Kurdistan within the world scientific International. Participate actively in the work of the International Union of Science (ICSU), International Boards Interacadmiques (IAP / IAC) and the European Council of Academies. This Council is a recent creation and its objective is to promote understanding and support of Science I think that science and technology policies must be treated as means of achieving the national vision of Kurdistan. The objective these policies should not be limited to the growth of the industry using science and technology as a lever. Rather, the goal should be to allow every human being to live a happy life. As history often demonstrates, science always creates new knowledge, advanced understanding of the laws of nature, and awakens human curiosity and ability of imagination. Sometimes, science has the power to change society substantially. Examples of Einstein in 1905 with the thought of the Quantum mechanics has contributed to the progress of science. In all ages, the Science is the light on the horizon. Similarly, there is no guarantee that growth of science and technology in itself make people happy. Establishing science and technology policies, a mentality that only

72

attaches importance to economic growth short-term home based on a conventional concept of values and social structure is too narrow-minded, and can more effectively serve inhibiting to promoting the vision of a dignified nation. In this statement we made at the foundation of Project Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan, after describing the strategy of Kurdistan to establish himself as a dignified nation, allowing him to trust the Middle East.

Dr Ali KILIC

Bibliographie (i).Franois Dagognet L ultime sanctuaire. In Milieux, W 30/1987, p.2 (2),Eftichios dialectique Bitsakis. Physique contemporaine et matrialisme

Editions Sociales, Paris, 1973, p.261-262 (3)N.Smnov. La philosophie marxiste lniniste et les problmes des sciences naturelles , In Le communiste, 1968, N10, p.62-135 (4).A.Logounov . Au coeur de la matire 1976. (5) Koursanov, Naouka i Jizn N7 p.8 1 (6), G,Frank ,L opinion du savant ;. Moscou, Editions de 1 Acadmie des Sciences, 1963,p. 480 (7),G. Frank Opus. Cit..p .580 (8),P.. Thuillier, In La Recherche Mai,l972.p.13 Editions du SeuiLParis,1975 (9). Franois Jacop Biologie Molculaire , In Atome 1969, In La recherche p.55 (10 ),F.Jacop,0pus.cit .p.58
73

Izvestia, le 22 dcembre

(1l),V. Enguelgardt. Naouka j Jizn,1975,N 5,p.II Jean Dominique Warnier, Homme face a 1'intelligence artificielle Les Editions d'Organisations, Paris,l984,p.19 Jean Claude Beaune, L'Automate et ses Mobiles Flammarion, Sciences Humaines, Paris, 1980,p.19 Karl Marx, Manuscrits 1844, Editions Sociales, Paris,1962, p.96 Hegel, Phenomenologie de 1'esprit, Tome,I,p.124 Hegel, Science de la Logique, Doctrine de 1'Essence, Tome,I Traduit de 1'alm.par J.P. Labariere et G. Jarzyk, Aubier,Paris,1976,p.91 J.C. Beaune, Technologie, PUF, Paris, 1972, p.8 Philippe Breton, Histoire de 1'informatique, p.127 Editions La Decouverte, Paris, 1987 Hegel, Science de la Logique, Doctrine de 1'Essence, Tome,I Traduit de 1'alm.par J.P. Labariere et G. Jarzyk, Aubier,Paris,1976,p.91 Florence Antomachi-A. Castiel-E. Seyden, Pense ... Machine Editions C.E.S.T.A.1986, p.144 Philippe Breton, Histoire de 1'informatique, p.127 Editions La Decouverte, Paris, 1987 Hegel, Science de la Logique, Doctrine de 1'Essence, Tome,I Traduit de 1'alm.par J.P. Labariere et G. Jarzyk, Aubier,Paris,1976,p.91 Informatique Magasine, Revue Pratique des PME-PMI Juin-aout 1987,N9,p.16 Hirschfeld, Veda technika, Technologie,Prague,1963,p.259

74

[1] [1]

Dr Ali KILIC,La Classification des Sciences et l Informatique ; Fondements Philosophiques de l Informatique, Publication de l Universit Lille 1988, pp.313-330

J.C Beaune. i.n Milieux, W 30,1987,p.76 ibidem [4] Eftichios BITSAKIS. Physique Contemporaine et matrialisme dialectique, Editions Sociales Paris ,1973,p.261-262 [5] ibid [6] E. Smnov, La philosophie marxiste lniniste et les problmes des sciences naturelles ; in le Communiste 1968, N 10, p-62-135 [7] Koursanov, Naouka i Jizn N7 p.8 1 [8] G,Frank,L opinion du savant, Moscou , Editions de l Acadmie des Sciences 1963, p.480 [9] G,Frank,Opus Cit. p.580
[3] [10]

[2]

P.. Thuillier, In La Recherche Mai,l972.p. Franois Jacop, Biologie Molculaire In Atome, 1969, In La recherche p.55

[11]

[12] [13]

F. Jacop, Opus Cit. .p ?58 V. Enguelgardt, Naouka i Jizn 1975,N5, p.11 [14] Denise Barlow (Vienne, Autriche) [15] Bryan Turner (Birmingham, RU) [16] Sarre, Allemagne [17] Halle, Allemagne
[18]

Peter Becker (Munich, Allemagne)

[19]

Epigenetics and development

Moshe YANIV Confrence dbat et controverses Epigntique et mmoire cellulaire, une nouvelle discipline, au c ur du dveloppement et des pathologies

[20]

[21]

Centre Wellcome Trust pour la biologie cellulaire, Edimbourg, GB

75

Adrian BIRD, Institute of Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, UK The Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Biology, University ofEdinburgh, Michael
[23]

[22]

Confrence dbat et controverses Epigntique et mmoire cellulaire, une nouvelle discipline, au c ur du dveloppement et des pathologie
[24]

Robert FEIL, Institut de Gntique Molculaire, Montpellier Lempreinte gnomique et son rle dans le dveloppement Robert Feil, Institut de Gntique Molculaire (IGMM), CNRS et Universit de Montpellier,
[25] [26]

, Institut de Gntique Humaine , Montpellier

Giacomo CAVALLI, Epgntique et dveloppement, Institut de Gntique Humaine, Montpellier

[27] [28]

Universit de Nice-Sophia Antipolis References

Chandler, V. L. (2007). Paramutation: RNA-mediated instructions passed across generations. Cell 23, 641-645. Herman, H., Lu, M., Anggraini, M., Sikora, A., Chang, Y., Yoon, B. J., et Soloway, P. D. (2003). Transallele methylation and paramutation-like effects in mice. Nat Genet 34, 199-202. Rassoulzadegan, M., Magliano, M., et Cuzin, F. (2002). Transvection effects involving DNA methylation during meiosis in the mouse. Embo J 21, 440-450. Rassoulzadegan, M., Grandjean, V., Gounon, P., Vincent, S., Gillot, I., et Cuzin, F. (2006). RNA-mediated non-Mendelian inheritance of an epigenetic change in the mouse. Nature 431, 469-474. Wagner, K. D., Wagner, N., Ghanbarian, H., Grandjean, V., Gounon, P., Cuzin, F., et Rassoulzadegan, M. (2008). RNA induction and inheritance of

76

epigenetic cardiac hypertrophy in the mouse. Dev Cell, sous presse.

[29] [

Institut de Gntique Humaine, CNRS, Montpellier, France

[30]

Institut Pasteur, Paris References

[31] [31]

1. Brink, R. A. Genetics 1956, 41, 872-879. 2. Chandler, V. L. & Stam, M. Nat Rev Genet 2004, 5, 532-44. 3. Rassoulzadegan, M. et al. 2002 EMBO J, 21, 440-450. 4. Rassoulzadegan, M. et al. Nature 2006, 431, 469-474. 5. Wagner et al., Dev Cell 2008, in press. 6. Miller, D., Ostermeier, G. C. & Krawetz, S. A. Trends Mol Med 2005, 11, 156-63.

77

Research (2) dedicated to academician Nadir Nadirov

Modernity of Charles Darwin and the interdiction of evolutionary theory in Turkey

The president of the Academy of Sciences of France, Prof. Jean Salenon opened the symposium to mark the bicentenary of the birth Charles Darwin and the 150th anniversary of its publication mistress' On the origin of species by natural selection "June 30, 2009 in Paris.

78

According to Academician this coincidence was not the main reason organizing the Symposium. But, This is the legacy of Dr. Charles Darwin, who has been organizing numerous scientific activities in the world. That's why the Academy of Science held at tribute to the author of the theory of evolution. When opening the academician Salenon said the Symposium is organized with the support of the Minister of Education and the Institute Humanities and Social Sciences (INSHS) Institute of Sciences of the Universe (INSDU) Institute. But in Turkey, to mark the bicentenary of the birth Charles Darwin celebrated this year, the Turkish magazine Science and technology was programmed, in its March issue, 16 pages of research on father the theory of evolution and had reserved its coverage. But at the last minute, the Vice President of the Council of Scientific Research and Technology (TUBITAK), which publishes the magazine, opposed it. The monthly is out on newsstands with a folder dedicated to global warming. The editor was removed from office. "The writing is concerned. This is the first time that such interference occurs, "says a journalist this periodical, which has always enjoyed a strong reputation. This case of censorship has sparked an outcry among academics and in opposition to the Islamic-conservative government (AKP), as it is seen as further evidence of the growing influence of partisan of creationism in the state machinery. "It will not be surprised if, the future, Galileo and Copernicus Tbitak prohibited. Turkey is a breeding ground for opponents of Darwin: the creationism has appeared in textbooks in 1985. According to A study by the Turkish Academy of Sciences, 75% of the students put into doubt the theory of evolution. And Turkish scientists are regularly the target of an anti-Muslim movement that has Darwinian considerable resources behind enigmatic, the Foundation for research and science. While Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), eminent English naturalist who achieved lasting fame by convincing the community science that species develop over time from an origin common. His theories explaining this phenomenon by natural selection and sex is essential to the modern understanding of evolution as unifying theory of life sciences, essential in biology and importantin other disciplines such as anthropology, psychology and philosophy. The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin is one of the most basic science, philosophy and human culture. Therefore, in a first time, we will examine the conference program on Charles Darwin organized by the Academy of Science, especially the scientific legacy of Charles Darwin, who
79

was celebrated by dozens of the Academy of Sciences Darwin's theory revisited by today's biology as well as from scientific who prepared the 18 century and secondly we want to the scientific evidence on our research development Biological Sciences presented at the University of Dijon 24 years ago compared to new research in the world justify our analysis philosophy the past quarter century. It is precisely through the modernity of Darwin through the evolution of evolutionism we pay tribute to Charles Darwin when Turkey and various countries banned two centuries after Darwin's thinking. This highlights the scientific nature of philosophical analysis throughout our history Science from the scientific development of our time and Counts two minutes of the Academy of Sciences published in 2009 two Journal of Darwin in the series which Palevol and Biologics correspond to our studies of Newton, Gallil Gallo. Philippe Taquet, a member of the Academy of Sciences in the introduction, rappellait correspondence in support, a difficult beginning to the relationship between Academy of Sciences and the famous biologist, elected Correspondent August 5 1878 on the one hand and the other the result of scientific voyage of Charles Darwin brought together some sort of comment on it volcanic Geographic position and distribution of species. For Academician cleat the difficulties of Charles Darwin and his ideas in France and England is a reality. We know that the Creationism is a theory emerged in opposition to the theory of evolution Community Supported religious and reactionary. It is therefore anachronistic to talk about creationism before the publication of the work of Charles Darwin that led to the adoption of evolution by biologists. While the rational and scientific approach has over the centuries to discover and write characteristics of the land on which we live and al propose accurate presentation of man's place in nature It arises why Galileo was condemned to death, Giordano Bruno was burned alive in 1600 by the Vatican in Rome? and Michel Servetu and Vanini with thousands people were burned alive in 1993 as the Turkish and Kurdish intellectuals are burned in Sivas and European MPs were propaganda for the Turkey and in the French Parliament Former Minister of Justice. of Francois Mitterrand are to praise Turkish bloody regime once again that forbade Charles Darwin. Indeed 2009: year of evolution, Darwin year ... but also Lamarck! This is indeed the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Robert Darwin (1809 - 1882), and the 150th anniversary of the first edition of On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection (London: John Murray, 1859).
80

But it is also in 1809 that Jean-Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1820), was published his Zoological Philosophy (Paris, Dentu)! This amazing coincidence of dates allows us to emphasize filiation Intellectual linking Darwin to Lamarck. Lamarck is the undisputed transformationism founder of the first to teach in a University, the Museum of Natural History in Paris. After marrying the ideas of Lamarck, Darwin in depart, to propose two ideas correlated, the descent with modification and natural selection. We must not forget another coincidence: both endured the violent attacks of creationists, for one, Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) and his staff for the other Richard Owen (1804-1892). It provides to the bishop of the church Anglican Samuel Wilberforce (1805-1873), the arguments he used in the now famous Oxford meeting of 1860, Thomas Huxley (1825-1895), later nicknamed the "Darwin's bulldog", defended the transformationnisme. Remember that, if the Academy of Sciences today makes tribute to his genius, there was elected a foreign member in 1878, four years before his death, and ... in the section of botany. Then from 1870 to 1878 during eight years of Darwin's bid for the Academy of Sciences was rejected. Darwin perceived as an annoyance when he said that as a botanical it knew that Daisy is a composed, and the pea a Papilionaceae! But had nevertheless published. 1865 a book on the movement of vines, and in 1875 aon other insectivorous plants. The publication must be mistress of 1859 considered the zero time of a major scientific event: the Biology is a historical science. But this was done in pain, a cultural perspective and social. That's why it was necessary, in this special issue, reflect the different facets of the problem, scientists certainly, but also philosophical in the sense of the word. With Henri Korn10 , co-organizer of the conference, they have chosen, for this tribute, a range of speakers from the worlds of science and life sciences. 150 years after Origin of Species, Darwin's theory retains its explanatory value and illustrates one of the major advancesconnaissance. "Nothing in biology makes sense except in light of Evolution" Theodore Dobzhansky rightly pointed out in 1973. Armand de Ricqles flying start with five tables changes conceptual marking the "evolution of evolution" before Darwin Evo-Devo, synthesizing current research in developing the embryo (Devo) the mirror of the evolution (Evo). The invitation to this conference of paleobotanist Diane Edwards said that the election took place in Darwin Botany Section, without an agreement of French zoologists. It will describe the growth of the plant world from the conquest of terrestrial environments. Then
10

Henry Corn Academy of Sciences

81

the American Kevin Padian, a specialist in the origin of birds and witness scientific trial of Dover (Pennsylvania), fought and won against the creationists, will distinguish between inheritance and the Darwinian myth. Vincent Courtillot * discuss the causes of mass extinctions of species. Yves Coppens * will review the "present from the past of man." Denis Duboule * end the session by showing how embryology, biology and molecular genetics have modernized the concept of evolution. Philippe Janvier will discuss the origin and evolution of vertebrates and Nicole Douarin * comment in the most spectacular innovation, the emergence of head, which coincides with the emergence of an embryonic structure specific to Vertebrates: the neural crest. Gehring illustrate one of the finest examples of natural selection:evolution from simple light-sensitive cells to the body if what sophisticated eye. Alain Prochiantz * continue with another example: the modes of communication in the context of the evolution of the nervous system. Chris Bowler, one of the scientists who leave to study plankton in the oceans Tara on the yacht in September 2009, will consider the future, facing the climate change, these small life forms that give at least 50% of photosynthesis on our planet. Finally, the philosopher Dominique Lecourt will ask God to Darwin. From the perspective of philosophy and the history of science, we chose two authors that illustrate the problem for one of the transformism resistance, the difficulty for the other of the transmission of ideas. Indeed, two centuries later, the sirens sing of creationism always. Thus we asked to brush the Padian views of creationism and "intelligent design" in the United States Schmitt, for his part, shows how Haeckel13 Ernst (1834-1919), although claiming that his illustrious British colleague, has adapted these ideas to his. "All true classification is genealogical": such is the conclusion Darwin which happens by developing the consequences of the principle of descent with modification. If it took a century for Willi Hennig (1913-1976) laid the foundations of cladistics from the reasoning Darwin, the last decades have been the proliferation of phylogenies, with the contribution of molecular characters. Lamarck and Darwin are all interested two both in the vegetable than animal, we have chosen examples illustrating different themes that are meaningful in light of phylogenies. Dubuisson et al., In their study of epiphytism in ferns, speak adaptation and convergence. Vidal and Hedges upset the classification squamates (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians), with the corollary of new hypotheses on the biogeography of the group and the evolutionary origin devices venomous. As a nod to Darwin, who was interested in
82

Haeckel11, 1834 - 1919), althoughclaiming that his illustrious British colleague, has adapted these ideas to his. "All true classification is genealogical": such is the conclusion Darwin which happens by developing the consequences of the principle of descent with modification. If it took a century for Willi Hennig (1913-1976) laid the foundations of cladistics from the reasoning Darwin, the last decades have been the proliferation of phylogenies, with the contribution of molecular characters. Lamarck and Darwin are all interested two both in the vegetable than animal, we have chosen examples illustrating different themes that are meaningful in light of phylogenies. Dubuisson et al., In their study of epiphytism in ferns, speak adaptation and convergence. Vidal and Hedges upset the classification squamates (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians), with the corollary of new hypotheses on the biogeography of the group and the evolutionary origin devices venomous. As a nod to Darwin, who was interested in Cirripedia crustaceans that bear little resemblance to shrimp - Pleijel et al. Tell the story of these animals in great depth so bizarre that in branches had made while they are very derived annelids. Verneau et al. show how the study of certain groups of parasites which a high affinity for their hosts, can give relevant information on biogeography of these. Simon et al. decode the extraordinary diversity phytoplankton. Finally to conclude this part, Lopez and Bapteste offer a particularly innovative approach, explaining that the tree Phylogenetic can not account for all events scalable, especially horizontal transfer of genetic material. Darwin had a long interest in embryology. In his autobiography, he insists that his theory explains that animals of the same class have very embryos lifelike. It was certainly intellectually seduced by the meeting recent genetics and embryology, known as Evo-Devo plunging development, and its associated genes, in an evolutionary framework.
11

Haeckel, un darwinien allemand ? Haeckel: A German Darwinian? References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article.Stphane Schmitta, aCNRS, REHSEIS, UMR 7596, Universit Denis-Diderot Paris VII, case

courrier 7064, 2, place Jussieu, 75251 Paris cedex 05, FranceAccepted 12 July 2008. Available online 28 November 2008. AbstractGerman biologist Ernst Haeckel (18341919) is often considered the most renowned Darwinian in his country since, as early as 1862, he declared that he accepted the conclusions Darwin had reached three years before in On the Origin of Species, and afterwards, he continuously proclaimed himself a supporter of the English naturalist and championed the evolutionary theory. Nevertheless, if we examine carefully his books, in particular his General Morphology (1866), we can see that he carries on a tradition very far from Darwin's thoughts. In spite of his acceptance of the idea of natural selection, that he establishes as an argument for materialism, he adopts, indeed, a conception of evolution that is, in some respects, rather close to Lamarck's views. He is, thus, a good example of the ambiguities of the reception of Darwinism in Germany in the second part of the 19th century. To cite this article: S. Schmitt, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). Le biologiste allemand Ernst Haeckel (18341919) est souvent considr comme le plus minent des darwiniens de son pays, dans la mesure o, ds 1862, il dclarait accepter les conclusions auxquelles Darwin tait parvenu trois ans plus tt dans l'Origine des espces et o, par la suite, il n'eut de cesse de se proclamer partisan du naturaliste anglais et de dfendre la thorie de l'volution. Nanmoins, l'examen dtaill de ses ouvrages, en particulier de la Morphologie gnrale (1866), rvle qu'il s'inscrit dans une tradition fort loigne de la pense de Darwin. Malgr son acceptation de l'ide de slection naturelle, qu'il rige en argument en faveur du matrialisme, il adopte en ralit une vision de l'volution assez proche certains gards de celle de Lamarck. Il tmoigne ainsi des ambiguts de la rception du darwinisme en Allemagne dans la seconde moiti du xixe sicle. Pour citer cet article : S. Schmitt, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).

83

Under this new tradition, Manuel laid the foundation for the study of symmetry metazoans. Coolen et al. show how the in-depth development of a relevant animal phylogenetic situation can lead insights into the mechanisms for determining the axes. Finally, Jabbour and al. illustrate, through the study of floral genes, that Evo-Devo is not the prerogative zoologists. Darwin did not know genetics. In this regard, we must stop to say he could have access, from the memory of Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), published in 1866, and has probably read. In any case, interest to Darwin, he lacked what one will find that in 1900, when the "rediscovery" of Mendel's laws by Erick von Tschermak (1871 - 1962). Carl Correns (1864-1933) and Hugo De Vries (1848-1935). Indeed, the latter added to the mutation famous laws of Mendel. Soon, Darwinism joined the genetics and the study of hereditary material was one of the themes biology of major 20th century. Since we have access to the sequencing solid nucleic acids, genome evolution of eukaryotic organisms becomes a major focus of research. Whereas previously we imagined a rigid and compact genome, one realizes the amazing plasticity of the genome, in which the role transposons is essential. Bonnivard Higuet and synthesize the concept of luidit genome. It can evolve by duplication of the entire genome (see Article of Jaillon et al.) or segmental duplications (see article Koszul and Fischer). With the example of rice, Panaud shows the impact of domestication on the genome. Finally, Wajcman et al. illustrate the evolution of a multigene family with details of the globins. Darwin was fascinated by the relationships of organisms with their environments, and behavior of plants, animals and ... men. The modern term of "sustainable interaction" means the relationship dynamics set up between various organizations (such as host / parasite, host / bacterium symbiotic) which are the source of the spatiotemporal evolution of complex thus formed, at all levels (gene, organism, population, species). Such interspecific generate a variety of evolutionary processesmay be the cause of adaptations often astonishing. Merot and Poinsot are update on the complex relationship between bacteria of the genus Wolbachia and animals such as arthropods and nematodes, with paradoxical effects on reproduction of the latter. Duperron et al. Illustrate an adaptive process that, by a symbiotic interaction between chemoautotrophic bacteria, molds allows individual to live in places devoid of oxygen. With Poiri et al., We understand how Viruses may help reproduction of insect parasitoids. Finally, there may have a
84

reciprocal action between the evolution of a virus and that of a population Guest, cats in this case (see the article by Pontier et al.). Naturally, in a single number, we could not address all facets of modern evolutionary biology. Our main goal is to show that the pioneering ideas of Charles Darwin have been considerably enriched over time, as illustrations of the famous adage of Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900 - 1975) " Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. 12

Evolutionary history of life

Foreword February 12, 1809, Charles Darwin was born at Shrewsbury in the Shropshire (England). Young passionate naturalist, he embarked in December 1831 on the Beagle for a world tour of five years. during this tour, Darwin multiplied crops and animal specimensplants, collected a large amount of observations island formation volcanic, on the construction of coral reefs, the uprising of continent of South Africa, U.S. and the geographic distribution of species. Back in his country, he attached himself to the publication of scientists of his journey, was fascinated the effects of domestication and immersed himself in studying the crustacean barnacles, while preparing the first sketches of the theory which would make him famous. November 24, 1859, Darwin published the first of the theory. six editions of his famous book entitled: The Origin of Species by Means of natural selection, or preservation of favored races in the Species by Means of natural selection, or preservation of favored races in the Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the struggle to preserve life. The exposed founder of Darwin implied that the emergence of new life forms was the result of a succession of variations whose only motivation is the influenceexternal conditions. So it was a completely new and condiapproche fruitful in the history of life, in complete opposition to any purpose. The year 2009 will be both the bicentenary of the birth Charles Darwin and of the one hundred-bicentencinquantenaire the publication of The Origin of Species. This will be a year of tributes to Darwin. The Academy of Sciences wished to join in this commemoration in publishing two exceptional acts of its Proceedings, one of Biologics
Herv Le Guyader UMR 7138 (Systmatique, adaptation, volution), universit Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, 7, quai SaintBernard, 75005 Paris, France E-mail address: [email protected] Claude Combes Centre de biologie et dcologie tropicale et mditerranenne, laboratoire de biologie animale, universit de Perpignan, avenue de Villeneuve, 66860 Perpignan cedex, France E-mail address: [email protected]
12

85

Both of Accounts Issued devoted to Darwin's theory and Evolution, by - its biological and paleobiological. At a time when appear here and there a few works paleobiological aspects. who would dispute the fact of evolution by presenting a fantasmagories13 anthology of scientific and dishonest, at a time when various pressure groups trying to suggest a plan, a design guide the march of evolution, it is good to recognize clearly that the approach rational and scientific helped, over the centuries, to discover, describe the characteristics of the world we live in and to propose an accurate representation of man's place in nature. Thus, the Earth, of flat became round, the sun stopped revolving around our planet, continents move over millions of years and species evolve and transformed since the early days of life. The theory of evolution, while that of universal gravitation, based on solid foundations and are the result observation and experience. The theory of evolution is mainly based on the discovery fossils found in the succession of land that were deposited at Throughout the history of the earth. Sediments are more ancient, more species they contain different species present, most sediments are Recent, more fossil species are close to current. Darwin has advanced the idea, after the pioneering work of Lamarck and the same as those of his English colleague Alfred Russel less fossils in beds of different ages Have Confirmed Wallace, that species change and evolve over time. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, the discovery and study of a number without growing of fossils in layers of land of different ages are have confirmed the change of living forms, as they Species had been predicted by the theory of evolution. The discovery in 1861 of famous Archaeopteryx, this bird from the Upper Jurassic, with teeth and reptilian claws came two years after The Origin of Species consolidate the ideas of Charles Darwin and Huxley had led, his fiery disciple, propose an origin of birds. Today, the method allows couplet give an accurate and argued the kinship between different groups of animals and plants fossil and modern. This examination of kinship relations is a prerequisite for different essential phases and is used to provide an objective basis for the establishment processes that have acted over time, within the various groups living ; These trials have also been shown in recent years by spectacular discoveries of new fossil discoveries that shed light between others, the terms of the water outlet, the different phases of history
Y. Coppens, et al., Histoire volutive de la Vie, C. R. Palevol (2009), doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2008.11.005 PALEVO-460; No. of Pages 52 Histoire volutive de la Vie / C. R. Palevol xxx (2009) xxxxxx
13

86

articles, elephants, Jean-Claude Gall [7]

whales

or

that

stage

of

human

evolution.

This issue of Cretaceous Research presents a series of history articles life is inseparable from the history of the Earth. intended to show the progress of our know ledge Fabricio Cecca [3] concerning the past of life on earth. It was obviously impossible to cover in one volume each of animal and plant groups. The items offered diversification paint However, a broad overview of lost worlds Vannier [18] whose study to understanding the living world in the present life Cambrian, while he innovation earth Fabricio Cecca [3] describes the role of palaeobiogeography, available land and seas have played a role determining the course, countless millions of now-extinct forms invertebrates, includ'annes in the distribution and species diversification. Jean Vannier [18] provides an overview of early (and continuing to serve) the life during the Cambrian, while Brigitte and Understand the tempo and Mode of evolution, as Meyer-Berthaud and Anne-Laure Decombeix [11] pre- Pascal Snow [14] shows. The diversification of Some feel the evolution of plant world, beginning with the early paleozoic Echinoderms, presented by Elise Nard'une important innovation that is performed during Din, Bertrand Lefebvre, Bruno David, and Rich Mooi of the Devonian, the trunk, structure essential [13], and the Evolution and adaptive radiation of echil'existence trees. The oceans of the past were somewhat plenary countless forms invertebrates, including et al. [5], Ammonites, which are now extinct Philippe Janvier of the study [10] served and still serves as a preferred model for describe the drilling pace and form of evolution, and Gael Clement Charlene Pascal Snow as shown [14]. Diversification of some Lower Paleozoic echinoderms from water to land. Johann SebastianSteyer [17] presented by Elise Nardin, Bertrand Lefebvre, Bruno Darwin'swork on South American amphibians. Once David and Rich Mooi [13] and Evolution and the land is in the Devonian, vertebrate faunas radiation right to adequate housing adaptive Echinoids in the Meso-all Continental Ecosystems; here we include recent prozoque proposed by Bruno David, Rich Mooi, Didier Nraudeau, Thomas Villiers Saucde and Loc [5], are other examples exciting the malleability of living over time. Philippe Janvier [10] the Ricqls [15], an update on the evolution of early vertebrates and the formation of the skull, while Gal Clment and Charlene Tassy [9], Letenneur [4] address the crucial phase of the output water. Jean-Sbastien Steyer [17] evokes travauxd "hominization." Darwin on amphibians of America South. The vertebrate faunas of the continent will, from Gayon [8] t's Devonian, occupy all ecosystems are well presented, and the origin the evolution of dinosaurs and
87

Sauro-Ricqls Kevin Padian [16] by Ronan Allain and Emilie Lng [1], the origin and evolution of Birds by Kevin Padian Armand and Synthesis of Evolution "during the Decades of the Ricqls [15], the origin and evolution of the mastodons and 1970s to 2000, in the resulting and more recent synthecelle Elephant by Emmanuel Gheerbrandt and Pascal sis Known as Evo-Devo (Evolutionary Developmental Tassy [9], the origin and history of whales by Christian de Muizon [12], human evolution by Michel Brunet [2]. The Origin of Species, Darwin's theory HAS Retained all icts The volume closes with two articles in the form of Jean Gayon [8] takes a look of epistemologist as on this theory so fertile introduced by Darwin 150 years ago, while Armand de Ricqles and Padian Kevin14 provide a picture of contributions to the theory of evolution proposed between 1970 and 2000, that is to say from the orthodox Darwinian synthesis to the recent synthesisknown as Evo-Devo (evolution development). hundred and fifty years after the publication of the Origin of Species, the theory formulated by Darwin is still valid explanatory and illustrates one of the most advanced important knowledge. As rightly pointed out by Theodore Dozhansky in 1973 [6], "Nothing in biology makes sense except in light ofEvolution ".17

The question of modernity

What is the evolutionary history of life these days? in What is the philosophy of life? "At a time when appear here and there a few works that wish to contest the fact of evolution in presenting a selection of phantasmagoria, arguments unscientific and dishonest, at a time when various pressure groups trying to suggest a plan, a design guide the march of evolution, it is good to recognize clearly that the approach rational and scientific has over the centuries to discover, describe characteristics of the world we live in and propose a accurate representation of man's place in nature. Thus, the Earth, flat became round, the sun stopped revolving around our planet, continents move over millions of years and species evolve and
The evolution of creationists in the United States: Where are they now, and where are they going? aDepartment of Integrative Biology and Museum of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley 94720-3140, USAAccepted 12 July 2008. Available online 26 November 2008. Abstract The history of anti-evolutionism in the United States begins only in the early decades of the 20th century but has evolved considerably since then. Various versions of the movement (equal time for creationism, creation science, intelligent design) have developed over time, but they have made few positive contributions to serious discourse about science and religion. Their main goal has been to try to stop the teaching of evolution. The most recent version of creationism, intelligent design (ID), has little in common with William Paley's 18thcenturyversion: ID posits an interventionist Deity who regularly interferes in natural processes to produce complex biological structures and functions. The 2005 intelligent design trial in Dover, Pennsylvania, destroyed any pretensions that the movement had to scientific integrity. However, anti-evolutionists continue to foment discord at local levels, where opposition to the teaching of evolution can be presented without strong resistance. Scientists can best demonstrate their concern by becoming involved in federal, state, and local administrative processes that determine curricula and develop and adopt textbooks and other instructional materials. To cite this article: K. Padian, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).
14

88

transformed since the early days of life. The theory of evolution,15 asthat of universal gravitation based on solid foundations and arethe result of observation and experience. And are expressed in the editorial, the four coordinators, Philippe Taquet and Yves Coppens Members of the Academy of Sciences, Kevin Padian and Armand de Ricqles, co-author of conclusion. In 17 articles - mostly in French - this issue shows the Progress in understanding the organization of life on earth. since the early nineteenth century, the discovery and study of a growing number of fossil land in layers of different ages have confirmed the change of living forms, as had been predicted by theory evolution. Articles proposs brossent a broad overview of worlds missing and fertile branches. The last word is to epistemology,which examines the contribution of developmental biology at the "puzzle"scalable. J.-C. Gall (p.105-117) recalls how, during the four last billion years, close and complex interactions were woven between Earth history and the history of life, with changes of equilibrium, source extinction or biological attacks. "The growing impact of activitieshuman on the integrity of the planet is a major challenge for humanity of the twenty-first century. "F. Cecca (p.119-132) studies the role of the featurein the speciation process. J. Vannier (p.133-154) focuses on the diversification and animal colonization that underlie the "green revolution" of the Cambrian. B. Meyer-Berthaud and A.-L. Decombeix (p.155-165) analyze lesstratgies winning as those of the first trees in the Devonian. Many witnesses of the past fuel the understanding of evolutionary fact, ammonoids fossils (P. Snow et al, p.167-178), to blastozoans, most echinoderms abundant and diverse in the Paleozoic (E. Nardin et al, p.179-188). B. David et al (p.189-207) provided an update on some major features recently discovered the development of sea urchins. Because modern sea urchins very different from their ancestors, this echinoderm classes offer a rich range of examples of evolution. P.Janvier (p.209-219) focuses on early vertebrates and the early stages of the evolution of the skull. G. The emergence of tetrapods and their "conquest of the Earth" with their virtual avatars as extinction in the late Devonian, is under the scrutiny of G.Clment and C. Letenneur (p.221-232). These tetrapods, J.-S. Steyer (p.233-241, Article in
Yves Coppens Collge de France, 3, rue dUlm, 75231 Paris cedex 05, France Kevin Padian Department of Integrative Paleontology and Museum of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley CA 94720-4780, tats-Unis Armand de Ricqles quipe ostohistologie compare, UMR 7179 CNRSMNHNuniversit Paris-6, Collge de France, 75231 Paris cedex 05, F
15

89

English) isolates for amphibians, theoretical models that snapped Darwin and Lamarck, until the fossil reshaping the tree phylogenetics. R. Allain and . Lng (p.243-256) analyze the origin and fate various dinosaurs. Birds are dinosaurs, says K. Padian and A. of Ricqls (p.257-280) that trace their gradual diversification from famous Archaeopteryx. Then it was the turn of elephants (E. Gheerbrant and P.Tassy, p.281-294) and cetaceans (Muizon C.de P. 295-309) to be passed to sieve of evolution; the cover photo shows the reconstruction of skeleton of a whale disappeared, the Dorudon. Hominids (Brunet p.311-319). Toumai was "a striking confirmation of the prediction Darwin. " So, death or persistence of Darwinism? The epistemologist J. Gayon (p.321-340) responds, commenting on the two pillars of the theory " descent with modification "and" natural selection ". The article by conclusion is signed by A. of Ricqls and K. Padian (p.341-364), reminiscent the amendments in 40 years, the "orthodox synthesis" on " Evo-Devo great synthesis. " What does Darwin's theory revisited by biology Today? "The lady of the 1859 publication" On the origin of species by natural selection "by Charles Robert Darwin must be considered the zero time of a major scientific event: biology became a science history. "emphasize Claude Combes, Member of the Academy of Sciences and Herv Le Guyader.16 The first two articles, introduce aspects epistemological filiation between Darwin (1809-1882) and Lamarck (1744 -1820), the creationist movement in the United States (K. Padian, p.100-109) andambiguities in the reception of Darwinism in Germany in the second half the nineteenth century (S. Schmitt p.110-118, article in French). Six articles present the molecular phylogenies and their applications. Kindreds revealed by molecular biology have revolutionized phylogenetic classification of living. Evidenced by three examples from among epiphytic ferns (Dubuisson17 JY et al., p.120-128), in
La thorie de Darwin revisite par la biologie daujourdhui Acadmie des sciences Elsevier Masson C.R. Biologies, Tome 332, fascicules 2-3 , pp.95-328 17 Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history Epiphytisme chez les fougres : diversit et histoire References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article. Jean-Yves Dubuissona, Harald Schneiderb and Sabine Hennequina, b aUMR 5143 CNRS Palodiversit et paloenvironnements , Musum national d'histoire naturelle and Universit Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, 57, rue Cuvier, CC48, 75231 Paris cedex 05, France bBotany Department, Natural History Museum London, Cromwell Road SW7 5BD, UK Accepted 22 August 2008. Available online 29 November 2008. Abstract As for other vascular plants, numerous adaptive strategies have been selected in epiphytic ferns in order to survive in a constraining and desiccating environment and thus to prevent dehydration and/or to access to water and nutrients. Here we present some of the specializations that allow ferns to survive in this particular habitat. Some of the most spectacular epiphytic specializations are observed in the Polypodiaceae family, involving humus-collectors which entrap humus in specialized organs, and ant-plant mutualism strategies. We then address the question of epiphytism in an evolutionary context. There is little fossil evidence of vascular epiphytes. Inferring the evolution of epiphytism in extant ferns shows that diversification of major living epiphytic groups mostly occurred in the Tertiary. Finally, we focus on the Hymenophyllaceae family which provides an original example of hygrophilous epiphytic strategy that is unique in vascular plants. To cite this article: J.-Y. Dubuisson et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). Rsum Comme pour les autres plantes vasculaires, les fougres piphytes prsentent des stratgies adaptatives diversifies
16

90

snakes for which we were able to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the venom (N. Vidal,18 20S.B. Hedges, p.129-139) and in annelids (Pleijel F.19 et al. P.140-148.
pour survivre dans un environnement contraignant et desschant, et/ou accder l'eau et aux nutriments. Nous prsentons ici quelques exemples d'adaptations l'piphytisme, les plus spectaculaires s'observant chez les Polypodiaceae, chez les pigeuses d'humus et les espces myrmcophiles. Il y a peu de fossiles de plantes vasculaires piphytes. L'infrence de l'volution de l'piphytisme chez les fougres actuelles montre que la radiation des principales lignes piphytes actuelles a eu lieu majoritairement au Tertiaire. Nous nous intressons plus particulirement la famille des Hymenophyllaceae, qui illustre une stratgie piphyte hygrophile originale traduisant une convergence avec les bryophytes, une stratgie unique chez les plantes vasculaires. Pour citer cet article : J.-Y. Dubuisson et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). 18 Nicolas Vidala, , and S. Blair HedgesbThe molecular evolutionary tree of lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians L'arbre volutif molculaire des lzards, serpents, et amphisbnes aDpartement systmatique et volution, UMR 7138, Systmatique, volution, adaptation, case postale 26, Musum national d'histoire naturelle, 57, rue Cuvier, 75231 Paris cedex 05, FrancebDepartment of Biology, 208 Mueller Lab, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802-5301, USA Accepted 21 July 2008. Available online 28 November 2008. Abstract Squamate reptiles (lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians) number approximately 8200 living species and are a major component of the world's terrestrial vertebrate diversity. Recent molecular phylogenies based on protein-coding nuclear genes have challenged the classical, morphology-based concept of squamate relationships, requiring new classifications, and drawing new evolutionary and biogeographic hypotheses. Even the key and long-held concept of a dichotomy between iguanians ( 1470 sp.) and scleroglossans (all other squamates) has been refuted because molecular trees place iguanians in a highly nested position. Together with snakes and anguimorphs, iguanians form a clade Toxicofera characterized by the presence of toxin secreting oral glands and demonstrating a single early origin of venom in squamates. Consequently, neither the varanid lizards nor burrowing lineages such as amphisbaenians or dibamid lizards are the closest relative of snakes. The squamate timetree shows that most major groups diversified in the Jurassic and Cretaceous, 20066 million years (Myr) ago. In contrast, five of the six families of amphisbaenians arose during the early Cenozoic, 6040 Myr ago, and oceanic dispersal on floating islands apparently played a significant role in their distribution on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Among snakes, molecular data support the basic division between the small fossorial scolecophidians ( 370 sp.) and the alethinophidians (all other snakes, 2700 sp.). They show that the alethinophidians were primitively macrostomatan and that this condition was secondarily lost by burrowing lineages. The diversification of alethinophidians resulted from a midCretaceous vicariant event, the separation of South America from Africa, giving rise to Amerophidia (aniliids and tropidophiids) and Afrophidia (all other alethinophidians). Finally, molecular phylogenies have made it possible to draw a detailed evolutionary history of venom among advanced snakes (Caenophidia), a key functional innovation underlying their radiation ( 2500 sp.). To cite this article: N. Vidal, S.B. Hedges, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). Rsum Les squamates (lzards, serpents, amphisbnes) comprennent environ 8200 espces actuelles et forment une composante majeure de la faune de vertbrs terrestres. Des analyses molculaires rcentes partir de gnes nuclaires codant pour des protines ont mis en vidence des relations de parent originales fortement soutenues, ncessitant de nouvelles classifications, et impliquant de nouvelles hypothses volutives et biogographiques. Au sein des squamates, la dichotomie majeure entre les Iguania ( 1470 sp.) et les Scleroglossa (tous les autres squamates) est rfute car les Iguania occupent une position trs drive. Avec les serpents et les anguimorphes, ils forment un clade (nomm Toxicofera) caractris par la prsence de glandes orales secrtant des toxines, ce qui dmontre l'origine prcoce et unique du venin au sein des squamates. Ainsi, les plus proches parents des serpents ne sont ni les varans, ni des lignes fouisseuses telles que les amphisbnes ou les Dibamidae. Les estimations des temps de divergence montrent que la majorit des lignes de squamates se sont diversifies au Jurassique et au Crtac (il y a entre 200 et 66 millions d'annes). Par contre, cinq des six familles d'amphisbnes sont apparues au cours du Cnozoque (il y a entre 60 et 40 millions d'annes), et des vnements de dispersions ont jou un rle important dans leur distribution actuelle de part et d'autre de l'ocan atlantique. Au sein des serpents, les donnes molculaires soutiennent la division majeure entre les scolcophidiens, de petite taille et fouisseurs ( 370 sp.), et les althinophidiens (tous les autres serpents, 2700 sp.). Elles montrent aussi que les althinophidiens taient primitivement macrostomates et que cette condition a t perdue secondairement par les lignes fouisseuses. La diversification des althinophidiens rsulte d'un vnement de vicariance datant du Crtac moyen, la sparation de l'Amrique du Sud et de l'Afrique, ayant donn lieu deux clades nomms Amerophidia (Aniliidae et Tropidophiidae) etAfrophidia (tous les autres althinophidiens). Enfin, les phylognies molculaires ont permis de reconstruire de faon dtaille l'histoire volutive du venin au sein des serpents avancs (Caenophidia), une innovation fonctionnelle cl la base de leur radiation ( 2500 sp.). Pour citer cet article : N. Vidal, S.B. Hedges, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). 19 Fredrik Pleijela, , , Thomas G. Dahlgrenb and Greg W. Rouse cProgress in systematics: from Siboglinidae to Pogonophora and Vestimentifera and back to Siboglinidae Du nouveau en systmatique : des siboglinidae aux pogonophores et aux vestimentifres, et retour vers les siboglinidaeaDepartment of Marine Ecology, Tjrn, University of Gothenburg, 452 96 Strmstad, SwedenbDepartment of Zoology, Gteborg University, P.O. Box 463, 405 30 Gteborg, Sweden cScripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0202, USA Accepted 9 July 2008. Available online 29 November 2008. Abstract We review the taxonomic history of pogonophores (frenulates and vestimentiferans), from the species in first described 1914 to the recently described bone-eating worm Osedax. Previous systematists have referred both groups to the rank of phylum,

91

The cover photo is the Pacific giant worms). these studies molecular allow to track the coevolution between some 20 parasites and their hosts (Verneau O. et al. p.149-158). And they reveal abiodiversity ignored, such as marine phytoplankton (Simon21 N. et al.
and the animals have been treated as deuterostomes with a dorsal nerve cord. Further knowledge on their embryology, the discovery of the previously overlooked posterior, segmented part provided with chaetae, and access to molecular data, have completely changed earlier views on their affinities. They are now referred to as a single family of polychaete annelids, Siboglinidae. To cite this article: F. Pleijel et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). Rsum Nous avons repris l'histoire de la taxinomie des pogonophores (frenulates et vestimentifres), de la description de la premire d'espce en 1914 celle, rcente, du ver mangeur d'os Osedax. Les premiers systmaticiens avaient lev ces deux groupes au rang d'embranchement, et les animaux taient considrs comme des deutrostomiens dots d'un cordon nerveux dorsal. Une meilleure connaissance de leur embryologie, la dcouverte que la partie postrieure du corps, tout d'abord nglige, est segmente et pourvue de soies, les donnes molculaires, ont compltement chang les premires vues sur leurs affinits taxinomiques. Ils sont maintenant rattachs une seule famille d'annlides polychtes, les siboglinidae. Pour citer cet article : F. Pleijel et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). 20 Olivier Verneaua, Louis Du Preezb and Mathieu BadetsaLessons from parasitic flatworms about evolution and historical biogeography of their vertebrate hosts Contributions des plathelminthes parasites l'histoire volutive et biogographique de leurs htes vertbrs aUMR 5244 CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, Biologie et cologie tropicale et Mditerranenne, Parasitologie fonctionnelle et volutive, Universit Via Domitia, 52, avenue Paul-Alduy, 66860 Perpignan cedex, France bSchool of Environmental Sciences and Development, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa Accepted 22 August 2008. Available online 29 November 2008. Abstract Cophylogenetic studies investigate the evolutionary trends within host-parasite associations. Examination of the different levels of fidelity between host and parasite phylogenies provides a powerful tool to inspect patterns and processes of parasite diversification over host evolution and geological times. Within the phylum Platyhelminthes, the monogeneans are mainly fish parasites. The Polystomatidae, however, are known from the sarcopterygian Australian lungfish and tetrapods such as amphibians, freshwater turtles, and the African hippopotamus. Cophylogenetic and biogeographic vicariance analyses, supplemented by molecular calibrations, showed that the Polystomatidae may track the evolutionary history of the first aquatic tetrapods in the Palaeozoic age. Evolutionary lines of the major polystome lineages would also be intimately related to the evolution of their hosts over hundreds of millions years. Since the Mesozoic, evolution of polystomes would have been shaped mainly by plate tectonics during the break-up of Gondwanaland and subsequent dispersal of ancestral neobatrachian host lineages. Therefore the Polystomatidae could serve as a novel model to improve cophylogenetic tools and to inspect a suite of questions about the evolution of vertebrate hosts. To cite this article: O. Verneau et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). Rsum Les tudes de cophylognie recherchent les tendances volutives qui gouvernent les associations hte-parasite. L'examen des diffrents niveaux de fidlit entre les phylognies hte et parasite fournit un outil puissant pour inspecter les caractristiques et les processus de diversification des parasites au cours de l'volution de leurs htes et des temps gologiques. Au sein du Phylum des Plathelminthes, les monognes sont principalement des parasites de poissons. Les Polystomatidae, cependant, sont connus chez le dipneuste australien et certains ttrapodes, savoir les amphibiens, les tortues d'eau douce et l'hippopotame africain. Des analyses de cophylognie et de vicariance biogographique compltes par des calibrations molculaires ont montr que les Polystomatidae suivraient l'histoire volutive des premiers ttrapodes aquatiques depuis le Palozoque. Les lignes volutives des grandes lignes de polystomes seraient aussi intimement lies l'volution des htes sur des centaines de millions d'annes. Depuis le Msozoque, l'volution des polystomes aurait t faonne principalement par la tectonique des plaques, suite au dmantlement du Gondwana, et par les vnements de dispersion des lignes ancestrales de Neobatrachia. Par consquent, les Polystomatidae pourraient servir de nouveau modle pour amliorer les outils cophylogntiques et rpondre une suite de questions sur l'volution des htes vertbrs. Pour citer cet article : O. Verneau et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). 21 Nathalie Simon, Diversity and evolution of marine phytoplankton Diversit et volution du phytoplancton marin =References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this articlea aUniversit Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6 et CNRS, Station Biologique de Roscoff, UMR 7144, Groupe Plancton, place Georges-Teissier, 29680 Roscoff cedex, France cCNRS, Marine Microbial Ecology Group, laboratoire d'ocanographie de Villefranche, 06230 Villefranche-sur-Mer, France Accepted 19 September 2008. Available online 2 December 2008. Abstract Marine phytoplankton organisms account for more than 45% of the photosynthetic net primary production on Earth. They are distributed across many of the major clades of the tree of life and include prokaryotes, and eukaryotes that acquired photosynthesis through the process of endosymbiosis. If the number of extant described species is relatively low compared to the diversity of the terrestrial plants, recent insights into the genetic diversity of natural assemblages have revealed a large unsuspected diversity at different taxonomic levels. Wide infra-specific diversity is also being discovered in many widespread and well known morphological species. This review summarizes data obtained in the fields of ecology, evolutionary biology, physiology and genomics that have improved our understanding of the biodiversity and evolution of marine phytoplankton. To cite this article: N. Simon et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).

92

p.159-170). Finally, and most importantly, they challenge the classical of evolution. Rather than focusing on an elusive tree Universal, biologists now regard the forest corresponding to multiple transmission process, both vertical and horizontal. it is the major challenge for the next several years Evolutionary Biology " point E. Lopez Bapteste22 (p.171-182). Three articles deal Evo-Devo (evolution- Development), this field of disciplines that examines changes in the light of developmental biology. Signed by Mr. Manuel23 (p.184-209), Mr. Coolen24 etal. (P.210-218) and F. Jabbour et al. (P.219-231), these three items stalk in animals and in plants to flower, the appearance of polarity (the axisanteroposterior ...), or that of the main types of symmetry as the symmetry bilaterally, through the combined data
22

aUMR

24P. Lopez, E. Bapteste, Molecular phylogeny: reconstructing the forest Phylognie molcilaire : reconstruire la fret 7138 : systmatique, adaptation, volution, Universit Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, 75005 Paris, France Accepted 9 July 2008. Available online 29 November 2008. Abstract Phylogeny, be it morphological or molecular, has long tried to explain the extant biodiversity by the Tree of Species, which is a logical consequence of strict Darwinian evolutionary principles. Through constant improvement of both methods and data sets, some parts of this diversity have actually been demonstrated to be the result of a tree-like process. For some other parts, and especially for prokaryotes, different molecular markers have, however, produced different evolutionary trees, preventing the reconstruction of such a Tree. While technical artifacts could be blamed for these discrepancies, Lateral Gene Transfers are now largely held for responsible, and their existence requires an extension of the Darwinian framework, since genetic material is not always vertically inherited from parents to offspring. Through a variety of biological processes, sometimes large parts of DNA are exchanged between phylogenetically distant contemporary organisms, especially between those sharing the same environment. While mainly concerning prokaryotes, Lateral Gene Transfers have been also demonstrated to affect eukaryotes, and even multicellular ones, like plants or animals. Most of the time, these transfers allow important adaptations and the colonisation of new niches. The quantitative and qualitative importance of genetic transfers has thus severely challenged the very existence of a universal Tree of Species, since genetic connections, at least for microbes, seem more reticulated than tree-like. Even traditional biological concepts, like the concept of species, need to be re-evaluated in the light of recent discoveries. In short, instead of focusing on a elusive universal tree, biologists are now considering the whole forest corresponding to the multiple processes of inheritance, both vertical and horizontal. This constitutes the major challenge of evolutionary biology for the years to come. To cite this article: P. Lopez, E. Bapteste, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).

Michal Manuela Early evolution of symmetry and polarity in metazoan body plans L'volution des symtries et des polarits du plan d'organisation la base de l'arbre des mtazoaires Universit Paris 06, UMR 7138 CNRS UPMC MNHN IRD, btiment A, 4 tage, 7, quai St Bernard, 75005 Paris, France Accepted 21 July 2008. Available online 28 November 2008. Abstract The early diverging metazoan lineages have highly disparate adult body plan geometries, which can be characterised in terms of five major types of symmetry (asymmetrical, spherical, cylindrical, n-radial, bilateral). Patterns of evolutionary changes in symmetry types and the homology of body axes across lineages are discussed here by confronting evidence from comparative anatomy, phylogeny, genomics and evo-devo. The conventional scenario, postulating a graded complexification from asymmetry to radial and finally bilateral symmetry, is considered untenable. Cylindrical symmetry is likely to be the ancestral type from which derived all remaining types through multiple convergences. Recent proposals prompted by molecular data that the bilateral anatomies of many cnidarians and of the Bilateria are homologous are clearly not supported. The Hox-based patterning system operating along the antero-posterior axis of the Bilateria does not seem to predate their divergence with the Cnidaria, but intercellular signalling systems, notably the Wnt pathway, could have been involved in generating the main body axis in the last common ancestor of the Metazoa. To cite this article: M. Manuel, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009 24 Marion Coolena, Arnaud Menueta and Sylvie MazanTowards a synthetic view of axis specification mechanisms in vertebrates: insights from the dogfish Vers une synthse des mcanismes de spcification des axes chez les vertbrs : apport d'un chondrichtyen aDveloppement et volution des vertbrs, UMR 6218, CNRS et Universit d'Orlans, 3b, rue de la Frollerie, 45 071 Orlans cedex 02, France Accepted 12 July 2008. Available online 28 November 2008.

23

93

of genetics, embryology and comparative anatomy.Then five articles describe genome plasticity. E. Bonnivard and D. Higuet25 (p.234-240) focused on micro transformations, and particularly the impact of transposable elements on genomes. Conversely, O. Jaillon26 et al. (p.241-253) and R. Koszul27 and G. Fischer (p.254-266) highlight the involvement of a duplicationinitial chromosomes or portions, followed by selection, that shape the species. O. Panaud28 (p.267-272) goes back over the history of the domestication of cereals, especially rice. While H. Wajcman et al (p.267-272)
Eric Bonnivarda and Dominique Higuet Fluidity of eukaryotic genomes Fluidit des gnomes eucaryotes 7138 CNRS Paris VI MNHN IRD, Systmatique, adaptation, volution, quipe gntique et volution, Universit P. et M. Curie (Paris 6), btiment A, case 5, 7, quai St Bernard, 75252 Paris cedex 05, France Accepted 12 September 2008. Available online 25 November 2008. Abstract The understanding the different kinds of sequences that make up a genome, as well as their proportions in genomes (obtained by the sequencing of the complete genome), has considerably changed our idea of evolution at the genomic level. The former view of a slowly evolving genome has given way to the idea of a genome that can undergo many transformations, on a large or small scale, depending on the evolution of the different types of sequences constituting it. Here we summarise the evolution of these sequences and the impact it can have on the genome. We have focused on micro-transformations, and especially on the impact of transposable elements on genomes. To cite this article: E. Bonnivard, D. Higuet, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).
aUMR

25

Olivier Jaillona, b, c, , , Jean-Marc Aurya, b, c and Patrick Winckera, b, c Changing by doubling, the impact of Whole Genome Duplications in the evolution of eukaryotes Changement par duplication , l'impact de la duplication totale de gnome dans l'volution des eucaryotes aGenoscope (CEA), 2, rue Gaston-Crmieux, CP 5706, 91057 Evry, France bCNRS, UMR 8030, 2, rue Gaston-Crmieux, CP 5706, 91057 Evry, France cUniversit d'Evry, 91057 Evry, France Accepted 21 July 2008. Available online 29 November 2008.

26

Abstract Species are usually defined by reproductive isolation and are characterized by their gene repertoire. These two aspects are consequences of events fixed during evolution, including whole genome duplications and other polyploidizations. Thanks to the recent progress in genome sequencing, new light has been shed on these events. In this review, we will summarize these findings and discuss the methodology involved. Evolutionary traces of such events have been evidenced in various lineages in plants, animals, fungi and protozoa. Comparative analysis of synteny is a powerful approach to unveil evolutionary footprints of these events. According to expectations, these events would facilitate speciation since some of them are thought to be at the base of major radiations such as teleostei or eudicotyledons. After an initial amplification, the gene repertoire would be shaped by constraints such as expression level and functional interactions that would tend to maintain only a tiny fraction of the duplicates over the long term. Functional innovation from duplication may be a secondary effect, enabled by these duplicate retention mechanisms. To cite this article: O. Jaillon et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). 27 Romain Koszula, d, , and Gilles Fischerb, c, d A prominent role for segmental duplications in modeling Eukaryotic genomes -Impact des duplications segmentales sur l'volution des gnomes Eucaryotes aDepartment of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 7, Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02143, USA bUnit de Gntique molculaire des levures, Institut Pasteur, 25, rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France cUniversit Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris, 6,UFR927, F.75005 Paris cedex 05, France dCNRS, URA2171, F.75724 Paris cedex 15, France Accepted 12 July 2008. Available online 2 December 2008. Abstract Segmental duplications (SDs) are a major element of eukaryotic genomes. Whereas their quantitative importance vary among lineages, SDs appear as a fundamental trait of the recent evolution of great-apes genomes. The chromosomal instability generated by these SDs has dramatic consequences both in generating a high level of polymorphisms among individuals and in originating numerous human pathogenic diseases. However, even though the importance of SDs has been increasingly recognized at the genomic level, some of the molecular pathways that lead to their formation remain obscure. Here we review recent evidences that the interplay between several mechanisms, some conservative, some based on replication, explains the complex SDs patterns observed in many genomes. Recent experimental studies have indeed partially unveiled some important aspects of these mechanisms, shedding interesting and unsuspected new lights on the dramatic plasticity of eukaryotic genomes. To cite this article: R. Koszul, G. Fischer, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). 28 Olivier Panauda The molecular bases of cereal domestication and the history of rice Bases molculaires de la domestication chez les
crales et l'histoire du riz aLaboratoire gnome et dveloppement des plantes, Universit de Perpignan Via Domitia, 52, avenue Paul-Alduy, 66860 Perpignan cedex, France Accepted 5 September 2008. Available online 4 December 2008.

Abstract In this review, we discuss the development of molecular genetics and genomics that has allowed one to identify and characterize some of the key genes involved in cereal domestication. The list is far from being complete, but the first conclusion that can be drawn from the published works is that only a few loci have been the target of human selection in the first stages of the domestication process at the late neolithic. Mutations at these few loci have led to dramatic changes in plant morphology and phenology, transforming a wild into a cultivated plant. We also show that in the case of rice, for which the complete genome sequence is available, the development of new molecular markers based on retrotransposon insertion polymorphisms helped to resolve some of the questions regarding the origin of the domestication of the crop in Asia. To cite this article: O. Panaud, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).

94

examines the diversity of globin, in the three kingdoms of the living world. Four articles illustrate examples of sustainable interactions: parasitism of Wolbachia 29 (H. Merot, 30D. Poinsot, p.284-297), the reciprocal influence of cats and their virus on their respective development (Pontier et al, p.321-328), the symbiosis an original type of deep-water mussels with chemoautotrophic bacteria S. and Duperro31n al. p.298-310), and the unexpected reinforcement provided by viruses some small parasitic wasps (Poiri M. et al. p.311-320)

Henri Wajcmana, , , Laurent Kigerb and Michael C. Mardenb Structure and function evolution in the superfamily of globins volution de la structure et de la fonction dans la superfamille des globines aINSERM U841, quipe 11, CHU Henri-Mondor, 94010 Crteil, France bINSERM U779, Hpital de Bictre, 94275 Le Kremlin-Bictre cedex, France Accepted 30 July 2008. Available online 28 November 2008. Abstract-The superfamily of globins has emerged some 4000 Myr from a common ancestor, which was among the basic protein components required for life. Globins are present in the three kingdoms of life. From a structure point of view, these molecules are defined by the presence of a characteristic protein fold, rich in -helix, surrounding a heme group. Depending on the species or organs, they may be physiologically active as monomers, tetramers or large size polymers. Their function varies from the classical reversible binding of oxygen for transport and storage to cytoprotection against reactive oxygen species, NO scavenging, signaling in oxygen dependent metabolic pathways, or possibly other specific properties involving ligand or electron transfer. All these aspects are discussed in this review. To cite this article: H. Wajcman et al., C. R.

29

Biologies 332 (2009).

Herv Merota, , and Denis Poinsotb Infection by Wolbachia: from passengers to residents Infection par Wolbachia : De passagres rsidentes aUMR 7138, quipe gntique & volution, CNRS-Universit Paris 6, 75252 Paris cedex 05, France bINRA, Agrocampus Rennes, Universit Rennes 1, UMR 1099 BiO3P (Biology of Organisms and Population applied to Plant Protection), 35653 Le Rheu, France Accepted 17 September 2008. Available online 2 December 2008. Abstract Wolbachia are endosymbiotic alpha-proteobacteria harboured by terrestrial arthropods and filarial nematodes, where they are maternally transmitted through egg cytoplasm. According to the host group, Wolbachia have developed two contrasting symbiotic strategies. In arthropods, symbiosis is secondary (i.e. facultative), and Wolbachia insure their transmission as reproduction parasites. However, despite of the efficiency of the manipulation mechanisms used, Wolbachia are limited to the state of passenger because some factors can prevent the association between Wolbachia and their hosts to become permanent. On the contrary, symbiosis is primary (i.e. obligatory) in filarial nematodes where Wolbachia insure their transmission via a mutualistic relationship, leading them to become permanent residents of their hosts. However, a few examples show that in arthropods too some Wolbachia have started to present the first stages of a mutualistic behaviour, or are even truly indispensable to their host. Whatever its strategy, Wolbachia infection is a spectacular evolutionary success, this symbiotic bacterium representing one of the most important biomass of its kind. To cite this article: H. Merot, D. Poinsot, C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). 31 Sbastien Duperrona, b, , , Julien Loriona, b, Sarah Samadia, b, Olivier Grosc and Franoise Gailla, b -Symbioses between deep-sea mussels (Mytilidae: Bathymodiolinae) and chemosynthetic bacteria: diversity, function and evolution Symbioses entre mytilids des environnements marins profonds (Mytilidae : Bathymodiolinae) et bactries chimiotrophes : diversit, fonction et volution aUniversit Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, btiment A, 7, quai St Bernard, 75005 Paris, France bUMR 7138 (UPMC CNRS IRD MNHN), systmatique, adaptation, volution, 7, quai St Bernard, 75005 Paris, France cUMR 7138 Systmatique-adaptation-volution, quipe symbiose, Universit des Antilles et de la Guyane, BP 592, 97159 Pointe--Pitre, Guadeloupe, France Accepted 5 August 2008. Available online 25 November 2008. Abstract Mussels of the subfamily Bathymodiolinae thrive around chimneys emitting hot fluids at deep sea hydrothermal vents, as well as at cold seeps and on sunken organic debris (sunken wood, whale falls). Despite the absence of light-driven primary production in these deep-sea ecosystems, mussels succeed reaching high biomasses in these harsh conditions thanks to chemosynthetic, carbon-fixing bacterial symbionts located in their gill tissue. Since the discovery of mussel symbioses about three decades ago our knowledge has increased, yet new findings are published regularly regarding their diversity, role and evolution. This article attempts to summarize current knowledge about symbiosis in Bathymodiolinae, focusing on mussel species for which information is available regarding both hosts and symbionts. Moreover, new data obtained from small mussels inhabiting sunken woods around the Philippines are provided. Indeed, mussel species from organic falls remain poorly studied compared to their vent and seep relatives despite their importance for the understanding of the evolution of symbiosis in the subfamily Bathymodiolinae. To cite this article: S. Duperron et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).
30

95

Rfrences for DARWIN

34Marylne Poiria, , , Yves Cartonb and Aurore Dubuffetc Virulence strategies in parasitoid Hymenoptera as an example of adaptive diversity -Les stratgies de virulence des hymnoptres parasitodes : un exemple de diversit adaptative aUMR Interactions biotiques et sant vgtale, Universit Nice Sophia Antipolis CNRS (UMR 6243) INRA (UMR 1301), 400, route des Chappes, 06903 Sophia-Antipolis, France bquipe IRD-UR 072 Biodiversit et volution des complexes plantes insectes ravageurs-antagonistes, Laboratoire volution, gntique et spciation, CNRS 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France cInstitute of Integrative and Comparative Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences Clarendon Way, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT Leeds, UK Accepted 11 September 2008. Available online 24 December 2008. Abstract Parasitoids are mostly insects that develop at the expense of other arthropods, which will die as a result of the interaction. Their reproductive success thus totally depends on their ability to successfully infest their host whose reproductive success relies on its own ability to avoid or overcome parasitism. Such intense selective pressures have resulted in extremely diverse adaptations in parasitoid strategies that ensure parasitism success. For instance, wasp-specific viruses (polydnaviruses) are injected into the host by parasitoid females to modulate its physiology and immunity. This article synthesizes available physiological and molecular data on parasitoid virulence strategies and discusses the evolutionary processes at work. To cite this article: M. Poiri et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009). Rsum Les insectes parasitodes se dveloppent aux dpens d'autres arthropodes qui ne survivront pas l'interaction. Leur succs reproducteur dpend donc de leur capacit russir le parasitisme (virulence) tandis que celui de l'hte dpend de sa capacit l'viter ou survivre l'infestation. Les pressions de slection intenses exerces sur les populations d'hte et de parasitode ont ainsi conduit la slection d'adaptations extrmement varies dans les stratgies de virulence de ces derniers. Par exemple, des virus spcifiques sont utiliss par certaines familles de parasitodes pour bloquer les dfenses immunitaires de l'hte et dtourner ses processus physiologiques leur profit. Cet article synthtise les donnes physiologiques et molculaires disponibles sur les stratgies de virulence des parasitodes et discute des processus volutifs mis en jeu. Pour citer cet article : M. Poiri et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).

85
Looking for Darwin's footprints in the microbial world B. Jesse Shapiro1, Lawrence A. David1, Jonathan Friedman1 and Eric J. Alm1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1 Program in Computational and Systems Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA 2 Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA 4 The Virtual Institute of Microbial Stress and Survival, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA 5 The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA Abstract As we observe the 200th anniversary of Charles Darwin's birth, microbiologists interested in the application of Darwin's ideas to the microscopic world have a lot to celebrate: an emerging picture of the (mostly microbial) Tree of Life at everincreasing resolution, an understanding of horizontal gene transfer as a driving force in the evolution of microbes, and thousands of complete genome sequences to help formulate and refine our theories. At the same time, quantitative models of the microevolutionary processes shaping microbial populations remain just out of reach, a point that is perhaps most dramatically illustrated by the lack of consensus on how (or even whether) to define bacterial species. Here, we summarize progress and prospects in bacterial population genetics, with an emphasis on detecting the footprint of positive Darwinian selection in microbial genomes. Environment can alter selection in host parasite interactions Justyna Wolinska1, and Kayla C. King2 1 Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt, Department Biologie II, Evolutionskologie, Gro haderner Str. 2, D-82152 PlaneggMartinsried, Germany 2 Indiana University, Department of Biology, 1001 East Third Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA Abstract Characteristics of hosts and parasites have a genetic basis, and thus can be shaped by coevolution. Infections measured under laboratory conditions have shown that the environment in which hosts and parasites interact might substantially affect the strength and specificity of selection. In addition, various components of host parasite fitness are differentially altered by the environment. Despite this, environmental fluctuations are often excluded from experimental coevolutionary studies and theoretical models as noise . Because most host parasite interactions exist in heterogeneous environments, we argue that there is a need to incorporate fluctuating environments into future empirical and theoretical work on host parasite coevolution. Ecological and evolutionary determinants of host species choice in mosquito vectors Issa N. Lyimo1, 2, and Heather M. Ferguson1, 2 1 Public Health Entomology Unit, Ifakara Health Institute, Off Mlabani Passage, PO Box 53, Ifakara, Tanzania 2 Faculty of Biomedical and Life Sciences, 120 University Place, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK Abstract Insects exhibit diverse resource-exploitation strategies, including predation, herbivory and parasitism. The ecological and evolutionary factors that influence the resource selection of some insects (e.g. herbivores) have been extensively investigated because of their agricultural importance. By contrast, there has been little investigation of the selective forces that mediate host choice in haematophagous insects, despite their importance as vectors of disease. Here, we review potential determinants of host species choice in mosquitoes, the most important insect vectors of human disease, and discuss whether these could be manipulated to yield new disease-control strategies based on vector behavioural change.

96

Type III secretion systems in symbiotic adaptation of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria Brian K. Coombesa, aMichael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 3Z5, CanadaAvailable online 11 February 2009.

86
The emergence of multi-drug resistance and bacteria with increased virulence is a familiar refrain to the contemporary microbiologist. Although intense research over the past decade has ascribed much molecular detail to these processes, more esoteric questions remain: for example, why are some bacteria evolving increased virulence towards humans, what are the genes underpinning this virulence potential and what are the selective pressures that favor these traits? A holistic approach that considers the organismal biology of bacteria with their diverse hosts seems appropriate to begin to tackle such issues. As it happens, the type III secretion system is turning out to be a central player in the adaptation of both parasites and mutualists to diverse hosts. With this in mind, human interventions in agriculture, animal husbandry and even drug discovery that could influence the selection of bacteria with improved type III secretion system function should be critically appraised. The therapeutic helminth? Derek M. McKaya, aGastrointestinal Research Group, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada Available online 23 January 2009. By definition, parasites harm their hosts. Yet substantial evidence from animal models of human disease support the hypothesis that infection with helminths can suppress the development of other maladies. Here, the view is presented that assessment of the immunophysiological response to helminths could identify that infection with specific parasites would be therapeutically useful (although many helminths could not fulfil this role) and lead to precise knowledge of the immune events following infection, to identify ways to intervene in disease processes (in the absence of infection per se) that can be used to treat, and eventually cure, inflammatory and autoimmune disease. How can your parasites become your allies? Simon Fellous1, and Lucie Salvaudon2, 1 Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA 2 Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA Abstract Although parasitic infection is usually detrimental, it can be beneficial to the host in some situations. Parasites could help their host by providing a new function or modifying one of the host's life-history traits. We argue that the evolution towards a lasting mutualistic relationship would be more likely when parasites endow hosts with new abilities rather than alter a trait because hosts are less likely to evolve a new capability on their own than adjust their life history by microevolutionary steps. Furthermore, we underline how evolved dependence the host's loss of ability to live alone owing to a long history of evolution in the presence of its parasites has shaped contemporary mutualistic relationships. Bacterial flagellar diversity and evolution: seek simplicity and distrust it? Lori A.S. Snyder, Nicholas J. Loman, Klaus Ftterer and Mark J. Pallen University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK Abstract

87
Flagella are the chief organelles of motility in bacteria. In recent years, several new findings have illuminated the evolution of bacterial flagella, including cut-down versions of the organelle in Buchnera, a dispensable ATPase and structural evidence for homology between FliG (a component of the flagellar motor) and MgtE (a magnesium transporter). However, a fresh examination of the phylogenetic distribution of flagellar genes warns against a simplistic model of early flagellar evolution. The Origins of Ecological Diversity in Prokaryotes Frederick M. Cohan and Alexander F. Koeppel Department of Biology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT 06459-0170, USA Summary The urkingdoms and major divisions of prokaryotes are enormously diverse in their metabolic capabilities and membrane architectures. These ancient differences likely have a strong influence on the kinds of ecological adaptations that may evolve today. Some ecological transitions have been identified as having occurred primarily in the distant past, including transitions between saline and non-saline habitats. At the microevolutionary level, the likely existence of a billion prokaryotic species challenges microbiologists to determine what might promote rapid speciation in prokaryotes, and to identify the ecological dimensions upon which new species diverge and by which they may coexist. Rapid speciation in prokaryotes is fostered by several unique properties of prokaryotic genetic exchange, including their propensity to acquire novel gene loci by horizontal genetic transfer, as well as the rarity of their genetic exchange, which allows speciation by ecological divergence alone, without a requirement for sexual isolation. The ecological dimensions of prokaryotic speciation may be identified by comparing the ecology of the most newly divergent, ecologically distinct populations (ecotypes). This program is challenged by our ignorance of the physiological and ecological features most likely responsible for adaptive divergence between closely related ecotypes in any given clade. This effort will require development of universal approaches to hypothesize demarcations of ecotypes, and to confirm and characterize their ecological distinctness, without prior knowledge of a given clade's ecology.

Dr Ali KILIC [1] R. Allain, E. Lng, Origine et volution des saurischiens, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.09.013. [2] M. Brunet, Origine et volution des hominids Touma, une

97

confirmation clatante de la prdiction de Darwin, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.09.007. [3] F. Cecca, La dimension biogographique de lvolution de la Vie, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.07.003. [4] G. Clment, C. Letenneur,Lmergence des ttrapodes - une revue des rcentes dcouvertes et hypothses, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.10.010. [5] B. David, R. Mooi, D. Nraudeau, Thomas Saucede, Loc Villier, volution et radiations adaptatives chez les chinides, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.09.001. [6] Th. Dobzhansky, Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of Evolution, The American Biology Teacher 35 (1973). [7] J.C. Gall, Terre et Vie : des histoires imbriques, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.07.006. [8] J. Gayon, Mort ou persistance du darwinisme ? Regard dun pistmologue, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.11.004. [9] E. Gheerbrant, P. Tassy, Lorigine et lvolution des 88 lphants, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.08.003. [10] P. Janvier, Les premiers vertbrs et les premires tapes de lvolution du crne, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.09.003. [11] B. Meyer-Berthaud, A.-L. Decombeix, Lvolution des premiers arbres : les stratgies dvoniennes, C.R. Palevol 8 (2009), this issue; DOI: 10.1016/j.crpv.2008.08.002. Bibliographie (i).Franois Dagognet Lultime sanctuaire. In Milieux, W 30/1987, p.2 (2),Eftichios Bitsakis. Physique contemporaine et matrialisme dialectique Editions Sociales, Paris, 1973, p.261-262 (3)N.Smnov. La philosophie marxiste lniniste et les problmes des sciences naturelles , In Le communiste, 1968, N10, p.62-135 (4).A.Logounov . Au coeur de la matire Izvestia, le 22 dcembre 1976. (5) Koursanov, Naouka i Jizn N7 p.8 1 (6), G,Frank ,Lopinion du savant ;. Moscou, Editions de 1Acadmie des Sciences, 1963,p. 480 (7),G. Frank Opus. Cit..p .580 (8),P.. Thuillier, In La Recherche Mai,l972.p.13 Editions du SeuiLParis,1975 (9). Franois Jacop Biologie Molculaire , In Atome 1969, In La recherche p.55 (10 ),F.Jacop,0pus.cit .p.58 (1l),V. Enguelgardt. Naouka j Jizn,1975,N 5,p.II [1] Dr Ali KILIC,La Classification des Sciences et l(Informatique ; Fondements Philosophiques de lInformatique ;1988, pp.313-330 [2] J.C Beaune. i.n Milieux, W 30,1987,p.76 [3] ibidem [4] Eftichios BITSAKIS. Physique Contemporaine et matrialisme dialectique, Editions Sociales Paris ,1973,p.261-262

98

[5] E.Bitsakis,ibidem [6] E. Smnov, La philosophie marxiste lniniste et les problmes des sciences naturelles ; in le Communiste 1968, N 10, p-62-135 [7] Koursanov, Naouka i Jizn N7 p.8 1 [8] G,Frank,Lopinion du savant, Moscou , Editions de lAcadmie des Sciences 1963, p.480 [9] G,Frank,Opus Cit. p.580 [10] P.. Thuillier, In La Recherche Mai,l972.p. [11] Franois Jacop, Biologie Molculaire In Atome, 1969, In La recherche p.55 [12] F. Jacop, Opus Cit. .p ?58 [13] V. Enguelgardt, Naouka i Jizn 1975,N5, p.11 [14] Denise Barlow (Vienne, Autriche) [15] Bryan Turner (Birmingham, RU) [16] (Sarre, Allemagne) [17] (Halle, Allemagne) 89 [18] Peter Becker (Munich, Allemagne) [19] / Epigenetics and development [20] Moshe YANIV Confrence dbat et controverses Epigntique et mmoire cellulaire, une nouvelle discipline, au coeur du dveloppement et des pathologies [21]Centre Wellcome Trust pour la biologie cellulaire, Edimbourg, GB [22] Adrian BIRD, Institute of Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, UK The Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Biology, University ofEdinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK [23] Confrence dbat et controverses Epigntique et mmoire cellulaire, une nouvelle discipline, au coeur du dveloppement et des pathologie [24] Robert FEIL, Institut de Gntique Molculaire, Montpellier Lempreinte gnomique et son rle dans le dveloppement Robert Feil, Institut de Gntique Molculaire (IGMM), CNRS et Universit de Montpellier, [25] , Institut de Gntique Humaine , Montpellier [26] Giacomo CAVALLI, Epgntique et dveloppement, Institut de Gntique Humaine, Montpellier [27] Universit de Nice-Sophia Antipolis [28] References Chandler, V. L. (2007). Paramutation: RNA-mediated instructions passed across generations. Cell 23, 641-645. Herman, H., Lu, M., Anggraini, M., Sikora, A., Chang, Y., Yoon, B. J., et Soloway, P. D. (2003). Transallele methylation and paramutation-like effects in mice. Nat Genet 34, 199-202. Rassoulzadegan, M., Magliano, M., et Cuzin, F. (2002). Transvection effects involving DNA methylation during meiosis in the mouse. Embo J 21, 440-450. Rassoulzadegan, M., Grandjean, V., Gounon, P., Vincent, S., Gillot, I., et Cuzin, F. (2006). RNA-mediated non-Mendelian inheritance of an epigenetic change in the mouse. Nature 431, 469-474. Wagner, K. D., Wagner, N., Ghanbarian, H., Grandjean, V., Gounon, P., Cuzin, F., et Rassoulzadegan, M. (2008). RNA induction and inheritance of epigenetic cardiac hypertrophy in the mouse. Dev Cell, sous presse. [29] Institut de Gntique Humaine, CNRS, Montpellier, France [30] Institut Pasteur, Paris

99

[31] References 1. Brink, R. A. Genetics 1956, 41, 872-879. 2. Chandler, V. L. & Stam, M. Nat Rev Genet 2004, 5, 532-44. 3. Rassoulzadegan, M. et al. 2002 EMBO J, 21, 440-450. 4. Rassoulzadegan, M. et al. Nature 2006, 431, 469-474. 5. Wagner et al., Dev Cell 2008, in press. 6. Miller, D., Ostermeier, G. C. & Krawetz, S. A. Trends Mol Med 2005,11, 156-63.

100