PERIODICAL PLANE PUZZLES WITH NUMBERS

JORGE REZENDE
1. INTRODUCTION
Consider a periodical (in two independent directions) tiling of the plane with
polygons (faces). In this article we shall only give examples using squares, regular
hexagons, equilateral triangles and parallelograms (unions of two equilateral
triangles). We shall call some multiple of the fundamental region the board.
We naturally identify pairs of corresponding edges of the the board. Figures 9 and
1929 show different boards. The border of the board is represented by a yellow
thick line, unless part of it or all of it is the edge of a face.
The board is tiled by a nite number of polygons. Construct polygonal plates in
the same number, shape and size as the polygons of the board. Adjacent to each
side of each plate draw a number, or two numbers, like it is shown in Figures 1
and 18-29. Figure 1 shows the obvious possibility of having plates with simple
drawings, coloured drawings, etc.
6
3 5
2
4 1
3
2
1
FIGURE 1.
2010 Mathematics Subject Classication. 97A20, 52C20, 20B30.
The Mathematical Physics Group is supported by the (Portuguese) Foundation for Science and
Technology (FCT). .
This paper is in nal form and no version of it will be submitted for publication elsewhere.
1
a
r
X
i
v
:
1
1
0
6
.
0
9
5
3
v
1


[
m
a
t
h
.
H
O
]


6

J
u
n

2
0
1
1
PLANE PUZZLES 2
Now the game is to put the plates over the board polygons in such a way that
the numbers near each board edge are equal. If there is at least one solution of this
puzzle one says that we have a periodical plane puzzle with numbers.
These puzzles are a tool in teaching and learning mathematics. For those that
already have some mathematical knowledge, they are a source for many examples
and exercises, that go from the elementary to complex ones, in combinatorics,
group theory (including symmetry and permutation groups), programming, and
so on. The object of this work is to point out some possibilities by giving simple
examples.
The computer is the only practical way of materializing innite periodical
plane puzzles. Hence, these puzzles can be very well put into practice as computer
games.
This article follows some others on puzzles with numbers. See [3], [4], [5].
2. PLANE SYMMETRIES
A function : R
2
R
2
is an isometry if it preserves the Euclidean distance:
| () ()| = | |, for every , R
2
. We denote J the group of isome-
tries of R
2
.
Every translation : u + , for some u R
2
, is an isometry.
Every linear isometry belongs to O
2
, the orthogonal group. We denote the identity
by i.
Every isometry is a composition of a translation with an orthogonal transforma-
tion, i.e., it is of the form u + (), for some u R
2
and O
2
. The pair
(u, ) denes the isometry. We represent the isometry by (u, ) J.
A rotation about the point is an isometry , () = u + (), if det = 1 and
() = , i.e., u = (). Hence, if ,= i, = (i )
1
(u). Notice that, if
det = 1 and ,= i, then i is invertible.
If det = 1, one says that we have a direct isometry. Every direct isometry is a
translation or a rotation[1]. The identity, = i, is a rotation and a translation. If
,= i and = i, then is a translation. If ,= i and ,= i, then is a rotation.
If det = 1, every R
2
can be decomposed =
1
+
2
, with
1

2
,
such that () = (
1
+
2
) =
1
+
2
. The isometry () = u + () is of
the form (
1
+
2
) = u
1
+ u
2

1
+
2
. If u
2
= 0, is a reection. If u
2
,= 0, the
isometry is called a glide reection. The points in the mirror of reection or glide
reection are R
2
such that
1
= u
1
/2.
If det = 1, one says that we have an opposite isometry. Every opposite isometry
is a reection or a glide reection[1].
PLANE PUZZLES 3
A planer image is a function : R
2
D, where D is a set, D ,= .
From now on, let

be the group of isometries that leave invariant:

= J : = .
In the following,
+
denotes the subgroup of of the isometries that preserve
the orientation (direct isometries) and

denotes the subgroup of of the isome-

tries that reverse the orientation (opposite isometries).
We denote by

the group of orthogonal transformations associated with the

isometries of :

= O
2
: (u, )
In the following, if is a nite set, then [[ denotes its cardinal. Hence, if G
is a nite group, [G[ denotes its order. For a G, o (a) is the order of the group
generated by a and o (G) = max o (a) : a G.
2.1. The seventeen wallpaper groups. Let be a planer image, as before. From
now on, we assume that is a discrete group of isometries invariant under two
linearly independent translations which are of minimal length. Notice that

is
nite. We say that is a pattern and that is a wallpaper group.
As it is very well known there are seventeen wallpaper groups. See [1], [6].
2
pm
2
2
p2
2
2
2
p1
2
2 2
FIGURE 2.
PLANE PUZZLES 4
2
2
2
2
2
2
p2mg p2mm
2
2
2
pg
2
2
2
2
2 2
FIGURE 3.
2
2
c2mm
2
2
cm
2
2
p2gg
2
2
2
2
2
2
FIGURE 4.
PLANE PUZZLES 5
4
2
2
4
p4mm
4
4
4
2
2
p4
2
2
4
4
4
4
2
2 4
FIGURE 5.
3
3
p3
4
2
2
3
4
4
4
p4gm
3
3 2
2
3
4
FIGURE 6.
PLANE PUZZLES 6
3
3
3
3
p31m p3m1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3 3
FIGURE 7.
3
3
3
p6mm
3
2
2
p6
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6 6
FIGURE 8.
Figures 28 represent fundamental regions of these seventeen groups. We use
the notations of Ref. [1]. Here, small circles mean rotations and numbers their
order. Mirrors are represented by thick red lines and and glides by broken ones.
2.2. Wallpaper groups and permutation groups. In this article, S
n
denotes the
group of all permutations of 1, 2, . . . , n; a S
n
means that a is a one-to-one
function a : 1, 2, . . . , n 1, 2, . . . , n. The identity is i: i (1) = 1, i (2) =
2, . . . , i (n) = n. If a
1
, a
2
S
n
, we shall denote a
1
a
2
a
1
a
2
.
PLANE PUZZLES 7
We shall write a = (m
1
m
2
m
k
) (n
1
n
2
n
l
), if
a (m
1
) = m
2
, a (m
2
) = m
3
, . . . , a (m
k
) = m
1
, . . . ,
a (n
1
) = n
2
, a (n
2
) = n
3
, . . . , a (n
k
) = n
1
where m
1
, m
2
, . . . , m
k
, . . . , n
1
, n
2
, . . . , n
l
1, 2, . . . , n.
If p 1, 2, . . . , n m
1
, m
2
, . . . , m
k
, . . . , n
1
, n
2
, . . . , n
l
, then a (p) = p.
The permutation (m
1
m
2
m
k
) is called a cyclic permutation, or a cycle (in this
case a k-cycle); k is the length of the cyclic permutation.
Let S

n
= 1, 1 S
n
. If (
1
, a
1
) , (
2
, a
2
) S

n
, then (
1
, a
1
) (
2
, a
2
) = (
1

2
, a
1
a
2
).
S

n
is a group. We shall note (1, a) a, (1, a) a

.
On permutation groups, see [8].
From now on, let be a wallpaper group and let : S

n
be an homomor-
phism such that, if () = (, a), then = 1 if preserves the orientation and
= 1 otherwise (a reection or a glide reection).
We shall say that the pair (, ) is a wallpaper group with permutations. See [2], [7].
In the following two sections we impose that (, ) is connected, i.e., if n
1
, n
2
n,
then there exists such that () (n
1
) = n
2
.
3. TRANSLATIONS
Consider two independent vectors of the plane R
2
, u and v, and the group
of translations generated by them: = pu + qv : p, q Z. If : S
n
is a
group homomorphism, then (u) and (v) commute and, of course, (pu + qv) =
(u)
p
(v)
q
. We assume that if () S
m
, then m n.
One can identify with Z
2
by (pu + qv) (p, q) and dene

(p, q) = (pu + qv) (1) .

Notice that is connected if and only if

Z
2

= 1, 2, . . . , n.
PLANE PUZZLES 8
(1027894635)
2 1
(1745293086)
3 4
1
5 3 6 4
4
7
9 8
0
7 2
5
6 5
9
2 0
1 5 3
FIGURE 9.
As Z
2
R
2
,

generates a periodical pattern in the plane. A fundamental region
of this pattern is a parallelogram and it contains exactly n points, (see Figures 9, 10
(a), 19 (a), 20 (a), 22 (a)). The vertices of this parallelogram in Figure 10 are (0, 0),
(p
1
, q
1
), (p
2
, q
2
) and (p
1
+ p
2
, q
1
+ q
2
). Hence
n = [p
1
q
2
p
2
q
1
[
The number of the (u) cycles (
q
) and the order of the (u) cycles are

q
= gcd([q
1
[ , [q
2
[) ,
n

q
,
and the number of the (v) cycles (
p
) and the order of the (v) cycles are

p
= gcd([p
1
[ , [p
2
[) ,
n

p
.
PLANE PUZZLES 9
(b) (a)
u
g
f
2
f
1
v
r
r
q
2
q
1
p
2
p
1
p
2
q
1
q
2
O
O p
1
FIGURE 10.
Assume now that |u| = |v| and that the parallelogram is equilateral (see Figure
10 (b)). Then
r
sin g
=
p
1
sin f
1
=
q
1
sin (g + f
1
)
=
p
2
sin (g f
2
)
=
q
2
sin f
2
.
1) If f
1
= f
2
, then
q
2
= p
1
, p
2
= q
1
+2p
1
cos g,
n = p
2
1
+ q
2
1
+2p
1
q
1
cos g
= p
2
2
+ q
2
2
+2p
2
q
2
cos g.
a) For f
1
= f
2
, and g =

3
(a regular triangular grid), then
q
2
= p
1
, p
2
= p
1
+ q
1
, n = p
2
1
+ q
2
1
+ p
1
q
1
= p
2
2
+ q
2
2
+ p
2
q
2
.
The next table presents values of n = p
2
+ q
2
+ pq.
p
q
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 4 9 16 25 36
1 1 3 7 13 21 31 43
2 4 7 12 19 28 39 52
3 9 13 19 27 37 49 63
4 16 21 28 37 48 61 76

Notice that the number of equilateral triangles in the fundamental region is 2n.
b) For f
1
= f
2
, and g =

4
(a square grid), then
q
2
= p
1
, p
2
= q
1
, n = p
2
1
+ q
2
1
= p
2
2
+ q
2
2
.
PLANE PUZZLES 10
The next table presents values of n = p
2
+ q
2
.
p
q
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 4 9 16 25 36
1 1 2 5 10 17 26 37
2 4 5 8 13 20 29 40
3 9 10 13 18 25 34 45
4 16 17 20 25 32 41 52

2) If f
1
= f
2
, then
q
2
= p
1
, p
2
= q
1
, n =

p
2
1
q
2
1

p
2
2
q
2
2

.
Examples:
p
1
q
1
p
2
q
2
n
q
n

q

p
n

p
Figure 9 3 1 1 3 10 1 10 1 10
Figure 10 (a) 2 3 5 2 19 1 19 1 19
Figure 19 (a) 1 2 2 1 5 1 5 1 5
Figure 20 (a) 2 2 2 2 8 2 4 2 4
Figure 22 (a) 3 1 2 3 7 1 7 1 7
4. ROTATIONS AND REFLECTIONS
In this section we describe the different possibilities for wallpaper groups with
permutations. Here, the translations are generated by rotations, reections and
glide reections. We impose that (, ) is connected and that n o (

). As
before, in the gures, small circles mean rotations and numbers their order. Mirrors
are represented by thick red lines and and glides by broken ones. From now on,
the letters a, b, c, d, x, y, z, w, u and v represent permutations.
Let us describe, briey, the method we follow in this section.
If
1
is a rotation of order k, and
2
is a rotation of order j, then
1
transforms

2
in another rotation of order j,
3
, which is
1

1
1

1
(
2
).
If one wants to translate the isometries into elements of S

n
the function must be
such that if
1
s
1
,
2
s
2
, then
3

1
(
2
) s
1
s
2
s
1
1
.
Note that if s
1
= (
1
, a
1
), s
2
= (
2
, a
2
), where
a
2
= (m
1
m
2
m
l
) ,
PLANE PUZZLES 11
then
3

1
(
2
) s
3
= (
2
, a
3
), with
a
3
= (a
1
(m
1
) a
1
(m
2
) a
1
(m
l
)) .
We assign to every axis of order k ( ), a permutation a of order k
1
, a divisor
of k, so that to the counter clock-wise rotation of
2
k
, , corresponds the permu-
tation a. This association must be coherent in the sense that it generates a group
homomorphism.
If we assign to and
1
(two neighbor axes) the permutations a and a
1
, then to
the axis (
1
) =
1

1
we must assign aa
1
a
1
. When a
1
= (m
1
m
2
m
l
) ,
then aa
1
a
1
= (a (m
1
) a (m
2
) a (m
l
)) .
u
y
-
u
v
v x
- v
u
pm
2
p2
2
2
2
2
2c
p1
2b
2d
2a
FIGURE 11.
4.1. Figure 11, p2. In the case p2, the possibilities for a, b, c and d are i or (12).
Notice that c = dba, u = ba and v = da.
a b d c u v
i i i i i i
(12) i i (12) (12) (12)
(12) i (12) i (12) i
(12) (12) (12) (12) i i
4.2. Figure 11, pm. In the case pm, the possibilities for x and y are i or (12).
Notice that u = xy and v = i.
x y u v
i i i i
(12) i (12) i
(12) (12) i i
PLANE PUZZLES 12
4.3. Figure 12, pg. In the case pg, the possibilities for x and y are i or (12).
Notice that u = xy and v = i.
x y u v
i i i i
(12) i (12) i
(12) (12) i i
y
-
w
-
w
-
z
-
y
-
v
u
x
-
y
-
v
u
x
-
u
v
z
-
x
-
p2mg
2
2
2
p2mm
2c
2c
2b
pg
2
2b
2d
2d
2
2a
2
2
2a
FIGURE 12.
4.4. Figure 12, p2mm. In the case p2mm, the possibilities for a, b, c and d are i
or (12) as in p2. The possibilities for x and y are i or (12).
Notice that c = dba, u = ba, v = da, y = ux, z = ax, and w = dx.
a b d c u v x y z w
i i i i i i i i i i
i i i i i i (12) (12) (12) (12)
(12) i i (12) (12) (12) i (12) (12) i
(12) i (12) i (12) i i (12) (12) (12)
(12) i (12) i (12) i (12) i i i
(12) (12) (12) (12) i i i i (12) (12)
4.5. Figure 12, p2mg. In the case p2mg, the possibilities for a, b, c and d are i
or (12) as in p2. The possibilities for x and y are i or (12).
PLANE PUZZLES 13
Notice that d = a, c = b, u = ba, v = i, y = x, z = ax, w = bx.
a b d c u v x, y z w
i i i i i i i i i
i i i i i i (12) (12) (12)
(12) i (12) i (12) i i (12) i
(12) i (12) i (12) i (12) i (12)
(12) (12) (12) (12) i i i (12) (12)
(12) (12) (12) (12) i i (12) i i
4.6. Figure 13, p2gg. In the case p2gg, the possibilities for a, b, c and d are i
or (12) as in p2. The possibilities for x and y are i or (12).
Notice that a = b = c = d, u = i, v = i, y = x, z = w = ax.
a b d c u v x, y z, w
i i i i i i i i
i i i i i i (12) (12)
(12) (12) (12) (12) i i i (12)
y
-
v
u
w
-
v
u
z
-
x
-
x
-
y
-
y
-
u
v
x
-
2
2
2c
c2mm
2b
2d
p2gg
cm
2
2
2
2
2
2
2a
2
FIGURE 13.
4.7. Figure 13, cm. In the case cm, the possibilities for x and y are i or (12).
Notice that u = v = xy.
x y u v
i i i i
i (12) (12) (12)
(12) i (12) (12)
(12) (12) i i
PLANE PUZZLES 14
4.8. Figure 13, c2mm. In the case c2mm, the possibilities for a, b, c and d are i
or (12) as in p2. The possibilities for x and y are i or (12).
Notice that b = d, c = a, u = v = ba, v = da, y = ax.
a b d c u, v x y
i i i i i i i
i i i i i (12) (12)
i (12) (12) i (12) i i
i (12) (12) i (12) (12) i
(12) i i (12) (12) i (12)
(12) (12) (12) (12) i i (12)
4.9. Figure 14, p4. In the case p4, b = ca, d = ac, u = ca
1
, v = c
1
a. We shall
take always a and c such that o (c) o (a).
The possibilities for a are i (for n = 1) and permutations of the type (12) (for
n = 2), (12) (34) and (1234) (for n = 4).
If a = i, then c = i. If a = (12), then c = i or c = (12).
If a = (12) (34), then c = (13) (24).
If a = (1234), then cac
1
= (1234) or (1432), hence the possibilities for c are
(1234), (1432), (13), (24), (12) (34) and (14) (23). Notice that, since a (13) a
1
=
(24) and a (12) (34) a
1
= (14) (23), the possibilities for c are, in fact, (1234),
(1432), (13) and (12) (34).
a c b u v
i i i i i
(12) i (12) (12) (12)
(12) (12) i i i
(12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23) (14) (23) (14) (23)
(1234) (1234) (13) (24) i i
(1234) (1432) i (13) (24) (13) (24)
(1234) (13) (12) (34) (14) (23) (12) (34)
(1234) (12) (34) (24) (13) (24)
4.10. Figure 14, p4mm. In the case p4mm, a, b, c, d, u and v are as in p4.
Here, y = a
1
x.
For a = i, n 2, the possibilities for x are i and (12).
For a = (12), n = 2, the possibilities for x are i and (12).
For a = (12) (34), c = (13) (24), the possibilities for x are i, (12) (34), (13) (24)
and (14) (23).
PLANE PUZZLES 15
y
-
u
v
x
-
v
u
4
2
2
4
p4mm
4c
4
4
2
2
p4
2d
2b
4c
4
4
4a
2d
2b
4a
FIGURE 14.
For a = (1234), c = (1234), the possibilities for x are (13) and (12) (34).
For a = (1234), c = (1432), the possibilities for x are (13) and (12) (34).
For a = (1234), c = (13), the possibilities for x are (12) (34) and (14) (23).
For a = (1234), c = (12) (34), the possibilities for x are (13) and (24).
As p4mm is constructed from p4 adding reections, these reections can
connect permutations:
a) a = (12) (34), c = i, b = (12) (34), u = (12) (34), x = (13) (24).
b) a = (12) (34), c = (12) (34) , b = i, u = i, x = (13) (24).
PLANE PUZZLES 16
a c b u x y
i i i i i i
i i i i (12) (12)
(12) i (12) (12) i (12)
(12) i (12) (12) (12) i
(12) (34) i (12) (34) (12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23)
(12) (12) i i i (12)
(12) (12) i i (12) i
(12) (34) (12) (34) i i (13) (24) (14) (23)
(12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23) (14) (23) i (12) (34)
(12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23) (14) (23) (12) (34) i
(12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23) (14) (23) (13) (24) (14) (23)
(12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23) (14) (23) (14) (23) (13) (24)
(1234) (1234) (13) (24) i (13) (12) (34)
(1234) (1234) (13) (24) i (12) (34) (24)
(1234) (1432) i (13) (24) (13) (12) (34)
(1234) (1432) i (13) (24) (12) (34) (24)
(1234) (13) (12) (34) (14) (23) (12) (34) (24)
(1234) (13) (12) (34) (14) (23) (14) (23) (13)
(1234) (12) (34) (24) (13) (24) (14) (23)
(1234) (12) (34) (24) (13) (13) (12) (34)
4.11. Figure 15, p4gm. In the case p4gm, a, b, c, d, u and v are as in p4.
Here, y = cxc
1
.
For a = i, n 2, the possibilities for x are i and (12).
For a = (12), n = 2, the possibilities for x are i and (12).
For a = (12) (34), c = (13) (24), the possibilities for x are (14) and (23).
For a = (1234), c = (1234), the possibilities for x are (13), (24), (12) (34) and
(14) (23).
For a = (1234), c = (1432), the possibilities for x are i and (13) (24).
As p4gm is constructed from p4 adding reections, these reections can
connect permutations:
a) a = (12), c = (34), b = (12) (34), u = i, x = (13) (24).
b) a = (12) (34), c = (12) (34) , b = i, u = i, x = (13) (24).
PLANE PUZZLES 17
x
-
v
u u
v
y
-
3c
3b
p3
4
3
2
2
p4gm
3
3
4c
4
4
3a
2d
2b
4a
FIGURE 15.
a c b u x y
i i i i i i
i i i i (12) (12)
(12) (34) (12) (34) i (13) (24) (14) (23)
(12) (12) i i i i
(12) (12) i i (12) (12)
(12) (34) (12) (34) i i (13) (24) (13) (24)
(12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23) (14) (23) (14) (23)
(1234) (1234) (13) (24) i (13) (24)
(1234) (1234) (13) (24) i (12) (34) (14) (23)
(1234) (1432) i (13) (24) i i
(1234) (1432) i (13) (24) (13) (24) (13) (24)
4.12. Figure 15, p3. In the case p3, c = ba
2
b, u = ba
2
, v = b
2
a. We shall take
always a and b such that o (a) o (b) , o (c).
The possibilities for a are i (for n = 1) and permutations of the type (123) (for
n = 3).
For a = i, the possibilities for b are i (for n = 1) and permutations of the type
(123) (for n = 3).
For a = (123), the possibility for b is (123).
PLANE PUZZLES 18
a b c u v
i i i i i
i (123) (132) (123) (132)
(123) (123) (123) i i
4.13. Figure 16, p3m1. For a = b = i, the possibilities for x are i and permuta-
tions of the type (12).
For a = (123) or b = (123), the possibilities for x are (12), (23) and (13).
a b c u v x
i i i i i i
i i i i i (12)
i (123) (132) (123) (132) i
(123) (123) (123) i i (12)
4.14. Figure 16, p31m. For a = b = i, the possibilities for x are i and permuta-
tions of the type (12).
For a = (123) or b = (123), the possibilities for x are (12), (23) and (13).
a b c u v x
i i i i i i
i i i i i (12)
i (123) (132) (123) (132) (12)
(123) (123) (123) i i (12)
x
-
v
u
v
u
x
-
3c
3b
3c
p31m
3b
p3m1
3
3
3
3
3a
3
3
3a
FIGURE 16.
PLANE PUZZLES 19
4.15. Figure 17, p6. In the case p6, c = ad, b = ca, u = ca
2
, v = c
1
a
2
. The
permutations a and d are compatible if and only if they obey the rule ada = dad.
For n = 1, a = d = i.
If o (a) = o (d) = 2, the possibilities are the following:
a) For n = 2, a = d = (12).
b) For n = 3, a = (12), d = (13).
c) For n = 6, a = (12) (34) (56), d = (13) (25) (46).
If o (a) = o (d) = 3, the possibilities are the following:
a) For n = 3, a = d = (123).
b) For n = 4, a = (123), d = (142).
c) For n = 6, a = (123) (456), d = (124) (356).
If o (a) = o (d) = 6, the possibilities are the following:
a) a = d = (123456).
b) a = (123456), d = (156423). There are other two possibilities for d but they
are generated by the action of a on this d.
c) a = (123456), d = (163254). There is other possibility for d but it is generated
by the action of a on this d.
a d c b u
i i i i i
(12) (12) i (12) i
(12) (13) (132) (23) (132)
(12) (34) (56) (13) (25) (46) (145) (263) (16) (24) (35) (145) (263)
(123) (123) (132) i i
(123) (142) (143) (12) (34) (12) (34)
(123) (456) (124) (356) (136) (254) (15) (26) (15) (26)
(123456) (123456) (135) (246) (14) (25) (36) i
(123456) (156423) (165) (243) (14) (25) (36)
(123456) (163254) (264) (16) (23) (45) (153) (246)
4.16. Figure 17, p6mm. In the case p6mm, a, b, c, d, u and v are as in p6 and
y = xa
1
.
As p6mm is constructed from p6 adding reections, these reections can
connect permutations:
a) a = d = (12) (34). In this case c = i, b = (12) (34), u = v = i.
b) a = (12) (45), d = (13) (46). In this case c = (132) (465), b = (23) (56),
u = (132) (465), v = (123) (456).
PLANE PUZZLES 20
v
u
y
-
u
v
x
-
3
p6mm
3c
3
p6
2
2
3c
2
2b
2
2
2
6
2
2b
2
6d
6
6
6a
6d
6
6a
FIGURE 17.
c) a = d = (123) (456). In this case c = (132) (465), b = i, u = v = i.
a d x y
i i i i
i i (12) (12)
(12) (12) i (12)
(12) (12) (12) i
(12) (34) (12) (34) (13) (24) (14) (23)
(12) (13) i (12)
(12) (45) (13) (46) (14) (25) (36) (15) (24) (36)
(12) (34) (56) (13) (25) (46) i (12) (34) (56)
(12) (34) (56) (13) (25) (46) (12) (35) (46) (36) (45)
(12) (34) (56) (13) (25) (46) (16) (25) (34) (15) (26)
(12) (34) (56) (13) (25) (46) (13) (24) (56) (14) (23)
(123) (123) (12) (13)
(123) (456) (123) (456) (14) (26) (35) (15) (24) (36)
(123) (142) (12) (13)
(123) (456) (124) (356) (12) (56) (13) (45)
(123) (456) (124) (356) (16) (25) (34) (14) (26) (35)
(123456) (123456) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
(123456) (123456) (26) (35) (12) (36) (45)
(123456) (156423) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
(123456) (156423) (26) (35) (12) (36) (45)
(123456) (163254) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
PLANE PUZZLES 21
5. PLANE SYMMETRIES, PERMUTATION GROUPS AND PUZZLE SOLUTIONS
5.1. Board symmetries. Consider a board with at least three faces with a common
vertex. From now on V denotes the set of the board vertices, E denotes the set of
the board edges and F denotes the set of the board faces (polygons).
The group of the board symmetries, , called the board group, is the set of all
isometries of R
2
, (u, ), that send vertices to vertices, which implies that
they send edges to edges, faces to faces. Every symmetry induces three
bijections, that we shall also denote , whenever there is no confusion possible:
: V V, : E E and : F F. Denote also : V V
: E E : F F, the three sets of these functions. One can say that
each one of these three sets is the set of the board symmetries. Notice that not all
one-to-one functions F F, E E, V V are in . With the composition of
functions each one of these three sets forms a group that is isomorphic to the
group of the board symmetries. If
1
,
2
, we shall denote
1

2

1

2
.
When no confusion is possible, represents also the group isomorphism
: , (
1
) =
1

1
, for every
1
. Note that
1
and (
1
) have
the same order.
If
1
is a subgroup of , then
1
acts naturally on the face set, F: for
1
and F, one denes the action = ().
5.2. Puzzle solutions. Consider a puzzle with numbers 1, 2, . . . , n drawn on the
plates. From now on P denotes the set of its plates which have numbers drawn,
and call it the plate set. If no confusion is possible, P will also denote the puzzle
itself. However, note that we can not separate the plates from the board: the puzzle
is the plates and the board.
As before E denotes the set of the board edges and F denotes the set of the board
faces. A solution of the puzzle denes a function : E 1, 2, . . . , n. Denote c
the set of these functions. One can say that c is the set of the puzzle solutions.
We shall also consider the group S
n
. If (a
1
,
1
) , (a
2
,
2
) S
n
, one
denes the product (a
1
,
1
) (a
2
,
2
) = (a
1
a
2
,
1

2
).
5.3. The plate group. Some S
n
subgroups act naturally on P. Let P and
a S
n
. Assume that m
1
, m
2
, m
3
, . . . are drawn on , by this order. Then a is
a plate where the numbers a (m
1
) = n
1
, a (m
2
) = n
2
, a (m
3
) = n
3
, . . . are drawn
replacing m
1
, m
2
, m
3
, . . . (see Figure 18).
Let s S

n
and P. If s s
1
= (1, a) a, then s = a. If s s
2
= (1, a)
a

, then s is a reection of a. In this last case, if the numbers m

1
, m
2
, m
3
, . . .
PLANE PUZZLES 22
s
2
n
2
n
3
n
1
m
2
m
3
m
1
s
1
n
1
n
2
n
3
m
3
m
2
m
1
FIGURE 18.
are drawn on , by this order, then s is a plate where the numbers . . . , a (m
3
) =
n
3
, a (m
2
) = n
2
, a (m
1
) = n
1
are drawn by this order (see Figure 18).
The plate group, G
P
, is the greatest subgroup of S

n
(if

,= ) that acts on P,
or the greatest subgroup of S
n
(if

= ) that acts on P. For

,= , if s S

n
and s P, for every P, then s G
P
. For

= , if s S
n
and s P, for
every P, then s G
P
.
5.4. The solution group. Let : E 1, 2, . . . , n be a solution of the puzzle. The
group of this solution, G

, is a subgroup of S
n
; (a, ) G

if and only if
a = .
Denote

the following subgroup of :

if and only if there exists a S

n
such that (a, ) G

. Notice that if

there exists only one a S

n
such that
(a, ) G

. From this one concludes that (a, ) denes an isomorphism

between

and G

and that (det , a) G

P
. This denes g

G
P
, g

() =
(det , a), which is an homomorphism of groups.
For a lot of puzzles (det , a) denes completely . It is the case of all puzzles
considered in this article. Hence, when (det , a) denes completely , g

estab-
lishes an isomorphism between

and g

) G
P
. Denote G
P

).
Finally, G

and G
P

are isomorphic. We can identify (a, ) with (det , a), and G

with the subgroup G

P

of G
P
.
5.5. Equivalent solutions. Let
1
,
2
: E 1, 2, . . . , n be solutions of the puzzle.
One says that these solutions are equivalent,
1

2
, if there are ,
(u, ),and a S
n
, such that
a
1
=
2
.
PLANE PUZZLES 23
Notice that (det , a) G
P
.
If a = i and det = 1, what distinguishes the solutions
1
and
2
is only a
symmetry in
+
. In this case

1
=
2

expresses another equivalence relation,
1

2
. When we make a puzzle, in
practice, we do not recognize the difference between
1
and
2
. We shall say that
they represent the same natural solution, an equivalence class of the relation .
Let ,
1
,
2
c. As
1

2
and
1
, implies
2
, one can say that the
natural solution represented by
1
is equivalent to .
This equation involving
1
and
2
denes an equivalence relation, and a natural
solution is an equivalence class of this relation. Notice that if
1
=
2
, then
1
is
the identity.
For c, represent by [] the set of natural solutions equivalent to .
Now, if

,= , choose

. For c and s = (, a) G
P
, denote

s
= a , where is the identity if = 1 and =

if = 1. The set

s
: s G
P
includes representatives of all natural solutions equivalent to . Then
[[][ =
[G
P
[

G
P

.
The cardinal of all the natural solutions is then given by

[]
[G
P
[

G
P

,
where the sum is extended to all different equivalence classes [].
5.6. Equivalent puzzles. Consider two puzzles and their plate sets, P
1
and P
2
. Let
= 1 if they have the same board, but

= ; = 1 if they have different

boards, but symmetric by reection; and = 1 if they have the same board and

,= . One says that the puzzles are equivalent if there exists s = (, a) S

n
such that the function s is one-to-one between P
1
and P
2
. We denote P
2
as
sP
1
.
As an example take the puzzles in Figure 20 (c) and (d). Let a = (13) (67). If
s = (1, a) acts on the plates of one of these puzzles, it generates the plates of the
other. If P is the plate set of one of these puzzles, then P ,= sP.
PLANE PUZZLES 24
6. EXAMPLES
In this section we use group theory in order to nd puzzles, for a given board,
such as, for example, maximal puzzles. These are important examples, but others
could be given.
To avoid ambiguities, in the puzzles we give in the following, all the edges have
numbers.
Some of the examples we give in this section can easily be studied directly. All
the results we present are obtained in this way. Some puzzles have only one natural
solution. Others can have millions of natural solutions that can only be calculated
with a computer.
6.1. Puzzles p4.
(c)
4
3
1
2 1 4 5 1
(b)
5 1
4 2
3 5
3 5 2 3
(a)
5 2
4
5
3
4
2
1
4
2 3
5 1
4
2
1 3 5
3
1
5
4
2 4
1
2
4
5
3
1
5
3
4
1
3
2
3
2
1
5
4
2
(14235)
(13452)
4(1234)
1
2
5
5
4
3
3
4
1
2
2
1
5
5
4
3 FIGURE 19.
6.1.1. Figure 19 (a). Take a board with ve square faces (Figure 19 (a)). Obviously,
it is not symmetric by reection. The group of this board has 20 elements.
The group of permutations in S
5
associated with translations of this pattern are
generated by u = (14235) and v = (13452). The group of this pattern is generated
by
a c b u v
(1234) (1325) (15) (34) (14235) (13452)
.
6.1.2. Figure 19 (b). In this gure it is represented a maximal solution of a puzzle
with plates [1234], [1325], [1453], [1542], [2435]. It is not very interesting because,
in fact, this natural solution is unique. Its group has 20 elements.
6.1.3. Figure 19 (c). One can construct another board with ten square faces with
vertices in the ten rotations centers of the grid (Figure 19 (c)). The group of this
board has 40 elements.
In Figure 19 (c), is represented a maximal solution of a puzzle with plates [1415],
[1213], [2125], [2324], [3134], [3235], [4142], [4345], [5153], [5254]. Its group has 20
elements.
PLANE PUZZLES 25
6.2. Puzzles p4mm.
6.2.1. Figure 20 (a). The board with eight faces represented in Figure 20 (a) is
symmetric by reection. The group of this board has 64 elements.
The group of permutations in S
8
associated with translations of the pattern in the
point lattice is generated by u = (1835) (2647) and v = (1637) (2845). The group
of this pattern is generated by
a c b
(1234) (67) (1265) (3748) (15) (27) (38) (46)
u x y
(1835) (2647) (13) (67) (12) (34)
There are no puzzles with solutions that are compatible with
+
.
One can construct another board with sixteen square faces with vertices in the
sixteen rotations centers of the grid. The group of this board has 128 elements.
There are three puzzles with solutions that are compatible with
+
. In Figure
20 (b), (c) and (d) we represent their unique maximal solutions. Puzzles (c) and (d)
are equivalent.
6.2.2. Figure 20 (b). In this gure it is represented a maximal solution of a puzzle
with plates [1358], [1367], [1376], [1385], [1542], [1583], [1673], [1763], [1853], [2458],
[2467], [2476], [2485], [2674], [2764], [2854]. Its group has 64 elements.
6.2.3. Figure 20 (c). In this gure it is represented a maximal solution of a puzzle
with plates [1257], [1275], [1286], [1465], [1478], [1564], [1682], [1752],[1874], [2356],
[2387], [2783], [2653], [3457], [3486], [3754]. Its group has 32 elements.
6.2.4. Figure 20 (d). The other puzzle in Figure 20 (d) is equivalent to the puzzle in
Figure 20 (c). For example, if (13) (67)

acts on the plates of one of these puzzles,

it generates the plates of the other.
6.3. Puzzles p6.
6.3.1. Figure 21. The non connected group is generated by
a d c b u
(123) (45) (123) (45) (132) (45) i
The plates are: [124], [125], [134], [135], [142], [143], [145], [152], [153], [154], [234],
[235], [243], [245], [253], [254], [345], [354].
PLANE PUZZLES 26
2 8 7
1
4 5
6 3
5
4
8
1 7 5 6 4 3 2 8
7
3
3
6
6 1
1 7 5 4 3 6 8 2
7
3
6
(d)
3 8 7 4 2
1 6
6 5
1 4
2 8
7 5 1
4 3 6
5
2
4 5
8 4
6 4 2 6 7 2 4 7
1
7
3
(b)
(c)
8 4 1 6 5 2
8
2
2
5
4 6
8 1 3 2 5
8 6
2 1
5 3 3 1 8 8 5
1
4 6
8 1
2 7
(a)
3 2 8
7 1
5 6
7 3 4
8 6
1
6
3
1 6
5
3 1 5 8 8 3
4 2
8 5
1 7 5
4
7 3
2 1 7 5 4
7 5
2 6 7 2 4 7
1 5
7 4
3
7
2
2 8 7 1
5 2
7 6 4 2 6
1
3
4
8
4 8 3
5 3
3
8
4 6
3 7
5 1 8
6 2
(1637)(2845)
(1835)(2647)
8
4(1846)(2735)
1
2
7
5
5
4
3
3
4
6
8
6
8
4(1234)(67)
2
1
1
2
5
5
7 4
3
FIGURE 20.
In this puzzle [G
P
[ = 24. Figure 21 shows natural solutions that represent the 7
equivalence classes a rotation of order 6. Each one has 4 natural solutions and a
group of order 6.
6.3.2. Figure 22. Take a board with 14 triangular equilateral faces (see Figure 22
(a)). Obviously, it is not symmetric by reection. The group of this board has 42
elements.
The group of permutations in S
7
associated with translations of this pattern are
generated by (1325647) and (1572436).
The numbers over the point lattice generate a pattern. Associated with the
rotations of order 6 (angle of /3 in the direct sense) centered in the vertices of
the grid (the points of the lattice) are permutations like (123456) and all the others
generated by the translations and this one. Associated with the rotations of order 3
PLANE PUZZLES 27
(angle of 2/3 in the direct sense) centered in the triangles are permutations like
(135) (246) and all the others generated by the translations and this one.
The group of the pattern is generated by
a d c b u
(123456) (276435) (127) (365) (17) (26) (34) (1325647)
We naturally construct triangular plates based upon these permutations of order
3: [127], [135], [143], [152], [164], [176], [237], [246], [254], [263], [365], [347], [457],
[567]. In Figure 22 (b) is represented the maximal natural solution of this puzzle.
Its group has 42 elements.
We x now plate [246] in the board and look for all solutions that have associated
the permutation (135) (246) to the rotation of order 3 in the middle of this triangle.
There are 5 such solutions: (b)(f).
4
5
(f)
(g)
(c)
4
5
1
2
1
4
5
(e) (d)
(b)
1
1
2 5
4
5
3
4
1
1
(a)
2
4
1
1
2 5
4
2
3
1
4
5
1
3
4
3
2
4 1 1
5
2
2
3
4
1
5
4
4
4
2
3 5
2
5
4
5 1
3
5
3
2
5 1
1
4
2
2
3
5
1
5
4
4
4
2
3 5
2
5
5
3
4
3
3
5
1
4
3
5
4
1
2
1
1
2
5
1
4
5 1
2
5
3
1
5 1 3
4
2
2
3
5
3
5
4
4
4 1 3 5
2
5
2
1
4
3
3
5
2
5
3
4
3
5
2
1
3
1
2
4 5 3
4
5 1
2
4
3
1
4 1
3
5
2
2
3
4
3
5
4
4
4 1 3 5
2
5
5
2
1
3
4
2 4
5 3
4
2
3
4
4
2
5
1
3
1
2 1 5 3
4
1
2
4
4
1
5 2
1
5
1 3
4
2
4
4
5
3
3
5
3 1
5
3
3
1
5 1
5
2
1
2 4
2
5
1
2
4
1
2
4
FIGURE 21.
PLANE PUZZLES 28
The solutions (c) and (d) are equivalent. One can obtain (d) from (c) by operating
with the permutation (123456) over the plates. Their group has no permutations
of order 6, and it has 21 elements.
The solutions (e) and (f) are equivalent. One can obtain (f) from (e) by oper-
ating with the permutation (14) (25) (36) over the plates. Their group has no
permutations of order 6, and it has 3 elements.
6.3.3. Figure 23. The group is generated by
a d c b u
(123456) (156423) (165) (243) (14) (25) (36)
In this gure we have a board of eight equilateral triangles as faces. The plates
are [132], [135], [162], [165], [243], [246], [354], [465]. There are three equivalence
classes with 2 (a) 6 (b) and 6 (c) natural solutions. Figure 23 includes representatives
of the three equivalence classes.
3
(1325647)
(1453762)
1
2
7
5
1
(1572436)
(1325647)
6 7
1
2
6
7 4
5
6
1 7 4 1
3 5
(1634275)
(1746523)
(f)
(1572436)
(1325647)
1
5
4
2 6 3 5
5 3
5
1
6
3
5
7 4 1
5
3 3
3
2 5 4 3
2
6 6
3
(e)
(c)
5
2
7 4
3 2
7 2 6
4 1 7
6 7
5
4
1 3 4 7
1 7
6 2
7 4 1
4
6 2
5
7
4
2
7
(d)
(b)
2 3 4 6
1
6 5
4
1
7
1
4
2
5
4 7 6
6 4
7
3
6
5
2 1 5
7
2
6
1
(a)
3
7
6 3 1
2
7
6
2
2
2
1 1 5
6
4
6
7
6 2
5
4
7
6
1
5
4
1
6
5
5 2
3
3 6
7
5 3
5
6
6
1
3 2
3
1
4
2
3
1 4
7
2
2
7 2
5
5
5
7
6 2
7
4 3
4
3
5 6
3
3
4 3
4
1
7 2
7
1
3
2
4 7 6
7 1 3
6
5
2
3
3
1
7
4
7
6 5
FIGURE 22.
PLANE PUZZLES 29
(b) (a)
2
4
1
6
4 3
6
2
4
1
3
5
4 2
5
6
3
6
5
1
6
4
4
5
3 6
5
5
1
5
2
6
5
3
1
2 5
4
1 3
4
1
5
1
2
3
4
6
3 6
1
1 5
1
6
5
2 5
6
6 1
3
4
3
2
2
3
2
6
6
2
4
1
5
1
2
6
2
3
4
2
4
5
3
4 3
3 2
FIGURE 24.
(c) (b) (a)
3
5
3
2
4
2
6
6
1
1
2
3
5
3
2
4
5
6
6
5
6 1
1
5
3
5
3
2
1
5
6
4 3
2
6
2
6 1
4
5
4 3
2
6
2
4 3
2
FIGURE 23.
6.3.4. Figure 24 (a). In this gure we have a board of twelve equilateral parallelo-
grams and the plates are [1316], [2124], [3235], [4346], [5154], [6265], twice.
6.4. Puzzles p6mm.
6.4.1. Figure 24 (b). The group is is generated by
a d x y
(123456) (156423) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
In this gure we have a board of twelve equilateral parallelograms and the plates
are [1313], [1616], [2121], [2424], [3232], [3535], [4343], [4646], [5151], [5454], [6262],
[6565].
6.4.2. Figure 25. In this gure, the board has 12 faces (4 regular hexagons and 8
equilateral triangles) and the plates are [123456], [153426], [156423], [126453], [132],
[135], [162], [165], [243], [246], [354], [465]. This board and these plates are made in
such a way that one has a maximal solution with the group generated by
a d x y
(123456) (156423) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
PLANE PUZZLES 30
(h) (g)
(f)
2
(e)
(d)
2
2 3
1
(c)
(b)
2
2
6
1
3
1
2
4
5
(a)
2
2 3
1
6
1
2
4
5
2
4
5
1
5
6 2
1 1
6
5
1
2
6
1
6
1
2
4
5
5
1
2
1
5
6 2
1 4
3
2
1
1
5
6 2
1
4
6
2
1
3
4
5
3 5
4
6
3
1
5
4
2
2
4
5
1
2
6 2
1 4
6
5
1
1
2
6 2
1 1
3
2
4
6
4
5
3
5
4
3
3
4
5
3 5
4
6
1
2 3
1
5
2
4
5
1
2
1
5
6 2
1 4
3
5
1
1
2
6 2
1 4
3
5
1
3
4
5
3 5
4
6
3
1
5
3 2
4
6
4
5 6
1
5
2
4
4
5 6
1
5
2
4
4
6
1
2
6
2
1 1
6
2
4
6
4
5 3
2
4
3
3
4
5 3
5
4
6
4
2 6
1
2
5
4
1
5 3
1
2
5
4 1
3
1
3 5
3
1
5
3
2
4
6
4
2 6
1
5
2
4
4
2 3
1
2
5
4 1
3
4
6 2
2
1
5
6
1
2
5
4 1
3
1
6 5
2
4
3 5
5
2
FIGURE 25.
This puzzle puzzle has 8 equivalence classes: (a) 1 has a group of order 48, (b) 1
has a group of order 24, (c)(e) 3 have a group of order 16, (f)(g) 2 have a group of
order 8, (e) 1 has group of order 6. As [G
P
[ = 48, one has that once we put a plate
over a face there are 32 different possibilities (32 natural solutions) represented in
Figure 25:
48

1
48
+
1
24
+
3
16
+
2
8
+
1
6

= 32.
PLANE PUZZLES 31
2
5
6
3
4 1
5
2
5
2
1
4 1 4
4 1
3
6
6
3 2
5
2
5
4 1
2
3
1
5
6
4
FIGURE 26.
(b) (a)
4
4
3
3
3
6
1
6
5
1
2
6
4
5
1
4
1
2
5
5
6
4
6
1
3
2
5
4
6
5
4
3
4
2
3
1
2
6
5
6 3
3
1
6
1
4 1
5
2
6
4
3
FIGURE 27.
6.4.3. Figure 26. The group is generated by
a d x y
(123456) (156423) (26) (35) (12) (36) (45)
In this gure, the board has eight faces (equilateral triangles) and the plates
are [14, 36, 25], [14, 36, 52], [14, 63, 25], [14, 63, 52], [41, 36, 25], [41, 36, 52], [41, 63, 25],
[41, 63, 52]. Figure 26 shows a maximal solution that has all the 48 symmetries of
the board.
6.4.4. Figure 27 (a) and (b). In Figure 27 (a) we have a board of twelve equilateral
parallelograms and the plates are [1245], [1625], [1465], [2136], [2356], [3241], [3461],
[4352], [5463].
In Figure 27 (b) we have a board of twelve equilateral parallelograms and the
plates are [1221], [1441], [1661], [2332], [2552], [3443], [3663], [4554], [5665].
The group of these maximal solutions of both puzzles is generated by
a d x y
(123456) (163254) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
PLANE PUZZLES 32
(b) (a)
3
6
6
3
3
4
3
1
4
5
2
6
5
6
2
5
2
2
5
4
4
4
1
3
4
1
5
6
1
1
4
5
5
5
2
5
5 2 3
2 2 6
6
5
2
4
3
2
4
3
2
4
4
1
4
4 1 6
1
1
3
6
6
3 3 1 1
1
5
6
1
5
1
6
5
1
4 3
2 6 4
3
3
6 6
2 2
1
6
2
3
4
2 5 6
1 3 5
4
6
1 5 1
3
2
3
2
3
4
4
4
5
3
2 4 2
6
5
2
5
5 4
1
2
3
6
2
4
6
5
3
1
1
6
5
1
FIGURE 28.
(b) (a)
5
3
1
1
6
4
2 1
6
6
4
3 4
5
4
1
3 4
1
5
1
3
6
2 6
1
3
6
5
1 3
1
5
5
2
6
1 6 6
4
4 5 2
6
4
4
5 2
3
6
5
3
4
3
2
2
6
4
2
5
1 1 6
4 5 2
3
6
5
5
1
2
5
1
3
3
3
5
4
2 5 6 2
4
6 5 2
5
1
2
3
1
3 3
3
4
4
2
2
6
4
3 1 5
6
6 5 2
5
4
1
4
4
2
6
1
3
6
1
1 3
5
1
2
3 4
1
2
6
6
4 2
3 4
3 2
FIGURE 29.
6.4.5. Figure 28. The group is generated by
a d x y
(123456) (163254) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
In this gure, the board has 9 faces (3 regular hexagons and 6 equilateral triangles)
and the plates are: in (a), [153], [264], three times, and [123456], [163254], [143652];
in (b), [111], [222] [333], [444] [555], [666], [123456], [163254], [143652].
6.4.6. Figure 29 (a). The group is generated by
a d x y
(123456) (163254) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
In this gure we have a board with 24 triangular equilateral faces.
The plates are: [153], [264], three times; [124], [125], [132], [134], [136], [145], [146],
[162], [165], [235], [236], [243], [245], [256], [346], [354], [356], [465].
PLANE PUZZLES 33
6.4.7. Figure 29 (b). The group is generated by
a d x y
(123456) (163254) (14) (23) (56) (15) (24)
In this gure we have again a board with 24 triangular equilateral faces.
The plates are: [111], [222] [333], [444] [555], [666]; [124], [125], [132], [134], [136],
[145], [146], [162], [165], [235], [236], [243], [245], [256], [346], [354], [356], [465].
REFERENCES
[1] M. A. Armstrong, Groups and Symmetry. Berlin: Springer-Verlag 1988.
[2] M. Levine, Plane symmetry groups.
http://www.math.uchicago.edu/~may/VIGRE/VIGRE2008/REUPapers/Levine.pdf
[3] J. Rezende, Puzzles with polyhedra and permutation groups.
http://gfm.cii.fc.ul.pt/people/jrezende/jr_puzzles-poly-perm.pdf
[4] J. Rezende, On the Puzzles with polyhedra and numbers (2001).
http://gfm.cii.fc.ul.pt/people/jrezende/jr_poliedros-puzzles_en.pdf
[5] J. Rezende, Puzzles with polyhedra and numbers, (BGS Colloquium XI, April 2008), Actas, 103131.
Lisbon: LUDUS, 2009.
http://ludicum.org/bgs08/bgs08-proceedings.pdf
[6] D. Schattschneider, The Plane Symmetry Groups: Their Recognition and Notation, American Mathe-
matical Monthly, Volume 85, Issue 6, 439450.
http://www.math.fsu.edu/~quine/MB_10/schattschneider.pdf
[7] R. L, Schwarzenberger, Colour symmetry. Bull. Lond. Math. Soc. 16, 209240 (1984).
[8] R. Wilson, P. Walsh, J. Tripp, I. Suleiman, R. Parker, S. Norton, S. Nickerson, S. Linton, J. Bray,
and R. Abbott, ATLAS of Finite Group Representations Version 3.
http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/
GRUPO DE FSICA-MATEMTICA DA UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA, AV. PROF. GAMA PINTO 2,
1649-003 LISBOA, PORTUGAL, AND DEPARTAMENTO DE MATEMTICA, FACULDADE DE CINCIAS
DA UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA
E-mail address: [email protected]