UNIT 3

FIBER OPTICS
Introduction The development of lasers and optical fiber has brought a revolution in communication systems. Experiments have been carried out on the propagation of information carrying light waves through open atmosphere. A light wave acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying information more than that of radio waves and microwaves due to its larger band width and its high frequency. Radio waves-106 Hz Microwaves-1010 Hz Light waves-1015 Hz Electronic communications need radio waves and microwaves to carry information over copper wires and coaxial cables. The information carrying capacity of these wires is highly restricted in the view of their limited band width. The use of light waves enhances the number of signals that can be transmitted simultaneously. The efficiency of the communication system is affected by some atmospheric conditions like rain, fog and etc., So that information carrying light waves require a guiding medium for proper transmission. The guiding medium is optical fiber and the communication is known as optical fiber communication. Thus the fiber optics is a branch of physics which deals with the transmission and reception of light waves using optical fibers, which acts as a guiding medium. Optical fibers
150 m Cladding

50m

Core

Optical fiber is a wave guide, made of transport dielectric (Glass, Plastics, SiO 2) in cylindrical form through which light is transmitted by total internal reflection. When light enters one end of the fiber, it undergoes successive total internal reflections and travels down the layer of the fiber along a Zigzag path. It guides light waves to travel over long distances

without much loss of energy. Optical fiber consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or plastic called core of very high refractive index (n1).The core is surrounded by a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic of lower refractive index (n2) is called cladding. The cladding is covered by a jacket which protects the fiber from moisture and other influences of surrounding. The light wave enters at one end of the fiber and it

Cladding Core

Light ray

strikes the interface of the core and cladding only at large angles of incidence. The light beam under goes total internal reflection and passes through the length of the cable.Most of the light propagated along the length of the fiber and comes out from the other end of the fiber. Thus, optical fiber functions as a wave guide. Fiber obeys the laws of reflection and refraction of light waves. Principle The principle of optical fiber communication is total internal reflection. The phenomenon of total internal reflection takes place when it satisfies the following conditions. 1. Light travel from denser medium to rarer medium n1 > n2 n1=Refractive index of the core n2=Refractive index of the cladding 2. The angle of incidence on core should be greater than the critical angle. > c = Angle of incidence c = Critical angle Propagation phenomenon The light ray transverses from denser medium to rarer medium.

Refracted ray Cladding n2

Cladding

n2

900

Cladding

n2

Core n1
c c

Fig (1)

Core

n1

Fig (2)

Core

n1

Fig (3)

1. < c At this condition light ray gets refracted and passes through the cladding 2. = c The ray transverses along the interface as shown in figure 2. So that angle of reflection is 90 0.This angle is called as critical angle. 3. >c At this condition,the ray is totally reflected back (internally) in to the denser medium itself as shown in figure 3.From snells law, n1 Sin c = n2Sin 900 Sin c = n2 / n1 c= Sin-1 n2 / n1

Classification of optical fibers

Optical fibers are classified in to three major types based on a) Materials b) Modes of propagation c) Refractive index profile A general classification of optical fibers is shown in the figure is given below. I. Classification based on material Optical fibers are classified based on materials as a) Glass fibers b) Plastic fibers a) Glass fibers The optical fibers are made up of fusing mixtures of metal oxides and Silica glasses, it is known as glass fiber. The most common material used in glass fiber is silica. It has refractive index of 1.458 at 850 nm. 1. Core: SiO2 Cladding: P2O5- SiO2 2. Core: P2O5-SiO2 Cladding: SiO2 3. Core: SiO2 Cladding: B2O3 - SiO2 b) Plastic fibers The fibers are made up of plastics which can be handled without any care due to its toughness and durability it is called plastic fibre. They are cheap and flexible. It exhibit considerably greater attenuation than glass fibers. Plastic fibers may be handled without special care due to its toughness and durability. 1. Core : Polystyrene (1.60) Cladding : Methyl Mehta crylate(1.49) 2. Core : Poly Methyl Mehta crylate(1.49) Cladding : Co-Polymer(1.40) II Classification based on number of modes Mode can be visualized as the possible number of paths of light in an optical fiber .The light ray paths along which the waves are in phase with the fiber are known as modes is the one which describes the nature of propagation of electromagnetic waves in a wave guide. Based on the modes of propagation the fibers are classified in to two types, 1. Single mode fibres 2. Multi mode fibres 1. Single mode fibers It has a very small core diameter so that it can allow only one mode of propagation and hence called single mode fibers. Here the cladding diameter must be very large compared to the core diameter. Thus in the case of single mode fibers, the optical loss is very much reduced. The structure of the single mode fiber is given below. Cladding Structure Core diameter: 5-10 m Core (Diameter is Cladding diameter: around125 m small) Protective layer: 250-1000 m Numerical Aperture: 0.08-0.10 Band width: More than 50MHz km Application Because of high band width, they are used in long haul communication systems

Multi mode fibers Multi mode fibers are made by multi glass compounds such as Glass-Glass, Silica-Silica, doped silica and etc., Here the core diameter is very large compare to single mode fibers. So that it can allow many modes to propagate through it and hence called as multi mode fibers. The cladding diameter is also larger than the diameter if the single mode fibers. The structure of the multi mode is given below. Structure Cladding Core diameter: 5-350 m Cladding diameter: 120-500 m Protective layer: 250-1000 m Core Numerical Aperture: 0.12-0.5 (Diameter is large) Band width: Less than 50MHz /km Application Because of short band width, they are used in short haul communication systems III .Classification based of Refractive index profile The curve that denotes the variation of refractive index with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber is called the refractive index profile. Optical fibers may be classified in to two types based on refractive index profile as1. Step index fiber2. Graded index fiber

n1

n2

n2

1. Step index fiber: In step index fiber, the variation in refractive indices of air, cladding and core is done step by step. The step index fiber again classified by the use of mode of propagation as, a) Step index single mode b) Step index multi mode fiber a) Step index single mode fiber:
125-50 m

Radial distance

n
5-10m

r = Radial distance n=Refractive index

r
Due to small core diameter, only a single mode of light ray transmission is possible
Core

Cladding

It consists of thin core of higher refractive index value. The cladding refractive index is less when compared to the core. The refractive index changes abruptly at the core cladding boundary. Its refractive index profile takes the shape of the step. Manufacturing and handling of this type fiber is very expensive Characteristics: *Small core diameter *Numerical aperture is small *Because of single mode, the inter model dispersion is eliminated *High band width *Light is passed by the use of laser diodes Applications: *Sub marine cables *Long distance telephone cables b) Step index multi mode fiber
125-300 m

n
50-200m

r = Radial distance n=Refractive index

Cladding Core

Due to large core diameter, this makes it easier to support Propagation of large number of waves

It has a core material with the higher refractive index and a cladding material of lower refractive index than that of a core. There is a sudden increase in the value of refractive index at the cladding to core. Thus; its refractive index profile takes the shape of the step. Because of longer diameter of the core, Propagation of many modes with in the fiber is allowed. Less expensive and less circuitry .It suffers from inter nodal dispersion Characteristics: *Larger core diameter and low band width *High numerical aperture *Light can be launched by the use of LED Applications: *Used in data link (Data transformation)

2. Graded index multi mode fiber (GRIN)

125-300 m

n
50-200m

r = Radial distance n=Refractive index

Cladding

Core

The refractive index of the core is maximum at the axis of the fiber and it gradually decreases towards the cladding. If the diameter of the core is high, the inter model dispersion loss must be high. Because of the gradual decrease in the refractive index of the core, the inter model dispersion loss is minimized. It is a High quality fiber, Splicing could be difficult and most expensive. Characteristics: *It has an intermediate band width *Low attenuation *Small numerical aperture *Source of light is either laser or LED *Inter model dispersion can be minimized Application: *Intra-city trunks between central telephone offices *It is used in medium-distance applications Difference between single and multi mode fiber S:No Single mode fiber Multi mode fiber 1 In single mode fiber only one It allows large number of modes mode can be propagated . for light to pass through it. 2 The Single mode fiber has a Core diameter is high smaller core diameter 3 Dispersion is very less Dispersion is more 4 Fabrication is difficult as it is Fabrication is easy and low cost more costly

Fabrication of optical fiber

Crucible Crucible Technique This Crucible Crucible Technique is termed as double Crucible Technique. This method of fabricating optical fiber is shown in figure given below, Core rod Cladding rod This arrangement consists of two concentric platinum crucibles having thin holes at the bottom .These crucibles are mounted vertically in a furnace. The raw material for core is Platinum Electric placed in the inner crucible and for inner Furnace cladding is fed into the outer Crucible crucible. The raw material is two very high purity glass rods, with different refractive indices are Platinum outer prepared with conventional crucible techniques. For example this rod consists of soda bora silicate (Na2OB2O3-SiO2) with different Diameter control compositions for core and cladding. Fiber The furnace is maintained at a suitable temperature to take the raw material in to molten state. The furnace is maintained at the temperature between 8500C-11500C. The fibers are drawn through the thin orifices at the bottom of the crucibles. As both the materials are drawn simultaneously. A filament of core glass surrounded by a tube of cladding glass is obtained in this process. A rotating drum is used with this crucible arrangement. By the use of this, fabricated fibers are wounded. In this method, a fiber is continuously fabricated from the molten glass in a single fabrication step. Fibers of unlimited length can be manufactured.

Splicing
If we want to carry the informations for a longer distance, then we have to connect one fiber with the other. So that the losses can be minimized. Before connecting one fiber with the other fiber one must decide whether the joint is permanent or temporary. Based on this, we have two types of joints, i) Splicing - For permanent joints ii) Connecters - For Temporary joints Basic splicing Techniques include fusing the two fibers or bonding then together in an alignment structure.

Types of splices i) Fusion splicing ii) Mechanical splicing i) Fusion splicing Fusion splicing is nothing but welding of two glass fibers. In this type of splicing allows the alignment of fibers in all directions. The ends are prepared by the scribe and break method. The alignment of fiber edges achieved by applying pressure as per the exact requirement. The heat is applied to fiber by an electric arc. When the fiber ends are fused, they joined as a single fiber .In order to protect, we should cover the spliced area by plastic jacket. Electrode Fiber 1 1,2 = Positioning blocks ii) Mechanical splicing: Mechanical splicing has two different methods a) V-Groove splice b) Elastomeric splice c) Four rod splice a) V-Groove splice
Fiber 2

V-Grooved substrate Fiber 2

In the V-Groove splice technique, the prepared fiber ends are first fixed in a V-Shaped shaped groove in the substrate as shown in the figure. They are bonded together with an adhesive by means of cover plate. The V-shaped channel can be either grooved silicon, plastic, ceramic or metal substrate. The epoxy resin is used as fixtures for splicing.

b) Elastomeric splice This splice mechanism is basically a tube made of an elastic material. The central hole diameter is slightly smaller than that of fiber to be spliced. When fiber Elastic material is inserted, expands the hole diameter so that the elastic Fiber 2 Fiber 1 material exerts a symmetrical force on the fiber .This force allows an automatic alignment of the axes of the two fibers to be joined. A wide range of fiber can be inserted in to the Elastic material elastic tube, and by the use of index matching gel the fiber can be spliced. The epoxy resins are used as fixtures.

c) Four rod splice This setup consists of four glass rods as shown in figure. It is used to hold the fibers firmly. These rods curve outward slightly at the ends. So that fibers can be easily inserted in to it. These glass rods are holded by a steel sleeve .While Fiber1 Fiber2 connecting the fibers say fiber 1 and fiber 2, the fibers are inserted into the gap between the four rods are passed over the silicon pieces. Thus the fibers are connected. Adhesive or matching gel provides more grip to hold the fibers in to the splice.

Losses in optical fibers

Attenuation It known as fiber loss (or) signal loss. Attenuation of light signal as it does propagate along a fiber is an important consideration in the design of optical communication system, since it plays vital role in determine the maximum transmission distance between a transmitter and a receiver. Definition: Fiber loss is defined as the ratio of optical output (Pout) from a fiber of length L to the optical input power (Pin).This power ratio is function of wave length. = 10/L log (Pout / Pin) dB/km The symbol is commonly used to express attenuation in decibels per kilometer. Range of attenuation = 0.154 to 10 dB/m at wavelength of 1550 nm for single mode Plastic fiber. Basic attenuation mechanisms: 1. Absorption loss 2. Scattering loss 3. Radiative loss 1. Absorption Absorption is the process related to the fiber material it is caused by three different processes. a) Absorption by atomic defects b) Intrinsic absorption (by basic constituents of atoms) c) Extrinsic absorption (by Impurity atoms) a)Absorption by atomic defects Atomic defects are imperfections of the atomic structure of the fiber material such as missing molecule, high density clusters of atom groups or oxygen defects are in the glass structure. These absorption losses are negligible compared to other absorption effect. b) Intrinsic absorption Intrinsic absorption is associated with the basic fiber material. Even the fiber is free from impurities and all in homogeneities, then it is the tendency the fiber is absorb small amount of light energy .Thus it is known as intrinsic absorption.

c) Extrinsic absorption The important absorption factor in fibers is the presence of impurities in the fiber material. Impurity absorption is due to the presence of impurities like transition metal ions such as ion, chromium, and cobalt, copper and from OH (Water) ions. During the signal propagation when the photons interact with these impurities, the electron absorbs the photons and gets exited to higher energy level. Later these electrons give up their absorbed energy either as a heat energy or light energy. The re-emission of light energy is of no use since it will usually be in the different wavelength or at least in different phase with respect to the signal. Hence it is a loss. 2. Scattering losses The glass is used on the fabrication of fibers. By its nature, glass is a disordered structure in which there are microscopic in homogeneities and material density flucations in composition. Each of these gives rise to variations of refractive index of the glass. As a result a portion of light passing through the glass fiber gets scattered. This type of scattering in same as Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wave length (4).Hence, the light of smaller wave lengths are scattered very effectively. Because of Rayleigh scattering, the photon moves in random direction and in all probabilities leaves the fiber and thus becomes a loss. 3) Radiative loss: Radiative loss in fiber due to a bend of infinite radius of curvature. Fibers can be subjected to two types of bends 1. Macroscopic bends 2. Microscopic bends 1. Macroscopic bends

The diameter of the bend is larger compared to the fiber diameter. 2. Microscopic bends

The diameter of the bend is small. They are produced either by non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber (or) pressures created during the cabling of the fiber.

This micro bending losses can be minimized by providing compressible jacket over the fiber. When external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket will be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight. Dispersion Degradation of the optical signal is called as dispersion. Light pulse launched into a fiber decreases in amplitude as it travels along the fiber. The pulse received at the output is wider than the input pulse. It means that the pulse becomes distorted as it propagates through the fiber. Finally dispersion in the fibers leads to the degradation of the signal quality. 1. Material dispersion Light waves of different wave length travel at different speeds in a medium. The narrow pulses of light tend to broaden as they travel down the optical fiber. This is known as material dispersion. For an example a light source operating at 850 nm resulting dispersion about 3ns/km in a certain fiber. In the same fiber, dispersion can be reduced to 0.3 ns/km using light source operating at 1140nm. 2. Wave guide dispersion Wave guide dispersion arises from the guiding properties of the fiber .The effective refractive index for any mode varies with wave length, which causes pulse spreading just like the variation of refractive index. This is known as wave guide dispersion. 3. Inter modal dispersion Numerous numbers of light waves are propagating in a fiber, they travel with different net velocities with respect to the fiber axis. Parts of the wave arrive at the output before other part leading to a spread of the input pulse. This is known as inter model dispersion.

Fiber optic communication links

Optic fiber communication system uses light as a carrier. It is used to transfer a message from a source to a distinct receiver. The main parts of the fiber optic communication system are, 1. Information signal source The information signal source may be voice, music, digital data or analog voltage and video signals .Here it is analog information. 2. Transmitter The transmitter includes a modulator, switches and derives circuits. It transform electrical signal (Information signal) to be transmitted into an optical signal. 3. Light source The laser (or) LED may be used for light sources. The light source generates optical energy that serves as the information carrier. 4. Propagation medium Optical fiber is used as a propagation medium. 5. Photo detector It detects optical energy and converts it in to an optical signal.

6. Receiver It consists of a photo detector, amplifier and a signal restoring circuit. It converts an optical signal back in to an electrical signal.
Information signal
Voice

Optical transmitter
Optical fiber

Voice

Reviver information again in analog form

Photo detector

Block diagram for Fiber optic communication system Working A telephone user produces electrical signals in analog form. The analog signal is converted in to digital signal which is in the form of electrical pulses by the use of transducers. These electrical pulses are transformed into optical signal with the help of the optical transmitter. The electrical signal modulated and carried by light emitted from optical source (LED or LASER) now this optical signal is fed in to the fiber. At the receiving end, the optical signal traveling through the fiber is fed into a photo detector. The photo detector detects the optical signal and converts in to pulses of electrical current. This Digital signal is once again converted in to analog signal. This signal contains the source information, voice as transformed from the traveling end. Advantages 1. High band width 2. Ease of handling 3. Less cross talk 4. Noise Free transmission 5. Economical 6. Safety 7. Longer life span 8. Ease of maintenance

Detectors
For processing of light signal at the receiver end of the fiber link we require a device to convert the light signals to electrical waveforms. This task is done by photo detectors. There are many different types of photo detectors. Definition It is a device which converts light signal into electrical waveforms. The photo diodes are generally made from semiconductors such as Si (or) Ge or from compound semiconductors such as GaAs, InGaAs, etc., Photo detectors are of three types, 1. Photo emissive 2. Photo conductive 3. Photo voltaic 1. Photo Emissive photo detectors The emission of the electrons from a photo cathode by the incident photon is called photo emission. Ex: a) Photo tube b) Photo multiplier tubes . The size of this is normally very large and hence not suitable for use as fiber optic detectors.

hv

2. Photo conductive devices These types of devices have variation of resistance due to incident light on the photoconductive materials (Ex: Cds, Pbs, PbTe, Doped Ge or Si).They are not suitable for use in optic fiber optic communication purpose since they have low frequency response. 3. Photo voltaic devices Semi conductor junction photo diodes are called photo-voltaic devices. There are three photo voltaic devices are available they are a) PN junction photo detector: The figure explains the basic detection P N P N mechanism of a junction detector. The PN junction is reverse biased, the potential hv energy barrier between the P and N region Fig B Fig A increases. The free electrons and free holes - - - -- - - - - -cannot climb the barrier. So no current CB ----flows. Because there are no free charges in the junction, it is called the depletion region. +++++ ++ + + + Figure shows an incident photon +++++ VB + being absorbed in the junction after passing Fig B through the P layer. The absorbed energy produces the electrical energy across the circuit. From the spectral response we get the information. The spectral response refers to the curve, denotes the detector responsivity is a function of wave length. b)PIN Photo diode: The frequency response can be improved if the PN junction is separated by an intrinsic region. The introduction of the intrinsic region decreases the junction capacitance. This is called Positive Intrinsic Negative (PIN) photo diode. Absorption A highly doped layer of N-Type Zone hv semiconductor material is sanwidtched between the junction of two heavily + P n doped P-Type and N-Type materials.Light enters the device PType material and falls on the intrinsic material. Most of the photons enter the device are absorbed by this layer. Most of the photons are absorbed by the R Bt electrons in the valance band of the intrinsic material. The absorbed photons add sufficient energy to generate carriers in the depletion region and allow current to flow through the device. The electrical energy production is increased by introduction of intrinsic material.

c) Avalanche Photo diode

Depletion region

hv
P+
+ -

n+

R
Bt

Avalanche photo diode (ADP) is a PIPN structure. Here N and P regions are heavily doped semiconductors and hence have very low resistance. The incident photon on the junction generates a hole-electron pair in the depletion region. Because of large electric field produces many hole-electron pairs and avalanche multiplication process occurs. One electron may produce 100 electrons in avalanche photo diode. So that ADP is more sensitive.

Light sources
1. Light emitting diode Definition: A semiconductor P-n junction diode which converts electrical energy into light energy under forward bias condition is called as light emitting diode. Principle: Injection electro luminescence which is the basis of LED.When P-N junction diode is forward biased, minority carriers and injected across the junction and charge carrier recombination takes place at P-N junction. This means that electrons cross from N-side and recombine with the holes on the P-side. This is the basic principle of the light emitting diode. Construction: The wavelength of emitted light depends on the band gap of the material.LEDS are special P-N junction diodes that are designed for optimum electroluminescence. An N-type layer is grown on a substrate and a P-type layer is deposited on it by diffusion. Since charge carrier recombination takes place in the P-type layer. The metal contacts are made as shown in figure. The bottom of the substrate is coated with a metal (Gold) film for reflecting most of the light to the surface of the device. Emitted light Metal contact (+) Holes
Electrons

N Metal contact (-)

Working of LED:

When the diode is forward biased the device serves to inject electrons in to the N-type material and to inject holes into the P-type material. The result is an increase in the number of electrons in the N-type material and a corresponding increase in the number of holes in the P-type material. This situation is highly favorable for direct recombination process. Hence the electrons from N-side cross the junction and recombine with holes on the P-side resulting in the emission of light. Advantages: 1. They are easily interfaced to digital logic circuits 2. They have higher life time. 3. They can be operated over a wide range of temperatures. Disadvantages: 1. They have high power consumption. 2. Not suited for large area displays. Applications: 1. They are used as light sources in fiber Optic communication lines 2. Display devices.

2. Hetro junction Semi conductor laser

(Refer unit 1)
Fiber optic sensors
Optical sensor is a transducer which converts any form of light signal in to optical signal. Here the optical fibers are used as a guiding media and hence called wave guides. The basic block diagram is given below,

Optical source

Modulation zone

Optical detector

Transmitting fiber

Receiving fiber

The optical sources used here are LED/LASER. Optical signal produced by the optical source and it is transmitted through the fiber to the modulation zone. The optical signals are modulated based on any one of these properties viz, optical intensity, Phase, Polarization, wave length and spectral distribution. These signals are received by receiving fiber and are sent to the optical detector.

Classification of Fiber optic sensors

1. Displacement sensors To measure the displacement of an object, first light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and made to fall on the moving object. The reflected wave from the object is made to pass through the receiving fiber and this light is detected by the detector. The intensity of the received light depends on the displacement of the object. If received intensity is more, it indicates that the object is moving towards the sensor. But if the received intensity is less, it indicates that the object is moving away from the sensor.
Transmitting fiber Light source Detector Receiving fiber

Object

2. Temperature sensors Detecting phase changes rather than the intensity of the transmitted light corresponding to the change in parameter of the medium is the basic principle behind temperature sensors. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source. A beam splitter is kept at 45o inclination divides the beam emerging from the laser source into two beams(i) Main beam (ii) spitted Beam splitter beam, exactly at right angles to the each other. The main beam passes through the Light source lens L1 and is focused onto the reference fiber. The beam after passing through the L1 reference fiber then falls on the lens L2.The splitted beam passes through the lens and is focused on to the test fiber kept in the L2 Fiber 1 environment to be sensed. Light from the test fiber is made to fall on the lensL2.The two beams after passing through the fibers produce a pat difference due to the change Test fiber in parameters such as pressure, temperature and etc., The produced path difference causing the interference pattern. From this pattern we find the applied temperature.
Fiber 2

Fringes