Overview of Geophysical Methods

UNU Geothermal Training Programme
Overview of geophysical methods used in geophysical exploration

Ldvk S. Georgsson
United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme Orkustofnun Reykjavk ICELAND
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Kenya Short Course II - LSG 10.11.2007
The role of the geophysicist
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Measuring physical properties of earth

Geophysical exploration of geothermal resources deals with measurements on the physical properties of the earth. Emphasis on parameters sensitive to temperature and fluid content of the rocks. Aim is to delineate a geothermal resources, outline a production field, locate aquifers and site wells or estimate properties of the system. Ultimately the information is used for economic exploitation of the resource.
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Parameters

Reservoir Temperature Porosity Permeability Chemical content of fluid (salinity) (Pressure)
Measured Temperature (C) Electrical resistivity (m) Magnetisation (Vs/m2) Density (kg/m3) Seismic velocity (km/s) Seismic activity Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Streaming potential (V)
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Methods
Direct Thermal methods Electrical methods SP Structural / indirect Magnetics Gravity Seismic methods Seismicity
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Approach
Combine methods No method universally applicable Different for low-temperature and high-temperature Choose carefully Usually two or more give most reliable results Different approach in different countries Important to be ready to improvise or try new methods Integrated surveys Geophysical exploration does not stand alone, needs to be integrated with geology and geochemistry? Success of a survey Success is best measured by time, effort and money the survey has saved.
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Thermal methods
Direct measurements
of temperature and heat. No methods correlate better with the properties of the geothermal system.
Heat exchange
Conduction - atomic vibrations, important for transfer of heat in the earth's crust. Convection - transfers heat with motion of mass, natural circulation of hot water. Radiation - not in geothermal
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Thermal conduction Heat flow Convection

The simplified geothermal relationship is (conductive heat transfer only): Qcond-z = - k T/ z where k is the thermal conductivity (W/mC) and T/ z the thermal gradient Anomalous values, above 80-100 mW/m2, may indicate geothermal conditions in the subsurface Thermal conductivity of rocks ranges between 1 and 5 W/mC Convection Free, driven by density gradients Forced, driven by an external pressure gradient, like hydrostatic head Geothermal systems are of mixed type
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Application
Thermal distribution at the surface
Detailed mapping (GPS) Soil temperature measurement Airborne IR survey
Temperature in 20-100 m gradient wells

Used to delineate regional or local gradient anomalies
Heat flow surveys for regional assessment

Thermal conductivity measurements, gradient survey with possible terrain corrections
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sgardur thermal map
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Hvalfjrdur gradient map
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Electrical methods
Most important in geothermal exploration Electrical current is induced into the earth - signals that are generated are monitored at the surface - many varying methods DC methods, current injected into earth through electrodes at the surface - the signal measured is the electrical field generated at the surface. MT, current is induced by the time variations in earth's magnetic field - the signal measured is the electromagnetic field at the surface. TEM, current induced by a time varying magnetic field from a controlled source - the monitored signal is the decaying magnetic field at surface.
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Resistivity
Ohms law
= j E is electrical field strength (V/m) j is current density (A/m2) is electrical resistivity ( - material constant m) For a unit cube/bar, resistivity is defined as = V / I The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity Most rocks are resistive, conduction is through water in pores and at water-rock contact.
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Resistivity of water bearing rocks

Controlled by: Porosity and pore structure Intergranular sediments Joints-fissures - tension, cooling - igneous rocks Vugular dissolved material, gas - volcanics, limestone Alteration (water-rock interaction) Salinity of the water Temperature Amount of water - saturation - steam content Pressure Electric conduction is mainly through interconnected water-filled pores.
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Resistivity structure summarized

Resistivity Structure summarised OO
ALTERATION RESISTIVITY
Saline water TEMPERATURE
Fresh water
50-100C
Boiling curve
Pore fluid conduction

Amb. temp
230-250C
Mineral conduction
250-300C
Rel. unaltered Smectite- zeolite zone Mixed layer clay zone Chlorite zone Chlorite-epidote zone
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DC methods Sounding - Profiling

Sounding - centre fixed, electrode spacing varied used for mapping resistivity changes with depth Profiling - electrode distances fixed, whole array moved in profile line - for mapping lateral changes Many methods - different electrode arrays Schlumberger sounding, widely used Dipole sounding or profiling, various arrays Wenner, not much used today Head-on profiling, for locating fractures
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DC methods Schlumberger
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Reykjahverfi Resistivity at 500 m b.s.l.
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xarfjrdur Schlumberger resistivity cross-section
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Head-on profiling
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Electromagnetic methods
Natural-source electromagnetics - MT, AMT
Natural EM field used as an energy source. Low frequencies, 0.0001 - 10 Hz are used for deep crustal investigations, higher freq., 10 - 1000 Hz, for the upper crust.
Contro.-source electromag. TEM, LOTEM, CSMT

In TEM, constant magnetic field is built up by transmitting current I through a big loop (grounded dipole), and then I is abruptly turned off. A secondary field is induced, decaying with time. This decay rate is monitored by measuring the voltage induced in a receiver coil in the centre of the loop. Current distribution and decay rate recorded as a function of time depend on the resistivity structure.
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TEM configuration
Transmitted current
Measured voltage
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Hengill TEM resistivity map at 600 m b.s.l.
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Hengill TEM resistivity cross-section
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Menengai - MT cross-section
Menengai Crater
MT01 MT60 MT13 MT58 MT57
2000
MT55
MT53
MT59
MT51
-2000
-4000
-6000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
184 159 140 122 110 86 71 64 59 53 49 45 41 36 31 27 23 20 18 10 5 1
Elevation (m)
Horizontal distance (m)
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SP
DC-component of earths nat. electrical potentials
Significant anomalies associated w. geothermal activity
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Structural methods
Magnetic methods are widely used in geothermal exploration
often together with gravity and refraction in mapping geological structures - based on varying magnetisation in rocks
Gravity surveys are used in geothermal exploration to detect

geological formations with different densities, are as such a typical structural method
Active seismic methods detect sound velocity distribution and

anomalies in the earth and attenuation
Passive seismic methods detect seismic activity in the earth

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Magnetic method
Two kinds of magnetisation
Induced magnetisation Mi - same direction as the ambient earth's field; Permanent magnetisation Mp, in igneous rocks it often predominates; it depends upon their properties and history
Magnetic anomaly is a local disturbance caused by local change in

magnetisation; characterised by the direction and magnitude of the effective magnetisation and the shape, position, properties and history of the anomalous body
Measurements aim mainly at finding location and depth estimate of hidden

intrusives or tracing buried dykes and faults, or areas of reduced magnetization due to thermal activity Procedures - On ground, regular measurements in profiles or grid, In aeromagnetic surveys, e.g. 100 m a.g. and with 100 m between lines
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sgardur Magnetic map
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sgardur - 3D magnetic map
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Gravity & density Gravity measurements

Gravity measurements are based on density contrasts of rocks in the earth which lead to different gravitational force usually measured in mgal or 10-3 m2/s Gravity usually shown as Bouguer anomaly (after corrections): gB = gM + CFA - CB + CT - gN Density depends on rock composition & porosity, ~2-3 g/cm3 Important applications Basement depth variation (sedimentary area) Intrusive rocks (possible heat source) Fault or dyke systems etc. Alteration, cementation due to thermal effects Monitoring mass extraction with production
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xarfjrdur Bouguer gravity map
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Svartsengi Mean gravity change 1975-1999 in gal/year
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Elastic waves - different velocity in different rock types Refracted and reflected at discontinuities in formation Two types of elastic body waves: P-waves, wave movement in the travel direction S-waves material movement perpendicular to wave direction Seismic methods use this for info. on the geothermal system Two types of measurements Active methods not used routinely in geothermal expensive. Info. on density, porosity and texture; fluid-filled zones & temp. Include seismic refraction and seismic reflection Passive methods - seismic activity. Info. on active faults and permeable zones (shear wave splitting), S-wave shadow can indicate partial melt
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Elastic waves seismic methods
xarfjrdur Bouguer gravity & seismic cross-section
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[a]
9908000

9904000
KM8
KM7 KR2 CE1 KM6 NE3 NE2 KM2
DM2
Grid Northings [m]
WE2 KR6
EP4
DM4 DM3
DM5
9900000
Olkaria Event distribution
KM5
OS1
DM1
9896000
0
188000 192000 196000 200000
2000
4000M
208000
204000
[b]
0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 188000
OWF
OCF
NEF-DOMES
Depth [km]
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192000 196000 200000 204000
2000
4000 M
208000
Reykjanes Peninsula Seismic zone
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Integrated results Key to understanding - sgardur geothermal model based on soil temperature measurements, magnetic mapping and regional survey
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Integrated results Key to understanding Theistareykir aeromagnetic map & resistivity map
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Selected references
rnason, K., and Flvenz, .G., 1992: Evaluation of physical methods in geothermal exploration of rifted volcanic crust. Geoth. Res. Council, Transactions, 16, 207-214. rnason, K., Karlsdttir, R., Eysteinsson, H., Flvenz, .G., and Gudlaugsson, S.Th., 2000: The resistivity structure of high-temperature geothermal systems in Iceland. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000, KyushuTohoku, Japan, 923-928. Bjrnsson, A., and Hersir, G.P., 1991: Geophysical exploration for geothermal resources, principles and applications. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, report 15, 94 pp. Flvenz, .G., and Saemundsson, K., 1993: Heat flow and geothermal processes in Iceland. Tectonophysics, 225, 123-138. Keary, P., and Brooks, M., 1992: An introduction to geophysical exploration. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 254 pp.
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Thank you for the attention
Vellir geyser
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