Nuclear power in Japan

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The Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, a 3-unit BWR site typical of Japan's nuclear plants.

The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the worst nuclear accident in 25 years, displaced 50,000 households afterradiation leaked into the air, soil and sea.[1]Radiation checks led to bans of some shipments of vegetables and fish. [2]

Nuclear energy was a national strategic priority in Japan, but there has been concern about the ability of Japan's nuclear plants to withstand seismic activity. The Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant was completely shut down for 21 months following an earthquake in 2007. Following an earthquake, tsunami, and the failure of cooling systems at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant on March 11, 2011, a nuclear emergency was declared. This was the first time a nuclear emergency had been declared in Japan, and 140,000 residents within 20 km of the plant were evacuated. The total amount of radioactive material released is unclear, as the crisis is ongoing.[3] On 6 May 2011, Prime Minister Naoto Kan ordered the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant be shut down as an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or higher is likely to hit the area within the next 30 years.[4][5][6] Kan wanted to avoid a possible repeat of the Fukushima disaster. [7] On

9 May 2011, Chubu Electric decided to comply with the government request. Kan later called for a new energy policy with less reliance on nuclear power.[8] In the months up to July 2011, Japan ran 19 of 54 reactors in operation before the Fukushima disaster, raising "the risk of serious power shortages into 2012".[9][10] Problems in stabilizing the Fukushima I nuclear plant have hardened attitudes to nuclear power. As of June 2011, "more than 80 percent of Japanese now say they are anti-nuclear and distrust government information on radiation".[11] Post-Fukushima polls suggest that somewhere "between 41 and 54 percent of Japanese support scrapping, or reducing the numbers of, nuclear power plants".[12]
Contents

1 History 2 Seismicity

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2.1 Design standards 2.2 Geological surveys

3 Nuclear power plants 4 Nuclear accidents

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4.1 2011 accidents 4.2 Fukushima 1 accidents 4.3 Other accidents

5 Nuclear organizations in Japan

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5.1 Research organizations 5.2 Electric utilities running nuclear plants 5.3 Nuclear vendors and fuel cycle companies 5.4 Academic/Professional Organizations 5.5 Other proprietary organizations

6 Anti-nuclear activities

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6.1 Citizens' Nuclear Information Center 6.2 Stop Rokkasho 6.3 Kaminoseki 6.4 Hamaoka 6.5 Iwaishima 6.6 The Hidankyo

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6.7 Koide Hiroaki 6.8 Kenzaburo Oe

7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit]History

In 1954, Japan budgeted 230 million yen for nuclear energy, marking the beginning of the program. The Atomic Energy Basic Law limited activities to only peaceful purposes.[13] The first nuclear reactor in Japan was built by the UK's GEC. In the 1970s the first Light Water Reactors were built in cooperation with American companies. These plants were bought from U.S. vendors such as General Electric or Westinghouse with contractual work done by Japanese companies, who would later get a license themselves to build similar plant designs. Developments in nuclear power since that time has seen contributions from Japanese companies and research institutes on the same level as the other big users of nuclear power. Robert Jay Lifton has asked how Japan, after its experience with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, could "allow itself to draw so heavily on the same nuclear technology for the manufacture of about a third of its energy".[14] He says: There was resistance, much of it from Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors. But there was also a pattern of denial, cover-up and cozy bureaucratic collusion between industry and government, the last especially notorious in Japan but by no means limited to that country. Even then, pro-nuclear power forces could prevail only by managing to instill in the minds of Japanese people a dichotomy between the physics of nuclear power and that of nuclear weapons, an illusory distinction made not only in Japan but throughout the world. [14] Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the Three Mile Island accident (TMI) or the Chernobyl disaster as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s, 1990s, and up to the present day. However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and coverups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included the Tokaimura nuclear accident, the Mihama steam explosion, cover-ups after an accidents at the Monju reactor, among others, more recently the Chetsu offshore earthquake aftermath. While exact details may

be in dispute, it is clear that the safety culture in Japan's nuclear industry has come under greater scrutiny.[15] Canceled plant orders include:

The Maki NPP at Maki, Niigata (Kambara)Canceled in 2003 The Kushima NPP at Kushima, Miyazaki1997 The Ashihama NPP at Ashihama, Mie2000 The Hhoku NPP at Hhoku, Yamaguchi1994 The Suzu NPP at Suzu, Ishikawa2003

On April 18, 2007, Japan and the United States signed the United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan, aimed at putting in place a framework for the joint research and development of nuclear energy technology. [16] Each country will conduct research into fast reactor technology, fuel cycle technology, advanced computer simulation and modeling, small and medium reactors, safeguards and physical protection; and nuclear waste management.[17] In March 2008, Tokyo Electric Power Company announced that the start of operation of four new nuclear power reactors would be postponed by one year due to the incorporation of new earthquake resistance assessments. Units 7 and 8 of the Fukushima Daiichi plant would now enter commercial operation on October 2014 and October 2015, respectively. Unit 1 of the Higashidori plant is now scheduled to begin operating in December 2015, while unit 2 will start up in 2018 at the earliest.[18] As of September 2008, Japanese ministries and agencies were seeking an increase in the 2009 budget by 6%. The total requested comes to 491.4 billion Japanese yen (4.6 billion USD), and the focuses of research are development of the fast breeder reactor cycle, nextgeneration light water reactors, the Iter project, and seismic safety.[19]
[edit]Seismicity

Three of the reactors at Fukushima Daiichi overheated, causing meltdowns that eventually led to hydrogen explosions, which released large amounts of radioactivegases into the air.[20]

Japan has had a long history of earthquakes and seismic activity, and destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times a century. Due to this, concern has been expressed about the particular risks of constructing and operating nuclear power plants in Japan. Amory Lovins has said: "An earthquake-and-tsunami zone crowded with 127 million people is an un-wise place for 54 reactors".[21] To date, the most serious seismic-related accident has been the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, following the 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami. Professor Katsuhiko Ishibashi, one of the seismologists who have taken an active interest in the topic, coined the term genpatsu-shinsai (), from the Japanese words for "nuclear power" and "quake disaster" to express the potential worst-case catastrophe that could ensue.[22][23] Dr Kiyoo Mogi, former chair of the Japanese Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction,[24] has expressed similar concerns, stating in 2004 that the issue 'is a critical problem which can bring a catastrophe to Japan through a man-made disaster'.[25][26] Hidekatsu Yoshii, a member of the House of Representatives for Japanese Communist Party and a anti-nuclear campaigner, warned in March and October 2006 about the possibility of the severe damage that might be caused by a tsunami or earthquake.[27] During a parliamentary committee in May 2010 he made similar claims, warning that the cooling systems of a Japanese nuclear plant could be destroyed by a landslide or earthquake.[27] In responseYoshinobu Terasaka, head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, replied that the plants were so well designed that 'such a situation is practically impossible'.[27] Following damage at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant due to the 2007 Chetsu offshore earthquake, Kiyoo Mogi called for the immediate closure of the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant,[24][28] which was knowingly built close to the centre of the expected Tkai earthquake.[25] Katsuhiko Ishibashi previously claimed, in 2004, that Hamaoka was 'considered to be the most dangerous nuclear power plant in Japan'. [29] The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has also expressed concern. At a meeting of the G8's Nuclear Safety and Security Group, held in Tokyo in 2008, an IAEA expert warned that a strongearthquake with a magnitude above 7.0 could pose a 'serious problem' for Japan's nuclear power stations.[30]
[edit]Design

standards

Horizontal acceleration experienced and design values during the 2007 and 2011 major earthquake and earthquake-tsunami events.

Between 2005 and 2007, three Japanese nuclear power plants were shaken by earthquakes that far exceeded the maximum peak ground acceleration used in their design.[31] The tsunami that followed the 2011 Thoku earthquake, inundating the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, was more than twice the design height,[32] while the ground acceleration also slightly exceeded the design parameters.[33] In 2006 a Japanese government subcommittee was charged with revising the national guidelines on the earthquake-resistance of nuclear power plants, which had last been partially revised in 2001,[34] resulting in the publication of a new seismic guide the 2006Regulatory Guide for Reviewing Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Reactor Facilities.[34] The subcommittee membership included Professor Ishibashi, however his proposal that the standards for surveying active faults should be reviewed was rejected and he resigned at the final meeting, claiming that the review process was 'unscientific' [24][35] and the outcome rigged[35][36] to suit the interests of the Japan Electric Association, which had 11 of its committee members on the 19-member government subcommittee.[36]Ishibashi has subsequently claimed that, although the new guide brought in the most far-reaching changes since 1978, it was 'seriously flawed' because it underestimated the design basis earthquake ground motion.[22] He has also claimed that the enforcement system is 'a shambles'[31][22] and questioned the independence of the Nuclear Safety Commission after a senior Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency official appeared to rule out a new review of the NSC's seismic design guide in 2007.[22] Following publication of the new 2006 Seismic Guide, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, at the request of the Nuclear Safety Commission, required the design of all existing nuclear power plants to be re-evaluated.[37]
[edit]Geological

surveys

The standard of geological survey work in Japan is another area causing concern. In 2008 Taku Komatsubara, a geologist at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology alleged that that the presence of active faults was deliberately ignored when surveys of potential new power plant sites were undertaken, a view supported by a former topographer.[38] Takashi Nakata, a seismologist from the Hiroshima Institute of Technology has made similar allegations, and suggest that conflicts of interest between the Japanese nuclear industry and the regulators contribute to the problem. [36]
[edit]Nuclear

power plants

For a list of nuclear reactors in Japan , see List of nuclear reactors or List of power stations in Japan. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents Prime Minister Naoto Kan has announced that all 6 of the reactors at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant will be decommissioned.[39] The plant operators had previously stated that reactors 1 to 4 would never operate again.[40]

Fukushima II, I

Genkai Hamaoka

Ikata

KK NPP

Mihama, Tsuruga Monju

Onagawa Sendai Shika Shimane Takahama, i Tkai Tomari

Higashidri ma Namie-Odaka

Kaminoseki Nuclear power plants in Japan (view) Active plants Suspended operation plants Planned plants

[edit]Nuclear

accidents

In terms of consequences of radiation release, worker exposure, and core damage the Fukushima I nuclear accidents in 2011 were the worst experienced by the industry in addition to ranking among the worst civilian nuclear accidents. The Tokaimura reprocessing plant fire in 1999 has 2 worker deaths, one more exposed to radiation levels above legal limits and over 660 others received detectable radiation doses but below permissible levels. The Mihama Nuclear Power Plant experienced a steam explosion in one of the turbine buildings in 2004 where 4 workers were killed and seven others injured.
[edit]2011

accidents

A map showing epicenter of earthquake and position of nuclear power plants

Main article: 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents There have been many nuclear shutdowns, failures, and partial meltdowns which were triggered by the 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami.
Plant description Accident descriptions

Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant

Fukushima I nuclear accidents Timeline of the Fukushima nuclear accidents

Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant Fukushima II nuclear accidents Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant Tkai Nuclear Power Plant Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant [edit]Fukushima Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant incidents Tkai Nuclear Power Plant incidents Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant incidents

1 accidents

According to the Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan, "by April 27 approximately 55 percent of the fuel in reactor unit 1 had melted, along with 35 percent of the fuel in unit 2, and 30 percent of the fuel in unit 3; and overheated spent fuels in the

storage pools of units 3 and 4 probably were also damaged".[41] The accident has surpassed the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in seriousness, and is comparable to the 1986 Chernobyl disaster.[41] The Economist reports that the Fukushima disaster is "a bit like three Three Mile Islands in a row, with added damage in the spent-fuel stores",[42] and that there will be ongoing impacts: Years of clean-up will drag into decades. A permanent exclusion zone could end up stretching beyond the plants perimeter. Seriously exposed workers may be at increased risk of cancers for the rest of their lives...[42] On March 24, 2011, Japanese officials announced that "radioactive iodine-131 exceeding safety limits for infants had been detected at 18 water-purification plants in Tokyo and five other prefectures". Officials said also that the fallout from the Dai-ichi plant is "hindering search efforts for victims from the March 11 earthquake and tsunami".[43] Problems in stabilizing the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant have hardened attitudes to nuclear power. As of June 2011, "more than 80 percent of Japanese now say they are anti-nuclear and distrust government information on radiation".[11] The ongoing Fukushima crisis may spell the end of nuclear power in Japan, as "citizen opposition grows and local authorities refuse permission to restart reactors that have undergone safety checks". Local authorities are skeptical that sufficient safety measures have been taken and are reticent to give their permission now required by law to bring suspended nuclear reactors back online.[11]
[edit]Other

accidents

Main article: Nuclear accidents by country See also: Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents Other accidents of note include:[44]

1981: almost 300 workers were exposed to excessive levels of radiation after a fuel rod ruptured during repairs at the Tsuruga Nuclear Power Plant.[44] December 1995: the fast breeder Monju Nuclear Power Plant sodium leak.[44] State-run operator Donen was found to have concealed videotape footage that showed extensive damage to the reactor.[45]

March 1997: the Tokaimura nuclear reprocessing plant fire and explosion, northeast of Tokyo. 37 workers were exposed to low doses of radiation. Donen later acknowledged it had initially suppressed information about the fire.[44][45]

1999: a fuel loading system malfunctioned at a nuclear plant in the Fukui Prefecture and set off an uncontrolled nuclear reaction and explosion.[44] September 1999: the criticality accident at the Tokai fuel fabrication facility.[44] Hundreds of people were exposed to radiation, three workers received doses above legal limits of whom two later died.[45]

2000: Three Tokyo Electric Power Co. executives were forced to quit after the company in 1989 ordered an employee to edit out footage showing cracks in nuclear plant steam pipes in video being submitted to regulators.[45]

August 2002: a widespread falsification scandal starting in that led to the shut down of all Tokyo Electric Power Companys 17 nuclear reactors; Tokyo Electric's officials had falsified inspection records and attempted to hide cracks in reactor vessel shrouds in 13 of its 17 units.[46]

2002: Two workers were exposed to a small amount of radiation and suffered minor burns during a fire at Onagawa Nuclear Power Station in northern Japan.[45] 9 August 2004: four workers were killed after a steam explosion at the Mihama-3 station; the subsequent investigation revealed a serious lack in systematic inspection in Japanese nuclear plants, which led to a massive inspection program.[47]

2006: A small amount of radioactive steam was released at the Fukushima Dai-ichi plant and it escaped the compound.[45] 16 July 2007: a severe earthquake (measuring 6.8 on the Richter scale) hit the region where Tokyo Electric's Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant is located and radioactive water spilled into the Sea of Japan; as of March 2009, all of the reactors remain shut down for damage verification and repairs; the plant with seven units was the largest single nuclear power station in the world.[46]

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