Tick Management Handbook
Tick Management Handbook
Tick Management Handbook
An integrated guide for homeowners, pest control operators, and public health ofcials for the prevention of tick-associated disease Revised Edition
Prepared by: Kirby C. Stafford III, Ph.D. Vice Director, Chief Entomologist Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven
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Acknowledgements
Thanks are given to Dr. Joseph Piesman (CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado), Dr. Peter J. Krause (University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut), Carol Lemmon (CAES, retired), Bradford Robinson (Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, Pesticide Management Division), Judith Nelson, Director (retired), and the staff of the Westport Weston Health District (CT), Dr. Terry Schulze (NJ), Dr. Gary Maupin (CDC, retired), and Drs. Louis A. Magnarelli and John F. Anderson (CAES) for reviewing parts or all of the original handbook. Their comments and suggestions were sincerely appreciated. Thanks are also extended to Vickie Bomba-Lewandoski (CAES) for publication and printing assistance, Heidi Stuber (CAES) for her work in taking some of the tick photographs for the handbook, and Himanshu Bharadwaj for graphic assistance on the authors tick life cycle diagrams. Dr. Louis A. Magnarelli also provided invaluable editorial and review comments for this revised edition. Sincere thanks are given to the companies, government organizations, foundations, and individuals for permission to use their photographs or illustrations and federal government sources are also gratefully acknowledged. This handbook would be incomplete without their contributions.
Photo Credits
Many of the pictures and illustrations in the handbook are those of the author or staff at The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (CAES). All of the pictures are numbered and source credits provided below. Some sources also are otherwise noted in captions. Requests for use of photographs and illustrations belonging to the author and CAES may be directed to the author. Permission to use any other material must be obtained from the original source. Pzer Central Research (Groton Point Road, Groton, CT): 1, 7, 16, 17, 22, 27, 30, 31, 47, 49, 51, 53-54, 6568, 104, 105. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 15, 32, 38, 40, 41, 44, 55, 57-58, 60-63, maps of Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever cases. United States Department of Agriculture: cover (tick), tick morphology gure (adapted from Strickland et al. 1976), 75. American Lyme Disease Foundation (Somers, NY): 10, 11, 23, 97. Barnstable County Cooperative Extension (Massachusetts): 76. Vector-borne Disease Laboratory, Maine Medical Center Research Institute (Portland, ME): 37. United Industries (Spectrum Brands): 72. Ric Felton (Goshen, CT; www.semguy.com): 14. Jim Occi (Cranford, NJ): 12, 45, 101. Lynne Rhodes (Old Saybrook, CT): 48, 50, 52. Steven A. Levy, DMV (Durham, CT): 64. CAES: Jeffrey S. Ward, 6; Paul Gough, 74; Uma Ramakrishnan, 90-91; Jeffrey Fengler, 98; Heidi Stuber, 24-26, 28-29, 33-36, 39, 42-43, 46; Anuja Bharadwaj, 112, 113; Kirby Stafford, cover (landscape), 2-5, 8-9, 13, 18-21, 56, 58-59, 69-71, 73, 77-89, 92-96, 99-100, 102-103, 106-111, 114.
Disclaimer
Mention of a product or company is for informational purposes only and does not constitute an endorsement by The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ticks of the Northeastern United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick biology and behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How a tick feeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other ticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick-Associated Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lyme disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Southern tick-associated rash illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Human babesiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Human granulocytic anaplasmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Human monocytic ehrlichiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocky Mountain spotted fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick paralysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tularemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powassan encephalitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick-borne relapsing fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Colorado tick fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bartonella infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lyme disease in companion animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick bite prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tick removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Topically applied insect repellents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Human Lyme disease vaccine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integrated Tick Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landscape management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organic land care practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environmentally friendly lawns and backyard wildlife programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Management of host animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prevention of tick-associated disease in companion animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Area-wide Chemical Control of Ticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acaricides used for tick control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Homeowner application of acaricides for tick control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Commercial application of acaricides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An acaricide primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Additional sources of information about pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 6 7 8 9 13 15 16 20 21 26 27 28 29 30 32 32 33 33 33 33 34 35 35 37 39 43 44 46 50 50 52 62 63 64 65 66 68 69
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Preface
The original 2004 edition was published as part of a community-based program for the prevention of tick-borne illness supported through a cooperative agreement with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Of the 10,000 copies originally printed, very few remained after wide distribution through Connecticut, New England and elsewhere. The publication was also available online from The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Stations website (www.ct.gov/caes) and a link through the CDC. In 2006 alone, 117,000 copies were downloaded from the Experiment Stations website. Nevertheless, there continues to be demand for printed copies. This reprinting of a revised tick management handbook in 2007 was made possible with the support of the Connecticut Ofce of Policy and Management and the Connecticut General Assembly. The information in this publication depends not only on the research conducted by scientists at The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, but on that of many other fellow scientists and their published ndings as well as disease statistics compiled by the CDC and state health departments. The research and community outreach by The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station on ticks and tick-associated diseases would not have been possible without the collaboration and support of the Connecticut Department of Public Health and local health departments, particularly the Westport Weston Health District, the Torrington Area Health District, and the Ledge Light Health District. As this publication is intended as a general guide for the public, pest control operators, and public health ofcials, citations are not directly provided in the text. A selected bibliography of references is listed at the end for those who wish to pursue specic topics further or consult original publications. While the reference list is fairly comprehensive, the scientic literature related to ticks, Lyme disease, and other tick-associated diseases is extensive. There are many excellent papers that could not be listed. Some other sources of information, such as government internet sites, are provided in several specic sections of the handbook. Surveys have consistently shown that most residents in Lyme disease endemic areas consider the disease an important or very important issue that poses a high risk to members of their family. Children are particularly at risk. An estimated three quarters of all Lyme disease cases are acquired from ticks picked up during activities around the home. The withdrawal of the human Lyme disease vaccine (LYMErix) in 2002 has essentially brought the control of the disease back to managing tick bites and methods to suppress the local tick population or prevalence of pathogen infection in the ticks. A few precautions and the management of infected ticks in the residential or recreational landscape can substantially reduce the risk of Lyme disease and other tick-associated illnesses. Prompt recognition of infection and treatment can prevent more serious manifestations of disease. Therefore, education is important in preventing or mitigating disease, but it is only the rst step. Landscape and host management practices combined with the judicious use of an acaricide can provide excellent tick control with minimal risk or impact to the environment or other wildlife. This handbook provides the homeowner, pesticide applicator, health professional, and others some basic information necessary to manage ticks and prevent Lyme disease. Much still needs to be learned. Implementation of some of the concepts presented in this handbook can reduce ticks and the risk of Lyme disease. If this publication succeeds in helping families prevent tick-borne illness, then it will have met its goal. Kirby C. Stafford III
Bulletin No. 1010
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To these I must add the wood lice [ticks] with which the forests are so pestered that it is impossible to pass through a bush or to sit down, though the place be ever so pleasant, without having a whole swarm of them on your clothes.
Pehr Kalm, 18 May 1749
Introduction
Ticks have become an increasing problem to people and animals in the United States. Ticks are obligate blood-feeders that require an animal host to survive and reproduce. They feed on a wide variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, and even amphibians. While most ticks feed on specic host animals and are not considered to be of medical or veterinary importance, several ticks have a wide host range and attack people, pets, or livestock. Ticks can be a nuisance; their bites can cause irritation and, in the case of some ticks, paralysis. Severe infestations on animals can cause anemia, weight loss, and even death from the consumption of large quantities of blood. Ticks can also transmit many human and animal disease pathogens, which include viruses, bacteria, rickettsiae, and protozoa. The association between ticks and disease was rst demonstrated when Theobald Smith and Fred Kilbourne proved in 1893 that Texas cattle fever (cattle babesiosis) was caused by a protozoan transmitted by an infected tick. In the late 1800s, Rocky Mountain spotted fever was the rst human tick-borne disease identied in the United States, and for many years, was the major tick-associated disease in this country. Although rst recognized from the virulent cases in the Bitterroot Valley of Montana, it eventually became evident that most cases were distributed through the eastern United States. Lyme disease was rst recognized as a distinct clinical entity from a group of patients with arthritis in the area of Lyme, Connecticut, in 1975, although it became evident that this disease had an extensive history in Europe throughout the twentieth century. Today, Lyme disease is the leading arthropodassociated disease in the United States with nearly 24,000 human cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2005. This may represent only about 10% of physiciandiagnosed cases. Surveys have found that up to a quarter of residents in Lyme disease endemic areas have been diagnosed with the disease and that many residents perceive the disease as a serious or very serious problem. Without an effective intervention strategy, the steadily increasing trend in Lyme disease case reports is likely to continue. In the northeastern United States, the emergence of Lyme disease can be linked to changing landscape patterns. A Swedish naturalist named Pehr Kalm recorded in his journal of his travels in the United States in 1748-1750 that ticks were
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abundant and annoying. Over a century later in 1872, entomologist Asa Fitch noted that ticks were nearly or quite extinct along the route that Pehr Kalm had traveled. During this time, the land had been cleared for agriculture and white-tailed deer in many areas were drastically reduced or virtually eliminated due to habitat loss and unregulated hunting. With the reestablishment of forested habitat and animal hosts through the latter half of the twentieth century, ticks that may have survived on islands off the southern New England coast were able to increase and spread. The blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis, which is commonly known as the deer tick, and the principal vector for Lyme disease or Lyme borreliosis, was present on Naushon Island, Massachusetts, in the 1920s and 1930s. Some I. scapularis from Montauk Point, Long Island, New York, that were collected in the late 1940s and early 1950s were found infected with Lyme disease bacteria. The risk of human infection increased through the 1960s and 1970s until the recognition of the disease from the cluster of cases in Lyme, Connecticut, in 1975. Indeed, the disease was not new and cases had occurred in Europe through the 20th century under different names. The rising incidence of Lyme disease is due to a number of factors including: Increased tick abundance Overabundant deer population Increased recognition of the disease Establishment of more residences in wooded areas Increased potential for contact with ticks. With the steady increase in the incidence and geographic spread of Lyme disease, there is a need for homeowners, public health ofcials, and the pest control industry to learn how to manage or control the tick problem. The purpose of this handbook is to provide basic information on ticks and their biology, basic information on the diseases they carry, methods to reduce the risk of exposure to these parasites, and most importantly, information on how to reduce or manage tick populations, and therefore risk of disease, in the residential landscape.
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Ticks: the foulest and nastiest creatures that be. Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D.
Table 1. Important ticks of the northeastern states and some other major ticks of medical importance in the United States.
Tick
Hard Ticks Ixodes scapularis Ixodes pacicus Ixodes cookei Ixodes dentatus Amblyomma americanum Dermacentor variabilis Dermacentor andersoni Dermacentor albipictus Dermacentor occidentalis Rhipicephalus sanguineus Soft Ticks Ornithodoros species ticks Carios kelleyi
Common name
Blacklegged tick Western blacklegged tick A woodchuck tick A rabbit tick Lone star tick American dog tick Rocky Mountain wood tick Winter tick Pacic coast tick Brown dog tick Relapsing fever ticks A bat tick
General Distribution
Northeastern, southeastern & mid-western U.S. Pacic coast & parts Nevada, Arizona, Utah Eastern United States & northeast Canada Eastern United States Southeastern U.S., Texas to S. New England Eastern U.S. & parts of the west coast Rocky Mountain states south to NM & AZ Canada, United States south to Central America California, Oregon, northern Baja peninsula All U.S. and worldwide Western United States A bat tick
Scientic Names and a Few Terms The scientic name of ticks, like other organisms, is given in two parts: genus (capitalized, often abbreviated by the rst letter, e.g. I. scapularis) and species (not capitalized) sometimes followed by the name of the person who described the organism (given in parenthesis if the genus name is later changed). The name Linneaus is abbreviated L. Common names like deer tick can vary regionally and some organisms may have no common name. The common names used in this guide follow those ofcially recognized by scientic societies. Several terms are used to dene the cycles of animal, tick and pathogen.
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Pathogen: the microorganism (i.e., virus, bacteria, rickettsia, protozoa, fungus) that may cause disease. Parasite: An animal that lives in or on a host for at least part of their life and benets from the association at the expense of the host (from the Greek, literally para - beside and sitos - food). Vector: An insect or other arthropod, like a tick, that carries and transmits a disease pathogen. Diseases associated with pathogens transmitted by a vector are called vectorborne diseases. Host: An animal infected by a pathogen or infested with a parasite. Reservoir: An animal host that is capable of maintaining a pathogen and serving as a source of infection. Zoonoses: A disease caused by a pathogen that is maintained in vertebrate animals that can be transmitted naturally to humans or domestic animals by a vector or through other means (e.g. saliva, feces). Endemic disease: A disease that is established and present more or less continuously in a community.
Tick Biology and Behavior Ticks, like many mite species, are obligate blood-feeders, requiring a host animal for food and development. Ticks have four stages in their life cycle: egg, the 6-legged larva (seed ticks), and 8-legged nymph and adult (male or female). Larvae and nymphs change to the next stage after digesting a blood meal by molting or shedding the cuticle. Most of the ticks mentioned in this handbook have a 3-host life cycle, whereas each of the three active stages feed on a different individual host animal, taking a single blood meal. Larvae feed to repletion on one animal, drop to the ground and molt to a nymph. The nymphs must nd and attach to another animal, engorge, drop to ground and molt to an adult. The adult tick feeds on a third animal. A replete or engorged (blood lled) female tick will produce a single large batch of eggs and then die. Depending upon the species of tick, egg mass deposited can range roughly from 1,000 to 18,000 eggs.
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The larvae and nymphs generally feed on small to medium-sized hosts, while adult ticks feed on larger animals. Some ticks may have one-host (all stages staying and feeding on only one animal host before the female drops off) or other multi-host lifecycles. Depending upon the tick, the life cycle may be completed in 1, 2 or even 3 years, while a one-host tick may have more than one generation per year. Feeding for only a few days, the majority of the life of a tick is spent off the host in the environment either seeking a host, molting or simply passing through an inhospitable season (e.g., hot summers or cold winters). Soft ticks have a multi-host life cycle with multiple nymphal stages; each stage feeds briey, and adults take multiple small blood meals, laying small egg batches after each feeding. As nest and cave dwellers, often with transient hosts, some argasid ticks may survive many years without a host. However, most hard ticks do not successfully nd a host and perish within months or a year or two at best. Larval ticks will be clustered on the egg mass after hatching and when ready to feed, ascend blades of grass or similar vegetation to await a host. Ticks assume a questing position by clinging to the leaf litter or vegetation with the third and fourth pair of legs, and hold the rst pair outstretched. Due to differences in susceptibility to desiccation and host preference, immature ticks generally remain in the low vegetation, while adult ticks may seek a host at a higher level in the vegetation. Ticks detect their hosts through several host odors (including carbon dioxide, ammonia, lactic acid, and other specic body odors), body heat, moisture, vibrations, and for some, visual cues like a shadow. When approached by a potential host, a tick becomes excited - waving the front legs in order to grab the passing host. Ticks cannot y or jump; they must make direct contact with a host. Once on a host a tick may attach quickly or wander over the host for some time. Some ticks attach only or principally on certain areas like the ear or thin-skinned areas, while other species may attach almost anywhere on the host. The ticks feed slowly, remaining on the host for several days, until engorged with blood (see following section on tick feeding). Male ticks feed intermittently, take small blood meals, and may remain on a host for weeks. For most ticks mating occurs on the host, as the male tick also requires a blood meal. However, male Ixodes ticks do not need to feed prior to mating and mating may occur on or off the host.
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Tick Morphology The body of a tick consists of a false head (the capitulum) and a thorax and abdomen fused into a single oval, attened body. A larval tick has six legs, while nymphs and adults have eight legs present. The basal segment of the leg, the coxa, may have spurs that help in identication. An adult tick will have a genital aperture on the ventral surface, located roughly between the second pair of legs. The respiratory system is evident by spiracular plates located ventrolaterally behind the fourth pair of legs in the nymphs and adults. These plates may be oval, rounded, or comma-shaped. Hard ticks get their name from a tough dorsal shield or plate called the scutum present on all mobile stages of the tick. The scutum on the larva, nymph, and female tick covers the dorsal anterior third to half of the body. By contrast, the scutum on a male tick covers almost the entire dorsal surface and expansion during feeding is very limited. The scutum differs in shape and others characteristics (i.e., presence or absence of simple eyes) between tick genera. In some ticks, ornate or patterned markings may be present that can aid in identication. A distinct semicircular anal groove curves around the front of the anal opening in Ixodes ticks. In all other ticks, the anal groove is behind the anus or absent. Many ticks, but not Ixodes, have rectangular areas separated by grooves on the posterior margin of the tick body called festoons. Festoons, if present, may not be visible on fully engorged females. Argasid ticks are leathery, wrinkled and grayish in appearance. The capitulum of soft ticks is located on the underside of the body and cannot be seen from above.
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The capitulum in hard ticks is visible dorsally in all stages. The capitulum holds the mouthparts consisting of a base (basis capituli), two palps, paired chelicerae, and the median ventral hypostome, which is covered with denticles or recurved teeth. The shape of the basis capituli, length of the palps, number of denticles, and other characteristics of the mouthparts are used to help identify tick genera and species. While the adults of some common ticks can be easily identied with a little training because of distinctive markings or color, the identication of most ticks and the immature stages requires the services of a trained entomologist and the use of keys developed by tick taxonomists. These keys are designed to specically identify adults, nymphs or larvae.
Above right: Mouthparts of I. scapularis nymphs showing hypostome with rows of denticles (center) and two pair chelicerae (palps are partially visible).
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How a Tick Feeds The term tick bite may be misleading as ticks do not bite and depart or feed rapidly like a mosquito. Ticks attach and feed gradually over a period of several to many days. Once a tick has found a suitable place to feed, it grasps the skin, tilts the body at a 45-60 angle, and begins to cut into the skin with the paired chelicerae. The palps lay outwards on the skin surface. After the chelicerae and hypostome penetrate the skin, they become encased in cement secreted by the tick. The cement serves to hold the mouthparts in place while the tick feeds. Mouthparts on larval and nymphal ticks are small with less penetration and produce a smaller host reaction. Adult Ixodes and Amblyomma ticks have long mouthparts that can reach the subdermal layer of skin, produce a larger reaction, and make the tick harder to remove. Insertion of the mouthparts often takes around 10-30 minutes, but can take longer (1-2 hours). The reaction to a feeding tick may make the tick appear imbedded, but only the slender mouthparts actually penetrate the skin.
Scanning electron micrographs of the mouthparts of the blacklegged tick (top) and American dog tick (bottom). On the top picture the two palps are spread apart showing the upper two chelicerae and the lower hypostome bracketing the oral cavity. Bulletin No. 1010 7
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Physical and enzymatic rupture of tissue creates a lesion or cavity under the skin from which blood is imbibed. A variety of pharmacologically active compounds that aid the feeding process and possibly increase pathogen transmission are introduced in the ticks saliva (e.g., blood platelet aggregation inhibitors, anticoagulants, anti-inammatory and immunosuppressive agents, enzymes, and vasodilators to increase blood ow). Feeding is not continuous and most of the blood meal is taken up during the last 12-24 hours of feeding. The body weight of a feeding female tick can increase 80-120 times. Male ticks are intermittent feeders, take smaller amounts of blood, and do not change appreciably in size (male I. scapularis do not need to feed and are rarely found attached). Ticks may attach and feed anywhere on the body, but there are differences depending upon exposure and species of tick. The distribution of the blacklegged tick is relatively uniform. However, over a third of I. scapularis were from the legs and arms and another third were from the back up through the shoulders, neck and head. By contrast, most American dog ticks are removed from the head and neck region. Proportion of Ixodes scapularis (A) and Dermacentor variabilis (B) submitted to The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station recovered from various regions of the body.
A. Ixodes scapularis
B. Dermacentor variabilis
Tick Sampling
A tick drag or tick ag may be used to determine if ticks are present. To construct a tick drag, attach one edge of a square yard piece of white, heavy annel or corduroy material to a 3 foot long wooden dowel and tie a rope to each end of the wooden dowel. Curtain weights can be attached to the opposite end to help hold the cloth to the ground. Drag the cloth over the lawn and leaves and check for ticks. A tick ag, which is easier to use on vegetation, is similar to a tick drag, but is built just like a ag. Only a small proportion of the ticks present will be picked up this way, so several drags should be done before concluding there are few or no ticks. Tick drags will not work when the grass or vegetation is damp or wet. Precautions to avoid tick bites should be taken when sampling for ticks.
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The Lyme disease spirochete in northern states is maintained, in part, by the two-year life cycle of the tick. Eggs are laid by the female in May. Larvae hatch from those eggs in mid- to late July with August being the peak month for larval tick activity. After feeding, the larvae drop from the host and molt to nymphs, which will appear the following year in late spring. May, June and July are peak months for nymphal tick activity in the northeast. Therefore, the nymphs precede larvae seasonally and can infect a new generation of animal hosts. Larvae active later in the summer then become infected when feeding on reservoir host animals. The nymphal ticks will molt to adults after feeding and appear in the fall of the same year. Adult I. scapularis do not hibernate and may be active on warm winter days and the following spring. Adults of I. scapularis are more heavily infected with B. burgdorferi than the nymphs because the tick has had two opportunities to become infected, once as a larva and once as a nymph.
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Top row: Nymphal I. scapularis in the hand and close-up of an I. scapularis nymph (ngerlike projections of the tick mid-gut where the Lyme spirochetes are found are visible through the tick cuticle); Middle row: nymphal I. scapularis on nger and female and nymph I. scapularis on nger; Bottom row: paired I. scapularis nymph dorsal and ventral views.
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Below left: Dorsal and ventral view female I. scapularis; dorsal view male I. scapularis; right is male, female and engorged female with straight pin for size comparison.
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Basic Seasonal Guide to Major Ticks Affecting Humans in Connecticut (Also see seasonal graph for I. scapularis) Fall (October-November) Adult Ixodes scapularis active Winter (December-February) Adult Ixodes scapularis active during periods of warm weather (the ticks do not hibernate) Early Spring (March-April) Adult Ixodes scapularis (second peak of activity) Adult Dermacentor variabilis appear late April Adult Amblyomma americanum appear mid-April (lone star ticks still are not common in CT)
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Late Spring (May) Adult Ixodes scapularis are disappearing Nymphal Ixodes scapularis appear about mid-May Nymphal Amblyomma americanum appear mid-May (lone star ticks still are not common in CT) Early Summer (June-July) Nymphal Ixodes scapularis peak period activity Adult Dermacentor variabilis Nymphs Amblyomma americanum (lone star ticks still are not common in CT) Late Summer (August-September) Larval Ixodes scapularis peak A few nymphs of Ixodes scapularis & adults of Dermacentor variabilis may still be present
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American Dog Tick, D. variabilis; top row female; Dorsal view (left), Ventral View (right); lower row, male, Dorsal view (left), Ventral View (right)
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37 Comparison between the blacklegged tick and American dog tick (above). Top row left to right: nymph, male, female, and engorged female I. scapularis. Note engorged female is nearly as large as the engorged female American dog tick. Bottom row left to right: male, female, and engorged female D. variabilis. Note the white markings on the scutum of D. variabilis can help distinguish between the two engorged ticks.
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Lone star ticks are reddish brown in color and about 3 to 4 mm long. The palps of Amblyomma ticks are long. Female ticks have a conspicuous spot on the end of the scutum. Male ticks have faint white markings at the edge of the body. Nymphs are more circular in shape than I. scapularis nymphs and reddish in tint. Adults are active in the spring, while nymphs are active from April through the mid-summer. Larvae are active in the late summer and early fall. The lone star tick has a wide host range, feeding on virtually any mammal. All stages will feed on people. On wild hosts, feeding occurs principally in and on the ears and the head. The bite of this tick can be painful because of the long mouthparts and attached ticks can caused great irritation. All stages are active during the summer months. Female ticks can deposit 1,000 to 8,000 eggs with an average of around 3,000 eggs. Deer and other large to medium-sized animals are hosts for the adults and nymphs. Heavy infestations of this tick have been known to result in blindness and death of fawns of white-tailed deer. In some localities, this tick may also be known as the deer tick. Larvae and nymphs commonly feed on large and medium-sized and mammalian hosts such as raccoon, skunk, rabbit, opossum, and fox. Larval ticks also feed on many species of birds. Rodents do not appear to be important hosts for immature A. americanum.
Distribution of the tick species associated with human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), I. scapularis, I. pacicus; and human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis (HME), A. americanum (CDC).
Other Ticks
Ixodes cookei Packard
Ixodes cookei, sometimes referred to as the woodchuck tick, is found throughout the eastern half of the United States and Canada. It is primarily a parasite of medium-sized mammals such as woodchucks, opossums, raccoons, skunks, and foxes. In a New York study, it was the second most abundant tick on medium-sized mammals behind I. scapularis. All stages of I. cookei will feed on humans, though reports in southern New England and New York are uncommon. It appears to be a more frequent human parasite in northern New England and Ontario, Canada. After the American dog tick, I. cookei was the second most common tick removed from humans in Maine from 19891990 (I. scapularis was third). Lyme disease spirochetes have been detected in this tick, but based upon laboratory studies, it does not appear to be a good vector for B. burgdorferi. However, I. cookei is the principal vector for the Powassan virus, which can cause severe or fatal human encephalitis.
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Brown dog tick, R. sanquineus, female dorsal view (left) and ventral view (right). Note hexagonal shape of the basis capituli behind the mouthparts.
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Imported ticks
Travelers abroad have found exotic ticks on themselves after returning to the United States. Other ticks may be imported on pets and other animals. Some of these ticks are potential vectors of pathogens of domestic livestock and introduction and establishment of these ticks would have serious consequences for the livestock industry. For humans, there are a number of bacterial and rickettsial pathogens and encephalitis and hemorrhagic fever viruses carried by ticks in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. For example, cases of boutonneuse fever, also called Mediterranean spotted fever, have occurred in travelers returning to the U.S. Boutonneuse fever is distributed through Africa, countries around the Mediterranean, southern Europe, and India. Other spotted fever diseases are African tick-bite fever, Siberian tick typhus, and Queensland tick typhus. Several tick-borne encephalitis viruses, as well as Amblyomma hebraeum, one exotic species that Lyme disease spirochetes, are transmitted by Ixodes has been imported into the U.S. Found throughout ricinus ticks in the British Isles, central and Eastern southern Africa, it is a vector for Rickettsia Europe, and Russia and by Ixodes persulcatus from conori, the agent of boutonneuse fever. (J. Occi). central Europe, Russia, parts of China, and Japan. The following ticks have been documented from travelers returning to the northeast (destination, origin): Amblyomma cajennense (CT, Jamaica), A. hebraeum (CT, South Africa), A. variegatum (NY, Kenya), Rhipicephalus simus (CT, Kenya), Dermacentor auratus (ME, Nepal), and Hyaloma marginatum (CT, Greece). The Connecticut travelers returning from South Africa and Kenya were diagnosed with boutonneuse fever. Tick bite prevention measures should be taken by travelers to potentially tick infested areas abroad. Physicians should consider exotic tick-associated diseases in the differential diagnosis for a patient with a travel history outside the United States.
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During the 1960s and 1970s, my husband, four children, and I were periodically plagued with mysterious symptoms. In time, I came to suspect that these ailments were somehow linked.
Polly Murray, 1996 The Widening Circle: A Lyme Disease Pioneer Tells her Story
Tick-Associated Diseases
There are at least eleven recognized human diseases associated with ticks in the United States, seven or eight of which occur in the mid-Atlantic or northeastern states. Each of the diseases Spirochete Borrelia is highlighted in this section of the handbook. The greatest attention is given to Lyme disease, anaplasmosis (ehrlichiosis), and babesisois. Although each is a zoonotic vector-associated disease, not all are caused by an infectious agent or are exclusively tick transmitted. A toxin causes tick paralysis, tularemia can be transmitted through contaminated animal tissue or other materials, and babesisois and anplasmosis can be transmitted perinatally and through blood transfusion. Tick associations with other pathogens like Bartonella or Mycoplasma are not yet clearly dened. The causative agents transmitted to humans by the tick are maintained in a reservoir host. Ixodes ticks can be infected with more than one agent and co-transmission and infection can occur. Alternatively, multiple infections can occur from multiple tick bites. In a Connecticut and Minnesota study, 20% of Lyme disease patients also had serological evidence of exposure to another tick-borne agent. Table 2. Tick-associated diseases in the United States.
Disease Anaplasmosis, granulocytic Babesiosis Colorado tick fever Ehrlichiosis, monocytic Lyme disease Southern rash illness Powassan encephalitis Rocky Mountain spotted fever Tick-borne Relapsing Fever Tularemia Tick paralysis Pathogen or causal agent Anaplasma phagocytophilum Babesia microti CTF virus (Retoviridae) Ehrlichia chaffeensis Borrelia burgdorferi Borrelia lonestari (?) Powassan virus Rickettsia rickettsia Borrelia species Franciscella tularensis Toxin Tick Vector I. scapularis, I. pacicus I. scapularis, I. pacicus D. andersoni A. americanum I. scapularis, I. pacicus A. americanum I. cookei D. variabilis, D. andersoni Ornithodoros species ticks D. variabilis, A. americanum, others D. variabilis, D. andersoni
Lyme disease, monocytic ehrlichiosis and granulocytic anaplasmosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and tularemia are nationally reportable diseases. The amount and quality of surveillance data provided to state health departments and then to CDC is quite variable. Most surveillance is passive, dependent upon physician reporting. Most diseases are greatly underreported. Active surveillance or laboratory-based reporting may also exist in some states or areas. Case reports are based on a standardized surveillance case denition, which is not meant to be the basis for diagnosis. An increase in case reports can represent a true increase in disease or increased awareness of the disease and increased reporting. Conversely, a decrease may represent a change in reporting or a lack of reporting, rather than a true decrease in the incidence of disease. Nevertheless, surveillance case reports generally provide valuable long-term tracking of disease trends and may inuence the allocation of resources to monitor, study and prevent disease.
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burgdorferi
Lyme disease was rst recognized as a distinct clinical entity in a group of arthritis patients from the area of Lyme, Connecticut in 1975. In 1981, Dr. Willy Burgdorfer and co-workers discovered spirochetes in the mid-gut of some I. scapularis ticks from Long Island, New York and the bacterium was later named after him. A Lyme disease testing program by The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station and Connecticut Department of Public Health found the greatest prevalence in Connecticut in 1984 and 1985 was in towns east of the Connecticut The spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi (CDC) River. The distribution of the tick and the risk of disease have since expanded dramatically from early foci in Connecticut, New York and Cape Cod, MA. Nationally, human case reports have been running around 20,000 to 24,000 cases annually. There were 23,305 cases reported in 2005, 19,804 cases reported in 2004, 21,273 cases in reported in 2003 and 23,763 cases were reported in 2002. Twelve states accounted for 95% of reported cases. In order of incidence (per 100,000 population) in 2002 they were Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Delaware, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Maine, and Maryland. Lyme disease is underreported, and these numbers may represent only 10-20% of diagnosed cases. National statistics are available through the CDC website, www.cdc.gov and local statistics may be available through state public health departments or on their websites. Lyme disease affects all age groups, but the greatest incidence of disease has been in children under 14 and adults over 40 years of age. In most cases, Lyme disease symptom onset occurs during the summer months when the nymphal stage of the blacklegged tick is active.
Reported cases of Lyme disease in the United States, 1991-2005. Bulletin No. 1010
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Localized infection
The dormant spirochetes in the tick midgut multiply as blood feeding begins and migrate to the tick salivary glands. The spirochetes alter the expression of outer surface proteins from OspA in the midgut to OspC in the salivary glands, which is required for infection of a mammalian host. Lyme disease is characterized in the majority of patients (70-80%) by an expanding red rash at the site of the tick bite called primary erythema migrans (or EM). The rash serves as a clinical marker for early disease, although the presence of a rash may go unrecognized. A rash should be > 5 cm in diameter for a rm diagnosis. The CDC species that an EM rash must be 2.5 inches or greater in diameter for a surveillance case denition, but this denition should not be used as a diagnostic criterion! Erythema migrans may appear within 2 to 32 days (typically 7-14 days) after the tick has detached. The rash gradually expands over a period of days to a week or more at a rate of to inch per day and should not be confused with the transient hypersensitivity reaction (< 5 cm) to a tick bite that disappears within 24-48 hours. Rashes vary in size, shape, and appearance. They may occur anywhere on the body, although common sites are the thigh, groin, trunk, and axilla. Many rashes reach about 6 inches in diameter, but some can expand to 8-16 inches or more. An EM may be warm to the touch, but it is usually not painful and is rarely itchy. The rash may be uniformly red, have central clearing, or a bulls eye appearance. Swelling, blistering, scabbing occur occasionally (5% cases). The "bulls-eye" appearance is not common and is characteristic of older rashes. The EM will resolve spontaneously without treatment. Mild nonspecic systemic symptoms may be associated with the rash in about 80% of cases and include fatigue, muscle and joint pain, headache, fever, chills, and stiff neck. Flu-like symptoms may occasionally occur in the absence of an identied rash and be identied as summer u. Respiratory or gastrointestinal complaints may occur, but are infrequent.
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Previous page: Lyme rash without clearing (left) and bulls eye EM (right). This page: rash on the top left showing central clearing is the same EM illustrated on the previous page (bottom left). Lyme rash (EM) 5 days (bottom right) and 10 days (top right) on antibiotic treatment.
Above: Month of onset of Lyme disease symptoms over a 9-year period in Connecticut. The pattern is relatively consistent from year to year with the greatest number of cases occurring in the summer months when nymphs of the blacklegged tick are active (CT DPH).
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changing. Nonspecic viral-like symptoms generally mark early-disseminated infection and up to a fourth of patients may develop multiple secondary rashes. Days or weeks after the bite of an infected tick, migratory joint and muscle pain (also brief, intermittent arthritic attacks), debilitating malaise and fatigue, neurologic or cardiac problems may occur. The symptoms appear to be from an inammatory response to active infection. Multiple EM, headache, fatigue, and joint pain are the most common clinical manifestations noted in early-disseminated disease in children. Multiple components of the nervous system can be affected by B. burgdorferi. Early neurologic symptoms develop in 10-15% of untreated patients and these include cranial neuropathies, the most common manifestations (e.g., Bells palsy or paralysis of facial muscles), radiculoneuropathy (pain in affected nerves and nerve roots, can be sharp and jabbing or deep), and meningitis (fever, stiff neck, and severe headache). Children present less often with facial palsy and more commonly with fever, muscle and joint pain, and arthritis (primarily the knee). Lyme carditis (various degrees of intermittent atrioventricular heart block) and rhythm abnormalities may occur in 4-10% of untreated patients and require hospitalization. Ocular manifestations are uncommon and may include conjunctivitis and other inammatory eye problems. Infection produces an active immune response and antibodies to B. burgdorferi are detectable in the vast majority of patients during these manifestations. The immune response appears to eradicate most B. burgdorferi and symptoms may resolve even without antibiotic treatment. However, the organism may still survive in localized sites.
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Lyme disease can be treated with one of several types of antibiotics, including tetracyclines, most penicillins, and many second- and third-generation cephalosporins (e.g., doxycycline, amoxicillin,
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cefuroxime axetil, penicillin, ceftriaxone, or cefotaxime). Doxycycline is also effective against the agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis. The standard course of treatment generally is for 14-28 days, depending upon clinical manifestation and drug, though a physician may elect a longer course of treatment. Tetracyclines should be avoided for pregnant or lactating women and children >8 years of age. Patients treated in the early stages of the disease usually recover rapidly and completely with no subsequent complications. While a few patients (<10%) fail to respond to antibiotic therapy, retreatment is rarely needed. Oral antibiotics are effective in treating most cases of Lyme disease. Intravenous antibiotics are indicated for central nervous system involvement and for recurrent arthritis. Full recovery is likely for patients treated in the later stages of the disease. Development of other Lyme disease symptoms after a course of antibiotics may require re-treatment with the appropriate antibiotic. However, resolution of some symptoms may take weeks or months even after treatment due to the inammatory processes and damage associated with B. burgdorferi infection, which does not appear to be altered by an initial longer course of antibiotics. Post-Lyme syndrome is not well dened and most researchers feel there is insufcient convincing evidence for persistent infection by B. burgdorferi. Persistence of some symptoms and inability to directly determine if the bacteria are eliminated can make decisions on the length of treatment controversial. Courses of antibiotics may have health consequences due to the disruption of the normal intestinal bacteria, allergic reactions, increased sun sensitivity (with doxycycline), gall bladder problems (with ceftriaxone), and infection risks with catheters (extended intravenous antibiotics). Treatment failure may result from incorrect treatment, long delay before treatment, misdiagnosis (not Lyme disease), poor treatment compliance by the patient (did not nish the full course of antibiotics), and infection or co-infection with other tick-borne agents (i.e., Babesia or Anaplasma). Concurrent babesiosis or anaplasmosis should be considered in patients with a u-like illness, particularly fever, chills, and headache, that fails to respond to antibiotic therapy for Borrelia. Reinfection can occur from subsequent tick bites, especially in patients treated with antibiotics early in the illness. Antibody levels generally will decline after treatment, although they may persist for many months or even years in some patients after symptoms have resolved. The economic impact of Lyme disease can be considerable. A recent study found a Lyme disease patient (clinically dened early and late stage) cost $2,970 in direct medical costs plus $5,202 in indirect medical costs, nonmedical costs, and productivity losses. The estimated costs varied considerably depending, in part, on dealing with clinical early or late Lyme disease or a tick bite, but the data suggested that a small number of patients accounted for a large proportion of total costs. Direct medical costs of Lyme disease include physician visits, referrals for consultations, serologic testing, medical procedures, treatment, hospitalization or emergency room visit charges, and other costs. The gures also included other expenses related to Lyme disease like suspected disease or similar complaints and tick bite. While more information on the social costs of tick-associated disease is needed, tick bite prevention, tick management, and early diagnosis and treatment for infection are important in reducing the individual, social and economic impact of Lyme disease.
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Human Babesiosis
Human babesiosis is a malaria-like illness that is caused by a protozoan organism found in the red blood cells of many wild and domestic animals. Babesiosis is caused by Babesia microti in the northeast and upper mid-west United States. Babesia microti is a parasite of white-footed mice, as well as voles, shrews, and chipmunks. Other species or variants of Babesia are associated with human disease in other parts of the United States (i.e., California and Missouri), Europe, and Asia. Human babesiosis has been recognized since the early 1970s 55 in parts of Massachusetts (particularly Nantucket Babesia microti in red blood cells (CDC). Island), Block Island, Rhode Island, and the eastern parts of Long Island, New York. Most reported cases of babesiosis have been from New York, Massachuetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The rst Connecticut case of human babesiosis was reported from Stonington in 1988. The majority of cases continue to be reported from the southeastern portion of that state, although recent evidence indicates that the organism has become more widely distributed in inland areas. Most cases in Rhode Island are reported from the southern coastal regions. The number of conrmed cases has increased in New Jersey in recent years, which may represent increased risk or increased awareness. The number of reported cases is probably only a small fraction of clinically diagnosed cases with many other subclinical or mild cases going undetected and unreported. Nevertheless, the distribution and number of reported cases of babesiosis appears to be increasing. The white-footed mouse is the primary reservoir for B. microti, which is transmitted by I. scapularis. While data on the prevalence of infection in P. leucopus and particularly in I. scapularis are limited to a few studies, babesial parasites have been observed in up to 41% of mice and over 90% can carry antibodies to this agent in endemic areas. Infection in mice may be life long. Infections in ticks generally appear to be lower than that of B. burgdorferi, but in highly endemic areas, tick infection may be equally prevalent. Maintenance of the parasite seems to require moderate to high tick densities. Most human cases occur during the summer months when nymphs of the blacklegged tick are active. Babesia also can be transmitted through blood transfusions from asymptomatic donors. A mouse (or other reservoir competent rodent host, such as the meadow vole) and the blacklegged tick are required to complete different aspects of the Babesia lifecycle. Larval or nymphal ticks acquire the parasites when feeding on an infected mouse. In the tick gut, male and female gametes unite to form zygotes. Subsequently, a stage of the parasite reaches the salivary glands and becomes dormant until the tick feeds again. The parasite is passed to the next stage of the tick (transstadial transmission). Upon tick attachment, infectious sporozoites are formed and shed in the saliva of the tick. It may require as many as 54 hours of attachment before transmission occurs. Adult I. scapularis also can transmit the parasite. During transmission, the sporozoites enter red blood cells, reproduce asexually, and emerge to
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invade new cells, destroying the infected cells in the process. Introduction of B. microti into another mouse perpetuates the cycle. A female tick does not transmit this parasite to her eggs (transovarial transmission). The clinical presentation of human infection ranges from subclinical to mild u-like illness, to severe life-threatening disease. Infection often is accompanied by no symptoms or only mild u-like symptoms in healthy children and younger adults. The disease can be severe or fatal in the elderly, the immune suppressed (HIV infection or use of immunosuppressive drugs), and people without spleens. The greatest incidence of severe disease occurs in those older than 40 years of age. Symptoms of babesiosis include fever, fatigue, chills, sweats, headache, and muscle pain beginning 1-6 weeks after the tick bite. Gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain), respiratory symptoms (cough, shortness of breath), weight loss, dark urine, and splenomegaly also may occur. Complications such as acute respiratory failure, congestive heart failure and renal failure have been associated with severe anemia and high levels of infected cells (parasitemia). Up to 80% of red blood cells can be infected in a splenectomized patient, although 1-2% parasitemia is typical in those with intact spleens. Illness may last weeks to months and recovery can take many months. Co-infection with B. microti and B. burgdorferi can result in overlapping clinical symptoms, a more severe illness, and a longer recovery than either disease alone. A specic diagnosis of babesiosis can be made by detection of the parasites in Giemsa-stained blood smears and conrmed serologically by an indirect uorescent antibody (IFA) test. A complete blood count (CBC) is useful in detecting the hemolytic anemia and/or thrombocytopenia (decrease in blood platelets) suggestive of babesiosis. Liver enzymes may be elevated. The parasite can also be detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for the DNA of the Babesia agent. The drugs of choice in the treatment of babesiosis are oral clindamycin plus quinine sulfate or a combination of oral azithromycin and atovaquone. Adverse effects (i.e., tinnitus, vertigo, lower blood pressure, gastrointestinal upset) are commonly associated with clindamycin and quinine use and some patients cannot tolerate the treatment. The combination of azithromycin and atovaquone is better tolerated. At times, severely ill patients may receive intravenous clindamycin and quinine and benet from an exchange blood transfusion. Following drug treatment, the parasites usually are eliminated and there is no recurrence of disease. In immunocompromised individuals, however, parasitemia may persist for months and possibly years following recovery from illness and relapse may occur. Currently, individuals who have ever been diagnosed with babesisois are excluded from donating blood.
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a DNA analysis, the pathogen was reclassied as an Anaplasma species and HGE became HGA. Surveillance for HGA is sparse in most states; it was added to the national list of reportable diseases in 1998 (along with human monocyctic ehrlichiosis). HGA is less common than Lyme disease, but the number of reported cases has been increasing. In Connecticut, there have been 883 conrmed cases of HGA reported from 1995-2005, with cases distributed across all eight Connecticut counties. States with the majority of HGA cases include New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Minnesota and Missouri. The blacklegged tick is the principal vector for the HGA agent in the northeastern and upper midwestern United States. The western blacklegged tick is the vector in northern California. Most cases of HGA occur in May, June, or July with 80-90% of cases occurring between April and September. This corresponds to the activity of nymphal I. scapularis. The white-footed mouse appears to be the primary small mammal reservoir. Unlike Number of national reported cases of human B. burgdorferi, infection appears transient in most anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis (CDC). mice, with a few possibly more persistently infected individuals. However, any potential role other animals that have been found seropositive or PCR positive as reservoirs for A. phagocytophilum remains unclear. Co-infection with B. burgdorferi in ticks appears to be generally low (<10%), but relatively high (~25-33%) rates have been noted in a few localities. Transmission of both B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum from a single tick bite has been documented. Laboratory studies indicate transmission may occur within 24 hours of tick attachment and possibly within 8 hours. Clinical manifestations for HGA are non-specic and are not clinically distinctive. Illness may be characterized by fever, headache, muscle pain, nausea, vomiting, and malaise. Initial symptoms appear 5-21 days after the tick bite. Most cases are mild and self-limiting, resolving without treatment within 30 days, but cases may also be moderate or severe. Some cases require hospitalization and there have been a few fatalities, although the death rate is very low. The number of clinical cases increases with age. The highest rates have been observed for patients 50 years of age or older. Severe cases and fatalities have been reported across all age groups. Laboratory ndings may show a decrease in white blood cell (leukopenia) and blood platelet (thrombocytopenia) counts and an increase in liver enzyme levels. Chronic infections in humans have not been reported. A diagnosis of HGA should be considered for patients with a febrile illness in tick endemic areas. Co-infections by the agents of HGA and Lyme disease have been reported and may result in more severe disease. A diagnosis of HGA can be conrmed by observing the organism in white-blood cells, culturing the organism, amplication of the DNA of the organism by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or by a serological test. Serological tests may be negative in the early stages of acute disease and are more reliable in specimens obtained during the third week of illness. The drug of choice for the treatment of HGA is doxycycline (tetracycline may also be effective). Response to antibiotic therapy is rapid with clinical improvement in 24-72 hours. Rifampin has been used successfully when doxycycline cannot be used.
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transmitted by the Brown dog tick since 1935. HME was rst recognized in the United States in 1986 in a patient who was bitten by a lone star tick in Arkansas. The organism, closely related to E. canis, was isolated from another patient at the Fort Chaffee Army Base and named E. chaffeensis. This pathogen is associated with monocytes, another type of white blood cell. The DNA of E. chaffeensis has been detected in lone star ticks from Connecticut and Rhode Island, so cases of HME may occur in southern New England. Unlike HGA, white-tailed deer rather than mice are the likely reservoir for E. chaffeensis.
Morulae of E. chaffeensis in Clinically, HME resembles HGA with similar noncytoplasm of monocyte (CDC). specic viral-like symptoms appearing a few days to a couple of weeks after the tick bite and range from mild to severe. Subclinical cases may be relatively common. And like HGA, patients usually will develop leucopenia, thrombocytopenia and elevated liver enzymes. HME has been confused with other diseases including Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF). Before Ehrlichia was linked with the disease, cases may have been included in what was called Rocky Mountain spotless fever. A skin rash is uncommon in adults (< 10%), but is more common in children even though cases in children are less common (<10% of reported cases) than in adults. Diagnosis is based on the observation morulae in monocytes or macrophages in stained blood smears, PCR assays, or on serological tests. The antibiotic of choice is doxycycline, but rifampin is sometimes chosen when tetracyclines are contraindicated. Human infections by Ehrlichia ewingii, the agent of canine granulocytic ehrlichosis, also have been recently reported. Like the HGA agent, these bacteria occur in neutrophils. The ecology is probably similar to that of E. chaffeeensis as the lone star tick appears to be the vector and white-tailed deer appear to be the reservoir animal.
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RMSF is most often reported from Cape Cod and the surrounding islands. The mid-Atlantic States accounted for < 7 % of the U.S. total. Few ticks are infected. Scientists at The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station found that less than 1% of 3,000 American dog ticks examined in Connecticut, some of which were collected in the backyards of patients, were infected. Some spotted fever group rickettsiae are not infectious to humans. Children are particularly at risk for RMSF with two-thirds of the cases in patients under 15 years of age. Like Lyme disease, the highest rate in children is in the 5 to 9 year-old age group. Symptoms usually appear within 2 to 9 days after a tick bite. Early disease is difcult to diagnose. Patients experience a variety of symptoms including sudden fever (90%), severe headache (89%), muscle pain (83%), and rash (78%). The rash may include the palms (50%) and soles of the feet. The rash may not be present or faint when a physician initially examines a patient as the classic spotted rash of RMSF appears after about six days. RMSF incidence by county, 1997-2002 (CDC).
Below: Examples of spotted fever rash (CDC). Left to right: early (macular) rash on sole of foot, late (petechial) rash on palm and forearm, and rash on hand of a child.
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The majority of patients receive an alternate diagnosis on their rst visit for medical care, particularly early in the course of disease before distinct symptoms appear. Some patients (10-15%) never develop a rash. RMSF can be fatal in 20-30% of untreated cases and clinical progression may be rapid (median time to death about 8-10 days). Therefore, delays in diagnosis or treatment because of the absence of the rash or no knowledge of a tick bite could be dangerous. Prompt
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antibiotic treatment is important for suspected cases. The tetracyclines are the drug of choice with chloramphenicol an alternative in some cases. RMSF is made more severe with inadvertent use of sulfonamides. In recent years, about 1-4% of cases in the U.S. have been fatal. A clinical diagnosis may be conrmed by molecular tests or serologically by an indirect uorescent antibody (IFA) test, but antibodies may not yet be present when a physician sees a patient early in the illness (85% of patients lack diagnostic titers the rst week after illness and 50% lack diagnostic titers 7-9 days after onset of illness).
Tick Paralysis
A toxin produced by certain Dermacentor ticks during feeding can cause a progressive, ascending paralysis, which is reversed upon removal of the tick. Recovery is usually complete. Paralysis begins in the extremities of the body with a loss of coordination and inability to walk. It progresses to the face with corresponding slurred speech, and nally shallow, irregular breathing. Failure to remove the tick can result in death by respiratory failure. Cases appear more frequently in young girls with long hair where the tick is more easily overlooked. Most cases of tick paralysis are caused by the Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni) in northwestern states. The American dog tick also has been known to cause tick paralysis.
Tularemia
The bacterium, Francisella tularensis, that causes tularemia (Rabbit Fever or Deer Fly Fever) is transmitted by bites from deer ies and horse ies and from several species of ticks. The American dog tick, D. variabilis is one of the principal vectors for F. tularensis. Other ticks associated with tularemia include the lone star tick, A. americanum, Rocky Mountain wood tick, D. andersoni, and certain Ixodes ticks. Most cases occur during the summer (May-August), when arthropod transmission is common. The disease also may be contracted while handling infected dead animals (particularly while skinning rabbits), eating under cooked infected meat, or by an animal bite, drinking contaminated water, inhaling contaminated dust, or having contact with contaminated materials. Transmission does not occur between people. Natural reservoirs of infection include rabbits, hares, voles, mice, muskrats, water rats, and squirrels. A recent study conducted in Connecticut showed that cats carried antibodies to the pathogen. Tularemia was removed from the list of reportable diseases after 1994, but was reinstated in January 2000 because of its potential as a bioterrorism agent. Tularemia occurs throughout the United States as well as 63 Europe, Russia, and parts of the Middle East, northern coast of Africa, Asia, China and Japan. There have been fewer than 200 cases reported each year during the rst half of the 1990s, and again in 2000-2001, and less than 100 in 2002. Most cases have been reported from the central states of Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. With the exception of outbreaks of pneumonic tularemia on Marthas Vineyard that appear related to gardening or mowing activities that may have stirred up contaminated dust, reports of this disease are not common in New England, although sporadic cases do occur. All persons are susceptible to tularemia. The clinical symptoms of tularemia depend upon the route of infection. With infection by a tick, an indolent ulcer often occurs at the site of the bite followed by swelling of the regional lymph nodes and usually a fever. Fever is the most commonly reported symptom. Diagnosis usually is made clinically and conrmed by an antibody test. Antimicrobials with demonstrable clinical activity against F. tularensis include the uorinated
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quinolones such as ciprooxacin as well as streptomycin and gentamicin. While tetracycline or chloramphenicol also may be used, they are less effective and relapses occur more frequently.
Powassan Encephalitis
Powassan virus, a Flavivirus, is the sole member of the tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) group present in North America. The disease is named after a town in Ontario, Canada where it was rst isolated and described from a fatal case of encephalitis in 1958. Documented cases of Powassan encephalitis (POW) are rare, but the disease may be more common than previously realized. While there were only 27 known cases in North America between 1958-1998 (mainly in Canada and New York state), four additional cases were identied in Maine and Vermont from 1999-2001 as a result of increased testing for West Nile virus. Surface antigens of these two viruses are similar, thus allowing cross-reactivity in antibody testing. The ages of these recent New England cases ranged from 25 to 70 years. Previously, the latest recognized symptomatic cases occurred in New York in 1978 and Massachusetts in 1994. POW presents as meningitis or meningoencephalitis progressing to encephalitis with fever, convulsions, headache, disorientation, lethargy, with partial coma and paralysis in some patients. The disease has a fatality rate of 10-15% and may result in severe long-term disability in the survivors. The principal tick vector appears to be Ixodes cookei with cases occurring from May through October. Patients generally have a history of tick bite, or a history of exposure to tick habitat or exposure to hosts such as squirrels, skunks, or woodchucks. The blacklegged tick is a competent vector of Powassan virus in the laboratory. A virus very closely related to and apparently a separate subtype of the Powassan virus has been isolated from I. scapularis, but the prevalence and public health signicance of this virus are unknown.
Bartonella Infection
The genus Bartonella includes at least 16 species of vector-associated, blood-borne bacteria that infect a wide variety of domestic and wild animals, including rodents. Several are known human pathogens. These cause cat scratch disease (B. henselae), trench fever (B. quintana), Oroya fever (B. bacilliformis), and endocarditis (B. elizabethae). For example, Bartonella henselae, the agent of cat scratch disease, is transmitted to cats by eas and generally to humans by bites or scratches from infected cats. Bartonella-specic DNA has been detected in I. scapularis and I. pacicus ticks, clearly ingested during feeding. A high percentage of I. ricinus ticks in Europe also have been reported to be infected with Bartonella henselae. A novel Bartonella species has been found with B. burgdorferi and B. microti in the white-footed mouse. At this time, there is no convincing evidence
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that Bartonella can be transmitted to humans by a tick bite. The ability of ticks to transmit these bacteria in the laboratory or eld still needs to be determined.
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Personal Protection
Tick Bite Prevention
Personal protection behaviors, including avoidance and reduction of time spent in tick-infested habitats, using protective clothing and tick repellents, checking the entire body for ticks, and promptly removing attached ticks before transmission of Borrelia spirochetes can occur, can be very effective in preventing Lyme disease. While surveys and the continuing incidence of disease suggest that few people practice these measures with sufcient regularity, studies suggest that tick checks are the most effective method for the prevention of tick associated disease. Preventive measures are often considered inconvenient and, in the summer, uncomfortable. Despite the efciency of tick repellents, particularly with DEET applied to skin and permethrin applied to clothing, they are under-utilized. Checking for ticks and prompt removal of attached ticks is probably the most important and effective method of preventing infection! Important points to consider in tick bite prevention and checking for ticks include:
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identied as a high-risk activity. Take notice of the proximity of woodland edge or mixed grassy and brushy areas from public and private recreational areas and playing elds. While ticks are unlikely to be encountered in open elds, children chasing balls off the eld or cutting through woods to school may be entering a high-risk tick area. Pets can bring ticks into the home, resulting in a tick bite without the person being outdoors. A veterinarian can suggest methods to protect your pets. Engorged blacklegged ticks dropping off a pet will not survive or lay eggs in the house, as the air is generally too dry.
Lyme disease incidence (per 100,000 population) by ten year age groups for Connecticut, 2006. The pattern has been consistent each year. The incidence of Lyme disease is highest in children and middle-aged adults, related to outdoor activity and exposure to ticks (CT DPH).
Prevention Wear light-colored clothing with long pants tucked into socks to make ticks easier to detect and keep them on the outside of the clothes. Unfortunately, surveys show the majority of individuals never tuck their pants into their socks when entering tick-infested areas. It is unclear just how effective this prevention measure is without the addition of a repellent. Larval and nymphal ticks may penetrate a coarse weave sock. Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals. DEET or permethrin-based mosquito and tick repellents may be used, which can substantially increase the level of protection (see section on repellents). This approach may be particularly useful when working in the yard, clearing leaves, and doing other landscaping activity with a high risk of tick exposure. A separate set of work or gardening clothes can be set aside for use with the permethrin-based clothing tick repellents. When hiking, keep to the center of trails to minimize contact with adjacent vegetation. Carefully inspect the entire body and remove any attached ticks (see below). Ticks may feed anywhere on the body. Tick bites are usually painless and, consequently, most people will be unaware that they have an attached tick without a careful check. Also, carefully inspect children and pets. A hypersensitivity reaction to a tick bite may aid detection in a few individuals, but most people will be unaware that a tick is attached and feeding.
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Unattached ticks brought in on clothing can potentially result in a later tick bite. Blacklegged ticks can survive for many days in the home depending upon the humidity. In the laboratory, nymphal I. scapularis can survive for over 6 months at 93-100% relative humidity (RH), but over half will die in less than 4 days at 65% RH. On returning home, remove, wash and dry the clothing. Many blacklegged ticks and lone star ticks can survive a warm or hot water wash, but they cannot withstand one hour in a hot dryer. It takes 36-48 hours or more for transmission of B. burgdorferi or B. microti to occur from an attached tick and not all ticks are infected. Therefore, a tick bite does not necessarily mean a person will get infected. Prompt removal of an attached tick will reduce the chance of infection. However, transmission of the agent of ehrlichiosis can occur within 24 hours. The probability of transmission of Lyme disease spirochetes increases the longer an infected tick is attached (0% at 24 hours, 12% at 48 hours, 79% at 72 hours, and 94% at 96 hours in one recent study). The estimated average time for attachment before detection and removal was 30 hours for nymphs and 10 hours for adult ticks, nymphal ticks were twice as likely as adult ticks to be partially engorged. Lyme disease may result from an unrecognized tick rather than the tick that was detected and removed, as the primary Lyme disease rash is sometimes found at a different location than the detected tick. It is not unusual to have more than one tick attached at one time. In some areas, tick-testing services for the presence of Lyme disease spirochetes may be available from a government or commercial laboratory. The detection of spirochetes in a tick does not necessarily indicate transmission and an estimate of risk is difcult without a measure or estimate of length of attachment.
Transmission
Tick Removal
To remove a tick, use thin-tipped tweezers or forceps to grasp the tick as close to the skin surface as possible. Pull the tick straight upward with steady even pressure. This should remove the tick with the mouthparts intact. Commercial tick removal devices have been shown to vary widely in their efcacy for removing nymphal blacklegged ticks: some worked in every attempt, some failed in every attempt, some were in between. Tick removal devices that have been shown to successfully remove I. scapularis nymphs attached for 48 hours in all attempts in a recent study include #4 forceps, Original Tick Kit (Tick Kit, Inc.), Pick-Tick (Encepur, Chiron), Pro-Tick Remedy (SCS, Ltd.), and the Nick Nipper (Josyln Designs, Inc.). The mouthparts of larval and nymphal ticks will seldom be left in the skin. With proper removal, they usually come out intact. Adult ticks are more difcult to remove intact because of the longer mouthparts. If the mouthparts break off, it will not change the chance of getting Lyme disease. Spirochetes in the
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mouthparts or cement plug, and therefore the feeding lesion, means the tick was removed too late and transmission has already occurred. Do not use other methods of tick removal (e.g. petroleum jelly to suffocate the tick, heat from matches to make the tick back out or gasoline or other chemicals); they are not effective and may potentially increase the risk of pathogen transmission. After removing the tick:
Disinfect the area with rubbing alcohol or another skin disinfectant; a topical antibiotic also may be applied. Save the tick for reference and, in some cases, testing (if available). A live tick can be placed in a crush proof container with a blade of grass to keep it alive (a sealable plastic bag also will work). A small plastic vial is best. Dead ticks are tested by DNA methods and should be held dry in a crush proof container. For longterm storage, ticks are held in 70-80% ethyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol will work). Avoid placing ticks in black lm containers or using cellophane tape to mount the tick to paper, a note card or a slide if it needs to be identied or tested. Ticks under cellophane tape are difcult to handle. If the tick is removed by a health professional, ask to keep the tick for future reference or testing. Note the site and date of the bite. Watch for signs and symptoms of Lyme disease or other tick-associated diseases for 30 days or consider prophylactic treatment if the tick is engorged or infection rates are high (see below). Watch for evidence of secondary infection.
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Localized tick bite reactions develop rapidly and can sometimes resemble a small Lyme disease rash, but these transient reactions generally disappear in 24-48 hours and do not continue to expand like a characteristic erythema migrans rash. Mouthparts left in the skin may cause irritation as the body attempts to absorb or reject the foreign tick tissue (analogous to a minute splinter that is difcult to remove) with a slight risk of secondary bacterial infection. A foreign body granuloma may persist for weeks, especially if the mouthparts remain. A physician should be consulted if there is evidence of infection.
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The infection status and degree of engorgement of the tick, and therefore the risk of infection, are generally not known. Routine testing of unengorged (at) ticks attached < 24-36 hours is not necessary. Not infrequently, ticks submitted for identication or testing turn out not to be a tick (i.e., a scab, beetle, spider , etc.) or a tick that is not a vector for Lyme disease (better training of physicians or clinic staff to recognize major tick species is important). There may be a risk of an adverse reaction to the antibiotic. The value of antibiotic prophylaxis for HGA or babesiosis is unknown. A single 200 mg dose of doxycycline within 72 hours for adults or children 8 years of age (4 mg/kg up to 200 mg) following a tick bite can prevent Lyme disease. A single dose is less likely to stain teeth in children or produce adverse reactions. For a partly or fully engorged blacklegged tick, the risk of infection may be high. It can equal the prevalence of infection in the tick, which may be > 30% for a nymphal tick and greater than 60% for an adult tick (though usually lower). Patient reports on the period of attachment usually underestimate actual time of attachment. If a tick is infected (determined by testing at a procient laboratory) and the tick is engorged, infection by Lyme disease spirochetes is highly likely and treatment may be seriously considered. However, results from tick testing may not be available in time for prophylactic treatment or Lyme disease symptoms may already be evident.
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DEET
The primary active ingredient in most insect/tick repellents today is DEET (N,N-diethyl-3methylbenzamide, also known as N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide). DEET is the most effective, broadspectrum repellent ever discovered, effective against mosquitoes, biting ies, chiggers, eas and ticks. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that over one-third of the U.S. population will use a DEET-based product. There are approximately 230 products containing DEET registered with the EPA (e.g., Cutter, Off, Repel, Muskol, Bens, Sawyer, and others). Products range in concentration from 5% to 100% DEET and are available as an aerosol can, pump spray bottle, stick, lotion, cream, or towelette for application to skin or clothing. For any repellent, all active ingredients and their concentrations are listed on the product label. DEET is effective for one to several hours and must be reapplied periodically. There are few rm guidelines on the concentration a consumer should use. The effectiveness of DEET on the skin is inuenced by the concentration of DEET, absorption through the skin, evaporation, sweating, air temperature, wind, abrasion of the treated surface by rubbing or washing and the arthropod for which protection is desired. Higher concentrations generally provide longer protection, but increasing the concentration does not proportionally increase protection time. A recent study comparing the efcacy of insect repellents against bites of the mosquito Aedes aegypti found that a 23.8% DEET formulation provided an average of 5 hours of complete protection, while 6.65% DEET provided slightly under 2 hours of protection. Several controlled-release or extended-release DEET formulations have been developed which decrease skin absorption and increase protection time. These products may provide longer protection similar to products with a higher concentration of DEET.
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Permethrin-based Repellents
Several products contain 0.5% permethrin (e.g., Duranon Tick Repellent, Repel Permanone, Cutter Outdoorsman Gear Guard, Sawyers Permethrin Tick Repellent, Sawyers Clothing Insect Repellent, 3M Clothing and Gear Insect Repellent, No Stinkin Ticks), which is for use only on clothing or other fabrics such as mosquito netting or tents. A synthetic pyrethroid insecticide rather than a traditional repellent, permethrin works primarily by killing ticks on contact with the clothes, although it has some repellency. It can provide high levels of protection against ticks (and chiggers and mosquitoes). Permethrin is available as an aerosol spray or pump, mainly in lawn and garden centers or sports and camping stores. Permethrin has a relatively low mammalian toxicity, is poorly absorbed through the skin and is quickly metabolized and excreted by the body, although the EPA does list it as a potential carcinogen. Permethrin can cause mild skin and eye irritation, but reactions appear uncommon. Important points in the safe use of a permethrin repellent include: Follow the directions and precautions given on the repellent label. Apply to CLOTHING ONLY. Do not apply to skin. Immediately wash with soap and water if you get material on the skin. Do not apply to clothing while it is being worn. Apply before you put the clothing on. Apply in a well-ventilated area outdoors protected from the wind. Lightly moisten the fabric, do not saturate. Allow drying for 2 hours (4 in humid conditions). Allow clothing to dry prior to before wearing. Do not treat the clothing more than once every two weeks. Launder treated clothing at least once before retreating. Permethrin can be used in conjunction with an insect repellent labeled for use on skin for additional protection.
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(S.C. Johnson and Sons, Inc.) since 1988. There is one brand currently available in the United States at two concentrations (5.75 and 7%) (Cutter Advanced) and others should become available. Picaridin is labeled for protection against biting ies, chiggers, eas, gnats, mosquitoes and no-seeums, but is not labeled for use against ticks. One study against nymphs of an African Amblyomma tick species found that 20% KBR2030 was much less effective than 20% DEET. Unlike DEET, this repellent has no adverse affect on plastics and synthetics.
Follow the directions and precautions given on the repellent label. Apply DEET sparingly to exposed skin, and spray on clothing when possible. Do not use DEET under clothing or over cuts, wounds, or irritated skin. Use the lowest concentration necessary for protection and estimated time of needed
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protection. Minimize the use of higher concentrations on the skin. Lower concentrations, such as 10% DEET, will provide approximately 2 hours of protection (but may be less effective against ticks), while a concentration of 24% will provide about 5 hours of protection. A concentration of DEET up to 30% for adults and children over 2 years of age is the maximum concentration currently recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). The AAP does not recommend the use of DEET on children under 2 months of age. Apply sparingly to small children. AAP precautions suggest DEET should not be used in a product that combines the repellent with a sunscreen as sunscreens are often reapplied periodically. DEET is not water-soluble and will last many hours. Reapplications of DEET may increase the possibility of a toxic reaction to DEET. Apply the product to a child yourself. Repellent on a childs hands can end up in the eyes or mouth. Wash the hands with soap and water after applying DEET. People with certain skin conditions should be cautious about the use of DEET. Wash off the repellent with soap and water when returning indoors. DEET generally wont harm cotton, wool or nylon. DEET can damage some synthetic fabrics (acetate, rayon and spandex), plastics (watch crystals and eyeglass frames), and car and furniture nishes. If you suspect a reaction to DEET (or any other repellent), stop using the product, wash the treated skin, and call a poison control center (CT 1-800-222-1222) or contact your physician.
Medical and safety information about the acive ingredients in an insect repellent is available from:
National Pesticide Information Center by telephone (1-800-858-7378) from 6:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Pacic Standard Time or 9:30 a.m. to 7:30 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, 7 days week, except holidays. Additional information is available at their website (http://npic.orst.edu/).
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Tick Distribution and Creating a Tick Safe Zone in the Residential Landscape
Tick abundance is related to landscape features of the suburban residential environment that provide a suitable environment for the tick and its animal hosts, particularly white-tailed deer and white-footed mice. While there is a lot of variation in tick numbers between homes, larger properties are more likely to harbor ticks because they are more likely to have woodlots. The blacklegged tick is found mainly in densely wooded areas (67% of total sampled) and ecotone (22%), which is unmaintained transitional edge habitat between woodlands and open areas. Fewer ticks are found in ornamental vegetation (9%) and lawn (2%). Within the lawn, most of the ticks (82%) are located within 3 yards of the lawn perimeter particularly along woodlands, stonewalls, or ornamental plantings. Tick abundance in manicured lawns is also inuenced by the amount of canopy vegetation and shade. Groundcover vegetation can harbor ticks. Woodland paths also may have a high number of ticks, especially adults, along the adjacent grass and bushes. The lawn perimeter, brushy areas and groundcover vegetation, and most importantly, the woods, form the high-risk tick zone. The idea for residential tick management is to create a tick managed area around your home that encompasses the portions of the yard that your family uses most frequently. This includes walkways, areas used for recreation, play, eating or entertainment, the mailbox, storage areas and gardens.
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Table 3. Tick management strategies for the control of Ixodes scapularis. Personal Protection Landscape Management Management of Host Abundance Host-targeted Acaricides Area Application Acaricides Biological & Natural Control Tick-bite prevention, tick checks, and tick removal. Vegetative modications to render the environment less suitable for tick survival and for tick hosts. Exclusion of hosts by fencing, host reduction, and host reduction by management of the host habitat. Treatment of white-footed mice, chipmunks or deer through passive topical application devices. Spraying chemical insecticides to control ticks Use of fungal pathogens and plant extracts as biopesticides to control ticks.
Some actions to consider in an integrated management approach include: Keep grass mowed. Remove leaf litter, brush and weeds at the edge of the lawn. Restrict the use of groundcover, such as pachysandra in areas frequented by family and roaming pets. Remove brush and leaves around stonewalls and wood piles. Discourage rodent activity. Cleanup and seal stonewalls and small openings around the home. Move rewood piles and bird feeders away from the house (see section on small mammals and birds). Manage pet activity, keep dogs and cats out of the woods to reduce ticks brought back into the home. Use plantings that do not attract deer or exclude deer through various types of fencing. Move childrens swing sets and sand boxes away from the woodland edge and place them on a wood chip or mulch type foundation. Trim tree branches and shrubs around the lawn edge to let in more sunlight. Adopt hardscape and xeriscape (dryer or less water demanding) landscaping techniques with gravel pathways and mulches. Create a 3-foot or wider wood chip, mulch, or gravel border between lawn and woods or stonewalls. Consider areas with decking, tile, gravel and border or container plantings in areas by the house or frequently traveled. Widen woodland trails. Consider a least-toxic pesticide application as a targeted barrier treatment.
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Landscape management
Residential landscapes are designed for a variety of aesthetic or environmental reasons and tickscape practices can be a part of the landscape in Lyme disease endemic areas. Landscape modications can create an environment unattractive to primary tick hosts and may decrease the abundance of ticks that are present in parts of the yard. Fewer ticks have been found on well-maintained lawns, except on areas adjacent to woodlands, stonewalls, or heavy groundcover and ornamental vegetation. Deer-browse resistant exotic-invasive understory vegetation is associated with greater tick abundance. This section provides some ideas on how to incorporate tick management into the landscape. Clearing leaf litter and woodchip barriers have been documented to help reduce ticks on the lawn. However, landscape practices to create a lower risk tick zone will not directly eliminate many ticks and you may need to consider integrating other tick control practices into the overall program. Landscape 76 work may also be expensive, not acceptable to some residents, and must be done by residents on their own property. In computer simulations of a hypothetical community of 10,000 individuals, a 90% habitat reduction on lawns, 80% habitat reduction in ecotone, and 10% reduction in forested areas by nearly half the residents resulted in the prevention of only 94 Lyme disease cases in comparison to 156 with the application of acaricides or 121-272 with the treatment or removal of deer. Landscape management alone may not reduce disease incidence, as the undetected bite of only one infected tick is required for transmission of B. burgdorferi. Woodland edge and leaf litter are high-risk areas for nymphal blacklegged ticks!
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In most cases, alterations will be made to an existing landscape, although landscape architects and designers should also incorporate tick safe landscaping concepts into major renovations or new
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construction. There are several basic interrelated concepts in modifying the landscape to create an area with fewer ticks and environmentally acceptable management practices.
Open up the land to direct solar exposure, and include that part of the landscape used or traveled frequently by family members to reduce tick and small mammal habitat and cover. Bright, sunny areas are less likely to harbor ticks. Isolate areas used by the family or public (i.e., lawns, play areas, recreational or ball elds) from tick habitat or tick hot spots (i.e., woods, dense vegetation, groundcover, stonewalls). Use hardscape and xeriscape landscaping (i.e., brick, paving, decking, gravel, container plantings, low water requirement plantings) in areas immediately around the house that are frequently used. In cases where environmentally acceptable alternatives to large tracts of open lawn or only small lawn areas are desired, consider buttery gardens, vegetable gardens, formal herb gardens, colonial style gardens, wildower meadows and hardscapes. See the section on Environmentally Friendly Lawns and Backyard Wildlife Programs. Elimination of woodland and all wildlife habitats is not necessary or environmentally desirable. Some evidence suggests a lack of biodiversity and a landscape that specically favors deer and mice increases tick abundance and transmission of B. burgdorferi. The key factor appears to be the presence and abundance of deer. Avoid invasive plant species and plantings that are inappropriate for where they will be growing. Several guides and listings of invasive plants and native alternatives are available. Some nurseries are helping to assess invasiveness and introducing alternative cultivars.
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adjacent to homes, prune trees, mow the lawn, remove leaf litter accumulations around the house and lawn perimeter, and cut grass, weeds, and brush along edges of the lawn, stonewalls, and driveways. Plants can be pruned to provide open space between the ground and base of the plant. Individual shade trees, with the exception of fruit trees like crab apple that are attractive to deer, and small ornamental stands in the open lawn will probably not contribute to the tick numbers unless surrounded by groundcover. A. Yard before landscape intervention. B. Yard after landscape intervention.
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Ticks also may be found in groundcover such as Pachysandra. Restrict the use of groundcovers to less frequently used areas of the yard. Clean up the vegetation around or even seal stonewalls near the house. The removal of leaf litter has been shown to reduce the number of I. scapularis nymphs on some properties. Mowing and removing cover vegetation around the house also will discourage rodent hosts. Leaf litter and other plant debris can be raked or blown out from under shrubs and bushes. Composting or removal by appropriate bagging is an acceptable method of disposing leaf litter. Leaves should not be simply moved to another part of the property. Some communities will compost collected leaves and provide the compost to residents for free or a nominal charge. Move swing sets and playground areas out or away from the woodland edge! Play activity can be a high-risk activity for tick exposure, and children have some of the highest rates of Lyme disease.
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The use of hardscapes, mulches, and xericape landscaping techniques can help reduce tick habitat and isolate parts of the yard from tick hot spots. Hardscapes refer to nonliving features of the landscape like patios, decks, and paths. Mulches are used to suppress weeds and help retain soil moisture, but also can help reduce tick movement. In the laboratory, landscape materials have been shown to deter tick movement and around homes, a three-foot wide or broader woodchip barrier may help reduce tick abundance on the lawn, although results vary widely from home to home and from year to year depending upon other factors (i.e. density of woods, amount of shade, initial tick densities). Mulches are often organic materials like bark chunks or shredded bark, but can also be small stones or gravel. Wood chip and tree bark, gravel, or similar landscaping materials between woods or stonewalls and lawn as a buffer or barrier can help reduce the number of ticks on the lawn and delineate the tick zone. Quality of the landscape material may also inuence results as wood chips from chipped trees, especially if it contains leaves, quickly degrade and may soon become no different than leaf litter. Properly maintained each year, the barrier may allow fewer ticks to migrate from the woodlands into the lawn. It also serves as a reminder that people who cross the barrier may be at higher risk of getting ticks. The application of a barrier or buffer will be easiest where there is a sharp delineation between the woods and lawn. A pesticide application can be focused on the landscape barrier or buffer zone to increase the effectiveness of the barrier. Move swing sets and sandboxes away from the woodland edges and place on a covering of smooth bark, mulch or other suitable material.
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Xeriscaping is the application of water conserving landscape practices. This approach reduces habitat cover; helps isolate frequently used areas, can provide an attractive focal area in the yard or garden and reduce maintenance and water, fertilizer, and chemical use. Many drought resistant plants are also deer resistant. Landscapes can incorporate formal or informal designs around play, eating, or pool areas. Landscape materials such as laid brick, wood decking, stone paving, raked gravel or pea gravel (set down slightly from bordering bricks, stone, or paved areas), and concrete (exposed aggregate can provide varying attractive colors and textures and edged with brick or tile) can be used to create a patio and paths. Gravel can be laid over a layer of crushed stone covered with black plastic to discourage weed growth. Some plantings can be in raised beds or containers.
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What kind of organic landscape, alternative habitat, or wildlife program could be set up within or adjacent to the tick safe zone? While deer-browse resistant exotic-invasive understory vegetation is associated with greater tick abundance, little is known about relative tick densities in various alternative landscapes to turf like wildower meadows, gardens, and buttery gardens. It is not known what specic plants or plant groupings may be associated with more or fewer ticks or if it makes much difference. Some plants used in buttery gardens are more attractive to deer, while most herbs are highly resistant to deer browsing. If a property is large enough, a separate wildlife and tick-managed zone could be maintained. Fencing against deer will allow greater landscape exibility. Certain activities such as xeriscaping, mulching, removing invasive exotics, and planting native deer resistant plants can conserve resources and t into a tick reduction program. Use a grass variety that requires little additional water, pesticide, and fertilizer and allow the lawn to go dormant in the hot summer. The proper selection of plants may help support a diversity of butteries and other insects, bats, hummingbirds, salamanders, toads, and turtles, but not encourage deer or key small mammals. Possible alternatives to increasing lawn area might include mulched or gravel paths, a meadow or prairie patch, vegetable, herb or buttery garden, or hard landscaping as previously discussed. Choosing plantings can get complicated when native versus non-native or invasive species, deer susceptible versus deer resistant plants, aesthetic, and wildlife values are considered. Reducing ticks in a naturalscape will require higher level of management of the landscape and visiting wildlife. Consider consulting a specialist on natural landscapes and ask them to incorporate tick management concepts into your design. The objective of a tick management program is to discourage activity of several key tick hosts and create a barrier between woodland habitat and areas the family uses most frequently.
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Deer Fencing: Fencing is the most effective method to control access by deer to a property. Fences can keep deer from large garden beds or small to moderate sized home lots. The exclusion of deer from areas of 15 to 18 acres with a slant high-tensile electric fence was shown to reduce the abundance of I. scapularis nymphs by as much as 84% and larval ticks by 100% approximately 70 yards or greater inside the fence as fencing would need to enclose an area large enough to exceed the range of smaller animal hosts. A deer fence does not inhibit small animal movement and tick movement. Fencing of smaller areas also may be benecial, but tick management practices within the enclosure and the use of an insecticide at the fence perimeter may also be needed. Barrier fencing can be used to protect individual trees, shrubs or other plantings from deer. There are many types of deer fences and selection will depend upon deer pressure, area to be protected, and site characteristics. The most common choice for a fence is a plastic or wire mesh vertical structure. An electric fence is another option. A number of companies specialize in providing deer fencing and can provide the fencing materials or install the fence. However, many communities have local restrictions or ordinances on the type and height of fencing allowed check with your local authorities. Non-electric fence: The fence may be vertical or three-dimensional. A vertical fence requires the least space and a wide variety of fence materials and designs are available. Increasingly, a black polypropylene plastic fence-like mesh or steel mesh is being used instead of a chain-link for vertical fences because of reduced cost, low maintenance, long life, and near invisibility, an attractive feature in the residential landscape. The plastic material comes in rolls of various lengths and 7.5 feet wide and can be fastened to existing trees or several different types of posts. White ags should be attached at around 4 feet to signal the presence of the fence. While deer can jump a vertical fence of eight feet from a standing position, they rarely do so and are more likely to try and push under fencing. Proper anchoring or staking of the fence along the ground is important. Single or multiple electric strands also can be placed along the top of a vertical wire or mesh fence. Another option is a slant deer fence set at an angle of 45 degrees for use in areas with moderate to high deer densities, but it requires more space (about 6 feet of horizontal space). Deer cannot clear both the height and width of the fence and often nd themselves under the top outer wire. Solid 5- to 6-foot fences are also effective. Access gates, driveway gates (can be remotely controlled in more expensive systems), or in ground driveway deer grates (similar to cattle guards) will be needed to completely enclose the area and still allow owner and vehicle access.
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Electric fence: An electric fence requires maintenance, proper grounding, and may not be appropriate in many residential settings. A vertical or slant seven-strand, high-tensile electric fence is very effective for larger areas where deer densities are high. Deer Repellents: The use of deer repellents may reduce damage to plants and help defer the animals elsewhere, but by itself will not impact tick abundance unless deer consistently avoid the property entirely. Repellent performance is highly variable depending upon the product (most are either odor or taste-based), rain, frequency of application, and the availability of other food sources for deer. Nevertheless, some repellents are fairly effective with low to moderate deer densities. Deer Resistant Plantings: Substituting less palatable landscape plants may discourage browsing around the home, reduce damage to ornamental plants and may help make the yard less attractive to deer, though deer will also readily graze on lawns. The use of deer resistant plantings may have no impact on ticks unless deer consistently avoid the property and the use of these plants specically as part of tick management has not been examined. It simply seems to make sense to make your yard and plantings less attractive to deer. No plant is completely browse resistant and susceptibility depends upon deer density, food availability, and food preferences, which can vary regionally. Plant selection will depend partly upon the type of terrain you have: a sunny, moist yard, a dry, sunny garden, a dry shady garden, or a wet, shady yard, proximity to streams or ponds and effect desired (e.g., fragrance, foliage color, seasonal color, showy borders, etc.). Use of native shrubs and trees is encouraged and the use of invasive plantings is discouraged. Non-native invasive plants, some of which are very resistant to deer browse damage, can crowd out natives. Examples include Japanese barberry, multiora rose, Asiatic bittersweet, and several nonnative honeysuckles. Many states prohibit or restrict the selling, movement or planting of certain invasive plants or noxious weeds. For example, Connecticut prohibits importing, selling, buying, cultivating, distributing or transplanting of 81 listed invasive plant species (some are aquatic). Massachusetts bans the importation and sale of more than 140 plants identied as either noxious and/or invasive. Lists of banned and invasive species and alternative plantings are usually available from state agencies, universities, or environmental groups in each state. A rating of deer browse damage to many plants was compiled at The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (CAES) from a survey of Connecticut gardeners. A comprehensive list of the survey results with plants ranging from very susceptible to highly resistant to browse damage is available in CAES Station Bulletin 968 (online at www.ct.gov/caes). Information is also available on deer resistant plantings and deer proong from a variety of books and handouts. Many nurseries and garden centers can provide a suggested list of deer resistant plantings. Groundcovers like pachysandra and myrtle, while browse resistant, have been found to harbor ticks and may not be the most appropriate choice near heavily used areas around the house, porch, or mailbox. In general, ornamental grasses and ferns are browse resistant and may be good choices in sunny and moist shady areas, respectively. A number of medicinal herb varieties, ornamental
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herbs, and buttery garden plants are resistant to deer browse. The most browse resistant plantings can be placed at the edges and entrances of the property and the most browse susceptible plants closer to the house or areas frequented by people and pets. Susceptible plants can be surrounded by less palatable species. Clean up fruits and other produce from under trees or crop plants. While eliminating cover like mixed tall grass and brush may help discourage deer from bedding near the home, deer will bed wherever they consider it safe even open lawn. In a study of tick egg-laying, female ticks from deer were found to survive in eld bedding areas and lay eggs from which larvae successfully hatched. However, larval survival in the eld was shorter than in the woods and they are less likely to be picked up by a rodent host.
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In Mumford Cove, a residential community in Groton, Connecticut, the deer population was reduced 92% from ~100/mi2 to ~12/mi2 and the number of Lyme disease cases was reported to have dropped from 30 to less than 5 within three years. Although part of this reduction was due to a regional decrease in tick activity and in reported Lyme disease cases during the same period, tick abundance was reduced and a regional increase in tick numbers and reported Lyme disease cases in 2005 was not reected in the Mumford Cove community (Kilpatrick & LaBonte 2003; Stafford, unpublished data). Deer were completely eliminated from Monhegan Island, Maine over a 28-month period resulting in the steady disappearance of I. scapularis from the island (Rand et. al. 2004). Computer simulations with a program called LYMESIM suggest that a 70% reduction in deer density and maintenance level of 19 deer per square mile (7.5/km2) would achieve ~40% reduction in infected nymphs within 4 years. The virtual elimination of deer would result in a 99% reduction in infected nymphs (Mount et. al. 1997).
While adult ticks also feed on opossums, raccoons, coyotes, and skunks, it doubtful that I. scapularis can be maintained in signicant numbers just from feeding on these medium-sized alternate animal hosts. They are less abundant than deer and, in the case of raccoons, ticks are frequently removed while grooming. Some ticks still may continue to be introduced into an area on migrating birds, even with the complete removal of deer. A few adult ticks have been recovered from deer-free islands. Interestingly, the number of adult ticks on remaining deer and the apparent adult tick host-questing abundance will increase for several years following deer reductions as questing adult ticks, many of which would have fed on deer, become available to other hosts. The prevalence of B. burgdorferi in the ticks will initially rise as a greater proportion of immature ticks feed on reservoir competent hosts before dropping in subsequent years. The time that is required for reductions in the questing tick population is due, in part, to the 2 year life cycle of the tick. Although deer and tick reductions have been successfully carried out on some islands, peninsulas or some other dened geographical tracts, it is not clear if a deer population can be reduced sufciently to achieve a satisfactory level of tick control in more densely populated areas on the mainland. Conversely, unregulated deer populations may potentially lead to an increasing tick population. Lethal management options for deer are effective, though controversial, while the use of anti-fertility agents remains experimental and labor intensive. A community that wishes to implement a deer management program, especially in densely populated urban and suburban areas must deal with hunting restrictions, real or perceived safety or liability concerns, and conicting attitudes on managing wildlife. Since most land in the northeast is privately held, homeowner views and hunter access are important to deer management. Any deer population control program would require an initial reduction phase to lower high densities of deer and a maintenance phase to keep the deer population at the desired targeted level. Deer capacity for reproduction is high and deer herds can potentially double in size in one year. Management would be an ongoing process.
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suggested that acaricide applied to white-tailed deer (assuming 90% of deer are treated and 90% tick mortality on these deer) would prevent more cases of human Lyme disease except perhaps for the best use scenario of a Lyme disease vaccine. Because white-tailed deer are the keystone species for adult blacklegged ticks and lone star ticks, the 4-Poster was evaluated on free-ranging deer in a multi-year (5 years treatment plus 2 additional years tick sampling) project in the northeastern United States for the control of both tick species at seven 2-mi2 sites in 5 states (MD, NJ, NY, CT, RI). Approximately one device was placed per 51 acres, although some minimally used 4-posters were redeployed near heavily used devices to increase host access. Treatments utilized a 2% oily formulation of amitraz and reduced blacklegged tick abundance by up to 81% and lone star ticks up to 99.5% in the treated communities in comparison with untreated areas after 3 or more years of use. Similarly, the application of 10% permethrin to a 600-acre fenced population of deer resulted in a 91-100% reduction of larval, nymphal, and adult questing blacklegged ticks at the Goddard Space Flight Center, MD. While usage of the devices by deer was generally high (> 90 to 100%), utilization of the devices by deer can be low or sporadic when alternative food sources were available such as heavy acorn mast. Maintenance of the feed and topical insecticide through the tick season is labor intensive. Nevertheless, according to computer simulations, this approach, in principal, could provide the greatest reduction in Lyme disease with the least direct community involvement (i.e. number of direct participating households) and may be an alternative to the application of area-wide acaricides and the maintenance of drastically reduced deer populations. The 4-Poster Deer Treatment Bait Station is licensed to the American Lyme Disease Foundation of Lyme, CT (www.aldf.com) and manufactured by C. R. Daniels, Inc. of Ellicott City, MD (www.crdaniels.com). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has registered an oily 10% permethrin formulation of ready to use tickicide (Y-TEX 4-Poster Tickicide, Y-TEX Corporation, Cody, WY) especially for application to deer via the 4-Poster Deer Treatment Stations to control I. scapularis and A. americanum. Permethrin is the chemical used as a tick repellent on clothing and as an acaricide in some louse and scabies mite treatment products for human use. According to the Tickicide label, the acaricide is not to be used less than 100 yards from any home, apartment, playground, or other place children might be present without adult supervision. States may impose more restrictive requirements than the federal label. State pesticide registrations have been obtained in 47 of the 48 contiguous states except for New York, which has strict regulations against feeding deer. Approval requirements or regulations for use by state wildlife ofcials vary from state to state and use of the device raises some concerns among some state wildlife agencies. Although no cases have been observed in New England and only a single isolated occurrence in New York, Chronic Wasting Disease (CDW) has been shown to be transmitted via blood and saliva of infected deer, primarily in Michigan and other north central states. The use of the 4-poster will probably be most practical as part of a neighborhood or community coordinated program to reduce ticks and the risk of Lyme disease, managed under state use regulations, and combined with some form of a deer management program.
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Rodents
While different rodent and bird species may predominate in certain years and locations, white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus, is generally the most abundant and efcient animal reservoir for the Lyme disease bacteria. They contribute more infected ticks than eastern chipmunks or meadow voles do. White-footed mice also are reservoirs for the causal agents of anaplasmosis and babesisois. Over 90% of white-footed mice will be infected with B. burgdorferi in many areas and up to half have been found to carry all three pathogens in some areas. In one study, a single mouse was estimated to infect as many ticks as 12 chipmunks or 221 voles. Meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus, which are most abundant in elds, pastures, orchards, harbor few I. scapularis. Although they harbor fewer ticks, short-tailed shrews, Blarina brevicauda, with their high reservoir potential, may contribute to the maintenance of both B. burgdorferi and B. microti in some areas, especially when mouse numbers are low. By contrast, squirrels have a lower Lyme disease reservoir potential. One study indicated that squirrels might reduce or dilute the number of infected ticks in the landscape. Although not quantied, this author has noticed mouse populations drop dramatically (based on trapping success) with resultant declines in the tick population at a sample site where a fox family or snakes have taken up residence in or near the stone walls. Mice have relatively small home ranges. Dense vegetation and ground cover plants like pachysandra adjacent to homes provide cover for rodents as they forage for food. Shaded stonewalls overgrown with grass and brush can harbor many mice and chipmunks.
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northern Maine. This mouse is difcult to distinguish from the deer mouse, P. maniculatus. White-footed mice have a home range of generally 0.1 to 0.5 acre, sometimes larger. This woodland and brushy area dwelling animal nests in stonewalls, tree cavities, abandoned bird or squirrel nests, under stumps, logs, and stacked rewood. Mice may readily enter and nest in buildings, especially during the winter months and may line the nest with fur, feathers or shredded cloth. These nocturnal animals are omnivorous and feed on acorns, seeds (including newly planted gardens), fruits, insects, snails, tender young plants, and carrion. Mouse densities usually are around 1-10 per acre but can be higher (15 per acre) and may go relatively unnoticed until they enter homes that are not rodent proof. Breeding spring through fall, a female mouse typically has 3-4 young after a gestation period of 22-25 days. The mice reach sexual maturity in 6-7 weeks. There are no ticks on the mice during the winter and, inside buildings, they do not pose a risk for the transmission of Lyme disease. Folded hardware cloth (1/4-inch mesh) may be used to exclude mice from buildings, owerbeds, and garden plots. Cleaning up small black droppings and urine-contaminated areas in conned areas can pose a risk for exposure to hantavirus.
Birds
Birds are frequent hosts for immature stages of the blacklegged tick. In a Connecticut woodland study, 26% of 5,297 individual birds were infested with ticks, 41.4% of 87 bird species were infested, and 94% of 4,065 specimens collected from the birds were I. scapularis. In a Maine study, a similar proportion of bird species were infested (39% of 64) with blacklegged ticks and immature I. scapularis were recovered from 86.9% of the 1,972 birds examined. At times, the number of individual ticks on birds exceeded that found on white-footed mice. While some bird species can infect feeding ticks with B. burgdorferi (i.e., American robin, veery, grackle, common yellowthroat, Carolina wren, house wren), other species (i.e., gray catbird, woodthrush) do not. Due to variability in bird species composition, population, and reservoir
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competence, it is uncertain how many ticks birds actually contribute to an individual residential landscape. One study found that American robins, a reservoir competent bird, were likely contributors to the nymphal tick population found in some suburban residential landscapes. However, based on another study, most birds probably contribute few infected ticks and may actually dilute pathogen transmission, at least in comparison to mice. Bird feeders were not found to be a risk factor for Lyme disease in a recent study, possibly because birds that frequent feeders in the summer have less exposure to ticks on the ground. Adult ticks, which are active in the fall, winter and spring months, do not feed on birds. It is unknown what impact summer or winter fruit-bearing trees and shrubs for birds have on the prevalence of ticks as related to mouse and chipmunk activity. Seeds and fruits can also serve as a food source for these animals. Many berry plants, however, are important to fall migrants, and the berries are quickly consumed. Deer resistant bird favorites include bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica) and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus) and highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum produces summer berries); cedars and certain holly cultivars, however, are subject to heavy deer browsing. Common winterberry (Ilex verticillata) is also fairly susceptible to heavy deer browse damage. It requires both female and male plants to produce winterberries for birds. Native viburnums will suffer only occasional to minimal damage from deer and are good bird plants. Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) is considered invasive. Both nymphs and adults of the blacklegged tick have been reported to be around twice as abundant in areas dominated by deer-browse resistant exotic invasive plants, particularly Japanese barberry, than areas dominated by native shrubs. Lower small mammal species diversity, increased densities of white-footed mice, and therefore increased tick abundance and Lyme disease risk have been linked to habitat with higher density woody understory with more leaf litter and good soil moisture. The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station publication Alternative for Invasive Ornamental Plant Species is available on the CAES website (www.ct.gov/caes). Possible small animal and bird management strategies include: Keep potential mouse nesting sites in stonewalls and woodpiles near the residence free of brush, high grass, weeds, and leaf litter. Seal or rework stonewalls near or under the home to reduce harborage. Move rewood away from the house. Place the birdhouses and feeders away from the house. However, it is unknown if this will decrease risk of exposure to ticks. Clean up spilled feed (spilled bird feed can also attract mice). Set up bird feeders in fall and winter when natural foods are scarce (and the immature stages of I. scapularis are not present on birds). Seal foundations. For example, a garden shed on cement blocks can harbor raccoons, skunks, or woodchucks. This can be avoided through a proper foundation or use of hardware cloth buried at least two feet beneath the ground. A poorly sealed building or old garden shed can harbor mice. Select or replace exotic-invasive shrubs with native shrubs.
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A tted stonewall (right) is unlikely to harbor rodents and ticks, compared to the old stonewall with leaf litter and other vegetative cover (left)
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Applications can be made by the homeowner or by a commercial applicator. Spray once in the late spring or early summer for control of I. scapularis nymphs. For American dog ticks, an application can be made anytime after the adults emerge in the spring. A single application of most ornamental-turf insecticides will provide 85-90% or better control with some residual activity so multiple applications are rarely necessary. Some organic pesticide products are less effective, breakdown rapidly, and multiple applications may be required. Focus treatment on tick habitat. Spray areas where the lawn meets the woods, stonewalls, or ornamental plantings. Spray several yards into bordering woodlands, area of greatest tick density. Spray groundcover vegetation like Pachysandra near the home or walkways. Spray perimeter of areas of the yard often used by people (play areas, gardens, outside storage areas, walkways or paths to neighbors or mailboxes). Avoid herb, vegetable, and buttery gardens. In parks and school athletic elds, restrict any applications to high-risk tick habitat. Spraying of open elds and lawns is not necessary.
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Use a product specically labeled for controlling ticks. Some products are packaged as fertilizer-pesticide mixtures or mixtures of different pesticides (e.g., herbicide and insecticide) or target just garden insects.
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Site use restrictions. Many states, including Connecticut, regulate, restrict, or ban the use of pesticides in school buildings or on school grounds. In some cases, applications may be permitted under an approved integrated pest management (IPM) plan or for a health emergency. As these laws or regulations change, the state pesticide regulatory agency can be consulted to determine current requirements and restrictions.
Table 4. Acaricides with products labeled for the control of ticks in the residential landscape.
Chemical
Bifenthrin
Carbaryl Cyuthrin
Tempo Powerforce Deltramethrin Suspend DeltaGard G lambda-cyhalothrin Scimitar Demand Permethrin Astro Ortho products Bonide products Tengard SFR Others Pyrethrin Pyrenone Kicker Organic Solutions All Crop Commercial & Agricultural Multipurpose Insecticide
Natural pyrethrins with the synergist piperonyl butoxide (PBO) or insecticidal soap provide limited tick control. A combination of pyrethrin and PBO with either insecticidal soap or silicon dioxide (from diatomaceous earth) was found effective against ticks in one trial.
*Active ingredients and brand names frequently change as new products are registered and others discontinued. New formulations for homeowner use may become available. Mention of a product is for information purposes only and does not constitute an endorsement by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
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Danger means highly toxic, but may include severe skin or eye irritants Warning means moderately toxic or hazardous Caution means slightly toxic or hazardous No signal word means practically nontoxic
Not all brands of a particular pesticide chemical will be labeled for area tick control. Some products may be for application in or on building and their immediate surroundings. Check the label. Homeowner products come in three forms. Ready-to-use (RTU) is premixed and applied directly from the existing container. They are used for spot treatments, treatments of individual plants, or treatment of small areas. Some RTU products, for example, are used to control dog ticks indoors or around a dogs bedding. Ready-to-spray (RTS) products are used for treating larger areas. The container attaches directly to a garden hose for automatic mixing of the water with the concentrate. For example, a ready spray of 2.5% permethrin or 0.75% cyuthrin is available as a hose end sprayer for the control of I. scapularis and will cover about 5,000 square feet. Concentrates require mixing the product with water and using your own sprayer (pumpup style, hose-end style, or other type sprayer). Homeowner products may contain carbaryl, cyuthrin, or permethrin. Granules are designed for lawn applications with a hand held or broadcast spreader. The chemical is usually released with addition of water, so granules generally must be watered in. Granules for tick control on the lawn may contain bifenthrin or carbaryl.
Appropriate protective gear as directed on the label should be used when applying pesticides. Surveys have shown many individuals fail to take precautions while applying pesticides. Pesticides should be stored in a cool, dry, secure place. Keep them out of the reach of children. An EPA survey found 85% of households had at least one pesticide on the property and 47% with young children (under age 6) stored them within reach of the child. Keep a pesticide in its original container; do not store diluted spray. Either use up the product or properly depose of leftover product through a community household hazardous waste program. Pesticides should never be poured down the sink or toilet. Empty containers should be triple rinsed and placed in the trash. For more information on handling, applying, storing and deposing of pesticides, readers may refer to the EPAs Citizens Guide to Pest Control and Pesticide Safety (available at www.epa.gov).
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of pesticides or the application of restricted use materials in the area. There must be at least one commercial supervisory pesticide applicator certied in the type of application being made. In Connecticut, for example, a license for ornamental and turf application from the Department of Environmental Protection is required for applying pesticides for tick control in the landscape. Some tree service companies (arborists) also treat for ticks. Although arborists are tested and licensed by the state specically for arboriculture services, they must also possess an ornamental and turf license to spray for ticks. Consumers should employ individuals who are licensed to spray for ticks and may request to see the license or license number or check with the agency responsible for the state pesticide program to see if the rms are properly registered and licensed. A commercial company should provide a consumer the name of the pesticide product to be used, the active ingredient in the product, the reentry period (the time before family members can safely reenter the treated area), and the form of the pesticide and type of equipment to be used. In most states, companies are required to provide copies of the label and material safety data sheets (MSDS). With this information, additional information can be obtained over the Internet, from local Cooperative Extension ofces, state agencies and pesticide alternative groups. Tips on hiring an applicator are available from EPAs Citizens Guide to Pest Control and Pesticide Safety (available at www.epa.gov). Some general guidelines about a pesticide application that homeowners and commercial applicators should be aware of include: Many states (including all New England states, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania) have notication laws that require customers or adjacent residents receive written notice prior to an urban pesticide application. Usually this notication is provided only to those who request it through a registry. Pesticides should not be applied on windy days (greater than 10 mph) to avoid drift to nontarget areas. Before the spraying, the windows and doors of the home should be closed. Pesticides should be kept away from plants and play areas that you do not want treated. Most tick control pesticides are for ornamental and turf use only and are not labeled for use on plants meant for human consumption. Most of these chemicals are toxic to bees and should not be applied to areas with foraging bees. Pesticides should not be applied near (within 25 feet) wetlands (i.e. lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams, marshes, ponds, estuaries, and commercial sh farm ponds) or near (within 100 feet) coastal marshes or streams. Even organic pesticides are toxic to sh and aquatic invertebrates. Family members and pets, especially cats, should be kept off the treated area for 12-24 hours or other specied reentry interval following the treatment (generally until a spray thoroughly dries). Do not water the lawn after the application of a pesticide to avoid run off (there are a few exceptions with some granular products which must be watered in). Do not apply within 24 hours of rain to avoid run-off. Pesticides typically reach streams via run-off when rains hit a recently applied area or ush treated soil or other matter into the water body. Once the pesticide has dried, however, some materials bind tightly to the soil or vegetation and do not readily move or wash off. They will breakdown with exposure to sunlight and soil microbes. Avoid pesticide applications near a wellhead. The shaft of the well should be tightly sealed and the well water source should be isolated from surface water source. Most acaricides used for tick control are water insoluble and pose little risk to wells by leaching through the soil, but direct exposure should be avoided.
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Many states (including all New England states, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania) have laws that require signs to be posted after an urban treatment is made.
An Acaricide Primer
The purpose of this section is to serve as a reference for some basic, general material on the major classes of chemicals used in tick control. More detailed information is available from the EPA, the Cooperative Extension Service, state pesticide agencies, and independent groups, particularly over the Internet. Some sources of information are listed at the end of this section. Acaricides belong to a variety of chemical classes, which differ in their chemistry, mode of action, toxicology, and environmental impacts. They also contain inert ingredients, chemicals that carry or enhance the application or effectiveness of the active ingredient (i.e., the actual acaricide). A variety of pesticides are also used in products to control ectoparasites on pets. Some pet care products are available over the counter and others through a veterinarian. Organophosphates. There were two organophosphate insecticides commonly used for areawide tick control, chlorpyrifos (i.e., Dursban) and diazinon. The EPA cancelled the residential use and some agricultural uses of chlorpyrifos and cancelled the registration of diazinon for lawn, garden, and other residential outdoor use. Residential applications accounted for nearly 75% of the use of diazinon. Products with these chemicals are no longer used for tick control. Carbamates. Carbaryl (Sevin) is the carbamate used in the control of ticks. Carbaryl is a broad-spectrum compound used for a wide variety of pests on the lawn, on pets, and in the home. Carbaryl in animals is readily broken down and excreted. It does not appear to cause reproductive, birth, mutagenic, or carcinogenic effects under normal circumstances, but it is a suspected endocrine disrupter. Carbaryl is extremely toxic to bees and benecial insects, is moderately toxic to sh, but is relatively nontoxic to birds. Pyrethrins. Pyrethrum is a natural insecticide extracted from certain chrysanthemum plants. Natural pyrethrins are a group of six compounds that form the insecticidal constituents of the natural pyrethrum, which is highly unstable in light and air. Natural pyrethrins are considered knockdown agents because they rapidly paralyze insects, but many insects can detoxify the compound and recover. Therefore, pyrethrins are sometimes combined with a synergist. A synergist is a compound that enhances the toxicity of an insecticide, but is not an insecticide itself. The most common synergist used with pyrethrin is piperonyl butoxide, which inhibits the enzymes that break down pyrethrin. Pyrethrins also may be combined with insecticidal soaps, spreader sticker agents, silicon dioxide (desiccant) and other agents to enhance the effectiveness of the product. Pyrethrins have little residual effect, being quickly broken down by exposure to light, moisture, and air. Pyrethroids. Synthetic pyrethroids are derivatives of the natural compounds, chemically modied to increase toxicity and stability. Most of the chemicals used for area-wide tick control are pyrethroids. The pyrethroids are less volatile than the natural compounds and photostable, which provides some residual activity and greater insecticidal activity. Both pyrethrins and pyrethroids are highly toxic to sh and other aquatic organisms, but generally are much less toxic to mammals, birds and other wildlife. Pyrethroids can be skin and eye irritants. Many concentrated pyrethroid formulations are restricted to commercial use by licensed applicators because of their potential impact on aquatic organisms. However, low concentration, ready-to-use products are available for homeowner use. Inert ingredients. They may be solvents, propellants, spreaders, stickers, wetting agents, or carriers for the active pesticide chemical. Because these compounds are not the active chemical, they are labeled inert ingredients or sometimes other ingredients. These
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compounds often make up the major part of a pesticide formulation. In some cases, the inert ingredients may be more toxic than the active ingredient. A few examples of inerts include napththalene, petroleum distillates, and the organic solvents xylene and toluene. Acaricides for control of ticks on pets. Carbaryl, the pyrethroid permethrin and imidacloprid are used in several ea and tick control products for dogs. Studies have indicated that use of permethrin and permethrin/imidacloprid products (i.e., K9 Advantix, Kiltix) can prevent the transmission of B. burgdorferi. Both are topical products applied to spots along or on the back of the animal. They are not for use on cats, as cats are particularly susceptible to pyrethrin poisoning. Fipronil, a phenypyrazole, is the only commercial insecticide of this chemical type and may be used on cats. Formulated pet products are available as a spray or topical spot application (Frontline, Frontline Top Spot, Frontline Plus) for long-term control of eas and ticks on dogs and cats. Fipronil dissolves in the oils on the skin, spreads over the body, and collects in sebaceous glands and hair follicles for long-term reapplication. It is not affected by bathing or water immersion. Skin irritation may occur. Fleas are killed from 1-3 months, while ticks are killed for about a month. Trizapentadiene or formanidene compounds include one currently used material, amitraz. In livestock, it is used to control ticks, mites, and lice. It is not a skin irritant, is not readily absorbed into tissue, and degrades rapidly in the environment. Amitraz is used in a tick prevention collar for dogs (Preventic), and one study indicated it could prevent transmission of B. burgdorferi. An amitraz product was one of the compounds initially evaluated for the topical treatment of deer to control I. scapularis.
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are registered for use in the state. Depending upon the state the agency may be associated with the state Department of Agriculture, Consumer Protection, or Environmental Protection.
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Yonkers, New York. 304 pp. (out-of-print) Hayes, E. B., G. O. Maupin, G. A. Mount, and J. Piesman. 1999. Assessing the prevention effectiveness of local Lyme disease control. J. Public Health Mgt. Practice 5: 84-92. Kamrin, Michael A. Editor. 1997. Pesticide Proles: Toxicity, Environmental Impact, and Fate. CRC Press. 676 pp. Mount, G. A., D. G. Haile, and E. Daniels. 1997. Simulation of management strategies for the blacklegged tick (Acari: Ixodidae) and the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. J. Med. Entomol. 34: 672-683. Olkowski, William, Shelia Daar, Helga Olkowski. 1991. Common Sense Pest Control. The Taunton Press. 715 pp. Ostfeld, R. S., and D. N. Lewis. 1999. Experimental studies of interactions between wild turkeys and black-legged ticks. J. Vector. Ecol. 24: 182-186. Panella, N. A., M. C. Dolan, J. J. Karchesy, Y. Xiong, J. Peralta-Cruz, M. Khasawneh, J. A. Montenieri, G. O. Maupin. 2005. Use of novel compounds for pest control: Insecticidal and acaricidal activity of essential oil components from heartwood of Alaska yellow cedar. J. Med. Entomol. 42: 352-358. Patrican, L. A., and S. A. Allan. 1995. Laboratory evaluation of desiccants and insecticidal soap applied to various substrates to control the deer tick Ixodes scapularis. Med. Vet. Entomol. 9: 293-299. Patrican, L. A., and S. A. Allan. 1995. Application of desiccant and insecticidal soap treatments to control Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs and adults in a hyperendemic woodland site. J. Med. Entomol. 32: 859-863. Pound, J. M., J. A. Miller, and J. E. George. 2000. Efcacy of amitraz applied to white-tailed deer by the 4-poster topical treatment device in controlling free-living lone star ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 37: 878-884. Pound, J. M., J. A. Miller, J. E. George, and C. A. LeMeilleur. 2000. The 4-Poster passive tropical treatment device to apply acaricide for controlling ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) feeding on white-tailed deer. J. Med. Entomol. 37: 588-594. Schulze, T. L., R. A. Jordan, R. W. Hung, R. C. Taylor, D. Markowski, and M. S. Chomsky. 2001. Efcacy of granular deltamethrin against Ixodes scapularis and Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs. J. Med. Entomol. 38: 344-346. Schulze, T. L., R. A. Jordan, and R. W. Hung. 1995. Suppression of subadult Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) following removal of leaf litter. J. Med. Entomol. 32: 730-733. Solberg, V. B., K. Neidhardt, M. R. Sardelis, F. J. Hoffman, R. Stevenson, L. R. Boobar, and H. J. Harlan. 1992. Field evaluation of two formulations of cyuthrin for control of Ixodes dammini and Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 29: 634638. Stafford, K. C., III, A. J. DeNicola, and H. J. Kilpatrick. 2003. Reduced abundance of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) and the tick parasitoid Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with reduction of white-tailed deer. J. Med. Entomol. In press. Stafford III, K. C. 2002. Environmental management for Lyme borreliosis, pp. 368. In J. Gray [ed.], Lyme Borreliosis: Biology and Control. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. Stafford III, K. C. 1997. Pesticide use by licensed applicators for the control of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in Connecticut. J. Med. Entomol. 34: 552-558. Stafford III, K. C. 1991. Effectiveness of carbaryl applications for the control of Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs in an endemic residential area. J. Med. Entomol. 28: 32-36. Stafford III, K. C.. 1989. Lyme disease prevention: Personal protection and prospects for tick control. Conn. Med. 53: 347-351. Wargo, J., N. O. Alderman, and L. Wargo. 2003. Risks from lawn-care pesticides including inadequate packaging and labeling, pp. 96. Environmental and Human Health, Inc., North Haven, CT. Wilson, M. L., and R. D. Deblinger. 1993. Vector management to reduce the risk of Lyme disease, pp. 126-156. In H. S. Ginsberg [ed.], Ecology and Environmental Management of Lyme Disease. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J. Zhioua, E., M. Browning, P. W. Johnson, H. S. Ginsberg, and R. A. LeBrun. 1997. Pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizum anisopliae (Deuteromycetes) to Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). J. Parasitol. 83: 815-818.
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