BPHCL-138 E (1)

MPDD/IGNOU/P.O.
/12K/JUNE, 2022
BPHCL-138
Indira Gandhi National Open University
WAVES AND OPTICS:
School of Sciences
LABORATORY
BPHCL-138 WAVES AND OPTICS: LABORATORY
ISBN:
BPHCL-138
WAVES AND OPTICS:
Indira Gandhi National
LABORATORY
Open University
School of Sciences
EXPERIMENT 1
Refractive Index of the Material of a Prism using a Spectrometer 5
EXPERIMENT 2
Investigations with Polarised Light using a Polarimeter 21
EXPERIMENT 3
Cauchy’s Constants of the Material of a Prism 35
EXPERIMENT 4
Wavelength of Sodium Light using Fresnel’s Biprism 43
EXPERIMENT 5
Wavelength of Sodium Light using Newton’s Rings 55
EXPERIMENT 6
Wavelength of Sodium / Mercury Light using a Plane Diffraction Grating 65
EXPERIMENT 7
Dispersive Power of a Prism 73
EXPERIMENT 8
Resolving Power of a Prism 83
EXPERIMENT 9
Diffraction from a Wire 93
EXPERIMENT 10
Study of Single Slit Diffraction of a Laser using Photo Sensor 103
Course Design Committee
Prof. A. K. Ghatak, Retd. Dr. Parthasarathy Prof. Shubha Gokhale
IIT Delhi, New Delhi Dept. of Physics, School of Sciences
Maharaja Agrasen College, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Suresh Garg, Retd.
University of Delhi, Delhi
School of Sciences Dr. Sanjay Gupta
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. M.S. Nathawat School of Sciences
Vice Chancellor, Former Director, IGNOU, New Delhi
Usha Martin University School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Subhalakshmi Lamba
Prof. R.M. Mehra, Retd. School of Sciences
Dept. of Electronics, Prof. Vijayshri IGNOU, New Delhi
South Campus, School of Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Ashok Goyal, Retd. Prof. Sudip Ranjan Jha
Dept. of Physics, Hansraj College School of Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Preparation Team

Prof. Suresh Garg, (Editor) Prof. Ashok Kumar Prof. Sudip Ranjan Jha
Vice Chancellor (Experiments 1, 6, 8) (Experiments 1, 2, 4, 6 to 9)
Usha Martin University, Ramjas College, School of Sciences
Ranchi University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Jharkhand
Dr. Vandna Luthra Prof. Sanjay Gupta
(Experiments 3, 7, 10) (Experiment 5)
Gargi College, School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. Subhalakshmi Lamba
(Experiments 3, 10)
School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
Some Experiments in this course are based on the courses PHE-08(L) and PHE-12(L) of the
earlier B.Sc. programme of IGNOU.
Course Coordinators: Prof. Sudip Ranjan Jha and Dr. Subhalakshmi Lamba
Course Production
AR (P), IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Shri Gopal Krishan Arora, EDP, SOS for CRC preparation.
June, 2022
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any materials adapted from web-based resources in this module are being used for educational
purposes only and not for commercial purposes.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Prof. Sujatha
Varma, Director, SOS, IGNOU.
Printed at Chandu Press, 469, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi- 110092
WAVES AND OPTICS: LABORATORY – INTRODUCTION
As you may be aware, physics is an experimental science which seeks to discover nature using the
method of scientific enquiry. The vast body of knowledge we have about physical world has been
supported by experimentation. That is why activities, demonstrations and experiments are integral
components of science education.
In this laboratory course on Waves and Optics, you will be performing various experiments related to
basic physics concepts you are learning in the theory course on Waves and Optics (BPHCT-137). We
have included experiments in this course to give you a hands-on experience of working with a variety of
optical components such as prism and diffraction grating and some common equipment such as
spectrometer, telescope and travelling microscope. In addition, you will also learn to experimentally
validate some of the concepts related to wave nature of light by taking careful measurements.
When you go to the laboratory to perform an experiment, you should have a clear idea about what you
have to do and how you have to do it. Therefore, you are advised to read the write-up of each
experiment carefully. You should familiarise yourself with the apparatus/equipment completely before
performing the experiment.
In the study material for the course, we have given the introduction, expected skills to be learnt, basic
theory and procedure for each experiment. The suggested layout for presenting your report for each
experiment should consist of the following sections: aim, line or ray diagram, working formula,
observation (tables), calculations, results and analysis/conclusions. You should correlate your
results/findings with the standard values, wherever required.
The majority of the experiments in this course are related to optical phenomena such as refraction,
polarisation, interference and diffraction. You have learnt the theoretical explanations of these
phenomena on the basis of wave theory of light. These theoretical analysis have enabled scientists to
come out with very precise measurement techniques for various physical quantities.
In Experiment 1, you will learn to use the simple phenomenon of refraction of light to determine the
refractive index of the material of a prism. Polarimeter is equipment widely used in the pharmaceutical
and chemical industry for precise determination of concentration of solutes in solutions. In Experiment 2,
you will learn how this equipment works exploiting the phenomenon of polarisation of light. Experiment 3
is related to the dependence of the refractive index of a material on the wavelength of light passing
through it. This dependence is expressed by Cauchy’s formula which says that every material has a
unique set of constants called Cauchy’s constants. You will learn to determine these constants for the
material of a prism.
Experiments 4 and 5 are related to the phenomenon of interference of light. While the former deals with
interference due to division of wavefront, the later deals with interference due to division of amplitude. In
Experiment 4, you will learn how to obtain two coherent sources of light using a combination of prisms
called Fresnel biprism. You will also learn to set up experiment on an optical bench and take
measurements using a micro-meter eye-piece. In Experiment 5, you will learn to produce interference
fringe pattern in the form of rings called Newton’s rings and measure the fringe width to determine the
wavelength of the light used.
Diffraction of light is a phenomenon which has helped develop many measurement techniques/
equipment. In view of its versatile utility, you will be performing quite a few experiments (Experiments 6,
9 and 10) related to this phenomenon. Diffraction grating is one such optical component which works on
3
the principle of diffraction and it is used extensively in the field of spectral analysis. In Experiment 6, you
will learn to use a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light. In Experiment 9 and 10, you
will use some modern optical devices such as lasers and photo sensor to study the phenomenon of
diffraction from an obstacle (wire) and an aperture (slit) respectively. The idea here is to give you an
exposure to modern optical techniques which uses lasers and photo sensors for precise measurements.
You should be mindful of the precautions one is supposed to take while using lasers.
The Experiments 7 and 8 deal with dispersion of light and resolving power of image forming devices,
respectively. You will learn the skills of calculating these parameters by relating them to some
measureable physical quantities.
As far as possible, you should work independently because your laboratory work will be evaluated
continuously by your academic counsellor.
We hope you will have enjoyable experience working in the laboratory for this course.
We wish you good luck and success.
4
Experiment 1 Refractive Index of the Material of a Prism using a Spectrometer
EXPERIMENT 1
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE
MATERIAL OF A PRISM USING A
SPECTROMETER
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.4 Experimental Procedure
Expected Skills Vernier Constant of Spectrometer
Measurement of the Angle of Prism
1.2 Refractive Index
Refraction of Light Measurement of the Angle of Minimum
Deviation
Refraction of Light through a Prism
Calculations and Result
1.3 Spectrometer
Parts of a Spectrometer
Setting up the Spectrometer
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In your school physics, you have studied reflection and refraction of light. When a ray of light
is incident on a boundary separating two optically different media, a part of it is reflected at
the boundary and the remaining part bends from its original path as it enters the second
medium. The light is then said to have refracted. The extent of refraction is given by Snell’s
law and it is characterised by a parameter called refractive index of the medium. Higher
the refractive index, greater is the bending of light.
In your +2 class physics, you must have studied several phenomena associated with
refraction of light in everyday life. The rainbow in the sky is the most vivid example of
refraction in nature. Similarly, appearances of an oasis in a desert and water on a coal tar
road on a hot summer day are other familiar examples. You should list a few more examples
of refraction and discuss with your counsellor.
A prism is a very useful and versatile optical device that is used in a variety of optical
instruments such as binoculars, cameras, telescopes and submarine periscopes. A prism
has a three-dimensional (3D) shape with two identical faces, which are called bases. In the
physics laboratory, you will get a prism with equilateral triangular bases, though in the market
5
BPHCL-138 Waves and Optics: Laboratory
polygon base prisms are also available. The other faces of a prism are
rectangular. No dispersion or refraction takes place through the base as it is
grounded.
The refractive index of the material of the prism plays an important role in the
design and manufacturing of optical instruments. Newton showed that a prism
disperses or breaks up white light into its seven constituent colours. Can you
name these colours? [Remember, VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange and Red).] The dispersion of light due to prism depends on
the extent of refraction, which, in turn, depends on the wavelength of different
colours constituting white light. It means that if we use a white light, the light
emerging from a prism will show seven colours (wavelengths). However, in
this experiment, we will use a sodium lamp, which is considered mono-
chromatic (but, not strictly due to being a doublet of wavelengths 589.0 nm
and 589.6 nm), and learn to determine the refractive index of the material of a
given prism.
For determining the refractive index, we use a spectrometer to measure
angles of dispersion, angle of minimum deviation of refracted rays and angle
of the prism. A spectrometer is an optical instrument which enables us to
observe spectrum of light given out by a source of light. However, in the
present experiment, we shall make use of the spectrometer for measuring
angles with high degree of precision.
Expected Skills
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
identify the refractive faces of a prism:
identify the main components of a spectrometer;
set up the spectrometer for experiment;
determine the angle of the prism and angle of minimum deviation; and
calculate the refractive index of the prism.
You will require the following apparatus for this experiment.
Apparatus Required
Spectrometer, prism, spirit level, sodium lamp and a reading lens
(magnifying glass).
1.2 REFRACTIVE INDEX

The refractive index is a property of the material which determines the extent
of refraction/bending of a ray of light passing through it. This parameter plays
an important role in image formation by optical devices. From your school
physics, you are familiar with the phenomenon of refraction of light and the
concept of refractive index. But, for the sake of completeness, we briefly recall
the basic concepts related to the refraction of light in the following paragraphs
before you learn how to perform the experiment for determining the refractive
6 index.
1.2.1 Refraction of Light

When light travels from one medium to the other, refraction of light refers to
bending of a ray of light at the interface separating two optically different
media. You may recall that when light travels from an optically rarer medium
to an optically denser medium, it bends towards the normal. On the other
hand, when light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer
medium, it bends away from the normal.
The two laws governing refraction of light are
i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence
lie in the same plane.
ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant for any two media. This is also known as Snell’s
law.
Refer to Fig. 1.1. It shows a ray of light passing from medium a to medium b
and if we denote the angle of incidence and angle of refraction by i and r
respectively, then accordingly to Snell’s law, we can write
sin i
constant (1.1)
sin r
Fig. 1.1: Refraction of light at the interface of two optically different media.
The constant in Eq. (1.1) is referred to as the refractive index of medium b

with respect to medium a and is denoted as
aP sin i
b (1.2)
sin r
If the first medium (the medium of incidence) is air, the refractive index of the
second medium is simply denoted as P. In this case, Eq. (1.2) is written as
sin i
P (1.3)
sin r
The value of P for air is taken as unity.

Snell’s law is an empirical law based on observations. The concept of
refractive index was put on a sound theoretical foundation by Maxwell when
7
he gave the theory of electromagnetic waves. According to this theory, the
refractive index in a medium is given as the ratio of the velocity of light in
vacuum and the velocity of light in that medium. Mathematically, we can write
Velocity of light in vacuum

P (1.4)
Velocity of light in the specified medium
Snell’s law is a natural consequence of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.

However, at present, we make use of the definition of the refractive index
given in Eq. (1.1) because it is easier to measure the angles of incidence and
refraction required to determine refractive index.
1.2.2 Refraction of Light through a Prism

A prism is a transparent wedge shaped structure (usually) made of glass with
three rectangular and two triangular surfaces. The triangular faces are
equilateral triangles and one of the rectangular surfaces is grounded.
A prism can be made

from any material that
is transparent for the
light for which it has
been designed. The
materials, other than
glass, used for making
prisms are plastic and
fluorite.
Fig. 1.2: A Prism
To understand the unique geometrical shape of a prism, refer to Fig. 1.2. The
triangles ABC and DEF are equilateral triangles and are parallel to each other.
Each of these triangular faces is called base of the prism. The side faces
Though the most ABED, ACFD and BCFE of the prism are parallelograms and are called sides
commonly used prisms of the prism.
in physics laboratory is
triangular in shape, it Now, refer to Fig. 1.3 which shows the top view of the triangular prism ABC.
can have a variety of The angle A is called angle of prism. A ray of light PQ incident on the face
shapes such as right AB gets refracted along QR inside the prism. At R (located on the face AC), it
angle prism (used in
again undergoes refraction and emerges out along RS.
medical equipment,
endoscope), penta
Let i and e denote the angle of incidence and angle of emergence,
prism (used in display
systems), wedge prism
respectively. The respective angles of refraction at Q and R are r1 and r2 .
(used in lasers), etc.
depending upon the If PQ and SR are extended within the prism, they would meet at G (Fig. 1.3).
requirements. The angle HGS (D) is known as the angle of deviation and it is denoted by
G. Note that the angle of deviation is the angle through which the incident ray
PQ has been deviated (refracted or bent) by the prism from its original
direction PQGH.
8
Fig. 1.3: Refraction of light due to a prism.
In order to determine the refractive index of prism material by any method

using Snell’s law [Eq. (1.3)], we need to measure the values of i and r. As
such, measurement of the angle of refraction, r is practically difficult, so we
look for some alternative method. An alternative and relatively easy method is
by measuring a quantity called the angle of minimum deviation. Let us now
learn what we mean by the angle of minimum deviation and how it helps in
determining the refractive index of the prism material.
Minimum Deviation
For thick prisms, that is, a prism whose prism angle is relatively large (a 60
degrees), the angle of deviation (G) is large for small angle of incidence (i). As
the value of i is gradually increased, the angle of deviation decreases
progressively, till it reaches one particular value of angle of incidence, for
which the value of angle of deviation becomes minimum. If the angle of
incidence is increased beyond this value, the angle of deviation begins to
increase. This angle for which deviation of the incident ray is minimum, is
known as the angle of minimum deviation and it is denoted by G m .
When the angle of incidence is such that the angle of deviation has its
minimum value, the incident ray passes through the prism symmetrically. That
is, the refracted ray QR inside the prism becomes parallel to the base BC of
the prism and i = e.
Before proceeding further, you should answer the following SAQ.
SAQ 1 - Angle of incidence and angle of emergence of a prism

Show that the angle of incidence and the angle of emergence of a prism are
equal to each other when the angle of deviation is minimum.
Relation between Refractive Index, Angle of Prism and Angle of

Minimum Deviation
To derive the relation between refractive index, angle of the prism and angle
of minimum deviation, we note from Fig. 1.3:
i e A Gm (1.5)
and A r1 r2 (1.6)
9
SAQ 2 - Angle of minimum deviation of a prism

Using Fig. 1.3, establish the results contained in Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6).
Now, when the prism is in the position of minimum deviation, the refracted ray
passes symmetrically through the prism and we can write from Fig. 1.3 that
i e i (1.7)
and r1 r2 r (1.8)
Using Eq. (1.7) in Eq. (1.5), we can write
2i A G m
A Gm
? i (1.9)
2
Further, using Eq. (1.8) in Eq. (1.6), we can write
A r1 r2 2r
A
or r (1.10)
2
From Eq. (1.3), we have
sini
P
sinr
Substituting for i and r from Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10), we get the expression for
refractive index in terms of easily measurable quantities (namely, angle of
prism and angle of minimum deviation):
A Gm
sin
P 2 (1.11)
sin(A / 2)
From Eq. (1.11), we note that we can easily determine the value of P of the
material of the given prism once we determine the values of the angle of the
prism A and, the angle of minimum deviation G m .
To determine the value of A and G m , we use a prism spectrometer. So, we
now discuss the construction and use of a basic laboratory spectrometer to
make measurements.
1.3 SPECTROMETER
Spectrometer is an optical instrument used to study the spectra of different
sources of light and to determine the refractive indices of materials. A typical
laboratory spectrometer is shown in Fig. 1.4.
Fig. 1.4: A typical laboratory spectrometer.

10
1.3.1 Parts of a Spectrometer

A spectrometer consists of three main parts: (i) A collimator, (ii) a telescope
and (iii) a prism table. We now discuss their construction and working.
i) Collimator
The collimator is a device used to produce a parallel beam of light. It
consists of a long cylindrical tube having a vertical slit S of adjustable
length and width at the outer end and a convex lens at the inner end of the
tube. The distance between the slit and the lens can be so adjusted that
the slit is at the focus of the lens. Then the length of the tube becomes
equal to the focal length of the lens of the collimator. The slit is so kept that
it faces the source of light. The collimator is rigidly fixed to the base of the
spectrometer.
The eye piece of an
ii) Telescope optical instrument is a
The telescope in a spectrometer is a simple astronomical type telescope simple magnifier.
However, a single lens
with an eye piece of Ramsden type provided with cross wires at one end of
is inadequate as it
the tube and an objective lens at the other end placed coaxially. The
gives rise to aberration.
distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece can be adjusted In Ramsden eye piece,
using screw to obtain a clear image at the cross wires when a parallel two plano-convex
beam of light coming out of the collimator is incident on the objective of the lenses made of same
telescope. The telescope can rotate about the same vertical axis as the material and having
prism table. The telescope is also provided with radial screws for fixing it in same focal length are
used to minimise
the desired position.
aberration effects.
The base of the telescope is fitted with two vernier scales, which move over
a circular graduated main scale. This arrangement enables us to measure
the angle of rotation of the telescope very accurately.
iii) Prism Table
The prism table is a circular table of adjustable height and can rotate about
the same vertical axis as the telescope. The prism table carries three
screws at its bottom. These are used to level it. The prism table is provided
with a vertical stand so that it can be moved up or down. The prism is
placed on the table such that its refracting surfaces are perpendicular to
the plane of the table.
To summarise, light enters the collimator through an adjustable slit and the
collimating lens produces a parallel beam of light, which is then made to
pass through a prism (or diffraction grating) placed on the prism table. On
passing through the prism (or grating), the light bends through some angle
and is then viewed through the telescope that can be moved about a
vertical axis. The angle through which light bends can be very accurately
measured using a vernier scale, which moves on a circular graduated main
scale attached to the telescope.
Before using a spectrometer for measurements, certain adjustments have
to be made. A proper setting up of the spectrometer is very important for
accurate measurement in an experiment with spectrometer. You must
master it for obtaining accurate results. We now discuss how to set up a
spectrometer, step by step.
11
1.3.2 Setting up the Spectrometer
The basic objective of setting up the spectrometer for experiment is to align its
different components with each other. The light beam emerging from the prism
should be incident on the telescope objective in such a manner that a clear
image is formed on the cross wires of the telescope. The adjustments required
before working with a spectrometer are:
i) the axis of the spectrometer is to be made vertical so that it coincides with

the vertical axis of rotation of the prism table;
ii) the axes of the collimator and the telescope should be horizontal so that
they are perpendicular to the axis of the prism table;
iii) the refracting faces of the prism should be vertical so that these are
parallel to the axis of rotation of the telescope; and
iv) the collimator and the telescope should be adjusted for parallel rays.
While working with spectrometer, you should keep in mind that all
adjustable parts of the spectrometer should move with very little effort;
do not force any part of the spectrometer for movement. If you move a
part by force, you may deform it or even break it. Some parts can
probably be tight as it may be clamped. In such a situation, check it and
locate the appropriate knob to loosen it.
The procedure to adjust different components of the spectrometer is as

follows:
i) Levelling: To level the telescope, take a spirit level and keep it on the
telescope tube along its length. Use the screws provided at the base of the
spectrometer to bring the bubble of the spirit level at the centre. Rotate the
telescope tube by 180 degrees and again use the base screws to bring the
bubble at the centre. Repeat this process until the spirit level bubble
remains at the centre for different positions of the telescope. This levelling
ensures that the telescope is perpendicular to the vertical axis of the prism
table. Similarly, you can level the collimator tube using the spirit level and
the screws provided with the collimator tube. Further, to level the prism
table, you can use one of the following two methods:
a) Prism table can be levelled using a spirit level. Place the spirit level at
the centre of the prism table and bring the bubble of the spirit level at
the centre by adjusting the screws provided at the bottom of the prism
table. Change the position of the spirit level on the prism table and
again, use the prism table screws to bring the bubble at the centre.
Repeat this process for different positions of the spirit level on the
prism table. By this adjustment, you have made the prism table
horizontal. Thus, when you place the prism on this table, its refracting
surfaces will be perfectly vertical, that is, they will be perpendicular to
the collimator and telescope axes.
b) Sometimes, the levelling of the prism table by spirit level is not
sufficient. In such a situation, the prism table should be levelled
12 optically. This consists of the following steps:
x Illuminate the collimator slit by sodium light. (Do you know the
mechanism of emission of light by a sodium lamp? Discuss with
fellow students as well as with your academic counsellor, if you are
not able to get correct reference.) Place the prism at the centre of
the prism table such that one of its faces AB is perpendicular to the
line joining the two screws P1 and P2 (Fig. 1.5).
Fig. 1.5: Prism on a

prism table.
Fig. 1.6: Optical levelling of prism table.
x Rotate the prism table so that the refracting edge points towards
the collimator and light falls on both the refracting surfaces of the
prism, as shown in Fig. 1.6.
x Turn the telescope till you see the image of the slit due to light
reflected from the AB side of the prism. Is the image symmetrical
with respect to the horizontal cross wire of the telescope? If not,
adjust the screws P1 and P2 by moving them in opposite
directions so that the image is exactly at the centre of the field of
view of the telescope.
x Next, rotate the telescope to see the image of the slit due to light
reflected from side AC (Fig. 1.6). Again ensure that the image is
symmetrical with respect to the horizontal cross-wire of the
telescope. If not, adjust the screw P3 . Turn back the telescope
towards face AB and repeat the earlier process, if the symmetry
has been disturbed.
x Repeat the process till the slit image is symmetrical with respect to
horizontal cross-wire in both the positions of the telescope.
With these adjustments, you have made the collimator, telescope and the
prism table horizontal and perpendicular to the vertical axis of the prism
table.
ii) Focussing the cross-wire: Keep the telescope objective towards any
illuminated background and move the eye piece inward or outward until
you see the cross wires more clearly.
iii) Adjustment of the slit: Remove the prism from the prism table and place
the telescope in line with the collimator and see through the eye-piece of
13
the telescope. Obtain a sharp image of the (collimator) slit by turning the
focussing screw of the telescope and of the collimator. The slit can be
made vertical by turning it in its plane and its width should be adjusted to
about 1 mm using the attached screw. (The slit should be narrow.)
iv) Adjusting the collimator and the telescope for parallel rays: The telescope
and collimator can be focussed for parallel rays in two ways:
a) Take the spectrometer out of the dark room and focus the telescope on
a distant object like a tree or a street light and obtain the best distinct
image of the object by adjusting the focussing screw.
b) By Schuster’s method: This is a better and more scientific method for

focussing the telescope and collimator for parallel rays. It involves the
following steps:
x Illuminate the collimator slit with sodium light. Bring the telescope in
line with the collimator and adjust the slit and levelling screws of
the apparatus so as to obtain the image of the slit at the centre of
the field of view of the telescope.
x Adjust the telescope by rotating it so that vertical cross-wire

coincides with the slit. Adjust the eye-piece so that the cross wires
are distinctly visible.
x Place the prism on the table and adjust its height to receive
collimated light beam on one of its refracting surfaces. If you look
through the other refracting surface of the prism and by moving
towards its base, you will see the image of the slit through the
prism by unaided eye.
x Now, rotate the prism table in such a direction that the image of the
slit approaches the direct path of the rays from the collimator.
x Bring the telescope to this position of the image. This is the

approximate position of minimum deviation which is indicated by
the fact that around this position, the slit image moves to only one
side (away from the direct path from collimator) in the field of view
of telescope irrespective of the direction of rotation of the prism
table, clockwise or anti-clockwise. Fix the telescope in this position
(Fig. 1.7).
x Now rotate the prism table slightly so that the angle of incidence on
its refracting surface is greater than that corresponding to the
minimum deviation position (Fig. 1.7). Focus the telescope using
the adjustment of its eye piece till the slit image is sharp.
x Rotate the prism table in the opposite direction so that the angle of
incidence is slightly less than that corresponding to minimum
deviation position (Fig. 1.7). Focus the collimator by turning the
screw attached with it and get a sharp image of the slit.
14
Fig. 1.7: Schuster’s method for focussing telescope and collimator for parallel
rays.
x Now again turn the prism in opposite direction to come back to

initial position (angle of incidence greater than that for minimum
deviation). The image of the slit gets blurred. Focus the image by
adjusting the screw of the telescope to get the sharp image.
x By repeating these two steps a few times, a sharp image of the slit
in both positions of the prism will be obtained. This ensures
focussing of collimator and telescope for parallel rays.
x In order to avoid confusion, remember that, when the refracting

edge of the prism is nearer to you (observer), the image is
focussed by the telescope (which is nearer to you) and when the
refracting edge of the prism is farther from you, the image is
focussed by the collimator (which is farther from you).
x If these steps are not followed in order, the image will worsen
instead of improving.
Source of Light
The source of light used in an experiment is decided by the objective of the

experiment. For example, if we have to determine wavelengths of various
colours of light obtained due to dispersion, we use a mercury lamp. However,
to determine the refractive index of the material of a prism using a
spectrometer, we need a monochromatic source of light. The sodium vapour
lamp is commonly used as a monochromatic source. However, the fact is that
this source emits a doublet of wavelengths 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm. Since the
difference in the wavelengths is extremely small, it is taken as a
monochromatic source for all practical purposes and the wavelength of
emitted light is taken as 589.3 nm, the average of the two.
1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

First of all, you should set up the spectrometer as described in the previous
section. This is a necessary requirement for making any measurement with it.
15
1.4.1 Vernier Constant of the Spectrometer
As mentioned earlier, a spectrometer has two circular vernier scales attached
to its base which enables us to determine the angle by which the telescope
has been rotated. You are familiar with the concept of vernier scale and
vernier constant or least count from your school physics. You also got an
opportunity to calculate the least count of a vernier in the first semester
laboratory course entitled ‘Mechanics: Laboratory’ (BPHCL 132). You know
that the difference between the value of one main scale division (MSD) and
one vernier scale division (VSD) is called the vernier constant or the least
count (LC) of the instrument and it is the smallest measurement that can be
done accurately using a vernier scale.
In case of spectrometer, the circular verniers are used to measure angles up

to accuracy in minute. In ordinary laboratory spectrometers, each main scale
division is equal to half a degree and the vernier scale is such that 30 VSD
coincide with 29 MSD. (You must verify that it is true for the spectrometer with
which you are doing the experiment.) Thus, we write
29
1 VSD MSD
30
So,
Least Count = 1MSD 1 96'
1 MSD
29 §1 29 · MSD 1
MSD ¨ ¸ MSD
30 © 30 ¹ 30
Now
1
1 MSD q 30c
2
1 § 1 ·$ § 1·
$
? /& u¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 1c
30 © 2 ¹ © 60 ¹
In some spectrometers, 40 VSD may coincide with 39 MSD and accordingly,

the LC for such spectrometers will have different value. So, you must check
the spectrometer vernier scale before calculating its LC.
Working Formula
For determining the refractive index of the material of the prism, you will use
the formula given by Eq. (1.11):
A Gm
sin
P 2
sin A / 2
where, A is angle of prism and G m is angle of minimum deviation.
So, we need to measure the values of A and G m . The procedure for these
16
measurements is given below.
1.4.2 Measurement of the Angle of Prism

i) Switch on the sodium vapour lamp.
ii) Set up the spectrometer following the procedure explained in Sec. 1.3.2.
iii) Place the prism on the prism table with its refracting edge AB and AC
faces the collimator as shown in Fig. 1.8. In this position, the parallel beam
of light coming from the collimator will fall on the refracting surfaces of the
prism. You must note that the slit is visible from both the faces with
unaided eye.
Fig. 1.8: Set up for measuring the angle of prism.
iv) Move the telescope to a position, say P, so as to receive light after

reflection from face AB and you can see the image of the slit.
v) Adjust the vertical cross-wire of the eye piece so that it coincides with the
slit image.
vi) Note the reading of main scale and vernier scale on both the vernier
windows V1 and V2 in the Observation Table 1.1.
vii) Now, move the telescope and bring it to a position, say Q (Fig. 1.8) so as
to receive light after reflection from face AC of the prism and you can see
the image of the slit.
viii) Note the reading of main scale and vernier scale on both the vernier
ix) Take three independent set of readings for telescope positions at P and Q
each.
x) The angle between these two positions gives 2A, twice the angle of the
prism. Calculate the mean value of A.
For measuring angles of prism, the prism table should be set in such a
position so that the reading in V1 has small initial value, say between 0q and
30q . By doing so, you ensure that, after turning the telescope towards other
face, an addition of 120q (usually A ~ 60q) will not exceed 150q and
correspondingly the reading on V2 will not exceed 360q. This avoids the
confusion while taking the difference of two readings.
17
1.4.3 Measurement of the Angle of Minimum Deviation
The steps to set-up the experimental arrangement to measure the angle of
minimum deviation are given below:
i) Place the prism on the prism table with one of its refracting surface AB
facing the collimator and the centre of the prism coinciding with the centre
of the table as shown in Fig. 1.9.
ii) Look through the other refracting surface AC of the prism to see the image
of the slit, formed due to refraction of light, with unaided eye.
iii) Rotate the prism table slowly in such a direction that the image seen by
the unaided eye moves as close as possible to the direct ray from the
collimator (shown by the dotted line CD in Fig. 1.9). If you continue
rotating the prism table slowly in the same direction further, you will
observe that, at some point, the image will begin to move away from the
direction of the direct ray from the collimator. The position of the prism
where the image just begins to move away from the direct ray is the
approximate position of the prism for minimum deviation.
Fig. 1.9: Set up for measuring the angle of minimum deviation.
iv) Bring the telescope to position P as shown in Fig. 1.9. Adjust the
vertical cross-wire of the eye piece so as to coincide with the image of the
slit.
v) For fine tune the position of minimum deviation, rotate the prism table
slightly with the help of tangent screw so that the image moves in the
direction of decreasing deviation (that is, closer to the direct ray).
vi) Rotate the telescope using the tangent screw to align its cross-wire with
the new position of the slit image. This is the precise position of the prism
for minimum deviation.
vii) Continue with these slow adjustments of the prism table and the telescope
till the slit image just begins to move in the opposite direction (that is,
18 moves in the direction of increasing deviation).
viii) Note down both the vernier readings in the Observation Table 1.2.
ix) Now remove the prism from the prism table. Align the telescope with the
direct ray from the collimator so as to see the image of the slit. Adjust the
vertical cross-wire of the eye piece with the slit image.
x) Note the vernier readings for this position of the telescope in the
Observation Table 1.2. This is the direct ray reading.
xi) The difference between the mean readings for the minimum deviated ray
and the direct ray gives the angle of minimum deviation G m of the prism.
xii) Take two sets of readings for G m and calculate the mean value of G m .
Keep either telescope or the prism table clamped while adjusting the
other for proper readings.
Observations:
Least Count (LC) of the vernier of spectrometer = ..........
Wavelength of the light used (Na-light) = 589.3 nm
Observation Table 1.1: Angle of Prism, A
st nd
No. of Vernier 1 Position of 2 Position of Telescope Difference Angle of
Observation Telescope (Y) (Y X) Prism
(=2A) A
(X)
MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total
V1
V2
V1
V2
Note that you need to multiply the vernier scale reading (VSR) by vernier
constant or least count (LC) of the vernier before adding it to the main scale
reading (MSR) to get Total (X or Y).
Mean A = ............ 19
Observation Table 1.2: Angle of Minimum Deviation, G m
No. of Vernier Minimum Deviation Direct Ray Difference,

Observ- Ray (Y) (Y X)
ations (X) = Gm
V1
1
V2
V1
2
V2
Mean G m = ..............
1.4.4 Calculations and Result

You can calculate the refractive index of the material of the prism by
substituting the values of A and G m in Eq. (1.11):
A Gm ·
sin §¨ ¸
P © 2 ¹
A
sin
2
Refractive index of the medium of the prism for sodium light =...............
Experiment al value Standard value

Percentage error u 100
Standard value
= %
Discuss your result with your academic counsellor.
20
Experiment 2 Investigations with Polarised Light using a Polarimeter
EXPERIMENT 2
INVESTIGATIONS WITH
POLARISED LIGHT USING
A POLARIMETER
Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Procedure
Expected Skills Relation between the Angle of
2.2 Polarisation and Optical Activity Rotation of the Plane of
Polarisation and the Concentration
2.3 Description of Apparatus
of Solution
Polarimeter
Determination of the Concentration
Half-Shade Plate
of a Solution
Biquartz
2.1 INTRODUCTION
You are familiar with various kinds of rotations. You must have observed rotating blades of a
fan, a spinning top and merry-go-rounds in motion. The Earth rotates around its axis. You
have also read about artificial satellites that rotate about their axis while orbiting around the
Earth. All these are examples of rotations of specific physical objects. In physics, we also
need to visualise rotations of different other kinds to understand some useful concepts and
important phenomena. In Unit 5 of the course entitled Waves and Optics (BPHCT-137), we
explained the phenomenon of polarisation of light with the help of a polariser and an analyser
and the rotation of the analyser with respect to the polariser.
In your school physics, you have learnt that polarisation is peculiar only to transverse waves.
You also learnt in Unit 5 of BPHCT-137 course that the electric (or, equivalently, magnetic)
field vectors associated with a linearly polarised light vibrate in a fixed plane which is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the light.
The study of polarisation of light is a useful tool for several scientific investigations. For
example, the study of interaction of polarised light with material substances provides
valuable information about their optical properties. It has been observed that, when a linearly
polarised light passes through certain substances, the orientation of the plane of polarisation
of light changes.
21
Such substances are called optically active substances. A few optically
active substances produce clockwise rotation of the plane of polarisation while
some others produce counter clockwise rotation. The extent of rotation of the
plane of polarisation and the direction of rotation enable us to identify the
substance and also determine the concentration of the substance in a
solution.
In this experiment, you will learn to determine the angle by which the plane of
polarisation of a linearly polarised light rotates when it passes through a
solution of an optically active substance. You will also learn how to calculate
the concentration of the solute in the solution using the angle of rotation.
To measure the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light, we use
polarimeter. It can also be used for pharmaceutical analysis to determine
concentration of various constituents of drugs. But in a physics laboratory, we
will use it to determine the concentration of sugar in a solution by studying the
rotation of the plane of polarisation of light. This method is known as
polarimetry.
Expected Skills
identify different components of a polarimeter;
identify the tint of passage of light;
establish the relation between concentration of solution and angle of

rotation of the plane of polarisation;
measure the rotation of plane of polarisation; and
determine the concentration of a given solution.
Apparatus Required
Polarimeter, measuring flask, physical balance, sugar and distilled water.
2.2 POLARISATION AND OPTICAL ACTIVITY

In Units 4 and 5 of the course entitled Waves and Optics (BPHCT-137), you
have learnt about electromagnetic waves and polarisation of light,
respectively. You now know that electromagnetic waves are transverse in
nature. In fact, polarisation of light is a strong experimental evidence
supporting the transverse nature of light (and electromagnetic waves).
From Unit 5 of BPHCT-137, you may recall that the electric (as well as the
magnetic) field vectors associated with an unpolarised light wave propagating
in the z-direction can be represented by vectors in the xy-plane (Fig 2.1a).
Note that the electric (as well as magnetic) field vectors of an unpolarised light
22 can have all possible orientations in the xy-plane.
To simplify
& this representation of the
& unpolarised
& light, we resolve electric field
vector E into its components, say E1 and E2 along the x- and y-axes,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 2.1b. Note that when we allow all orientations
for the electric field vector in the xy-plane and resolve each one of them along
the x- and y-axes, we & include& the contribution of all electric field vectors of the
unpolarised light in E1 and E2 . So, the net result is that we can represent
unpolarised light
& in terms
& of two mutually
& perpendicular
& electric field vector
components E1 and E2 . Note that E1 and E2 are actually the resultant of a
large number of components associated with individual electric field vectors
representing the unpolarised light (Fig. 2.1a). Also note that each of these
components are plane (or, linearly) polarised because each one of these is
confined to a plane containing z-axis and the plane has fixed orientation.
Fig. 2.1: a) Electric field vectors associated with an unpolarised light

propagating along z-direction; b) Resolution of an electric field vector
of the unpolarised light into its components.
The pictorial representation of the unpolarised light as per the simplified

scheme described above is shown in Fig. 2.2. Fig 2.2a and 2.2b show two
plane (or, linearly)&polarised
& components (one along the x-axis and the other
along the y-axis) E1 and E2 for a beam of unpolarised light propagating along
the z-axis. Fig 2.2c shows two orthogonal vibrations together: the arrows
represent vibrations in the plane of the paper and dots represent the vibrations
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Fig. 2.2: Electric field
& vibrations a) in the
Mathematically, the components of electric field E of a monochromatic light of plane of the paper;
frequency Z, propagating along the positive z-axis, are written as b) perpendicular to
& the plane of the
E1(z, t ) E10 ˆi sin(kz Zt ) (2.1) paper; c) the two
& orthogonal electric
E2 ( z, t ) E20 ˆj sin(kz Zt I) (2.2)
vibrations,
representing an
where k ( 2S / O ) is the wave number, Z( 2S f ) is the angular frequency, î unpolarised beam of
and ĵ are unit vectors along x- and y-axes, respectively, f is the frequency light, shown together.
and I denotes the phase difference.
As is evident from Fig. 2.1a, the electric field vectors associated with a beam
of unpolarised light, say from the sun or incandescent lamp, propagating along
the z-axis can have random orientation in the xy-plane. This implies that the
phase difference between the components of the electric fields fluctuates
randomly. On the other hand, for a beam of plane polarised light, the 23
direction of vibration of the electric field vector remains fixed in the xy-plane
and the phase difference between its components is constant. Further, you
may also recall from Unit 5 of BPHCT 137 that, depending on&the value & of the
phase difference and the relation between the amplitudes of E1 and E2 , the
following
& states of polarisation of light are possible due to the superposition
&
of E1 and E2 :
& &
a) When the &phase difference, I is zero, E1 and E2 are in phase and the
resultant E field vector oscillates along a line that makes an angle, say, T
with the x-axes, as shown in Fig. 2.3. Such a beam of light is said to be
linearly or plane polarised.
The angle T is given by

E
Fig. 2.3: Linearly or
T tan1 20 (2.3)
E10
plane polarised light.
b) When the phase difference, I S / 2 and E10 E20 , Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2)
take the form
&
E1( z,t ) E10 ˆi sin(kz Zt ) (2.4)
&
E2 ( z, t ) E10 ˆj cos(kz Zt ) (2.5)
&
In this case, the tip of the resultant electric field E moves along a circle in
the plane of the page as shown in Fig. 2.4. Such a polarised light is called
circularly polarised light. Since there can be two senses of rotation of
Fig. 2.4: Circularly
the tip of electric field vector, there are two distinct states of circular
polarised light.
polarisation. By convention, if we look in the direction of propagation of the
beam coming out of the plane of paper and observe that the tip of the
electric field rotates in the anti-clockwise direction,
& then the light is said to
be left circularly polarised. And, if the tip of rotates in the clockwise
E
direction, the light is said to be right circularly polarised.
c) When the phase difference, I z mS / 2 (m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...) and E10 z E 20 ,

the tip of the resultant electric field vector moves along the circumference
of an ellipse as shown in Fig. 2.5. Again, as in the case of circular
polarisation, two senses of rotation are possible for elliptically polarised
light. Thus, we have right elliptically polarised and left elliptically polarised
lights (Fig. 2.5).
Fig. 2.5: a) Right elliptically polarised light; b) Left elliptically polarised light.
24
You may recall from Unit 5 of BPHCT-137 that linear and circular polarisations
are special cases of elliptical polarisation; when m becomes even and odd
multiples of S/2, the elliptically polarised light reduces respectively to linearly
polarised light and circularly polarised light.
Now that you know the basics of polarisation and the states of polarisation, let
us learn about optical activity.
Optical Activity
There are several solids, liquids and their solutions which cause rotation of the
plane of polarisation of linearly polarised light when it passes through them.
Such materials are called optically active materials. This property of
materials was first discovered by French physicist Dominique F.J. Arago when
he observed that the plane of polarisation of linearly polarised light changed
continuously as it propagated along the optic axis of a quartz plate. This is
shown in
Fig. 2.6. (At about the same time, Jean B. Biot also observed this
phenomenon while using the vapour and liquid forms of turpentine.)
Fig. 2.6: Rotation of the plane of polarisation of a linearly polarised light in an

optically active medium: a) dextrorotatory medium; b) levorotatory
medium.
Further, it has been observed that rotation of the plane of polarisation can be
either clockwise (that is, right handed) or anti-clockwise (that is, left-handed)
depending on the material under investigation. If we look into the incoming
beam and observe that the plane of polarisation has rotated clockwise, the
substance is referred to as dextrorotatory or d-rotatory (Fig. 2.6a). On the
other hand, if the plane of polarisation rotates anti-clockwise, the material is
called levorotatory or l-rotatory (Fig. 2.6b).
You must have studied that a quartz crystal shows both d-rotatory and
l-rotatory behaviour. Although all constituent molecules of quartz (SiO 2 ) are
identical, a quartz crystal can be d-rotatory as well as l-rotatory, depending
upon the arrangement of these molecules (that is, its crystallographic
structure). Therefore, the type of rotation produced by a crystalline substance
is intimately related to its molecular structure. (Molten quartz and fused quartz
are not optically active. Can you guess why it is so? This is because these
forms of quartz are non-crystalline.)
There are many other substances, both organic as well as inorganic (such as
benzyl and NaBrO3), which, like quartz, exhibit optical activity in crystalline
form. In contrast, many naturally occurring organic compounds such as sugar,
25
tartaric acid and turpentine, are optically active in solution or in the liquid state.
The extent of rotation of the plane of polarisation produced by an optically
active substance depends on the concentration of the optically active material
in a solution.
Let us now understand how the angle of rotation of the plane of polarisation
varies with concentration. Consider a column of solution of length l cm (l /10
decimetre). Suppose that, at temperature tqC, the solution contains m g of
The use of decimetre
as unit of length makes optically active substance per cubic centimetre (c.c.) of the solution. Let us
it easier to define also assume that when a beam of linearly polarised light is passed through
specific rotation. You this column of solution, its plane of polarisation is rotated by an angle T. The
can as well use cm or angle of rotation T is given by
meter as unit for length.
T slm / 10 (2.6)
where s is called the specific rotation of the substance. It is defined as the

rotation (in degree) produced by a column of solution of one decimetre length
containing one gram of optically active substance per c.c. of the solution.
Eq. (2.6) shows that the angle of rotation of the plane of polarisation depends
on the amount of optically active substance present in the solution.
Now, suppose that c is the percentage strength (that is, concentration) of the
solution. That is, c g of active substance is present is 100 c.c. of the solution.
Then, we can write
m = c/100 g (2.7)
On substituting this value of m in Eq. (2.6), we get
T slc / 1000 (2.8)
Eq. (2.8) shows how angle of rotation of the plane of polarisation is related to
the concentration of a solution containing an optically active substance. You
will use this relation in the present experiment to determine the concentration
of a given solution. This relation can also be used to determine the value of
the specific rotation of an optically active substance. To carry out these
experiments, you will require a polarimeter. We, therefore, now familiarise you
with a polarimeter and other necessary apparatus.
2.3 DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

The most important apparatus used in this experiment is a polarimeter. It is
used for measuring the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light when it is
made to pass through an optically active solution. As such, the operation of a
plarimeter is very simple. Let us learn about it now.
2.3.1 Polarimeter
The simplest form of polarimeter consists of a polariser and an analyser. But,
in a physics laboratory, we use a modified version of this simple arrangement.
26
It is shown in Fig. 2.7a.
Fig. 2.7: a) A polarimeter; b) Schematic diagram of a polarimeter.
Refer to Fig. 2.7b which depicts the schematic diagram of a polarimeter. The
tube T1 containing a source of light holds a slit S whose width and position
can be altered. This slit is placed in the focal plane of the collimating lens L.
Therefore, the light from slit S can be considered to be in the form of plane
waves. These waves reach a polariser P, in the form of a Nicol prism, which
produces plane polarised light. This polarised light is then made to pass
through a half-shade plate or a biquartz, H. (You will learn about the need and
function of half-shade plate and biquartz shortly.) There is space in the main
frame of the polarimeter to hold a tube T, which is filled with distilled water or a
solution of an optically active material to be investigated. The two ends of the
tube T are closed by optically plane glass plates with metal caps.
Another Nicol prism A, which acts as an analyser, is placed in another tube,
T2 in front of a low power telescope. As the tube T2 is rotated, the vernier
attached to the tube also rotates. This arrangement is used to determine the
angle of rotation of the plane of polarisation. The axes of tubes T1 , T and T2
are made to coincide with the same horizontal straight line.
In a simple polariser-analyser system, it is difficult to observe changes in the
intensity of illumination for small rotations of the analyser from the position of
extinction. To overcome this limitation and thereby achieve greater accuracy
in measuring the rotation, optical components such as the half-shade plate or
the biquartz are used in a polarimeter. We shall now briefly discuss these
devices.
2.3.2 Half-Shade Plate

It is a circular plate (Fig. 2.8) whose one half, G is made of glass and the other
half, Q is made of quartz. Here, YY c denotes the line of junction of the two
27
Recall from Unit 5 of

halves. The thicknesses of both the halves are equal and the optic axis of
BPHCT-137 that the quartz half is on its surface and parallel to YY c .
optic axis refers to a
direction in a
birefringent crystal such
that, if a ray of light
passes along the optic
axis, it does not suffer
birefringence (that is,
double refraction). The
optic axis does not refer
to a (fixed) line in a
crystal; it refers to a
direction. This implies
that all rays passing
through a crystal along
a direction parallel to
the optic axis of the
crystal will pass through
Fig. 2.8: A half-shade plate used in a polarimeter.
the crystal without
suffering double Now, to understand the function of the half-shade& plate, consider that a
refraction. linearly polarised light, in which vibrations of E field are parallel to AB, is
incident on the half-shade plate (Fig. 2.8). Suppose that the field vibrations
make an angle T with XX c , a line& perpendicular to the optic axis YY of
c
quartz. Then, vibrations of the E field of the incident light falling on glass half
In a birefringent crystal,
(G) are not altered and hence they remain & parallel to OA after emerging from
an incoming ray of light
the glass half. But, the vibrations of the E field incident on the quartz half
is split into two rays
namely ordinary ray (o- (along OB) split into two components because quartz exhibits birefringence.
ray) and extraordinary One component is parallel to the optic axis YY c (and corresponds to the e-
ray (e-ray). o-ray refers ray), while the other is perpendicular to the optic axis (and corresponds to o-
to the ray of light which ray).The thickness of the quartz half of the half-shade plate is chosen so
obeys Snell’s law of that a phase difference of S (or path difference of O/2) is produced
refraction and the e-ray
between the emergent e- and o-rays. Now, you may recall from Unit 5 of
refers to the one which
does not obey Snell’s BPHCT-137 that a half-wave plate rotates the plane of polarisation of a
law. linearly polarised light by 90 degrees. Hence, the vibrations corresponding to
the emergent e- and o-rays from quartz half combine to form a linear polarised
light whose electric field vibrations are along TOT inclined with OX c at an
angle T.
If a Nicol prism (analyser) is held at position N1 with its principal section
Two positions N1 and parallel to YY c and bisecting AOT, the components of OA (from glass) and
N 2 of the Nicol
OT (from quartz) entering the Nicol are equal, i.e., intensity is same. Hence
correspond to two
settings of the analyser both halves of the half-shade plate will appear equally bright.
fitted in tube T 2 in the &
Now suppose both the E field vibrations OA and OT are rotated in the same
polarimeter.
direction through the same angle I to their new positions OAc and OT c ,
respectively. In this situation, the amplitude of the component of OT c entering
the Nicol at N1 will be greater than that of OAc . The quartz half will, therefore,
appear brighter than glass half. However, if the Nicol is brought to the position
N 2 by rotating it through an angle I, so that principal section of Nicol at N 2
again bisects the AcOT c , the glass half and the quartz half will again appear
28 equally bright. Note that, if this rotation of the plane of polarisation by an angle
I is produced by an optically active substance, it can be measured in terms of

the angle of rotation of the analyser fitted in tube T2 in the polarimeter. Thus
the angle of rotation of analyser equals the angle of rotation of the plane of
polarisation.
In many polarimeters, instead of the half-shade plate, a biquartz is used to

detect and accurately measure the rotation of the plane of polarisation.
Consult your counsellor to know details of half-shade plate or biquartz used
in your polarimeter. Whether or not you are using a biquartz, it is worthwhile to
know how a biquartz works. Therefore, for inclusive coverage, we have
discussed it in the following sub-section.
2.3.3 Biquartz
From unit 5 of BPHCT-137, you know that quartz is a uniaxial crystal and an
optically active substance. Due to its uniaxial nature, a beam of light passing
through a quartz crystal splits in two linearly polarised beams in which electric
field vectors are perpendicular to each other. Do you know that in the special
case when the uniaxial crystal (like quartz) is cut perpendicular to its optic
axis, the state of polarisation of the beam of light passing through it does not
change? Further, depending on its crystal structure, quartz can exhibit d-
rotatory as well as l-rotatory behaviours. Moreover, the extent of rotation
depends on the wavelength of light passing through a quartz crystal. These
characteristics of quartz are used to design biquartz to accurately measure the
rotation of the plane of polarisation in polarimetry experiments.
Biquartz used in polarimeter is in the shape of a circular disc and as the name
suggests, it is made of two semi-circular discs of quartz, each of which is cut
perpendicular to the optic axis. One of the semicircular discs is levorotatory
while the other is dextrorotatory. The thickness of the disc (~3.75 mm) is such
that, for the mean yellow light from a normal white light source, the plane of
polarisation undergoes a rotation of S/2. This rotation is clockwise in one-half
of the disc and anti-clockwise in the other half.
In a polarimeter, the biquartz is placed in such a manner that the principal

section, PPc of the polariser (Fig. 2.9a) is parallel to the diameter separating
its two halves. When white light is incident on the biquartz, it disperses the
blue, yellow and red lights. When the principal section of the analyser, AAc is
parallel to&that of the polariser, the yellow light disappears. This happens
because E field vibrations corresponding to yellow light are rotated by S/2 in
opposite directions in the two halves of the biquartz and the emergent yellow
lights from the two halves are out of phase and disappear. It means that from
each half of the biquartz, you should see some red and some voilet light as
these are transmitted (Fig. 2.9b). The two halves of biquartz exhibit essentially
the same reddish-violet shade. This is very sensitive to any change in the
alignment of the principal axes of the polariser and analyser. For this reason, it
is also known as the sensitive or transition tint or the tint of passage of the
biquartz.
A small rotation of the analyser (a1q) causes one half of the field of view to
become distinctly red and the other half to become violet (Fig. 2.9c). While 29
performing the experiment, you have to rotate the analyser so that both halves
of the field are of the same colour. Thus, you can set the analyser for a colour
match very accurately. The tint of passage occurs for two settings of the
vernier. As in the case of half-shade plate, the angle of rotation of the analyser
(which leads to colour match of the two halves of the biquartz) gives the angle
of rotation of the plane of polarisation.
Fig. 2.9: a) A biquartz; b) Intensities (depicted by the length of arrows) of the

light of different colours emerging from a biquartz when the principal
axes of the polariser and analyser are parallel; c) Intensities (depicted
by the length of arrows) of the lights of different colours emerging from
a biquartz when the analyser is rotated.
With the above background knowledge about polarisation of light, working of

polarimeter, and functions of half-shade plate and biquartz, you are equipped
fully to perform the experiment. But before that, we would like you to answer a
SAQ!
SAQ 1 - Half-shade plate and biquartz

Which arrangement – half-shade plate or biquartz – did you get in the
polarimeter in your physics laboratory? Is it appropriate for the light source
you will use for the experiment?
2.4 PROCEDURE
Before performing the actual experiment, you have to take care of some
preliminaries. We first outline these.
Preparation of Stock Solution of Given Strength (or Concentration)
In this experiment, you will have to work with solutions of different

concentrations to determine the relation between the angle of rotation of the
plane of polarisation and concentration of substance in the solution.
Therefore, you should first prepare solution of maximum concentration (say,
20%) by volume. To do so, follow the steps given below:
1. To prepare the stock solution of 20% concentration of sugar(the optically

active substance), put 20 g of sugar in the clean and dry beaker/flask.
30
First add 50 ml of water and stir till sugar dissolves. Add more water to this
solution to make the total volume 100 ml (c.c.). Filter the solution in a
clean beaker. This is the sugar solution of 20% concentration. This is
your stock solution.
2. Now, you only have to add appropriate amount of distilled water in a given
volume of the stock solution of 20% concentration to obtain solutions of
lower concentrations as described below.
3. Take 50 ml of above stock solution of 20% concentration in a beaker and
add 50 ml water to it. Mix thoroughly. This makes sugar solution of 10%
concentration.
4. Take 50 ml of sugar solution of 10% concentration and add 50 ml of water
to it so that the volume of the solution becomes 100 ml. Mix thoroughly.
This makes the sugar solution of 5% concentration.
5. Repeat the above step to get sugar solutions of 2.5% concentration and
1.25% concentration.
6. Keep these solutions of different concentrations properly labeled.
Now perform the following experiments.
2.4.1 Relation between the Angle of Rotation of the

Plane of Polarisation of Light and the
Concentration of Solution
1. Measure the length l of the tube T (Refer to Fig. 2.7b) between the two
inner surfaces of the end plates with the help of a scale.
2. Determine the least count of the vernier attached to tube T2 .
3. Illuminate the slit S by sodium light (if your polarimeter is fitted with half-
shade plate) or white light (if your polarimeter is fitted with biquartz). You
should consult your academic counselor and know whether the
polarimeter is fitted with half-shade plate or biquartz .
4. Fill the tube T completely with distilled water. You should remove all air
bubbles from inside the tube. If some air bubble(s) persist in the tube, you
will not obtain correct value of angle of rotation. Why? Discuss with your
Counsellor.
SAQ 2 - The polarimeter tube
The cap of the tube is made of glass. Suppose that after filling the tube, you
have screwed the cap rather tightly. Will it affect measurements? How and
why?
5. Put the tube T in its proper position in the polarimeter.
6. Rotate the tube T2 (which is fitted with analyser) until the two halves of the
half shade plate are equally bright (or the two halves of the biquartz have
the same colour). Enter the readings for the positions of the two verniers
( V1 and V2 ) of tube T2 in Observation Table 2.1.
31
7. Repeat step 6 three or four times and determine the mean values X 0 and
Y0 for the 1st vernier ( V1 ) and the 2nd vernier ( V2 ), respectively.
Once analyser is adjusted in correct position with respect to the

polariser, you should not disturb/touch the polariser position during one
complete set of observations. Why? This is because it may change the
plane of polarisation of the incident light.
Observation Table 2.1: Vernier readings when the tube contains pure
water
(i) Length of the tube T between internal faces of the end points =…..
(ii) Least count (LC) of vernier of tube T 2 =............
st nd
Sl. Reading for 1 vernier ( V1 ) Reading for 2 vernier ( V2 )
No.
Circular Vernier scale Total Mean Circular Vernier scale Total Mean
scale S1 reading (S1 V ) ( X0 ) scale reading (S 2 V ) (Y0 )
(V (V1 u /&)) S2 (V (V2 u /&))
1.
2.
3.
Mean value of the 1st vernier, X 0 = ………..

Mean value of the 2nd vernier, Y0 = …………
8. If your polarimeter is fitted with a biquartz, then the tint of passage will be
observable at an angle say, TP . Then, record the observations on
brightness / colour at TP 2q , TP 1q , TP 1,q TP 2q in Observation
Table 2.2. You have to prepare this table (Observation Table 2.2) yourself.
Observation Table 2.2: Vernier readings when the tube contains pure
water
9. Remove water from tube T, wash it with solution of given concentration

once or twice before you fill it completely with the solution.
32
10. Look through tube T2 . What do you observe? If the polarimeter contains
half-shade plate, you are likely to observe that its two halves are unequally
bright. If the polarimeter contains biquartz, its two halves are likely to be of
different colours. This happens due to rotation of the plane of polarization
of the linearly polarised light beam as it passes through the solution.
11. Rotate the tube T2 until the two halves of the half-shade plate become
equally bright or the two halves of the biquartz are of the same colour.
Enter your vernier readings in Observation Table 2.3.
12. Repeat steps 9, 10 and 11 for solutions of other concentrations.
SAQ 3 - Vernier readings
Record the difference between the readings of V1 and V2 and comment on

your observation.
Observation Table 2.3: Vernier readings when the tube T is filled with
solutions of different known concentrations
st nd
Sl. Concentr- Reading for 1 vernier ( V1 ) Reading for 2 vernier ( V2 )
No. ation of the
solution (%) Circular Vernier scale X = (S + V) Circular Vernier scale Y = (Sc + Vc )
scale (S) (V (V1 u /&)) scale (V c (V2 u /&))
( Sc )
1.
2.
3.
4.
You can now obtain the angle of rotation from the two vernier readings as
(take value of X 0 and Y0 from Observation Table 2.1):
T1 X X0
T2 Y Y0
The mean angle of rotation is
T1 T 2
T
2
Record the mean angle of rotation as a function of concentration in

Observation Table 2.4. You may note that this table is to be tabulated using
Observation Table 2.1 and 2.3.
33
Observation Table 2.4: Angle of rotation as a function of concentration
Sl. No. Concentration of Angle of rotation Angle of rotation Mean angle of

the solution (%) for the first vernier for the second rotation
T1 X X0 vernier T1 T2
T
T2 Y Y0 2
(deg) (deg) (deg)
Now plot a graph between concentration, c (taken along x-axis) and T (taken
along y-axis) as obtained from Observation Table 2.4. The graph should be a
straight line passing through the origin. From the slope, (T/c) of this graph you
can calculate the specific rotation, s produced by the solution using Eq. (2.8).
Result: Specific rotation of the given solution = ……………………
2.4.2 Determination of the Concentration of a Solution
1. Rinse the tube T with stock solution of unknown concentration, c (say).
The solute is of course the same as in Sec. 2.4.1 but its quantity in the
solution is unknown.
2. Fill the tube T completely with the solution of unknown concentration and
place it in proper position.
3. Repeat steps 9, 10 and 11 of Sec. 2.4.1 above and enter your vernier
readings in Observation Table 2.5. Take X 0 and Y0 from Observation
Table 2.1. Determine the mean value of rotation (T) as in the previous
case (Sec. 2.4.1). You should take at least four readings and calculate
mean values of X and Y.
Observation Table 2.5: Determination of the concentration of solution
Vernier Reading on vernier Rotation for the Mean Percentage

position Mean vernier rotation concentration
Circular Vernier Total
T1 T2 of the solution,
scale scale (S + V u LC) T
2 c (%)
(S) (V)
T1 ( X X0 )
st
1 X=
=
T2 (Y Y0 )
nd
2 Y=
=
For calculating c in the above table, use the value of s as obtained by the
graph plotted for measurements in Sec. 2.4.1 and use Eq. (2.8).
Result: Concentration of the unknown solution = ………%.
Write this result in Observation Table 2.5. You may now like to analyse the
34 results.
Experiment 3 Cauchy’s Constants of the Material of a Prism
EXPERIMENT 3
CAUCHY’S CONSTANTS
OF THE MATERIAL OF A
PRISM
Structure
3.1 Introduction 3.4 Calculations
Expected Skills Refractive Index for Different Colours
3.2 Theoretical Background of Light
3.3 Measurement of the Angle of Prism and Calculation of Cauchy’s Constants
the Angle of Minimum Deviation
Angle of Prism
Angle of Minimum Deviation for Different
Colours of Light
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Reflection and refraction are the basic properties of light that you have studied in detail in
your school physics classes. A brief introduction to the phenomenon of refraction has been
provided in Experiment 1 of this course where you learnt how to obtain the refractive index of
the material of a prism using sodium light.
It is interesting to explore what happens to refractive index when composite light such as that
from a mercury lamp source is made to fall on a prism.
In this experiment, you will use the skills developed in Experiment 1 to set the spectrometer,
determine the angle of the prism and the angle of minimum deviation for each wavelength of
mercury light. Using these observations, you can determine the refractive index for each
wavelength. This data will then be utilized to determine the Cauchy’s constants for the
material of the prism.
Expected Skills
set-up the spectrometer and calculate its least count;
35
determine the angle of the prism and angle of minimum deviation for
light of given wavelength (colour);
plot a graph between refractive index corresponding to a wavelength O as
a function of 1 O 2 ; and
calculate Cauchy’s constants for the material of the prism.
Before proceeding further, we list the apparatus that you will use to perform
this experiment.
Apparatus Required
Mercury (Hg) lamp, prism, spectrometer (collimator, prism table,
telescope), magnifying glass, spirit level, torch/lamp, scale, cleansing
cloth.
3.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

From Sec. 1.2.2, Experiment 1 of this course, you will recall that the refractive
index of a prism for light of a given wavelength is given by Eq. 1.11:
A Gm
sin
P 2 (3.1)
sin(A / 2)
where A is the angle of the prism and G m is the angle of minimum deviation
for the given wavelength (colour).
You may also recall from Experiment 1 that, for a given wavelength, the angle
of deviation is minimum when the angle of incidence is such that ray inside the
prism becomes parallel to the base of the prism. For this angle of deviation,
the object and the image are at the same distance from the prism, and the
image is the brightest. Refer to Sec. 1.4 to quickly revise the steps used to set
up the experiment to determine the angle of the prism and the angle of
minimum deviation using the sodium light. In this experiment, you can use a
particular colour or white light to determine the angle of prism.
Cauchy’s equation is an empirical relation between the refractive index of a

material and the wavelength of light:
B C
PO A ...... (3.2)
O2 O4
where constants A, B, C are referred to as Cauchy’s constants. As you can

see, this relation predicts that as wavelength of light increases, the refractive
index decreases. Typically, it is sufficient to use only the first two terms of this
equation:
B
PO A (3.3)
O2
In this experiment, you will determine Cauchy’s constants A and B using the
form of Cauchy’s equation expressed in Eq. (3.3). Cauchy’s constants will be
36
1
determined by plotting a graph of P O versus once refractive index
O2
corresponding to different wavelengths (colors) has been determined.
In Experiment 1, you worked with sodium vapor lamp which emits a doublet
with wavelengths ~ 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm. It means that with sodium vapor
lamp, you can determine the refractive indices of the prism for two
wavelengths only. (However, in view of very small difference between the
wavelengths of the sodium doublet, we considered the light emitted by the
sodium source as of single wavelength and carried out calculations accordingly in
Experiment 1.) But the spectrum of a mercury vapour lamp consists of several
(seven) wavelengths and can be used to study the variation of refractive index
with wavelength. The spectrum of a mercury vapor lamp
is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1: A representative emission spectrum of a mercury-vapour lamp [Picture

credit: D-Kuru, CC BY-SA 2.0 AT <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
sa/2.0/at/deed.en>, via Wikimedia Commons]
You may now like to know as to what happens when a composite light like that
from a mercury lamp enters a prism. You may recall from your earlier classes
that an interesting phenomenon of dispersion is observed in which light splits
into its constituent colours (of different wavelengths) as shown in Fig. 3.2.
This is because the refractive index of the material of the prism is different for
different wavelengths. The refractive index increases from red to violet, so the
angle of deviation is greater for violet than for red, as you can note from
Eq. 3.2.
Gr
Fig. 3.2: Dispersion of light from a prism. The angle of deviation is G r for the red
colour. 37
3.3 MEASUREMENT OF THE ANGLE OF PRISM
AND ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
First, you must follow the steps outlined in Sec. 1.4.1, Experiment 1 to set up
the spectrometer and focus the collimator for parallel light. Then, follow the
instructions given here for taking the measurements required to calculate
Cauchy’s constants of the prism.
3.3.1 Angle of Prism

To determine the angle of prism, follow the steps outlined in Sec. 1.4.2 using
one particular wavelength emitted by mercury vapour lamp. Record your
readings in Observation Table 3.1. Take at least two sets of readings.
Least Count (LC) of vernier of the spectrometer = ..........
Wavelength of light used = ..........
Observation Table 3.1: Angle of Prism (A)
st nd
No. of Vernier 1 Position of 2 Position of Difference Angle
Observ Telescope Telescope = 2A of
ation Prism
MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total A
I V1 A1=
1
II V 2 A2=
I V1 A3=
2
II V 2 A4=
A1 A2 A3 A4
Angle of the Prism A ..........q
4
3.3.2 Angle of Minimum Deviation for Different Colours

of Light
After determining the angle of the prism, you have to determine the angle of
minimum deviation for each of the prominent colours of mercury light, namely
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red following the steps outlined
in Sec. 1.4.2, Experiment 1. Record your readings in Observation Table 3.2.
Take at least two sets of readings for each colour. Calculate the mean value
of the angle of minimum deviation for each colour.
38
Observation Table 3.2: Angle of minimum deviation G m for light of

different colours
Sl. Color No. Vernier Minimum Deviation Direct Ray Difference Mean*
No of Light of Ray = Gm Angle of
Obser MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total Minimum
vation Deviation
s
1. Violet I V1 G m1 =
1
II V 2 G m2 =
I V1 G m3 =
2
II V 2 Gm4 =
2. Indigo I V1 G m1 =
1
II V 2 G m2 =
I V1 G m3 =
2
II V 2 Gm4 =
3. Blue I V1 G m1 =
1
II V 2 G m2 =
I V1 G m3 =
2
II V 2 Gm4 =
4. Green I V1 G m1 =
1
II V 2 G m2 =
I V1 G m3 =
2
II V 2 Gm4 =
5. Yellow I V1 G m1 =
1
II V 2 G m2 =
I V1 G m3 =
2
II V 2 Gm4 =
6. Orange I V1 G m1 =
1
II V 2 G m2 =
I V1 G m3 =
2
II V 2 Gm4 =
7. Red I V1 G m1 =
1
II V 2 G m2 =
I V1 G m3 =
2
II V 2 Gm4 =
* Mean Angle of Minimum Deviation

G m1 G m2 G m3 G m 4
Gm ...........q
4
39
We now calculate the refractive index for each color of light and the Cauchy’s
Constants A and B.
3.4 CALCULATIONS
3.4.1 Refractive Index for Different Colours of Light

You can calculate the refractive index P O for each colour (with a typical
wavelength as given in the margin remark) using Eq. (3.1). Enter the results of
The standard values of
your calculations in Observation Table 3.3.
wavelength ( O ) for the
different colours are: Table 3.3: Refractive indices for different colours
Violet : 400 nm
Indigo : 420 nm
Sl. Colour of Wavelength Angle of Minimum Refractive
Blue : 450 nm
No. Light O Deviation Index
Green : 550 nm PO
Yellow : 580 nm
Orange : 600 nm
1.
Red : 650 nm
(Source:
brittanica.com/science/color/
The-visible-spectrum) 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3.4.2 Calculation of Cauchy’s Constants
We now calculate the Cauchy’s Constants using Eq. (3.3).
To do this, you have to plot a graph of the inverse of the square of the
§ 1 ·
wavelength ¨ ¸ for each wavelength O along the x-axis and the
© O2 ¹
corresponding refractive index, PO for that wavelength along the y-axis. Do
the needed calculations and enter the data required for plotting this graph in
Observation Table 3.4. The values of PO and O are to be taken from
40
Observation Table 3.3.
1
Observation Table 3.4: Values of PO and
O2
Sl. No. Wavelength 1 Refractive Index

O 2 PO
O
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
You should get a graph as the one shown in Fig. 3.3. While plotting the graph,
the scales should be so chosen that full span of the graph is utilised. By doing
so, you will minimise error in your calculations.
PO
'P O
B Slope
'§¨ ·¸
1
© O2 ¹
A
§ 1 ·
¨ 2¸
©O ¹
1
Fig 3.3: Plot of PO with
O2
41
The values of A and B are calculated as the intercept on the y-axis and the
slope of the graph, respectively. To calculate the slope, you should use the
maximum possible intercept of the straight line.
Result:
The values of the Cauchy’s constants A and B for the material of the prism
are:
A = ..............................................
B = .............................................
42
Experiment 4 Wavelength of Sodium Light using Fresnel’s Biprism
EXPERIMENT 4
WAVELENGTH OF
SODIUM LIGHT USING
FRESNEL’S BIPRISM
Structure
4.1 Introduction 4.4 Determination of Wavelength of
Expected Skills Sodium Light
4.2 Interference of Light Adjusting the Apparatus
Measurement of Fringe Width
4.3 Fresnel’s Biprism and Coherent Sources
4.1 INTRODUCTION
As a child, you may have enjoyed blowing soap bubbles and seeing bright rainbow colours
reflected from them. On a rainy day, you must have also observed brilliant, though irregular,
colour patterns on the wet road surface due to a thin layer of oil spilt by a motor vehicle. You
may have also realised that colour patterns change if you look at them from different angles.
Have you ever looked at a fairly transparent piece of silk or polyester cloth from a distance?
If you do so, you would observe patterns of bright and dark bands. The bright and dark
bands so produced are known as interference fringes. All the phenomena described above
arise due to interference of light waves. You have learnt about interference of light in Unit 6
of the fourth semester course entitled Waves and Optics (BPHCT-137).
The simplest demonstration of interference of light waves was devised by
Thomas Young. You have learnt about Young’s double slit experiment in Two sources are said
to be coherent if light
Unit 6 of BPHCT-137. You may recall that in this experimental setup,
waves originating from
monochromatic light from a point source is made to give rise to two coherent them are of the same
sources by placing two closely spaced narrow slits in its path. The frequency and have a
superposition of waves from these two coherent sources produces a clear constant phase
interference pattern comprising bright and dark fringes on a screen placed difference between
some distance away. Do you know why we need coherent sources to observe them.
interference pattern?
43
The coherent sources can be produced by a variety of experimental set-ups.
In the theory course BPHCT-137, you have learnt that unlike Young, Fresnel
used a biprism to produce two coherent sources. In this experiment, you will
learn to obtain interference pattern using a biprism and determine fringe width.
(It is the distance between two consecutive dark (or bright) fringes.) This will
enable you to determine the wavelength of the incident monochromatic light.
Expected Skills
set up an optical bench to observe interference pattern;
use a biprism to obtain interference fringes;
determine the distance between two virtual coherent sources;
determine the factors on which fringe width depends; and
determine the wavelength of sodium light.
Apparatus Required
A biprism, optical bench with uprights, sodium vapour lamp, slit,
micrometer eye-piece and a convex lens of short focal length.
4.2 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT

Interference is a phenomenon in which waves, under certain circumstances,
reinforce (intensify or weaken) each other. The phenomenon is understood on
the basis of the principle of superposition of waves. You have learnt this
principle in your school physics course as well as in Unit 2 of the course
BPHCT-137. You know that two identical progressive mechanical waves
travelling along a wire, fixed at the ends, in opposite directions give rise to
stationary waves. The stationary waves are characterised by succession of
nodes and anti-nodes. The nodes are positions of minimum intensity whereas
anti-nodes are positions of maximum intensity. In other words, there is a
redistribution of energy carried by the two superposing waves. This
redistribution of energy is one of the most significant characteristics of the
interference phenomenon.
In Unit 6 of the BPHCT-137 course, you learnt that the interference

phenomenon is also observed with light when light from two coherent sources
superpose. When two or more light waves of same frequency and having
constant phase relation between them are superposed, the intensity of the
resultant light in the region of superposition is found to vary from point to point.
At some points, the intensity equals the sum of the intensities of individual
waves while at some other points it is almost zero. (These are known as
points of maxima and minima, respectively.) This is termed as the
phenomenon of interference. The interference pattern comprises a series of
regularly spaced maxima and minima. If the resultant intensity is zero, or in
44
general, less than what we expect from individual waves, we have

destructive interference (seen as dark fringes/bands). On the other hand, if
resultant intensity is greater than the intensities of individual waves, we have
constructive interference (seen as bright fringes/bands in the pattern).
In the present experiment, you will obtain interference pattern produced by

light form two coherent sources and make certain measurements to determine
the wavelength of the light used. For this purpose, you need to have an
expression which relates the experimentally measured quantities (fringe width,
in the instant case) with the wavelength of light used. Let us now obtain the
expression relating fringe width and wavelength of light used to obtain the
interference pattern. (You have derived this expression in Unit 6 of
BPHCT-137. But, we are giving it here for the sake of completeness.)
Suppose that a narrow slit S is illuminated by a monochromatic source of light.

This, in turn illuminates two other narrow equidistant slits S1 and S2 (called
double slit) separated through a distance d from each other, as shown in
Fig. 4.1. The interference pattern is obtained on a screen placed at a distance,
say D, from the double-slit and parallel to the plane containing these slits.
Fig. 4.1: Schematic diagram of the double slit arrangement used to observe Note that we are
interference of light. discussing here the
interference of light
Let us consider a point P on the screen which is the nearest maxima or caused due to
minima from the origin. Suppose that the two waves emanating from slits S1 superposition of two
and S2 respectively are given as light waves
(electromagnetic
y1 a sin(Zt kx) (4.1a) waves). Thus, you
should keep in mind
y2 a sin(Zt kx I) (4.1b) that the displacements
y 1 and y 2 used in
Note that we have chosen the amplitude of both the waves equal to a because Eqs. (4.1a) and (4.1b)
the two slits are very close to each other. Further, the phase difference I actually represent the
arises because the wave originating from slit S2 travels an extra distance as magnitude of the
electric fields
compared to the wave originating at slit S1. Now, let us know as to what
associated with the light
happens when these waves reach point P on the screen. For simplicity, let us waves emanating from
take point P to be the origin so that the kx term in Eqs. (4.1a) and (4.1b) can slits S 1 and S 2
be dropped. Thus, at point P, we can write the displacements due to the two respectively.
waves as
45
y1 a sin Zt
y2 a sin(Zt I)
Note that the slits S1 and S2 are essentially coherent sources. Therefore, the
phase difference I between the two waves is constant. Since a path
difference of one wavelength corresponds to a phase difference of 2S radians,
we can write
2S
I u ( path difference) (4.2)
O
Refer to Fig. 4.1. We can write the path difference between S1P and S2P as
S 2 P S1P d sin T (4.3)
where d is the separation between the slits S1 and S2. Thus we can write
2S
I d sin T (4.4)
O
y y1 y 2 Now, according to the superposition principle, the resultant displacement, y at

P is given by (see the margin remark)
a sin Zt a sin(Zt I)
I I
Using the identity y y1 y 2 2a cos §¨ ·¸. sin(Zt ) (4.5)
© 2¹ 2
sin A sin B
AB AB
2 sin( ) cos( ) Eq. (4.5) shows that the expression for displacement y of the resultant wave at
2 2
I
we can write point P corresponds to a harmonic wave with amplitude 2a cos §¨ ·¸ . Further,
© ¹
2
I I
y a[2 sin(Zt ) cos( )] you know that intensity of wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
2 2
I I Thus, we can write the intensity of light at point P as
2a cos( ) sin(Zt )
2 2
I
I 4a 2 cos 2 §¨ ·¸ (4.6)
©2¹
Eq. (4.6) shows that the intensity is maximum ( 4a 2 or four times the
intensity of either wave) if
I
nS n = 0, 1, 2, … (4.7a)
2
and minimum (in fact, zero) if
I § n 1 ·S
¨ ¸ n = 0, 1, 2, … (4.7b)
2 © 2¹
Thus, by substituting the value of (I/2) from Eq. (4.7a) in Eq. (4.4), we can
write the condition for constructive interference as
nO
sin T n n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (4.8a)
d
and from Eq. (4.7b) for destructive interference as
sin T n §n 1 · O
¨ ¸ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (4.8b)
46 © 2¹ d
Now, to obtain an expression for the fringe width, refer to Fig. 4.1 again. Let
OP = x. Then, we can write
x D tan T (4.9a)
Thus, the positions of the maxima and minima are given by

xn D tan T n (4.9b)
where Tn is given by Eqs. (4.8a) and (4.8b) for bright (constructive

The wavelength,
interference) and dark (destructive interference) fringes, respectively. O ~ 6000 A֯ ~ 0.6 Pm.
And, the typical value
Finally, if the slit separation is much greater than the wavelength of light used of slit separation,
nO d ~ 1 mm.
(d !! O), then for non-zero values of n, the value of will be very small.
d So, d >> O.
Therefore, it readily follows from Eq. (4.8a) that Tn will be very small. Then in
the small angle approximation, we can take
sinTn | tan Tn | Tn
Hence, Eq. (4.9b) can be written as

xn D Tn (4.10)
So, Eq. (4.8a), in small angle approximation, reduces to

nO
Tn (4.11)
d
Thus, from Eqs. (4.10) and (4.11), we get the position of the nth bright fringe
on the screen as
nOD
xn n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (4.12)
d
Similarly, Eq. (4.8b), in small angle approximation, takes the form
§ 1· O
Tn ¨n ¸ (4.13a)
© 2¹ d
Thus, from Eqs. (4.10) and (4.13), we get the position of the nth dark fringe on You can create
double slits by cutting
the screen as
very fine slits in a
§ n 1 · OD black art paper using
¨ ¸ a shaving blade.
xn © 2¹
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (4.13b) Then using an
d
ordinary lamp, you
Note that by using Eqs. (4.12) and (4.13.b), you can calculate the fringe should be able to
obtain interference
width (that is, distance between two consecutive bright fringes or the distance
pattern. Discuss your
between two consecutive dark fringes): findings with your
peers as well as your
(n 1)OD nOD OD
E x n 1 x n (4.14) academic counsellor.
d d d
So, once we know the wavelength O of the light, slit separation, d and the
distance, D between the double slit and the screen, we can easily calculate
the fringe width. However, in the present experiment, you will measure fringe
width, d and D to determine the wavelength of light using Eq. (4.14). 47
In the above discussion on the phenomenon of interference of light, we
confined to the double slit arrangement in which two coherent sources were
obtained from a given source of light. But, the double slit arrangement
(Fig. 4.1) has some inherent limitations which impact the quality of the
interference pattern. If slits S1 and S2 are very narrow, the amount of light
available for forming the fringes will be very small and the (bright) fringes will
be of feeble intensity. Also, you can argue that these slits may diffract light
and the observed pattern will not be interference pattern. To overcome such
limitations, Fresnel designed an experimental set up to obtain interference
pattern wherein the double slit arrangement was replaced by a biprism to
create virtual coherent sources of light. He demonstrated that the light from
such virtual sources gives rise to interference pattern. We will now briefly
discuss Fresnel biprism arrangement.
4.3 FRESNEL’S BIPRISM AND COHERENT

SOURCES
A biprism is made up of two identical prisms of very small (~ 0.5 ) refracting
angles placed base to base. To understand how a biprism can be used for
creating two coherent sources of light, refer to Fig. 4.2. S is a narrow vertical
slit illuminated by monochromatic source of light. The light from S is made to
fall symmetrically on the biprism having its refracting edges parallel to the slit.
The light incident on each half of the prism is refracted by the corresponding
refracting edge. This gives rise to virtual images S1 and S2 of the slit
S located on its either side. The distance between S1 and S2 is d.
You may recall from

Experiment 1 that the
prism equation is given
as (Eq. (1.11)):
$ GP
VLQ
˩
VLQ $
Since the biprism is
very thin, the angle, A
(which, in case of
biprism, we have
denoted by D) of the
prism is very small and
Fig. 4.2: Formation of virtual images S1 and S 2 of slit S by a biprism.
we can write
DG DG These two virtual images S1 and S2 act as two coherent sources. S1 and S2
sin
2 2 are fairly close to the source S. ( S1 , S and S2 are in the same plane) as the
sin(D 2) D 2 angles of deviation are small. You can verify from Fig. 4.2 that SS1 SS2 aG,
Thus, we can write where a is the distance between the source S and the biprism and G is the
( D G) 2
angle of deviation. We know that angular deviation produced by a biprism is
P given by (see the margin remark)
D2
PD (D G) G (P 1) D
G (P 1)D
where P is the refractive index of the material of the prism and D is base
48
angle. Thus, we can write
S1S2 S1S SS 2 d 2a (P 1) D (4.15)
If the eye-piece is held at a distance b from the biprism anywhere in the region
of overlap of the two refracted beams, the distance of the pair of sources from
the plane of interference will be
D (a b ) (4.16)
On substituting for d and D from Eqs. (4.15) and (4.16), respectively in

Eq. (4.14), we get the expression for the fringe width as
(a b ) O
E (4.17)
2a (P 1) D
This result shows that we can calculate the wavelength of light once we have
measured a, b, D and E, for a biprism of given refractive index.
Since biprism is very thin, the angle D is very small ( | 6 u 10 3 rad) and it is
not convenient to measure it. So, Eq. (4.15) is not very useful for determining
d in this experiment. We, therefore, resort to an alternative method called
method of displacement, wherein d is connected to the separation between
the images of the two virtual sources rather than D. You may like to know how
this is achieved. The answer to this question is given in the following
paragraphs.
A convex lens of short focal length (f ~ 15 cm to 20 cm) is introduced between
the biprism and the eye-piece (Fig. 4.3). The eye-piece is kept at a large
distance from the slit (5f > D > 4f). This condition on D minimises the error in
the measurement of d (see the margin remark on the next page). The convex
lens converges the two refracted beams. We can adjust its position to obtain
clear well-defined images in the plane of the cross wires in the eye-piece. In
fact, while performing the experiment, you will observe that once positions of
slit, biprism and the eye-piece are fixed, there are two positions of the lens,
shown as L1 and L2 in Fig. 4.3, for which clear images of S1 and S2 are
obtained in the eye-piece. When the lens is at one of these positions (say at
L1 ), we obtain magnified images while in the other position (say L2 ), we
obtain diminished images of the sources.
Fig. 4.3: Displacement method to determine the distance between the coherent
virtual sources in Fresnel biprism experiment. Two positions of the
lens between the biprism and the eye-piece correspond to enlarged
images I1 , I 2 and diminished images I 1c , I 2c of S1 and S2 .
49
Suppose that the separation between the two magnified images as seen in the
The condition D > 4f is
a theoretical eye-piece is d1 . If the actual distance between the virtual sources S1 and S2
consideration (see is d, the expression for magnification by the lens is given by
Eq. (4.19a)) but the
d1
condition 5f > D arises m1 (4.18a)
from the practical d
consideration of And, if d 2 is the distance between diminished images of S1 and S2 , as seen
minimising the error in
in the eye-piece, the magnification is given by
the measurement of d,
which is geometrical d2
m2 (4.18b)
mean of d1 and d 2 . d
The error consideration
for the condition can be Now, if u and v are distances of the object and the image, respectively, we
obtained as follows: can write from Fig. 4.3 that
d d1 d 2 u v D
Taking logarithm of or, u D v

both sides, we get From the lens formula, we know that
1 1
ln d ln d1 ln d 2 1 1 1
2 2
v u f
On differentiation, we
get On substituting for u, we can write
'd 'd1 'd 2 1 1 1

d 2d1 2d 2 v D v f
so that if we denote or
' d /d by e, then we D v v 1 D 1
can write
v (D v ) f v (D v ) f
1
e (e1 e2 )
2 This can be rewritten as
and v 2 Dv fD 0
'd1 'd 2
e1e2 . For real roots of the this quadratic equation, we must have
d1 d 2
D 2 4fD ! 0
'd 1 ' d 2
d2 or D ! 4f (4.19a)
= constant Further, if the real roots are v1 and v2, then the sum of the roots is
Since v1 v 2 D (4.19b)
(e1 e2 )2 (e1 e2 )2
But, from Fig. 4.3, we have
4e1e2, e1 e2 will be
minimum when e1 e2 .
u1 v 1 u2 v 2 D (4.20)
This condition implies where u1, v1 are the object and image distances when lens is in position L1
that
and u2, v2 are object and image distances when the lens is in the position L2.
'd1 'd 2
On substituting for v 1 D v 2 from Eq. (4.19b) in Eq. (4.20), we can write
d1 d2
u1 D v 2 D u1 v2
But 'd1 'd 2
? d1 d2 On eliminating v 2 by combining Eqs. (4.19b) and (4.20), you can prove that
That is, d1 and d 2 u2 v1 . Since
should be almost equal. v1 v1
m1 m1
50 u1 v2
Similarly, you can show that The sum of the roots of

a quadratic equation
v2 v2
m2
u2 v1 ax 2 bx c 0
Hence, m1 u m2 1 is equal to b / a. Here
b = D and a = 1.
1 Therefore, sum of roots
or m1 (4.21)
m2 v1 v 2 D
On combining Eqs. (4.18a) (4.18b) and (4.21), we can write
d d1 d2 (4.22)
That is, d is geometric mean of d 1 and d 2 .
By combining Eqs. (4.16a) and (4.22), we can write the expression for the
fringe width as
DO (a b ) O
E (4.23)
d d1 d2
This expression for fringe width constitutes the working formula for this
experiment. Note that all quantities appearing on the right hand side (a, b,
d , d1 , d 2 and E) can be measured to determine the wavelength, O of the
light used in the experiment.
In the next Section, we outline the procedure for determination of wavelength
of light using this working formula.
4.4 DETERMINATIOIN OF WAVELENGTH OF

SODIUM LIGHT
In this experiment, you have to first obtain coherent sources using a biprism
and then get interference fringes in the plane of the cross wires to measure
the fringe width and determine the distance between the coherent sources.
We now give the steps that you have to follow to adjust the apparatus to
obtain interference fringes.
4.4.1 Adjusting the Apparatus

1. Refer to Fig. 4.4. It shows a sodium lamp, an optical bench with four
uprights and an eye-piece.
Fig. 4.4: The experimental setup for observing interference pattern due to
Fresnel’s biprism. 51
2. Arrange the sodium lamp at one end of the optical bench. The sodium
lamp is normally kept in a rectangular box having a small rectangular
opening on one side to allow light to pass.
3. Mount a slit of adjustable width on the first upright and the biprism on the
second upright. You must note that the slit is provided with a screw to
rotate it in its own plane. Using this screw, ensure that the slit is vertical.
Keep the width of the slit very small.
4. Just like the slit, the biprism can also be rotated in its own plane. Also
make sure that the edge of the biprism is parallel to the slit.
5. Now view the slit (illuminated by sodium light) through the biprism. Move
your eye sideways. What do you observe? Does one of the bright vertical
lines appear and disappear suddenly? If it is so, then you can be sure
that the edge of the biprism is exactly parallel to the slit. If the bright
line appears or disappears gradually from top to bottom, then the edge of
the biprism is not parallel to the slit. Rotate the biprism in its own plane till
it is exactly parallel to the slit. In doing so, remember to keep the slit and
the biprism as close as possible 9about 15 cm apart).
6. Now, put the micrometer eye-piece at about 15 to 20 cm from the biprism.
Keep your eye just above the eye-piece and make sure that you see two
images of the slit. If you do not, adjust the position of the biprism or the
eye-piece by moving either of them laterally. However, you should not
disturb the vertical alignment of the biprism while moving it.
7. Next, look through the eye-piece. You should see a number of vertical
bright and dark fringes. The fringes can be seen only if the slit and the
edge of the biprism are exactly parallel to each other. If you do not see
sharp fringes in the field of view, narrow down the slit S and slightly rotate
the biprism in its plane. These two adjustments should enable you to
obtain sharp fringes in the field of view.
8. The next step is to align the biprism and the eye-piece. For this, you
should move the eye-piece away from the biprism along the optical bench.
While you move the eye-piece, keep looking through it to check whether or
not the fringes shift to one side as a whole. If you observe a lateral shift of
the fringes, it means that the line joining the slit and the central edge of the
biprism is not parallel to the length of the optical bench. To remove this
lateral shift, move the biprism (using the screw on the side of the upright)
through a small distance transversely to the bench in a direction opposite
to the direction of the shift till this lateral shift vanishes.
9. Now move the eye-piece forward and check whether the fringes become
narrow without showing lateral shift. The above adjustments should be
done alternately and repeatedly till a longitudinal movement of the eye-
piece on the optical bench does not give rise to a side-ways shift of the
whole fringe pattern.
With the above adjustments, your experimental set up is ready for making
measurements of fringe width. Let us now learn to do so.
4.4.2 Measurement of Fringe Width
1. Note the pitch and calculate the least count of the micrometer of the eye-
piece. Record it in Observation Table 4.1. Consider the left extreme line
52
on the pitch scale as zero. As the head of the micrometer is rotated, the
head scale readings as well as pitch scale readings should increase.
2. To measure the fringe width, keep the eye-piece at a distance of about
20 cm from the biprism and then move the micrometer screw till the
intersection of the cross wires falls on one of the bright fringe (Fig. 4.5).
Note the pitch scale as well as head scale readings and record them in
Observation Table 4.1. (n+10)
3. Next, rotate the micrometer head so that the cross-wires shift by at least Fig. 4.5: Enlarged view
10 fringes. Record the pitch scale as well as head scale readings. The of the fringe pattern.
difference gives us the width of 10 fringes. Note how the
(Note that there is nothing sacrosanct about the number 10; it can be 8 or intersection of the
cross-wires is placed
15 as well. The only important thing to remember is that the larger the th
on any (here n and
difference, greater will be the accuracy of measurement and lesser the th
(n+10) fringe) bright
error.) fringe.
4. Repeat the above step at least three times by starting at different fringes
along the pattern. Calculate the mean fringe width. Let us denote it by E1.
5. Keeping the slit S and the biprism in the same position, move the eye-
piece away by about 40 cm from the biprism. Following the steps 2 to 4
above, again determine the average value of fringe width. Let us denote it
by E 2 .
Note that the purpose of measuring the fringe widths E1 and E 2 by putting
the eye-piece at two different distances D1 and D2 , respectively from the
biprism is to determine the value of (E/D) to be used in Eq. (4.23) for
calculating O. (An alternative and somewhat better method of determining
(E/D) will be to vary D in steps of 5 cm and determining the corresponding
values of E. Then, plot E vs. D and slope of the straight line would give the
value of (E/D).)
Observation Table 4.1: Measurement of fringe width
Least count of micrometer = …… cm
Position of source slit on the optical bench = …… cm
Position of the biprism on the optical bench = …… cm
Distance between biprism and eye-piece = ....... cm
Position of Reading of fringe Shift Mean Mean
eye-piece th th
n (n + 10) E
10E E
10E E
SAQ 1 - Effect of number of fringes
In determining the fringe width E, the cross-wire is first placed on the nth fringe
and then on (n + p)th fringe. In your set up, you could jolly well take readings
on the consecutive fringes. Would it be desirable? Record your experiences
and discuss with your counsellor.
53
6. To determine the distance, d between the virtual coherent sources,
first determine the value of focal length f of the convex lens by focussing a
distant object on a screen.
7. Put the micrometer eye-piece at a large distance (say, more than 4f) from
the source slit S. Next, insert the convex lens between the biprism and the
eye-piece. Adjust the centre of the lens to be in line with the slit and eye-
piece. Move the lens along the bench till sharp enlarged images of the two
virtual sources are seen in the plane of the cross wires. Measure the
distance d1 ( I 2 I1 ) between the images (Fig. 4.3). Move the lens,
towards the eyepiece, till sharp diminished images of the two virtual
sources are seen in the plane of the cross wires. Measure the distance
d 2 ( I 2c I1c ) between the images (Fig. 4.3). Record your readings in
8. Repeat step 7 at least three times and record your readings in
Observation Table 4.2: Measurement of separation between coherent
sources
Sl. Position of Magnified images Diminished images d d1d 2

No. eye-piece (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm) I1 l2 d1 l 2 l1 I1c I 2c d2 I 2c I1c
1.
2.
3.
Calculate the separation d between the two virtual sources using the relation
d d1 d 2
Calculate the wavelength O of sodium light using the relation:

E
O d §¨ ·¸
©D¹
Result: The wavelength of light emitted by the sodium lamp is = ………. nm
A sodium vapour lamp gives out two wavelengths, which are very close to one
another. (The wavelengths are 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm.) Therefore, strictly
speaking the sodium lamp does not emit monochromatic waves. How does
the wavelength measured by you compare with the actual value? You can
change the distance between the source slit and the biprism. How does the
fringe pattern change? When the distance is very large, you should observe
that fringes get crowded. Comment on the relationship between E and D.
If time permits and you can get to know the value of D from your Counsellor,
calculate the refractive index P and comment on the material of the biprism.
54
Experiment 5 Wavelength of Sodium Light using Newton’s Rings
EXPERIMENT 5
WAVELENGTH OF
SODIUM LIGHT USING
NEWTON’S RINGS
Structure
5.1 Introduction 5.3 Observing Newton’s Rings
Expected Skills Theory
5.2 Know your Apparatus Procedure
5.4 Calculations
5.1 INTRODUCTION
From your +2 school physics curriculum, you are familiar with phenomena related to wave
optics like interference, diffraction, polarisation etc. In Experiment 4, you have learnt to
determine the wavelength of light using Fresnel’s biprism. It is based on division of
wavefront. In present experiment, you will learn to determine the wavelength of sodium light
using Newton’s rings method which is based on division of amplitude.
You may recall that for interference of light to occur, light waves should be monochromatic
(of the same wavelength) emitted by a coherent source (i.e., have a constant phase
difference), and of nearly same amplitude (intensity). Interference is normally observed (i) by
division of wavefront (Young’s double slit experiment, Fresnel’s biprism, Llyod’s mirror), or
(ii) by division of amplitude (Newton’s rings, Michelson interferometer). In the case of
interference pattern produced by division of wavefront, the same source is used to generate
two coherent sources. However, in this experiment also, two light waves are derived from a
single wave. The incident wave of light in Newton’s rings experiment is partially reflected
from the curved glass surface of a lens and partly transmitted through an air film trapped
between the lens and the glass plate kept below the lens, from which partial reflection takes
place. (This partial reflection means amplitude of incident wave is being divided.) Two
reflected waves superpose / interfere giving rise to bright and dark fringes in the form of
concentric circles. These rings are known as Newton’s rings.
55
In this experiment, you will learn to use spherometer and travelling microscope
to respectively measure the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens and
the diameter of Newton’s rings. You will observe that central ring is dark
because a phase difference of S is introduced due to reflection from the glass
plate, which is a denser medium.
Before discussing the theory and procedure of Newton’s ring experiment, we

state the skills that you are expected to acquire after performing this
experiments.
Expected Skills
use a travelling microscope;
use spherometer to measure the radius of curvature of a lens;
plot a curve between D 2n and number of rings n under investigation and

interpret them; and
The apparatus that you will use for this experiment is listed below.
Apparatus Required
Sodium vapour lamp (source of light), a travelling microscope , smooth
glass plates of 1 to 2 mm thickness , Plano-convex lens of 5 to 6 cm
diameter and large radius of curvature (~100 cm), spherometer,
magnifying lens and table lamp.
Before beginning the experiment you should get familiar with the apparatus
used in this experiment.
5.2 KNOW YOUR APPARATUS

Travelling Microscope
Refer to Fig. 5.1, which shows a travelling microscope. It is basically a

compound microscope which can be moved horizontally and vertically. It has
two lenses: an eyepiece and an objective mounted at two ends of a cylindrical
tube. The eyepiece has a cross wire which you may focus by sliding the
eyepiece in or out. It has a steel/cast iron base fitted with levelling screws.
A metallic carriage, clamped on a strong loaded bar slides with its attached
vernier. The attached vernier helps to increase the accuracy of measurement.
We can get an idea about this by calculating its least count. You have learnt to
Fig. 5.1: A travelling
calculate least count of a vernier callipers in your earlier laboratory courses.
microscope.
Yet for completeness, we repeat the steps for your ease. Suppose that the
main scale least count (minimum length it can measure) is 0.5 mm. It means
that it can be used to measure lengths greater than or equal to 0.5 mm.
However, once a vernier scale whose 50 divisions coincide with say 49 main
56 scale divisions, the length of 1 vernier scale division is
1 Vernier Scale Division = length of §¨

49 ·
¸ Main Scale Division
© 50 ¹
Hence, the least count (or vernier constant) of the instrument in the instant
case has the value
[1MSD 1 VSD] ª1 § 49 ·º
Least Count (LC) «¬ ¨© 50 ¸¹»¼
u value of length of 1 Main Scale Division
§ 1 · X 0.5 mm = 0.01mm or 0.001cm

¨ ¸
© 50 ¹
The length measured by such a device is given as
Length = Main Scale Reading + (Least Count) u (Vernier Scale Reading)
To ensure that you have understood the process of calculation of least count,
we would like you to repeat the above exercise for a Vernier Callipers where
9 MSD coincide with 10 VSD.
Spherometer
Fig. 5.2: A spherometer.
Refer to Fig. 5.2. It shows a spherometer. A spherometer is a mechanical

device used for measuring small thickness and the radius of curvature of
curved surfaces such as spherical mirrors and lenses. You may have used it
in your school physics laboratory. A spherometer consists of a metallic tripod
frame supported on three fixed legs (A, B and C in Fig. 5.2) of the same size.
A screw passes through the centre of the tripod frame parallel to the three
legs. At the centre of the tripod frame, there is a screw S which is parallel to
the legs and which can be raised or lowered by rotating it up and down
through a hole at D. When the screw is lowered to touch the surface on which
the three legs rest, the point where screw S touches the surface is the centre
of the equilateral triangle formed by the three legs. This point is also the
centre of a circle passing through the three points marked by the legs of the
spherometer. A graduated circular disc, usually with 100 equal parts is
attached to the top of the screw. A small vertical scale, with graduations in
millimetres, is fixed at one end of the tripod. It is referred to as the pitch scale.
The least count of a spherometer is calculated by noting the counts displaced

on the main scale when the circular scale has made one complete rotation. If
57
there are 50 marking on the circular scale and on one complete rotation, a
displacement of 0.05 cm is observed on the main scale, then
Least count of this spherometer = §¨

0.05 ·
¸ = 0.001 cm.
© 50 ¹
What will be the least count if there are 100 marking on the circular scale and
on one complete rotation, a displacement of 0.05 cm is observed on the main
scale? You will agree that it will be 0.0005 cm.
5.3 Observing Newton’s Ring
L1
Double convex lens
L2
Air film P1 P1
P2
Fig. 5.3: Schematic representation of the experimental arrangement used to
observe Newton’s rings.
Refer to Fig. 5.3. It shows the experimental arrangement to observe Newton’s

rings. An extended source of monochromatic light such as sodium lamp is
placed at the principal focus of a double-convex lens (L1) so that a parallel
beam of light reaches the glass plate 2, which is inclined at 45 degree. The
glass plate 2 partially reflects the light incident on it as a parallel beam
towards the air film enclosed by the surface of the plano-convex lens and the
upper surface of the plane glass plate 1. This light is reflected from the bottom
of the plano-convex lens (point P1) and the top of the glass plate 1 (point P2).
These two light waves have a path difference between them due to the
thickness of air film between the points P1 and P2. They interfere leading to
formation of Newton’s rings, which are circular and can be seen with unaided
eye. However, for making measurements, we have to use a travelling
microscope.
58
5.3.1 Theory
To obtain an expression for the radii of Newton’s rings and relate these to the
wavelength of light used, we note that thickness of the air film enclosed
between the lens and glass plate increases as we move away from their point
of contact, O, (Fig. 5.4). However, since plano-convex lens is a part of a
spherical glass ball of large radius of curvature, say R, the air gap for all
points at a distance ‘ rn’ from the point of contact, would be the same. Now
suppose that thickness of the air film where nth dark ring is formed is d and
corresponds to point M and the radius of the dark ring is denoted by rn.
The radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens is R. By invoking the
property of a circle, we can say that LOME = 90q. In Fig. 5.4, N is the foot of
the perpendicular drawn on the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle from the
vertex containing the right angle. Using the property of similarity of triangles
EMN and EMO, we can write
(MN )2 EN u ON (5.1a)
Fig. 5.4: Geometry of the Newton’s ring experiment.
Here we note that EN = (2R – ON). Therefore, we can write
(MN )2 (2R ON ) u ON (5.1b)
On substituting MN = rn and ON = d in Eq. (5.1b), we get

59
rn 2 (2R d ) d (5.1c)
The radius of curvature of the lens in a typical arrangement used to obtain

Newton’s ring is significantly greater than d (R>>d), R=1.0 m and d d 10-5 m.
Physically speaking, the radius of curvature of the lens is far greater than the
thickness of air trapped between the two glass surfaces. In this approximation,
the expression given in Eq. (5.1c) simplifies to
rn 2 2Rd (5.2a)
The subscript ‘n’ has been added to imply that we are talking about the
diameter of the nth fringe.
We can rewrite Eq. (5.2a) as
rn2
2d (5.2b)
R
Note that the interference takes place between reflected waves and the dark
fringes are formed when the path-difference is an integral multiple of the
wavelength (or even integral of O / 2 ). Mathematically, we express it as
2PG cos T nO . For air, P 1 and since light is made to fall normally on the
lens, T 0. Hence, this relation simplifies to
2d nO
On combining this result with Eq. (5.2b), we get
rn nOR (5.3)
Note that for n 0, rn 0, i.e. the central fringe would be dark. However, the
central fringe is circular. This makes it impossible to make an accurate
judgement of the centre and in turn the measurement of the radius of the
fringe. So, from the practical point of view, you should measure the diameter
of the dark fringes. It is related to the wavelength as
Dn 2 nOR
For convenience in calculations, we do away with the square root and rewrite
the relation between diameter of the dark rings and the wavelength as
Dn 2 4nOR (5.4)
where the subscript ‘n’ implies that we are considering the diameter of the ‘nth’
fringe/ring.
Before proceeding further, you should answer the following SAQ.
SAQ 1 - Refractive index of a liquid

Can Newton’s ring experiment be used to determine the refractive index of a
liquid? If yes, suggest the modification required in the apparatus.
60
You are now ready to perform the experiment.

5.3.2 Procedure
1. Calculate the least count of travelling microscope and that of the
spherometer and record these in Observation Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
2. Clean the surfaces of the lens as well as the glass plates well using lint
free cloth or tissue paper. Do not touch the glass plates and lens surfaces
at any time. Always hold them by their sides/edges. Make sure that glass
plates are smooth and free from scratches. You must make sure that there
are no finger prints visible on the glass surfaces. Place the plano-convex
lens on the glass plate. Set the plate (plate 2) at 45q to the horizontal as
shown in Fig. 5.3.
Fig. 5.5: Circular fringes expected in Newton’s ring experiment.
3. Place this arrangement in front of a sodium vapour lamp. Next make sure
that a beam of parallel rays of sodium light from the lamp falls on plate 2.
This can be easily done by placing the Newton’s ring arrangement
20-30 cm away from the extended source. Note that you have to get an
extended source not a point source or slit. Plate 2 should be at an angle of
45$ with respect to the horizon so that a small fraction of light is reflected
along the normal on to the lens-Plate 1 arrangement.
4. Position yourself near the location of “Microscope” shown in Fig. 5.3 so
that you can check visibility of Newton’s rings. Make sure that these are
distinctly visible. In case you are unable to see the fringes distinctly,
check your set up again. If the lens-Plate 1 arrangement is fine, slowly
move Plate 2 to confirm 45$ slant.
5. Set the microscope and focus it to get clear image of the rings. If you find
it difficult to focus the rings, place a tiny piece of paper on top of the lens
and focus the microscope on the paper. Gently blow the paper away and
slowly adjust focus to obtain sharp image of the rings. (In case, the rings
are still not clear, you may seek the help of your counsellor.)
61
6. Set the microscope such that when the cross-wire is moved to left or right
(say, left hand side), it moves along the diameter of the ring (through the
centre) rather than along a chord of the circles.
7. Now, beginning from the central dark spot of the ring pattern, start
counting either bright or dark rings 1, 2, 3 ... till 11 th ring either in the left or
the right side with the help of the cross-wire.
8. Now return back by moving the travelling microscope side screw. Set the
cross-wire on the 10th ring on LHS. Note down the main scale and vernier
scale readings for the 10th ring on LHS.
9. Move the side screw of the microscope and set the cross-wire on 9th ring
and take readings. Similarly, take observations for 8th, 7th ...till 1st ring on
LHS.
10. Now move in the same direction and set the cross-wire on 1st ring on
RHS. Note down the readings. Repeat the process for 2nd, 3rd ...till 10th
ring on the RHS. Record all your readings in Observation Table 5.1. The
difference of the readings of LHS and RHS will give diameter of the 10th,
9th, 8th ... 1st ring under observation.
11. It is important to note that all observations should be taken with movement
along one direction only, i.e., from left to right or from right to left.
12. Remove the plano-convex lens and place it on a plane clean surface with
its plane surface facing down (Fig. 5.6a). With the help of the
spherometer, you now need to measure the radius of curvature of the
lens. To do so, first level the spherometer. That is, place it on a flat glass
plate and rotate the spherometer screw till the centre tip and the three
tripod legs touch the glass surface. This in a way is the zero level reading.
Record it in Observation Table 5.2.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.6: Determination of the radius of curvature of lens using a spherometer.
13. Now rotate the central screw of the spherometer anticlockwise and bring it
up by about one centimetre.
14. Place the spherometer on the curved surface of the lens. Rotate the screw
clockwise so that the tip moves downward. The moment it touches the
curved surface along with the three tripod legs (see Fig 5.6a), stop rotating
it. Record your readings in Observation Table 5.2.
62
15. The difference between these readings (step 12 and 14) gives the
thickness (h) of the portion of the sphere cut off by the plane passing
through the three feet.
16. You should always move the micrometer screws of the travelling
microscope as well as the spherometer slowly and in one direction only to
avoid backlash error.
17. The three tips of the tripod forms an equilateral triangle and to have a
measure of the distance a between the legs, press the spherometer on a
paper and measure distances between the pinholes left behind by the
tripod legs edges (Fig. 5.6b). The radius of curvature can be easily
calculated using the relation
§ a2 3h2 ·
R ¨ ¸ (5.6)
¨ 6h ¸
© ¹
18. Plot a graph between the number of rings (n) and the corresponding
square of the diameter ( Dn 2 ) (Fig 5.7) which is a straight line passing
through the origin. Calculate the slope of this line and use it in Eq. (5.4) to
Observation Table 5.1: Determination of diameter of Newton’s rings using

a travelling microscope
Least Count of the travelling microscope = .....................
Order Reading of LHS edge Reading of RHS edge Dn Dn 2

of Ring (a) (b) (in P2 )
Main Vernier Total Main Vernier Total (in m)
Scale Scale Scale Scale
(a) (b)
20
18
16
14
12
10
63
Observation Table 5.2: Determination of h using a spherometer
Least Count of the spherometer = .....................
S.No On Glass Plate (Zero level) On lens Curved Surface h =(b)(a)
Main Circular Total Main Circular Total

Scale Scale (a) Scale Scale (b)
1.
2.
3.
Mean h = ...... cm
h = ...... m
5.4 Calculations
1. Calculate the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens R using the data
recorded in Observation Table 5.2 in Eq. (5.6).
2. A plot of the order of the ring n along x-axis and the corresponding
diameter square (D n2) along the y-axis should be a straight line (Fig. 5.7)
passing through the origin. The slope of the straight line along with R
give the value of wavelength of the sodium light by the relation [Eq. (5.4)]:
§ slope ·
O ¨ ¸
© 4R ¹
where ‘R’ is the radius of curvature of the lens. .

m
2
Fig. 5.7: Expected graph between (diameter of the ring D) versus number of
rings.
Result: Value of R = ............. m
The wavelength of the sodium light is = ............... nm
64
Experiment 6 Wavelength of Sodium / Mercury Light using a Plane Diffraction Grating
EXPERIMENT 6
WAVELENGTH OF
SODIUM / MERCURY
LIGHT USING A PLANE
DIFFRACTION GRATING
Structure
Expected Skills Adjustment of the Spectrometer
6.2 Diffraction of Light Adjustment of Grating for Normal
Diffraction Grating Incidence
Measurement of the Angle of
Diffraction
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this laboratory course, you have so far worked in situations dealing with refraction of light,
interference of light and polarisation of light. Now you will investigate another phenomenon
associated with the wave nature of light: diffraction. In our day to day life, we observe that
light casts shadows of objects. This implies that light rays travel along straight lines.
However, it has also been observed that light bends around corners if the size of the
obstacle or aperture kept in the path of light is comparable with the wavelength of the light.
This bending of light from the straight line path is called diffraction. The phenomenon of
diffraction was explained by Fraunhofer as well as by Fresnel on the basis of the wave theory
of light.
You have studied diffraction of light in the fourth semester course entitled Waves and Optics
(BPHCT-137). You may recall that the extent of diffraction, that is, the angle of diffraction,
depends on the wavelength of the light used. In this experiment, you will use this fact to
determine the wavelength of sodium and/or mercury light. To perform this experiment, you
will use a spectrometer and a diffraction grating. You have learnt about spectrometer and
how to use it in Experiment 1 of this course. We hope you will be comfortable working with it
65
now. Further, you also learnt in BPHCT-137 that diffraction grating acts as a
collection of a large number of equally spaced parallel slits. This optical device
is very useful for determining the wavelength of spectral lines emitted by a
substance/source.
In the present experiment, you will learn to use spectrometer and a diffraction
grating to determine the wavelength of sodium or mercury light.
Expected Skills
set up the spectrometer for observing spectrum and making
measurements;
set-up grating for normal incidence with respect to incident beam of
light;
measure the diffraction angle; and
determine the wavelength of sodium/mercury light.
Apparatus Required
Spectrometer, plane diffraction grating, spirit level, sodium lamp (or
mercury vapour lamp, as the case may be), and magnifying glass.
6.2 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

From your school physics, you know that diffraction of light is the phenomenon
of bending of light around corners of an obstacle or aperture placed in the
path of light. On account of this bending, light enters into the geometrical
shadow region also. You may recall the essential condition for diffraction to be
observed. That is, the dimensions of the obstacle or aperture should be
comparable with the wavelength of light. The diffraction phenomenon is
explained on the basis of the wave theory of light.
As you learnt in BPHCT-137, the diffraction phenomena are divided into the
following two classes depending upon the relative positions of the source,
diffracting object and the observation screen:
i) Fresnel diffraction
When the source of light or the screen on which diffraction pattern is

observed or both are at a finite distance from the obstacle causing the
diffraction, Fresnel diffraction occurs. In this case, no lenses are used. The
wavefronts are spherical or cylindrical.
ii) Fraunhofer diffraction
In Fraunhofer diffraction, the source of light and the screen (or telescope
used to view the diffraction pattern) is placed at infinite distance from the
obstacle. But, in practice, no equipment can be placed at infinity. In
66 laboratory, therefore, this condition is obtained by using lenses. You may
also recall from your BPHCT 137 that, while superposition of waves is the
basic mechanism responsible for interference as well as diffraction of light,
there are differences in details. In interference phenomenon, superposition
of two separate wavefronts originating from two coherent sources takes
place, whereas in diffraction phenomenon, superposition of secondary
wavelets originating from two different parts of the same wavefront occurs.
Further, interference and diffraction patterns also differ from one another
in respect of brightness of fringes and the fringe width.
Having recapitulated basics of diffraction phenomenon, let us now learn about
diffraction grating.
6.2.1 Diffraction Grating

Diffraction grating is an arrangement of a large number of equidistant, narrow
rectangular slits of equal width placed side by side parallel to one another. A
practical grating consists of a well polished glass or metal surface upon which
a large number of fine, equidistant parallel lines are ruled with the help of a
fine diamond point or similar device. The number of the ruled lines per inch
may vary from 7500 to 15000 and these lines are opaque to light while the
clear/transparent spaces in-between the lines diffract light.
The original ruled gratings are very costly. So, nowadays, cheaper gratings
are available for use in laboratories in the form of celluloid casting called
Replicas. In the physics laboratory, you will be using such a replica (also
called Students’ grating) to perform this experiment.
There are mainly two types of diffraction gratings:
i) Transmission grating which has rulings on transparent glass or sheets.
ii) Reflection grating which has rulings on a metal or some other reflecting
surface.
In the present experiment, you will use a transmission grating. Let us now
learn about the theoretical basis of its working.
Refer to Fig. 6.1 which shows the cross-sectional view of a plane transmission
grating having say, N slits (clear spaces like AB) perpendicular to the plane of
paper. Note that the width of every slit is same and the width of the opaque
space such as BC between any two consecutive slits is also the same.
(However, the width of opaque space may not be the same as transparent
space.) In view of the fact that the width of a slit is comparable to the
wavelength of light, each slit in the grating sends out a diffracted beam and
these diffracted beams then superpose or interfere with one another to
produce a resultant pattern on the observation screen S. When a beam of
monochromatic light of wavelength O is incident on a grating, it gets diffracted
by each slit in different directions. In such a situation, light coming out of the
slits superpose with each other leading to the variation in intensities
manifested as formation of dark and bright bands on the screen S. The
intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern on the screen is such that there
are bright and dark fringes on both sides of a central bright fringe (Fig. 6.1).
The bright and dark bands/fringes correspond to the maxima and minima in
intensity and depend on the path difference between the two superposing
waves. 67
Fig. 6.1: Diffraction due to a transmission grating.
Let us consider that the rays are diffracted at an angle T with the normal. You
may ask: Whether the rays diffracted from two corresponding points A and C
at an angle T will produce constructive interference or destructive interference
at point P? This will be determined by the relation between the path difference
between the two rays and wavelength of the light. To determine the path
difference, we draw a normal AK from point A. Then, CN denotes the path
difference between the rays diffracted from the two corresponding points A
and C. From the geometry of Fig. 6.1, we can express the path difference as
CN = AC sinT (6.1)
If ‘a’ denotes the width of the transparent space, AB and ‘b’ the width of
opaque space BC, then AC = (a + b). Note that (a + b) is called grating
element or grating constant and its value is
(a + b) = 1/N (6.2)
If N be the number of lines per inch, then the
Grating element, (a b) §¨
2.54 ·
¸ cm (6.3)
© N ¹
In terms of the grating element, we can write Eq. (6.1) as
CN = (a + b) sinT (6.4)
You may recall from Unit 6 of BPHCT 137 that, if the path difference is an
even multiple of O/2, the rays from A and C will produce constructive
interference at point P and it will correspond to bright fringe (called, maxima).
On the other hand, if the path difference is an odd multiple of O/2, then the
rays from A and C will produce destructive interference at point P and it will
correspond to dark fringe (called, minima).
Thus, the conditions for obtaining diffraction maxima and minima on the
screen are
(a b) sinT rnO , for a maximum (6.5)
and
68
O
(a b ) sin T r(2n 1) , for a minimum (6.6)
2
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … represents the order of diffraction. Note that, when the

path difference is zero, i.e., all the rays reach a point (point O in Fig. 6.1) on
the screen in phase and we get the central bright maximum. All other higher
order maxima on the either side of the central maximum have gradually
diminishing intensities.
Now the question arises: What is the maximum number of orders of diffraction
produced by a given grating? Let us discover answer to this question. The
condition for maxima produced by a grating is [Eq. (6.5)]:
(a b) sinT nO
(a b ) sinT
? n (6.7)
O
The maximum value of the angle of diffraction (T) is 90q. Hence, the maximum
possible order is given by
(a b ) sin90q (a b )
nmax (6.8)
O O
Having discussed the conditions of maxima and minima as well as order of

diffraction pattern that can be obtained with a given grating, you are now
ready to perform the experiment. Since you have to determine the wavelength
of light emitted by a given source (sodium or mercury), you will use Eq. (6.5)
as the working formula:
(a b) sinTn nO
(a b ) sinT n
? O
n
1
where (a + b) = grating element , n is order of diffraction (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
N
and T n is angle of diffraction corresponding to the nth order.
6.3 PROCEDURE
The procedure for doing this experiment broadly includes the following three
major steps:
x Adjustment of the spectrometer.

x Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence.
x Measuring the angle of diffraction.
6.3.1 Adjustment of the Spectrometer

You have learnt how to set up (or adjust) the spectrometer in Experiment 1 of
this course. You may recall that adjustment of the spectrometer includes its
levelling, adjusting the slit and adjustment of collimator and telescope for
parallel rays using Schuster’s method. You should refer to Sec. 1.3.1 of
69
Experiment 1 and adjust the spectrometer. (You do not have to adjust the
placement of prism because, in this experiment, you will use a diffraction
grating.)
6.3.2 Adjustment of the Grating for Normal Incidence

The grating should be placed/mounted vertically on the prism table of the
spectrometer so that the incident rays are perpendicular to gratings plane.
Follow the steps given below for adjusting the grating for normal incidence:
1. First, bring the telescope (T) in line with collimator (C) to obtain a sharp
image of the slit coincident with the vertical cross wire without placing
the grating over the prism table. Take the reading of either vernier of the
spectrometer.
2. Rotate the telescope through 90q (by adding or subtracting 90q from the
reading noted in step 1 above) and fix it.
Fig. 6.2: Adjustment of grating on the spectrometer.
3. Place the grating (G), mounted in its holder, on the prism table vertically
such that it is almost at the centre of the prism table and the grating plane
is normal to the line joining the levelling screws P1 and P2 of the prism
table (Fig. 6.2a).
4. Turn the prism table slowly until an image of the slit is formed on the cross
wires of the telescope by reflection from the unruled surface of the grating.
(In general, the details of the grating are written on the ruled side of the
grating that helps in distinguishing between its ruled and unruled surfaces.
Moreover, image of the slit in the telescope due to reflection from the
unruled surface is brighter than that obtained from the ruled surface.)
5. Rotate one of the screws, P1 or P2 till the centre of the image coincides
with the junction of the cross wires. This ensures that the grating has
become vertical. In case the slit is not coinciding with the vertical cross
wire throughout its length, then adjust it with the help of the third screw P3
70
without disturbing the other two screws. Note from Fig. 6.2b that, in this
condition, the grating is at 45q with respect to the incident light. Note down
the reading of the prism table.
6. Rotate the prism table through 45q in such a direction that the ruled
surface of the grating faces the telescope. In this position, the grating
plane is perfectly normal to the incident light coming from the collimator.
Clamp the prism table in this position. (Rotate the telescope by 90q to face
the collimator. See through the telescope and you should observe that the
direct ray image of the slit coincides with the cross wire.)
With the above adjustment, the grating is adjusted for normal incidence.
6.3.3 Measurement of the Angle of Diffraction

To measure the angle of diffraction, follow the steps given below:
1. When the telescope and collimator are aligned along a line, you should
observe a fringe pattern with a central bright fringe. Rotate the telescope
slowly in either side of this central fringe till you observe the image of the
slit. This is first order spectrum indicated by OA position in Fig 6.3.
Fig. 6.3: Measurement of diffraction angle.
2. If the resolving power of the grating is sufficiently high, you will observe
two distinct images of the slit in the first order spectrum for sodium lines
D1 and D2 corresponding to the wavelengths 5890 Å and 5896 Å. Fix the
vertical cross wire in between the two closely spaced images and note
down the readings on both the verniers V1 and V2 of the spectrometer in
Observation table 6.1. (In case the two slit images (lines) are not distinctly
separated, bring the vertical cross wire on the centre of the single (but,
little broad) line and note the readings of verniers for the first order on the
left of the central bright fringe.)
3. Rotate the telescope on the other side and coincide the cross wire with the
first order spectrum indicated by OA1 position in Fig. 6.3. Note the
readings of the verniers for first order on right of the central bright fringe in
Observation Table 6.1. The difference of the corresponding readings gives
the values of 2T1 for the first order spectrum.
4. Rotate the telescope further on either side of the central bright fringe and
find the second order spectrum. You will observe that the intensity of the
spectral lines is comparatively less than that in the first order spectrum.
Note the readings and repeat the same for other side. The difference of
two corresponding readings will give the value of 2T 2 for second order
spectrum.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 two more times and determine the mean values of T
for different orders of spectrum.
71
Observations
Least count (vernier constant) of the spectrometer =
No. of lines per inch on the grating N = ………
2.54
Grating element (a b ) .........cm.
N
Observation Table 6.1: Measurement of angle of diffraction
st nd
Sl. Order of Vernier 1 Position of 2 Position of Difference T Mean
st
No. spectrum Telescope Telescope between 1 T
nd
and 2
Positions
T)
(=2T
1 V1
2
st
1 order V2 T1
3 …
1 V1
2 2
nd
order V2 T2
3 …
Calculation for determining the wavelength

For 1st order spectrum,
(a b) sinTn nO
From the observation table 6.1, for the first order spectrum (n = 1) T1 ........q
So, O (a b) sinT1. ..........m
For 2 order spectrum (n = 2), T 2
nd
........q
O (a b) sinT 2 ..........m
Mean O ............ m
Result
The calculated value of wavelength of sodium light = ……………… m
Standard value = ………………. m
% error = ………………
[Note: If you are given mercury lamp instead of sodium lamp in your
laboratory arrangement, the wavelength can be determined using a
diffraction grating following the same procedure as described above.
However, you should be mindful of the fact that the light (white) from
mercury lamp comprises lights of different colours (having different
wavelengths). Since the diffraction angle is a function of the
wavelength, the maxima of different orders are obtained in the
directions (T’s) satisfying the relation (a b) sin T rnO. Therefore,
when mercury light is used, we observe several coloured lines
corresponding to the emission lines of mercury in each order spectrum.
Thus, you can determine the value of wavelength of the different
emission lines of mercury by measuring the angle of diffraction for a
particular line (colour) or for several lines.]
72
Experiment 7 Dispersive Power of a Prism
EXPERIMENT 7
DISPERSIVE POWER
OF A PRISM
Structure
Expected Skills Setting up Spectrometer
7.2 Dispersion of Light Angle of Prism using Sodium Light
Dispersive Power of a Prism Angle of Minimum Deviation for Red,
Yellow and Violet Colour Lights
7.4 Calculations and Results
7.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied dispersion of light in your school physics. Recall that dispersion of light is a
phenomenon in which white light (say, from the Sun or mercury lamp), incident on the
refracting surface of a prism, splits into its constituent colours. The dispersion of white light is
caused due to refraction of different wavelengths at different angles in the prism. That is,
light of different colours, each having a characteristic wavelength, gets refracted at different
angles leading to break up of white light into seven colours. The rainbow we observe in the
rainy season is an example of dispersion of light in nature. The rainbow is produced when
sun light is refracted by tiny water droplets suspended in the atmosphere in the rainy season.
In your +2 physics, you have learnt that dispersion is said to be normal, if
1. Order of the principal colours follows the acronym VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange, Red) in the visible region; and
73
2. Violet light suffers maximum deviation and red light undergoes the
minimum deviation.
We can understand these observed facts about dispersion by noting that

different substances have different refractive indices. And refractive index is
defined as the ratio of speed of light in free space to that in a material
medium. It means that dispersion is intimately connected with speed of light in
a material medium and its variation with wavelength.
In Experiment 1, you learnt to determine the refractive index of the material of

a prism using sodium light. To determine the refractive index, you measured
the angle of minimum deviation for the monochromatic light incident on the
prism. In the present experiment, you will learn to determine the dispersive
power of the material a prism. The dispersive power of a prism refers to its
ability to separate two lights of different wavelengths. For this purpose, you
will need to use a spectrometer to measure the angle of the given prism and
the angles of minimum deviation for lights of different wavelengths incident on
the prism. Therefore, you will be performing Experiment 1 for different
wavelengths (colours).
Expected Skills
set up the spectrometer to determine the angle of the prism;
determine the angles of minimum deviation of a prism for lights of

different wavelengths;
calculate refractive index of the material of the prism for red, yellow and
violet lights; and
calculate the dispersive power of the material of the prism.
When white light Apparatus Required

propagating in air
enters a medium such Sodium (Na) lamp / Mercury (Hg) lamp, prism, spectrometer (collimator,
as glass, its speed prism table, telescope), magnifying glass, spirit level, torch, table lamp,
decreases to about 75 scale, cleansing cloth.
percent of its speed in
air. In other materials,
the decrease can be
even more. The speed
7.2 DISPERSION OF LIGHT
of light in air is about
You know from school physics that when a beam of light passes from one
99.97 percent of its
speed in vacuum. The medium to another, it deviates from its rectilinear path. This phenomenon is
extent by which the called refraction. The refraction of light is associated with the change in speed
speed of light is and wavelength of light as it passes from one medium to another. Recall that
reduced in a medium is speed of a wave is given as v fO .Since frequency of light f, remains
a characteristic of the unchanged when it travels from one medium to another, the change in speed
medium.
leads to change in wavelength. You know that the speed of light in vacuum is
maximum and its speed reduces when it enters any material media from air.
74
(The speed of light in air is taken equal to its speed in vacuum.) For example,
the speed of light in glass reduces by about 25 percent. This reduction in
speed of light causes refraction of light whenever it enters from air to a
material medium or from one material medium (say, water) to another (say,
glass).
You may now ask: How much does a beam of light of given frequency deviate
from its rectilinear path after entering a transparent medium? The extent of
refraction of light in a medium is a characteristic of the medium under
consideration. This characteristic of the medium is signified by its refractive
index, P. As you learnt in Experiment 1, the refractive index of a medium is
defined as
c
P In terms of microscopic
v
parameters, the
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is its speed in the medium. Note refractive index of a
that the refractive index of a medium is always defined with respect to another material is given as
medium from which light enters. In the instant case, we have defined the Refractive index
refractive index of a transparent medium (such as, glass or plastic) with HP
=
respect to air (the medium of incidence). H 0P 0
where H0 and H are the
Proceeding further, recall that white light from the Sun comprises seven permittivity of free
colours, each having a characteristic frequency (or wavelength). When a space (or vacuum) and
beam of sun light is incident on a prism, it splits into constituent colours of material medium
different wavelengths. This phenomenon is called dispersion of light. The respectively and P 0
dispersion of white light by a prism is shown in Fig. 7.1. and P are the
permeability of free
space (or vacuum) and
material medium
respectively.
Fig. 7.1: Dispersion of white light by a prism.
The dispersion of composite light is attributed to the fact that refractive index
of the material of the prism is different for different colors. You may note from
Fig. 7.1 that the extent of refraction of light increases from red to violet; that is,
higher the wavelength, smaller is refraction. In other words, higher the
wavelength, smaller is the refractive index. It means that, in refraction through
a prism, the angle of deviation for the red light is smaller than that for the violet
light.
7.2.1 Dispersive Power of a Prism

The commonly used prisms in physics laboratory are made of either flint or
crown glass. These have different refractive indices for a given wavelength.
What do you understand by this? It means that the extent of dispersion of
75
white light by prisms made of flint and crown glasses will be different. Further,
from Table 7.1 you may note that refractive indices of the flint glass are higher
than those of crown glass for lights of different colours (wavelengths). It
implies that light of all colours will be refracted more by flint glass than by
crown glass.
Table 7.1: Refractive indices for some representative wavelengths
Colour of Light Wavelength (nm) Crown Glass Flint Glass
Red 656.3 1.515 1.622
Yellow 589.3 1.517 1.627
Blue 486.1 1.523 1.639
Violet 396.9 1.533 1.663
The dependence of the dispersion of light on the material of a prism is

represented by a quantity called dispersive power. It is defined as the power
of a transparent medium to separate different colours of light due to refraction.
Mathematically, the dispersive power is represented as a ratio of the
difference between the refractive indices corresponding to two widely different
wavelengths and the refractive index of an intermediate wavelength. For white
light, the red and violet lights are taken as two widely different wavelengths
and yellow light is taken as intermediate wavelength. Alternately, we can also
take the average of the refractive indices corresponding to red and violet lights
as refractive index of intermediate wavelength.
To obtain the mathematical expression for dispersive power, we recall from

Experiment 1 that refractive index of the material of a prism is given as
[Eq. (1.11)]
A Gm
sin( )
P 2 (7.1)
A
sin( )
2
where A is the angle of prism and G m is the angle of minimum deviation (which
is different for different colours).
In small angle approximation, we can take, sinT | T. Using this result in
Eq. (7.1), we obtain
A Gm
2 A Gm
P (7.2)
A A
2
Eq. (7.2) can be rearranged and written as
A(P 1) Gm (7.3)
We know that for different colours, we will have different values of refractive
indices of the prism. If we consider two extreme wavelengths of the visible
light spectrum, i.e. violet and red light, we will get the following expressions
based on Eq. (7.3)
76
A(P violet 1) Gm(violet) (7.4)
A(Pred 1) Gm(red) (7.5)
Fig. 7.2: Angular dispersion of a prism. (Source: Jibin 1840404, CC BY-SA 4.0;
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dispersions.png)
The difference between the angles of minimum deviation for these two colours
is called angle of dispersion (or angular dispersion) (. Since the violet light
is refracted more than the red light, the expression for the angle of dispersion
is obtained by subtracting Eq. (7.5) from Eq. (7.4.) This gives
Angle of Dispersion Gm(violet) G m(red) A(P violet Pred ) (7.6)
To obtain the average refraction of white light, we take the angle of minimum
deviation for yellow light. Then Eq. (7.3) can be written as
A(P yellow 1) G m(yellow) (7.7)
From the definition of the dispersive power, Z, given above, we can express it
as the ratio of the angle of dispersion to the angle of dispersion for yellow
light:
A(P violet P red )
Z
A(P yellow 1)
(P violet Pred)
or, Z (7.8)
(P yellow 1)
Eq. (7.8) is the working formula for this experiment. So, to determine the
dispersive power of the material of the prism, you need to calculate the
refractive indices of the prism for violet, red and yellow lights. You can easily
do so by determining the angle of the prism and the angles of minimum
deviation for each of these colours using a spectrometer. Then, using
Eq. (7.8) you can calculate the dispersive power of the material of the prism.
7.3 PROCEDURE
To perform this experiment, you have to (i) set up the spectrometer, (ii)
measure the angle of the prism, and (iii) measure the angle of minimum
deviation for violet, red and yellow colour lights. The steps for setting-up
spectrometer and taking these measurements are given below.
7.3.1 Setting up the Spectrometer
From Experiment 1, you will recall that for taking any measurement using a
spectrometer, first we need to level it using screws given at the base, level the
77
prism table using spirit level, and align the collimator and the telescope
collinearly.
You now know that a spectrometer has three main components: a collimator,
prism table and a telescope. In Experiment 1 of this course, you have learnt
the functions of each of these components and how to set it up for doing
experiments using a prism. For completeness we reiterate some of the major
steps. First you have to level the spectrometer using screws given at its base.
Thereafter, we level the prism table using spirit level and then align the
collimator and the telescope for parallel rays.
The adjustments required to set-up a spectrometer before working with it are:
(i) the axis of the spectrometer is to be made vertical so that it coincides with
the vertical axis of rotation of the prism table; (ii) the axes of the collimator and
the telescope should be made horizontal so that they are perpendicular to the
axis of the prism table/spectrometer; (iii) the refracting faces of the prism
should be vertical so that it is parallel to the axis of rotation of the telescope;
and (iv) the collimator and the telescope should be adjusted for parallel rays.
The procedure to achieve these adjustments is given in Sec. 1.3.1 of
Experiment 1. You should follow the procedure explained there and set-up the
spectrometer for making measurements.
Once you have set-up the spectrometer, you are ready to measure the angle
of the prism and the angle of minimum deviation for violet, yellow and red
colours.
7.3.2 Angle of Prism using Sodium Light
1. Set up the spectrometer as explained in the previous Section.
2. Determine the least count of the vernier scales of the spectrometer as
described in Sec. 1.4.1 of Experiment 1.
3. Switch on the sodium vapour lamp. (The sodium vapour lamp could be
switched on in the beginning of the experiment as it takes some time to
radiate yellow light fully.)
4. Place the prism on the prism table so that its refracting edge AB and AC
faces the collimator as shown in Fig. 7.3. In this position, the parallel beam
of light coming from the collimator falls on both the refractive surfaces of
the prism. See that the slit is visible from both the faces with naked eye.
Fig. 7.3: Measurement of the angle of prism.

78
5. Move the telescope to a position, say P, so as to receive light after

reflection from face AB and you can see the image of the slit.
6. Adjust the vertical cross-wire of the eye piece so that it coincides with the
image of the slit.
7. Note the reading of main scale as well as vernier scale on both the vernier
8. Now, rotate the telescope and bring it to a position, say Q so as to receive

light after reflection from face AC. Make sure that you can see clear image
of the slit once again.
9. Note the reading of main scale and vernier scale on both the vernier
10. Take two independent set of readings for telescope positions at P and Q
each.
11. The angle between these two positions is equal to 2A. You can easily
calculate the value of the angle of the prism, A.
Observation Table 7.2: Angle of the prism (A)

Least Count of the main scale (M.S.) of the spectrometer = ………
Least Count of the vernier scales (V.S.) of the spectrometer = ……
No. of Observations
Vernier Telescope at position P Telescope at position Q Difference Value

of totals of
(2A) (q) ( A) (q)
MSR VSR Total 1 = MSR VSR Total 2 =
[MSR + [MSR +
(VSR u (VSR u
LC)] LC)]
Vernier 1
1
Vernier 2
Vernier 1
2
Vernier 2
Mean value of the angle of the prism, A =...........
7.3.3 Angle of Minimum Deviation for Lights of Red,

Yellow and Violet Colours
As you have learnt in Sec. 7.1, the refractive index of a transparent material
depends on the wavelength of light. You also know that we need to determine
the refractive indices of the given prism for lights of three different colours to
determine the dispersive power of the prism. For this, you have to measure
the angles of minimum deviation for each of these three colours.
79
To get lights of violet, yellow and red colours, you will use mercury vapour
lamp for this part of the experiment. Follow the following steps for determining
the angle of minimum deviation. We first explain it with reference to the light of
red colour:
1. Place the prism on the prism table with one of its faces AB facing the
collimator and the centre of the prism coinciding with the centre of the
table as shown in Fig. 7.4.
2. Switch on the mercury vapour lamp.
Fig. 7.4: Measurement of the angle of minimum deviation.
3. Look, with unaided eye, through the other face AC of the prism. You will
observe a series of brightly coloured images of the slit formed due to
refracted rays (refer to Fig. 7.5 which shows the spectrum of mercury).
Fig. 7.5: Spectrum of mercury vapour light.
4. Now, focus on any prominent colour, say the red colour, and rotate the
prism table slowly in such a direction that the image seen by the eye
moves as close as possible to the direct ray from the collimator (shown by
D in Fig. 7.4). While doing this, you will note that at a particular stage, the
image will begin to move away from the direct ray. In other words, the
image will just start to move in backward direction. This position of the
prism corresponds to the position of minimum deviation for the red colour.
5. Bring the telescope to this position (position P in Fig. 7.4). Adjust the
vertical cross-wire of the eye piece with the slit image.
6. Rotate the prism table slightly with the help of tangent screw so that the
image moves in the direction of decreasing deviation.
80
7. Rotate the telescope using the tangent screw to align its cross-wire with
the slit image. This is the precise position of the prism for minimum
deviation.
8. Note down both the vernier readings in the Observation Table 7.3.
9. The difference between the mean readings for the minimum deviated ray
and the direct ray (position D in Fig. 7.4) gives the angle of minimum
deviation G m of the prism for the red colour.
Observation Table 7.3: Angle of minimum deviation ( G m )
Least Count (LC) of vernier scale = ………
Line Vernier Telescope at position P Telescope at position D Difference, Mean

(for minimum deviation (for direct ray) (a~b) ( G m ) ( q)
ray) ( G m ) ( q)
MSR VSR Total (a) MSR VSR Total (b)

= [MSR = [MSR
+(VSR u +( VSR u
LC)] LC)]
Vernier 1
Red
Vernier 2
Vernier 1
Yellow
Vernier 2
Vernier 1
Violet
Vernier 2
10. Now move the telescope gently and set on the yellow line. Adjust the
vertical cross-wire on the yellow line with the help of the tangent screw.
Take readings of both the verniers and note down in Observation Table
7.3.
11. Repeat the same process for violet line and note down the readings in the
12. Now, remove the prism from the prism table. Align the telescope with the
direct ray from the collimator so as to see the red colour image of the slit.
Using the tangent screw of the telescope, adjust the vertical cross-wire of
the eye piece with the fine slit image.
13. Note the readings of both the verniers for this position of the telescope and
record in the Observation Table 7.3. This is the direct ray reading. (This
one set of readings of both the verniers (Vernier 1and Vernier 2) can be
used for all the lines/colours.)
81
7.4 CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS
On the basis of the measurement of the angle of the prism and the angles of
minimum deviation for the lights of different colours, you can easily calculate
the refractive index of the prism for each of these colours using Eq. (7.1). And,
using the values of these refractive indices, you can determine the dispersive
power of the material of the prism using Eq. (7.8).
Refractive index for red colour, PUHG ………..
Refractive index for red colour, P \HOORZ ……..
Refractive index for red colour, P YLROHW ………
Dispersive power of the material of the prism, Z = …………
Go to the Academic Counsellor to know the material of your prism. Compare

the experimentally determined value of the dispersive power of the material of
the prism with the theoretical value.
82
Experiment 8 Resolving Power of a Prism
EXPERIMENT 8
RESOLVING POWER
OF A PRISM
Structure
Expected Skills Angle of Prism
8.2 Diffraction and Resolution Angle of Minimum Deviation
Resolving Power of a Prism Aperture of the Slit
8.1 INTRODUCTION
As you know, spectrometer is an optical equipment used for spectral analysis of
polychromatic light such as the white light (from the sun) and the light emitted by various
elements. It is used to determine the wavelengths of colours emitted by these sources. For
this purpose, we either use a prism or a grating. You now know that a prism as well as a
grating has the property of separating different wavelengths in polychromatic incident light.
The process of separation of light into constituent colours in a prism is refraction, a grating
does so due to diffraction.
You will recall from the previous experiment that the phenomenon of separating/splitting
different colours (wavelengths) of white light by a prism is called dispersion. (Note that the
colour of light is the visible manifestation of the light’s wavelength). The (angular) separation
between different wavelengths depends on the dispersive power of the prism which you
learnt to determine in Experiment 7. Recall that the dispersive power of a prism depends on
the refractive index of the prism for different wavelengths. It means that the dispersive power
of the prism is one of its intrinsic properties.
For any optical measurement using a prism spectrometer, we view image of the source of
light through a prism. So, it is necessary that two adjacent wavelengths are sufficiently
separated from each other to be seen distinctly. You may now ask: Can we define a
parameter which determines the separation between the two adjacent images or closely
spaced objects is ‘sufficient’? 83
The answer to this question is in the affirmative; such a parameter is called
resolving power. In this experiment, you will learn to determine the resolving
power of a prism using a spectrometer.
Expected Skills
set up spectrometer for taking measurements;
observe different wavelengths emitted by a polychromatic source using
a prism;
observe the spreading of images of a linear source;
measure small angular separation using a spectrometer; and
calculate the resolving power of a prism.
Apparatus Required
Spectrometer, prism, spirit level, reading lens (magnifying glass), mercury
vapour lamp, an adjustable micrometer slit.
8.2 DIFFRACTION AND RESOLUTION

You may be aware that human eye cannot see two objects or two points on an
object distinct from each other if the angle subtended by them on the eye is
less than one sixtieth of a degree, i.e., one minute. It means that for an object
at a distance of about 25 cm from the eye, two objects/ points on the same
object closer than 1 mm will not be seen as distinct (Fig. 8.1) because the
angle subtended at the eye is less than 1 min. That is, the images of the two
1 Minute points formed in the eye cannot be construed as different/separate. In such a
Eye 25 cm
situation, we say that the eye is not able to resolve them.
Fig. 8.1: Two

points on an object
subtending angle
on the eye.
Fig. 8.2: Images (diffraction patterns) of a) a single point source; b) two point
sources separated by a distance; c) two point sources placed very
close to each other.
Do you know as to why human eye is unable to resolve two nearby points or
objects? This happens because of diffraction of light. You have studied
diffraction of light in Block 3 of the course entitled Waves and Optics
(BPHCT-137). When light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads out to some
extent into the region of its geometrical shadow with the result that the edges
of the shadow are not sharp. Similarly, when light passes through a circular
aperture such as that of a camera, telescope, microscope or human eye, we
observe a spot with fuzzy edges due to diffraction of light by the circular
84 aperture (Fig. 8.2a).
Thus, if we view two point sources of light placed close together, their images
will overlap somewhat, as shown in Fig. 8.2b. But, we can still say that these
images correspond to two different point sources. However, if the two point
sources are very close to each other, their images will overlap to a very large
extent and we cannot distinguish between them (Fig. 8.2c). It implies that
diffraction of light puts a limit on how close two point sources can be for them
to be seen as two distinct points. That is, resolution of two points is limited or
constrained by diffraction and due to diffraction of light, we cannot see two
objects as distinct from each other unless they are located at some minimum
distance from each other. This minimum separation defines the limit of
resolution of the optical instrument.
On the basis of the above discussion, we can say that the resolving power
of an optical instrument such as human eye, telescope or microscope is its
ability to produce distinctly separate images of two nearby objects. The limit
of resolution of the human eye is about 1 minute. (This is the angle
subtended by two points separated by about 0.15 mm at a distance of 25 cm
from the eye.) That is, two objects must subtend an angle more than 1 minute
on the eye to be seen as two distinct entities (Fig. 8.1). Mathematically, the
resolving power of an optical instrument is the reciprocal of the minimum
angular separation at which two point objects can just be seen as two distinct
entities.
Rayleigh’s Criterion
Rayleigh suggested a criterion for resolution of two closely located objects in
terms of the intensity distribution associated with the diffraction patterns
produced by them, as follows:
Two sources are said to be just resolved by an optical instrument if the
principal maximum of the diffraction pattern due to one falls on the first
minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other and vice-versa.
From Unit 10 of BPHCT-137, you may recall that the intensity distribution
curve corresponding to the diffraction pattern produced by a single source
consists of a central maximum and a few faint maxima and minima, as shown
in Fig. 8.3.
Fig. 8.3: Intensity distribution curve of diffraction pattern due to a single source.
If two sources (objects) are kept close to each other then the intensity of
diffraction pattern of the sources are as shown in Fig. 8.4. Note that the
resultant intensity of the diffraction pattern is shown by the dashed line. Also
note from Fig. 8.4 that the maximum of one distribution curve falls exactly on 85
the first minimum of the other and vice-versa. According to the Rayleigh’s
criterion, when this condition is met, the two objects are said to be just
resolved; that is, they are seen as two distinct objects. And when the intensity
maxima of the two patterns are closer than this separation, the two sources
cannot be resolved. That is, the sources would appear to have merged and
appear as one source.
Fig. 8.4: Intensity distribution curves of diffraction patterns due to two sources
1 and 2.
You may now ask: What do we mean by the resolving power of a prism? Let
us learn about it now.
8.2.1 Resolving Power of a Prism

Recall that a prism has a unique property/ability to split polychromatic light
incident on it in separate wavelengths. This dispersive property of prism arises
due to the fact that the refractive index of a prism depends on the wavelength
of light which causes lights of different wavelengths to be refracted at different
angles by a prism. This property of prism is used in spectral analysis of
electromagnetic waves emitted by a source in the visible range. However, the
image of a source of light of a given wavelength spreads out as it passes
through the prism. For two close wavelengths to be seen as distinct
images/lines after passing through a prism, we expect that there would be
some (minimum) separation between them. So, the resolving power of a prism
is a measure of its ability to form distinct images of two spectral lines of very
close wavelengths.
When light from a mercury vapour lamp passes through a slit source and is
incident on a prism, we observe distinct coloured lines through the eye piece
of the spectrometer. (These are essentially images of the slit corresponding to
each wavelength.) If the wavelengths of two just resolved spectral lines are O
and O dO , then O/dO defines the measure of the resolving power of the
prism.
To determine the resolving power of a prism experimentally, we need an

expression in terms of experimentally measurable quantities. Refer to Fig. 8.5,
which shows the section ABC of a prism. Suppose that a monochromatic light
of wavelength O from the collimator is incident on the face AB of the prism,
which has been placed in the position of minimum deviation. Let us now
assume that light covers the whole of face AB of the prism. Let BM be the
incident wavefront and CN1 the emergent wavefront which gives rise to image
I1 in the focal plane of the lens L. If P is refractive index of the material of the
86
prism for the light of wavelength O and t is the thickness of the base of the
prism, then by noting that the optical path between BM and CN1 must be the
same, we can write
MA AN1 P (BC )
Pt (8.1)
Now, we assume that light of wavelength O dO is incident on the face AB of

the prism and it produces an emergent wavefront CN 2 that gives rise to
image I2 . If dP denotes the change (decrease) in the refractive index of the
prism due to dO increase in the wavelength (in accordance with the Cauchy’s
relation), then we can write
MA AN 2 ( P dP ) t (8.2)
Fig. 8.5: A beam of light from a source incident on the refracting face of a prism
giving rise to the image I of the source
On subtracting Eq. (8.2) from Eq. (8.1), we get

AN1 AN 2 t dP
or N1 N 2 t dP (8.3)
If ‘a’ denotes the width of the emergent wave front CN1 and dT is the angle
between CN1 and CN 2 , then
adT N1N 2 t dP (8.4)
Also, the limiting condition for resolution of telescope of the spectrometer is

given by
O
dT
a
where a is the aperture of the objective lens of the telescope (assuming that
the wavefront completely covers the aperture of the objective lens).
Thus, on substituting the above expression for dT in Eq. (8.4), we get
O dP
t (8.5)
a a
On dividing both sides of Eq. (8.5) by dO, we get the expression for resolving
power of a prism:
O dP
t (8.6)
dO dO 87
Note that dP / dO signifies the change in refractive index of the prism with the
change in wavelength. This is also called the chromatic dispersion of the
material of the prism. Do you know that it is related to dispersive power of a
prism? To show this, we refer to Experiment 7 where you learnt to obtain
mathematical expression for dispersive power of a prism [Eq. (7.8)]:
(P v P r ) dP
Z (8.7)
(P y 1) dO
It shows that resolving power of a prism and its dispersive power are related
as
R. P. = t.Z (8.8)
However, you are advised to use Eq. (8.6) as the working formula in this
experiment:
dP
R.P. t (8.9)
dO
where t is the thickness of the base of the prism and dP / dO is the rate of
change of refractive index with the wavelength.
We can obtain the value of dP / dO using Cauchy’s empirical relation:
B
P A (8.10)
O2
where A and B are Cauchy’s constants.
On differentiating both sides of Eq. (8.10) w.r.t. O, we get
dP 2B
(8.11)
dO O3
Thus, Eq. (8.9) can be written as
dP 2Bt
R.P. t (8.12)
dO O3
The – ve sign in Eq. (8.12) indicates that P decreases as O increases.
Fig. 8.6: Light incident on the refracting face of a prism. The effective thickness
of the prism for the incident beam is DE.
Generally, the whole thickness t of the base of the prism is not used in the
experimental set up. So, you should determine the effective thickness
(actual value of t) of the prism so that Eq. (8.12) can be used for calculating
resolving power. To do so, note from Fig. 8.6 that, for triangle AEG, we can
88 write
AE cos i GE a
since EG is normal on AG and a is the separation between the two rays.
Similarly from triangle AFD, we can write
FD GE a
Since, AH is Normal on DE, we can write the expression for
Effective thickness, t DE 2DH 2HE
2AE sin( A / 2)
a
2 sin( A / 2) (8.13)
cos i
When the prism is set in the minimum deviation position, we have
A Gm i i 2i
A Gm
or i (8.14)
2
So, on substituting for i from Eq. (8.14) in Eq. (8.13), we get
2a sin ( A / 2)
t (8.15)
A Gm ·
cos §¨ ¸
© 2 ¹
Recall that in addition to thickness t, we also need to determine Cauchy’s

constant B to obtain the resolving power of the prism. Cauchy’s constant B
can be determined, for the purpose of this experiment, by using the
expression for the refractive index for just two wavelengths (ideally, we need
to have values of the refractive index for more than three wavelengths for
determination of Cauchy’s constants; you have learnt to do that in Experiment
3 of this course):
B B
P1 A and P2 A
O12 O 22
where P1 and P 2 are the refractive indices corresponding to wavelengths O 1

and O 2 , respectively. On combining the expressions for P1 and P 2 , we can
write
§ 1 1 ·¸ (P1 P 2 ) (O12 .O 2 2 )
P1 P 2 B¨¨ so that B (8.16)
2¸
O
© 1
2
O 2 ¹ (O 2 2 O12 )
On using Eqs. (8.15) and (8.16) in Eq. (8.12), you can easily determine the
resolving power of the prism.
8.3 PROCEDURE
In this experiment, you need to measure (i) the angle of the prism, (ii) angle of
minimum deviation, (iii) aperture of the slit source, and (iv) effective thickness
of the prism. These measurements are to be used to calculate refractive index
of the prism and Cauchy’s constant, B to determine the resolving power of the
prism. We now describe the procedure to make these measurements and do
the required calculations. But, before taking any measurement using the
89
spectrometer, you must adjust the spectrometer using the steps given in
Sec. 1.3.1. That is, you have to level its base as well as that of the prism table,
align the collimator and the telescope for parallel rays and adjust the eye
piece. Once the spectrometer has been adjusted, you are ready to make
measurements.
8.3.1 Angle of Prism

You have learnt to measure the angle of the prism in Experiments 1 and 7.
Follow the steps given in Sec. 1.3.2 of Experiment 1(or in Sec. 7.3.1of
Experiment 7) to determine the angle of the given prism. You should use any
one wavelength of mercury vapour lamp as source for this measurement.
Complete the table given below for recording your readings in Observation
Table 8.1 for the angle of the prism. (You need to make your table.)
Observation Table 8.1: Angle of the prism
Least count of the main scale (M.S.) of the spectrometer = ………
Least count (LC) of the vernier scales of the spectrometer = ……
st nd
Sl. Vernier 1 Position of 2 Position of Difference Angle of
No. Telescope (X) Telescope (Y) (Y– X) = 2A Prism
(A)
V1
1
V2
V1
2
V2
Mean value of the angle, A of the prism =...........

You should get a value of about 60 degree. In case your result shows large
deviation, you should repeat the steps and calculate the angle of prism again.
8.3.2 Angle of Minimum Deviation

As can be seen from Eq. (8.16), you need to calculate refractive index of the
prism for two different wavelengths O 1 and O 2 to determine the Cauchy’s
constant B. To this end, you need to determine the angle of minimum
deviation of the prism for these two wavelengths. You have learnt to do this
measurement in Experiment 7. Use the mercury vapour lamp as source and
follow the steps given in Sec. 7.3.2 of Experiment 7 to measure the angle of
minimum deviation for two wavelengths O 1 and O 2 of yellow colour which are
very close to each other by taking readings of both the verniers V1 and V2 of
the spectrometer. Complete the observation table (Observation Table 8.2)
given below and record your readings.
The wavelengths of the two nearby yellow lines of the mercury vapour lamp
are:
90 O 1 = 5769.9 Å and O 2 = 5790.7 Å
Observation Table 8.2: Angle of minimum deviation for wavelengths O 1
and O 2
Sl. Line/ Vernier Minimum Deviation Direct ray Difference Mean

No. Wave- Ray (X) (Y) (Y– X) = (Gm) (Gm)
length
V1
1 O 1
V2
V1
2 O 2
V2
8.3.3 Aperture of the Slit

To measure the aperture, a of the slit, follow the steps given below:
1. While keeping the prism in the position of minimum deviation, attach an
adjustable micrometer slit in front of the telescope objective. Keep the slit
aperture sufficiently wide at this stage.
2. Now slowly decrease the width of the micrometer slit with the help of
attached micrometer screw till the two yellow lines are just seen as
separate (resolved). Record the micrometer reading in Observation Table
8.3.
3. Further turn the screw till the micrometer slit just gets closed without
applying extra force. Note down the reading again. The difference of these
two readings gives the width of the slit (i.e. aperture) a.
4. Now open the slit slowly by turning the screw till light appears again and
the two yellow lines are just resolved. Note the reading. The difference
gives a.
5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 one more time while closing and opening the slit.
6. Calculate the mean value of a.
Observation Table 8.3: Slit width (aperture)
No. of Micrometer Reading Mean
Obser- ‘a’
While closing While opening
vation
Lines just Slit Difference Lines just Slit Difference
resolved closed ‘a’ resolved closed ‘a’
1.
2.
[Note: In case the adjustable slit with micrometer scale is not available in the
laboratory, you can do the experiment with an ordinary adjustable slit and
measure its width a in this position when it was just resolving the two yellow
lines of the spectrum by using a travelling microscope also. If you measure
the slit width (aperture) using a travelling microscope, use the following
observation table (Observation Table 8.4).] 91
Observation Table 8.4: Slit width (aperture) using Travelling Microscope
Least count of travelling microscope =
No. of Cross wire Cross wire focussed Slit width ‘a’ Mean ‘a’
observation focussed on one on other edge of slit ( X1 ~ X 2 )
edge of slit X 1 X2
1.
2.

The value of slit width (aperture) (Observation Table 8.3 (or 8.4)) is:
a = ………….
The value of the angle of the prism (Observation Table 8.1) is:
A = ………….
Using the values of the angles of minimum deviation G m1 and G m 2
corresponding to wavelength O 1 and O 2 , calculate P1 and P 2 using the
formula:
A Gm ·
sin §¨ ¸
P © 2 ¹
sin ( A / 2)
Calculate the value of Cauchy’s constant B using the values of O 1 , O 2 , P1 and

P 2 in Eq. (8.16):
B = .......
For calculating the effective thickness (t) of the prism, use the mean of G m1
and G m 2 for G m in Eq. (8.15):
t = .......
Substituting the values of B, t and mean of O 1 and O 2 as O in Eq. (8.12),
calculate the value of the resolving power (R.P.) of the prism.
Result: The resolving power of the given prism = .........
92
Experiment 9 Diffraction from a Wire
EXPERIMENT 9
DIFFRACTION
FROM A WIRE
Structure
Expected Skills Measurement of Thickness of Wire
9.2 Diffraction of Light Obtaining Diffraction Pattern
Diffraction from a Wire Measurement of Distance of
Minima from Principal Maximum
9.1 INTRODUCTION
From our everyday experience, we know that we can hear people talking in an adjoining
room whose door is open. This is due to bending of sound waves around the corners of the
door. Similarly, if you closely examine shadows cast by objects, you will observe that the
edges of shadows are not sharp. This is because the light has bent slightly due to diffraction
at the edges of the object and entered the shadow region. And if you look at a distant street
lamp at night and squint, you will observe that light appears to streak out. This is because
light has bent around the corners of your eyelids. The bending of light around corners is
known as diffraction. Diffraction is exhibited by all waves; mechanical waves such as sound
and water waves as well as electromagnetic waves such as light or radio waves.
The objects we come across in everyday life are generally about 105 times bigger than the
wavelength of light. In such a situation, though diffraction of light does occur but it is not
prominent and light appears to follow a rectilinear path. When the size of the
objects/obstacle, either transparent or opaque becomes comparable to the wavelength of
light, diffraction effects are prominently observed. However, it is important to note that
diffraction of light by even macroscopic objects can be observed under suitable conditions.
One of the objectives of this experiment is to observe diffraction of light by a macroscopic
object in the form of a thin wire.
93
You have learnt in Block 3 of Waves and Optics course (BPHCT-137) that
systematic explanation of diffraction phenomenon was given by Fresnel on the
basis of Huygens principle. You have also learnt that diffraction is classified
into two categories, namely Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction.
When the distance between the source (of light) and the obstacle as also the
distance between the obstacle and the observation screen are finite, we obtain
what is called Fresnel diffraction. And, when these distances are infinite, we
observe Fraunhofer diffraction. But the distances in a physics laboratory are
finite. Then, you may like to know: How do we ensure infinite distances
between the source, obstacle and the observation screen? It is done by using
lens and keeping the source and the observation screen at the focus of
convex lens. The theoretical analysis of diffraction of light leads to a relation
between the wavelength of the light used, size of the obstacle, angular
position of the diffraction fringes and distance between the obstacle and the
observation screen. Therefore, by obtaining diffraction patterns for different
types of obstacles and taking measurements of required quantities, we can
determine the wavelength of the light used. In this experiment, you will obtain
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a thin wire using a laser source and determine
the wavelength of the laser light.
Expected Skills
handle a laser source;
measure thickness of a wire using a travelling microscope;
obtain Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a thin wire;
measure the distance of minima from the principal maximum in the
diffraction pattern; and
determine the wavelength of the given laser light.
Before proceeding to perform the experiment, you should know the apparatus
listed below.
Apparatus Required
Laser source, safety goggles, screen, ruled-paper/graph paper, thin -wire,
measuring tape, and travelling microscope.
9.2 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

When light is incident on a very small (of the order of the wavelength of light)
obstacle such as a slit or a wire, it spreads/bends around the edges (Fig. 9.1).
Note that the plane wavefronts (representing the light beam) incident on an
obstacle (slit/wire) become curved due to bending around the edges while
Fig. 9.1: Cross- passing across the obstacle. The diffraction effect is a general characteristic of
sectional view of waves and it occurs whenever a portion of the wavefront is obstructed.
diffraction from a) an From Block 3 of the Waves and Optics (BPHCT-137) course, you may recall
aperture/slit, b) a wire.
that Fresnel diffraction is observed when either the source and the obstacle or
94 the obstacle and the observation screen are separated by a finite distance, i.e.
are close to each other. On the other hand, Fraunhofer diffraction is observed
when source and the observation screen are effectively at infinite distances
from the obstacle. You may ask: What do we mean by ‘close to each other’ in
case of Fresnel diffraction and ‘effectively at infinite distance’ in case of
Fraunhofer diffraction? To get an idea of these distances, refer to Fig. 9.2
which depicts diffraction of light from a distant point source S by a slit of width
b on a screen placed at distance r from the slit.

Fig. 9.2: Plane wavefronts from a distant light source S diffracted by a slit of
width b.
We are said to be in the Fresnel region when the condition D d b 2 O is

satisfied and Fraunhofer diffraction region when the condition D t b 2 O is
satisfied as shown in Fig. 9.2. You should note from the conditions specifying
the Fresnel and Fraunhofer regions depend on the size of the
aperture/obstacle and the wavelength of light for a given separation, D
between the obstacle and the screen.
The theoretical understanding of diffraction given by Fresnel is based on
Huygens principle of wave propagation. You learnt about this in Unit 4 of
BPHCT-137. According to this principle, every point on a wavefront acts as a
point source of spherical secondary waves (called wavelets) of the same
frequency and speed as the original primary wave. The wavefront at some
later instant is the envelope of these secondary wavelets at that instant. You
would recall that Huygens could successfully explain the phenomena of
reflection and refraction on the basis of this principle, but it failed to explain as
to what happens with the backward travelling secondary spherical wavelets.
To overcome the limitations of Huygens Principle, Fresnel introduced the idea
of interference of secondary wavelets: Every point on a primary wavefront can
be thought of as source of secondary wavelets whose envelop and
interference forms the wavefront at some later instant. The modified version of
Huygens principle, called Huygens-Fresnel principle, provided a satisfactory
explanation of the phenomena of diffraction. You have studied the detailed
theoretical explanation of Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffractions from a variety of
obstacles in Block 3 of BPHCT-137.
Let us now learn about the diffraction pattern for a thin wire which is the task
at hand for you in this experiment.
95
9.2.1 Diffraction from a Wire
In this experiment, you will learn to obtain Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a
thin wire using a laser source and determine the wavelength of the laser light.
But for the brightness of the central spot, Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
produced by a thin wire is very similar in nature to that produced by a slit
(Fig. 9.3).
Fig. 9.3: Intensity distribution in the diffraction patterns of a single slit and a
wire.
The similarity between the diffraction patterns of a slit and a wire is explained
on the basis of Babinet’s Principle. According to this principle, if we consider
two complementary diffracting objects such as a slit and an obstacle of same
size and shape such as a wire, the diffraction pattern will be same when either
of the complementary objects is used by itself. [You will be able to verify this
when you do the next experiment (Experiment 10) of this course.] Further,
Fig. 9.3 schematically depicts the intensity distribution corresponding to the
diffraction patterns produced by a slit and a thin wire. From
Fig. 9.3, we note that the salient features of the diffraction patterns of a wire
and a slit are:
1. The diffraction pattern consists of a horizontal streak of light along a line
perpendicular to the wire/slit.
2. The horizontal pattern consists of a series of bright spots and the spot at
the centre is the brightest. The central spot is called principal maximum.
3. On either side of the central spot, there are a few more bright spots of
diminishing brightness situated symmetrically. These are called
secondary maxima.
The ray diagram showing diffraction due to a slit and a wire are schematically
depicted in Fig. 9.4. Note that, unlike for the slit (case B), the light diffracting
around the edges of the wire (case A) are directed towards the central spot
where they interfere constructively. In fact, this is true for the entire wavefront
Fig. 9.4: Incident and diffracted rays from a) a wire, b) a slit.
above and below the wire: light diffracting from upper portion and the lower
portion interfere constructively at the central spot on the observation screen.
96
As a result, the central spot of the diffraction pattern of the wire is brighter than
central spot of the diffraction pattern of a slit.
As discussed above, the nature of the observed diffraction patterns of a wire
and a slit of comparable dimensions is similar except for the brightness of the
central spot. We now explain the theoretical basis of these diffraction patterns
by considering the diffraction from a slit. We assume that a plane wavefront of
light from a distant source is incident on a diffracting slit AB whose width is b
(Fig. 9.5). The diffraction pattern is observed on a screen located at a distance
D from the slit. You may now ask: What will be the intensity of diffracted light
at any given point on the observation screen? To determine the intensity at
any point in the diffraction pattern, we use Huygens-Fresnel principle. We
divide the slit AB into a number of points A, A1 , A2 , A3 … B and assume that
each of these points acts like a source of secondary wavelets. According to
Huygens-Fresnel principle, the intensity at any point in the diffraction pattern
will depend on the nature of interference of these secondary wavelets at that
point. If the secondary wavelets interfere constructively, the point will have
high intensity and will appear bright but if the secondary wavelets interfere
destructively, the intensity will be low or zero and the point will appear dark.
Fig. 9.5: Cross-sectional view of the geometry for single slit diffraction.
Now, let us consider a point PT on the screen which makes an angle T with
the axis (Fig. 9.5a). In order to sum up the contributions of different wavelets
emanating from the slit at point PT , we need to know their amplitudes and
phases. The amplitudes of the disturbances from A, A1 , A2 … will be very
nearly equal because the distance of the point on the screen from the slit D is
very large compared to the width of the slit (that is, D>>b). To determine how
the phases of the disturbances sum up at any point on the screen, the slit is
divided into n equal parts and the path difference between each pair is
calculated. From Unit 9 of the BPHCT-137 course, you may recall the detailed
mathematical derivation for the intensity at a point in the Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern of a single slit. Here we quote the result only:
2
§ sin E ·
IT I0 ¨ ¸ (9.1)
© E ¹
where, I T is the intensity at a point in the diffraction pattern located at angle T
from the axis, I 0 A 2 is the intensity at the central point ( T 0 ), A na0 is
97
the sum of amplitudes due to n equal parts of the slit wavefront with a 0 being
the amplitude of each part, and
b sin T
E S (9.2)
O
where O is the wavelength of light and b is the slit width. Eq. (9.1) gives the
intensity distribution (intensity for different values of T spanning the entire
diffraction pattern) in the diffraction pattern and explains the experimentally
observed pattern. From Eq. (9.1), you may note that the intensity is maximum
for T 0 [because (sin E/E) = 1] and specifies the central point of the pattern.
This point is called principal maximum of the pattern. The intensity gradually
decreases on either side of the principal maximum and becomes zero when
E rS because sin(rS) 0 . So, we can write the condition for minima in the
diffraction pattern as
E rS,r2S,r3S... mS (9.3)
where m r1,r2,r3... represents the order of diffraction. Note that the value
m 0 has been excluded as it corresponds to the principal maximum ( E 0 ).
Thus, from Eqs. (9.2) and (9.3), we can write the condition for minima as
bsin T mO , m r1,r2,r3... (9.4)
You will get a clear idea of the single slit pattern on the basis of the following
qualitative arguments and using Eq. (9.4). To do so, refer to Fig. 9.5b. Note
that the path difference between the wavelets emanating from the extreme
points A and B of the slit and reaching point PT is BN b sin T . You know that
when BN is an integral multiple of O, the resultant intensity at point PT will be
zero. From Eq. (9.4), we know that, for m 1 , b sin T O.
Now, let us divide the slit AB into two equal parts AM and MB as shown in
Fig. 9.5b. Consider the wavelets starting from two point sources A and M. The
path difference between them is
AM sin T (b 2) sin T ( O 2)
Thus, the phase difference between the waves from points A and M will be S
and superposition of these two waves will result in zero intensity at point PT .
Similarly, for point A1 just below point A, there will be a point M 1 just below
point M such that the path difference between the wavelets generated at these
points will be O/2 .On superposition, this pair also leads to zero intensity at
point PT . We can similarly pair off all the points in the upper half (AM) of the
slit with corresponding points in the lower half (MB) such that the effect of
waves from the upper half of the slit will be cancelled by the waves from the
lower half. So, the resultant intensity at point PT will be zero and it will be
minima in the diffraction pattern. Thus, we may conclude that we will get
minimum intensity at a point in the diffraction pattern for which the path
difference between the rays from the extremes of the slit is equal to O.
To check the validity of the above conclusion, let us consider the case m 2
so that the path difference between the waves from extremes A and B of the
slit is [Eq. (9.4)]: b sin T 2O . We can imagine that the slit is now divided into
four equal parts and by similar pairing, you can argue that the first and the
second quarters have a path difference of O/2 and cancel the effects of each
98
other. By the same argument,, the third and fourth quarters would cancel out
each other. That is, the resultant intensity at point PT will be zero. Similarly,
for m 3 , we can divide the slit into six equal parts and can show that, in
each of the three pairs, the two halves will cancel out effects of one another
and we will again get zero intensity at PT . Thus, when the path difference
between the rays diffracted from the extremes in a particular direction
(determined by T) is an integral multiple of O, the resultant diffracted intensity
in that direction will be zero.
Now, for the purpose of this experiment and required measurements, refer to
Fig. 9.6, which is a simplified version of Fig. 9.5.
Fig. 9.6: Cross-sectional view of the geometry for single slit diffraction.
We know that light is diffracted by a slit of width b and the diffraction pattern is
observed on a screen located at distance D from the slit. Let ym is the
distance of the mth minima from the midpoint of the principal maximum. If T is
the angle of diffraction, the conditions for minima in the diffraction pattern are
[Eq. (9.4)]:
bsin T mO
From Fig. 9.6, you may write
sinT ym D2 y m2
If the screen is placed far away (~ 1.0 to 1.5 m) from the slit, we have the
condition D>> ym . So, we can write
sin T ym D
With this value of sinT, the condition for minima takes the form
b( y m D) mO
or, O (bym mD) (9.5)
Eq. (9.5) shows that we can determine the wavelength of light once you know
the slit width b and the distance ym of the mth minima from the midpoint of the
principal maximum.
You may now ask: Can we use Eq. (9.5) for a wire (of comparable thickness)
instead of the slit? The answer is in affirmative; you can use Eq. (9.5) even if
the diffraction pattern has been obtained using a wire as an obstacle. The
distance of minima from the centre of the principal maximum remains the
same for the diffraction pattern caused by a wire of same thickness as in case
of the slit according to Bebinet’s principle. The only difference is that the
centre of the diffraction pattern of the wire would look brighter because the
percentage of the laser beam that is not diffracted by the wire adds to the
intensity of the centre of the pattern.
99
9.3 PROCEDURE
To determine the wavelength of laser light using Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
of a wire, you need to (i) measure the thickness of the wire, (ii) obtain a sharp
diffraction pattern of the wire using the laser light whose wavelength is to be
determined, and (iii) measure the distance between the principal maximum
and minima in the diffraction pattern. The procedures for these activities are
given below.
9.3.1 Measurement of Thickness of Wire

1. Firstly, determine the least count (LC) of the vernier scale of the travelling
microscope and note it down in Observation Table 9.1.
2. Place the wire mounted on the frame vertically near the objective of the
microscope. Keep the wire at a distance of about 10 cm from the
microscope objective.
3. Move the microscope horizontally and locate the image of the wire.
4. With the help of the focusing knob, obtain a sharp image of the wire.
5. With the help of the fine adjustment screw for horizontal movement of the
microscope, align the cross wire of the eye piece with the left edge of the
wire. Fix the position of the microscope with the help of the screw. Note
down the main scale and vernier scale readings in the Observation
Table 9.1.
6. Move the microscope slowly towards other edge of the wire and keep
looking through the eye piece. Align the cross wire of the eye piece with
the right edge of the wire. Fix the position of the microscope. As before,
note down the main scale and vernier scale readings in the Observation
Table 9.1.
7. Take 2 to 3 readings at different points along the length of the wire by
repeating steps 3 to 6 and note down the readings in the Observation
Table 9.1.
Observation Table 9.1: Thickness of the wire
Least Count of the Travelling Microscope: …….. … cm
No. Reading of Microscope Thickness Average

of b (X~Y) Thickness
Reading of left edge (X) Reading of right edge
of Wire
Obs.
(Y) (b)
MSR VSR Total (X) MSR VSR Total (Y)
9.3.2 Obtaining Diffraction Pattern

1. Arrange the laser, wire and the observation screen along a line as
100 depicted in Fig. 9.7.
Fig. 9.7: Experimental set up for diffraction from a wire.

2. Ensure that the wire is taut and the distance between the wire and the
observation screen (which may be a wall) is around 1.5 to 2.0 m. Mark the
position of the wire stand and move it aside.
3. On the screen, attach a ruled- paper with the help of adhesive tape or clips
such that the ruled scale is horizontal. (You may also use graph paper in
place of ruled-paper.)
[Caution: The laser beam can damage your eyes if you look into it either
directly or by reflection from some shiny objects. Therefore, you must be
extremely careful and never let your eyes be in the direct or reflected line
of the laser. Always wear laser goggles. Also, you should not turn the laser
off and on too frequently.]
4. Turn the laser on. With no wire in between the laser and the screen, you
should observe a sharp spot on the screen. Adjust the height of the laser
and the screen so that the laser spot is observed directly on the ruled lines
in the middle of the paper/graph paper.
5. Now, bring the wire (vertically) in the path of the laser beam at the place
marked in step 2. You will observe a horizontal streak of bright spots
(diffraction pattern) as shown in Fig. 9.1. Adjust the distance between the
wire and the screen to make the diffraction pattern sharp.
9.3.3 Measurement of Distance of Minima from Principal
Maximum
1. To measure the distance, y m between the central maximum and mth
minima, mark the fringe pattern with pencil on edges of bright spots on
both left and right side of the central maximum as shown in Fig. 9.8.
Record the readings of the edges in Observation Table 9.2.
2y m
Fig. 9.8: Measurement of distance between minima on the two sides of the
central maximum in the diffraction pattern.
2. Calculate the midpoints of minima for each value of m (= 1, 2, 3, etc.) and

l ~ y r ) 2] . (You may not
subtract one from other to determine y m [ ( y m m
be able to get sharp bright and dark spots for m greater than 3. For the
101
present experiment, taking measurements up to m = 3 should be good
enough.)
3. Measure the distance between the wire and the screen using a measuring
tape.
Distance between wire and the screen, D = ……….. cm.
Observation Table 9.2: Distance of minima from principal maximum
Order of Minima Position on the Minima Position on the Difference Average

minima left of principal maximum right of principal maximum (X~Y) = 2ym ym
(m)
MSR VSR Total (X) MSR VSR Total (Y)

To calculate the value of the wavelength of the laser light, you need to
substitute the values of b (Observation Table 9.1), D and y m (Observation
Table 9.2) in Eq. (9.5).For m =1 (first order minima), Eq. (9.5) takes the form:
O (by 1 D ) ......... nm
Similarly, you can calculate the value of O using data for second and higher
order minima and substituting them in Eq. (9.5). Take the average of these
values of O.
Result: The wavelength of laser light, O .......... nm
102
Experiment 10 Study of Single Slit Diffraction of a Laser using Photo Sensor
EXPERIMENT 10
STUDY OF SINGLE
SLIT DIFFRACTION
OF A LASER USING
PHOTO SENSOR
Structure
10.1 Introduction 10.3 Description the Apparatus
Expected Skills Description of the Laser
10.2 Intensity Distribution and Conditions for Description of the Photo Sensor
Maxima and Minima 10.4 Experimental Procedure
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last experiment you learnt about the diffraction pattern generated by a thin wire. As
you know, diffraction is a property of light in which it deviates from a straight path as it
passes an obstacle or through a very fine slit having a width comparable to the wavelength of
light being used. You are aware that there are two classes of diffraction, namely, Fresnel and
Fraunhofer diffraction and in this experiment we will focus on the latter. We will investigate
the nature of the diffraction pattern which essentially consists of maxima and minima of
varying intensities. A photo sensor will be used to study the intensity changes in the
diffraction pattern. In this experiment, you will also understand the operation of a He-Ne
laser.
Expected Skills
set up and obtain the diffraction pattern from a single slit;
investigate the variation of intensity of a single slit diffraction pattern using laser; and
explain the dependence of various parameters on which the intensity depends.

103
You will require the following apparatus to perform this experiment.
Apparatus Required
He-Ne laser, optical bench, single slits of different widths, laser protecting
goggles, photo sensor, meter scale and screen.
10.2 INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION AND

CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMA AND MINIMA
You are all familiar with the diffraction pattern produced when coherent light
from a monochromatic source falls upon a vertical slit. You have studied this
in detail in Unit 10 of the course BPHCT-137. The typical single slit diffraction
pattern is shown in Fig.10.1, made up of consecutive maxima and minima.
Intensity The central maximum is much larger than those on either side, and the
(a) intensity decreases rapidly on either side of the centre. The maxima and
minima are produced by the constructive and destructive interference of the
light reaching the screen from different parts of the slit. The resultant intensity
(b) is therefore different at different places on the screen. What factors does the
intensity depend on?
Fig. 10.1: a) Intensity Consider that a plane wavefront (like that from a laser source) is incident on a
distribution in a single diffracting slit as shown in Fig. 10.2. The diffraction pattern is formed on a
slit Fraunhofer diffraction screen place at a distance L from the slit. OO' is a straight line perpendicular
pattern; b) observed
to the screen from the centre of the slit O.
pattern on a screen.
b T P
x
Oc
O
Fig. 10.2: Ray diagram of light propagation through a single slit.
P is a point situated at a distance x from the point Oc on the screen. The line
OP joins the point P to the centre of the slit. The angle between OOc and OP
is T. The intensity of the diffraction pattern at P is given by the following
relation (Eq. 10.8 of Unit 10, BPHCT-137):
2
ª § Sb sin T · º
« sin¨ O ¸ » ª sin E º
2
IT I0 « © ¹» I0 « » (10.1)
« § Sb sin T · » ¬ E ¼
« ¨© O ¸¹ »
104 ¬ ¼
Sb sin T
where E . Here b is the width of the slit and O is the wavelength of
O
light. I0 is the intensity of the central maxima. The intensity is maximum for
T 0 ( I I 0 ) and it falls off on either side of the central maximum.
The condition for a maximum in the diffraction pattern is
§ 1· S § 1·
E ¨ m ¸ o b sin T # ¨ m ¸O, where m 0, r 1, r 2, r 3,.....
© 2¹ 2 © 2¹
(10.2)
For a minimum in the diffraction pattern the, condition is
E mS o b sin T # mO, where m 0, r 1, r 2, r 3,..... (10.3)
So the width of the central maximum is

b sin T O (10.4)
For small values of the angle T,
x
sin T # tan T (10.5)
L
So the slit width b can be evaluated from the width of the central maxima
using the equation:
OL
b (10.6)
x
10.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS

10.3.1 Description of the Laser
You have learnt in Unit 12 of the course of Optics (BPHCT-137) that a Helium-
Neon (He-Ne) laser is a four-level laser in which Helium and Neon gases are
mixed in the ratio 10:1. The gas mixture is placed in a long discharge tube
fitted with plane mirrors, one being highly reflective while the other is partially
transparent, maintained at a pressure of approximately 1 mm of mercury. It
produces a beam of light with high coherence and directionality. The most
prominent wavelength in the visible region, occurring at 632.8 nm, is used for
performing the experiment. Energy is transferred from the excited He atoms to
the Ne atoms on colliding, resulting into lasing action.
[Caution: You must ensure that the laser beam never points directly into
anyone’s eyes as it can cause severe and permanent damage. Switch off the
laser when it is no longer in use.]
10.3.2 Description of the Photo Sensor

The photo sensor is a device sensing electromagnetic radiation, especially,
light. It converts light received as an optical signal into an electrical signal that
can be measured as voltage or current depending on the device. A p-n
105
junction made of suitable combination of materials is the commonly used
photo sensor, it absorbs photons through an illumination window with an anti-
reflective coating and generates equivalent electron-hole pairs in the depletion
region, which can be collected and analyzed using appropriate electronic
circuit.
[Caution: The laser and the photo sensor must be placed as far apart as
possible.]
Fig. 10.3: Set-up for observing the single slit diffraction pattern as viewed from
the side.
10.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
slit
1. Arrange the source, slit and screen/ photo sensor as shown in Fig. 10.3.
Optimise the position of the slit for a clear diffraction pattern to be
observed on a screen (for a particular slit width). A proper alignment must
be done for the laser light to fall on the slit and the screen.
2. You may adjust the distance between the slit and the screen in order to
achieve a sharp and clear diffraction pattern.
Left Right
Edge Edge 3. Adjust the position of the photo sensor to measure the intensity in terms of
current at the central maxima. The intensity is different at different
Fig. 10.4: Cross-wires of the positions as shown in Fig. 10.2. Note down the position of the photo
travelling microscope sensor with the help of the micrometer fitted on it and the corresponding
focussed on the left and current/voltage from the detector in Observation Table 10.1.
right edge of the slit.
4. Now move the photo sensor to another position and take readings of the
position and corresponding current/voltage at this position. Continue to
take the reading on the same side of the central maxima.
5. Repeat Step 4 for different positions on the other side of the central
maxima.
6. To measure the slit width you will use a travelling microscope. First of all
measure its least count. Then focus one edge of the slit on the cross-wire,
as shown in Fig. 10.4 and take the reading. Then focus the microscope on
the other edge of the slit and take the reading. The slit width is the
difference between the readings. Take an average after a few sets of readings.
(Observation Table 10.2)
7. Measure the distance between the slit and the screen (L) with the help of a
meter scale thrice and take the average.
106
Observation Table 10.1: Variation of photo sensor response with

respect to position
Least count of the circular scale of the micrometer = ………….. mm
Position MSR VSR Total Current/ Voltage

(mm) (mm) (mm) (A / V)
Position of the Photo Sensor (Right to the Central Maxima)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Position of the Photo Sensor (Left to the Central Maxima)
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Observation Table 10.2: Measurement of the slit-width using a travelling

microscope
Least count of the microscope = …………………………………….
S. Cross-wire set on Left edge Cross-wire set on Right Width of the Mean Slit
No of the Slit edge of the Slit Slit Width
(a–b) (mm)
MSR VSR Total (a) MSR VSR Total (b)

(mm) (mm)
1.
2.
3.
Average value of the slit width, b =……… mm

107
1. Plot a graph of the photo sensor reading (current/voltage) as a function of
distance. (Take distance on x-axis and current/voltage on y-axis.)
2. Mark the position of the central maximum and calculate the slit width by
taking the distance x from the centre maxima and dividing by the L using
Eq. (10.6). Match your results with the slit width calculated from
108
MPDD/IGNOU/P.O./12K/JUNE, 2022
BPHCL-138
Indira Gandhi National Open University
WAVES AND OPTICS:
School of Sciences
LABORATORY
BPHCL-138 WAVES AND OPTICS: LABORATORY
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BPHCL-138 E (1)

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BPHCL-138 WAVES AND OPTICS: LABORATORY

Course Preparation Team

We wish you good luck and success.

You will require the following apparatus for this experiment.

1.2 REFRACTIVE INDEX

1.2.1 Refraction of Light

The two laws governing refraction of light are

The constant in Eq. (1.1) is referred to as the refractive index of medium b

The value of P for air is taken as unity.

Velocity of light in vacuum

Snell’s law is a natural consequence of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.

1.2.2 Refraction of Light through a Prism

A prism can be made

Fig. 1.3: Refraction of light due to a prism.

In order to determine the refractive index of prism material by any method

SAQ 1 - Angle of incidence and angle of emergence of a prism

Relation between Refractive Index, Angle of Prism and Angle of

SAQ 2 - Angle of minimum deviation of a prism

Fig. 1.4: A typical laboratory spectrometer.

1.3.1 Parts of a Spectrometer

i) the axis of the spectrometer is to be made vertical so that it coincides with

The procedure to adjust different components of the spectrometer is as

Fig. 1.5: Prism on a

Fig. 1.6: Optical levelling of prism table.

b) By Schuster’s method: This is a better and more scientific method for

x Adjust the telescope by rotating it so that vertical cross-wire

x Bring the telescope to this position of the image. This is the

x Now again turn the prism in opposite direction to come back to

x In order to avoid confusion, remember that, when the refracting

The source of light used in an experiment is decided by the objective of the

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

In case of spectrometer, the circular verniers are used to measure angles up

Least Count = 1MSD  1 96'

In some spectrometers, 40 VSD may coincide with 39 MSD and accordingly,

where, A is angle of prism and G m is angle of minimum deviation.

1.4.2 Measurement of the Angle of Prism

Fig. 1.8: Set up for measuring the angle of prism.

iv) Move the telescope to a position, say P, so as to receive light after

Fig. 1.9: Set up for measuring the angle of minimum deviation.

Least Count (LC) of the vernier of spectrometer = ..........

Wavelength of the light used (Na-light) = 589.3 nm

Observation Table 1.1: Angle of Prism, A

MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total

No. of Vernier Minimum Deviation Direct Ray Difference,

MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total

1.4.4 Calculations and Result

Experiment al value  Standard value

Discuss your result with your academic counsellor.

 identify different components of a polarimeter;

 identify the tint of passage of light;

 establish the relation between concentration of solution and angle of

 measure the rotation of plane of polarisation; and

 determine the concentration of a given solution.

You will require the following apparatus for this experiment.

Polarimeter, measuring flask, physical balance, sugar and distilled water.

2.2 POLARISATION AND OPTICAL ACTIVITY

Fig. 2.1: a) Electric field vectors associated with an unpolarised light

The pictorial representation of the unpolarised light as per the simplified

The angle T is given by

Least Count = 1MSD 1 96'

Experiment al value Standard value

identify different components of a polarimeter;

identify the tint of passage of light;

establish the relation between concentration of solution and angle of

measure the rotation of plane of polarisation; and

determine the concentration of a given solution.

calculate Cauchy’s constants for the material of the prism.

S 2 P S1P d sin T (4.3)

y y1 y 2 Now, according to the superposition principle, the resultant displacement, y at

Taking logarithm of or, u D v