Introduction to

UNIT 15 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD Food Preservation

and Processing
PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Methods of Food Preservation
15.2.1 Thermal Processing
(i) Effect of thermal processing on microbial activity
(ii) Effect of thermal processing on enzyme activity
(iii) Effect of thermal processing on food quality
15.2.2 Thermal Processes
(i) Blanching
(ii) Pasteurization
(iii) Sterilization
15.2.3 Thermal Death Time
15.2.4 Food Drying/ Dehydration
(i) Heat requirement for vaporization
(ii) Heat transfer in drying
(iii) Drying and water activity
15.2.5 Cooling and freezing
(i) Air freezing
(ii) Plate freezing
(iii) Liquid-immersion freezing
(iv) Cryogenic freezing
15.2.6 Food Preservation using Chemicals
(i) Salt and sugar preservation
(ii) Other preservatives
15.2.7 Minimal Processing of Fresh Foods
15.2.8 Other Emerging Techniques
(i) Modified atmosphere packaging
(ii) Genetic engineering
15.3 Emerging Technologies for Minimally Processed Fresh Fruit Juices
15.3.1 Pulsed electric field
15.3.2 High hydrostatic pressure
15.4 Let Us Sum Up
15.5 Some Useful Books
15.6 Key Words
15.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises.

15.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, we shall be able to:
• describe the basic principles and techniques of food preservation;
• apply various food preservation & processing techniques;
• comprehend the comparative advantages and efficiency of these
techniques; and
• discuss the emerging trends in food processing and preservation.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
The history of food preservation is presumably as old as the evolution of the 5
mankind, the Homo sapiens itself. There is evidence in recorded history dating
Food Processing back to 3000 years B.C. about converting the harvest surplus of grape into
and Preservation wine and preserving milk by making yoghurt, cottage cheese, butter and ghee.
Preservation by sun-drying of fruits, vegetables, meats, etc; is older than
recorded history and was prevalent even before the discovery of fire by man.
The Indian sub-continent figures prominently in the evolution of food
processing and preservation.

Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a way
as to stop or greatly slow down its spoilage and to prevent food borne illness
while maintaining the food item’s nutritional value, texture and flavor.

Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw
ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals. The food
processing industry utilises these processes. Food processing often takes clean,
harvested or slaughtered and components convert into attractive and
marketable food products. Various techniques are used for this purpose:

1. Addition of heat (or Thermal processing): Application of heat helps

preserve food by inactivating the enzymes, destroying the microorganisms
of both spoilage and public health concern. If it is appropriately packaged
to prevent recontamination, the food can be stored for extended periods of
time. Pasteurization processes only deal with mild heat, aiming at
providing short-term extension of shelf life, in combination with
refrigeration, whereas the commercial sterilization process (canning)
produces shelf-stable products. The heat treatment achieved during the
cooking of foods also helps to render the food more safe and palatable.
2. Removal of heat (or cooling or refrigeration): Since most of the
biological, biochemical, physiological, and microbial activities increase or
decrease with temperature, control at temperature (refrigeration) remains
the most widely used method today to keep food fresh. Because the
spoilage activities are not completely stopped, refrigeration only provides
temporary shelf-life extension. On the other hand, freezing terminates most
of these microbiological and physiological activities (except chemical and
some enzymatic changes). The freezing process can provide a long storage
life, especially when the product is frozen and stored at temperatures
below-18oC.
3. Removal of moisture (or drying or dehydration): All life-sustaining
activities require the use of water, available as free moisture in foods. By
removing or reducing the moisture content, the food can be rendered stable,
because most of the spoilage activities are stopped or retarded. This is the
principle used in such processing applications as drying, concentration, and
evaporation.
4. Controlling water activity: It is not just the presence of moisture in foods
that renders them unstable. It is the availability of moisture for their
activities. Water activity is a measure of the available moisture. A water
activity level of 0.75 is considered the minimum required for most
activities. Water can be bound to salts, sugars, or other larger molecules,
which makes it unavailable. Such conditions can exist in dried products,
intermediate moisture foods, concentrates, etc.
5. Addition of preservatives, (sugar, salt, acid): These have specific roles in
6 different products. Preservatives can selectively control the activities of
 microorganisms and enzymes. Sugar and salt can control the water activity. Introduction to
Some acids (for example, acetic acid- vinegar) have antimicrobial Food Preservation
and Processing
properties. Products such as jams, jellies, preserves, pickles, bottled
beverages, etc., make use of such concepts.
6. Other techniques: Other techniques, such as irradiation, exposure to
ultraviolet light, high-intensity pulsed light, pulsed electric field, high
pressure, etc., have different mechanisms for controlling the spoilage
activity in foods and have been used for shelf-life extension.
There are secondary objectives of food processing as well. They include
diversification of products to provide variety, taste, nutrition, etc., to
provide end-use convenience, facilitate marketing, prepare food ingredients
through isolation or synthesis, and to produce non conventional foods.

15.2 METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

15.2.1 Thermal Processing
Thermal processing implies the controlled use of heat to increase, or reduce
depending on circumstances, the rates of reactions (which could be
microbiological and/or enzymatic and/or chemical in nature) in foods.
(i) Effect of thermal processing on microbiological activity
Thermal processes are primarily designed to eliminate or reduce the number of
microorganisms of public health significance to an acceptable level
(commercial sterility) and provide conditions that limit the growth of
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. Whereas pasteurization treatments
rely on storage of processed foods under refrigerated conditions for a specified
maximum period, sterilization processes are intended to produce shelf-stable
products having a long storage life. Destruction of C. botulinum is the main
criterion, from a public health point of view, in the sterilization of low acid
foods (pH>4.5), whereas other spoilage type microorganisms are employed for
acid foods.
(ii) Effect of thermal processing enzyme activity
Several enzymes (peroxidase, lipoxygenase, pectinesterase), if not inactivated,
can cause undesirable quality changes in foods during storage, even under
refrigerated conditions. For thermal processing of acid foods and
pasteurization of dairy products, inactivation of heat-resistant enzymes
(pectinesterase, phosphatase, peroxidase) is often used as basis. In
conventional thermal processes, most enzymes are inactivated either because
the processes are so designed using them as indicators, or their heat resistance
is lower than other indicator microorganisms. Some of these oxidative
enzymes have been reported to have a very low temperature sensitivity as
compared with the microorganisms.
(iii) Effect of thermal processing on food quality
The application of food processing techniques that extend the availability of
perishable foods also limits the availability of some of the essential nutrients.
Maximizing nutrient retention during thermal processing has been a
considerable challenge for the food industry in recent years. The major concern
from a food processing point of view is the inevitable loss of heat-labile
nutritional elements that are destroyed, to some degree by heat. The extent of
these losses depends on the nature of the thermal process (blanching, 7
Food Processing pasteurization, sterilization). The major emphasis in food processing
and Preservation operations is to reduce these inevitable losses through the adoption of the
proper time temperature processing conditions, as well as appropriate
environmental factors (concentration, pH, etc.) in relation to the specific food
product and its target essential nutrient.
15.2.2 Thermal Processes
(i) Blanching
Blanching perhaps represents the least severe heat of the above processes;
however, nutrient loss during blanching can occur due to reasons other than
heat, such as leaching. Steam and hot water blanching are the two most
commonly used blanching techniques. These conventional processes are
simple and inexpensive but are also energy intensive, resulting in considerable
leaching of soluble components (which occur both during heating and cooling),
and produce large quantities of effluent. With steam blanching, it is possible to
significantly reduce the effluent volume, as well as leaching losses. The
individual quick blanching (IQB) technique is an innovation based on a two-
stage heat-hold principle and has been shown to significantly improve nutrient
retention. The vegetables are heated in single layers to a temperature high
enough to inactivate the enzymes, and in the second stage they are held in a
deep bed long enough to cause enzyme inactivation.
Depending on the method of blanching, commodity and nutrient concerned,
the loss due to blanching can be up to 40% for minerals and vitamins
(especially vitamin C and thiamin), 35% for sugars, and 20% for proteins and
amino acids. Blanching can result in some undesirable color changes resulting
from the thermal degradation of blue/green chlorophyll pigments to yellow/
green pheophytins. Chlorophylls are sensitive to pH and presence of metal
ions. Alkaline pH and chelating agents favour better retention of the green
color. Whereas texture degradation is characteristic of most heat treatments,
low-temperature blanching has been shown to improve the texture of some
products (carrots, beans, potatoes, tomatoes, cauliflower) due to activation of
the pectin methyl esterase enzyme.
(ii) Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a heat treatment applied to foods, which is less drastic than
sterilization, but which is sufficient to inactivate particular disease-producing
organisms of importance in a specific foodstuff. Pasteurization inactivates
most viable vegetative forms of microorganisms but not heat-resistant spores.
Originally, pasteurization was evolved to inactivate bovine tuberculosis in
milk. Numbers of viable organisms are reduced by ratios of the order of 1015:1.
As well as the application to inactivate bacteria, pasteurization may be
considered in relation to enzymes present in the food, which can be inactivated
by heat. The same general relationships as were discussed under sterilization
apply to pasteurization. A combination of temperature and time must be used
that is sufficient to inactivate the particular species of bacteria or enzyme under
consideration. Fortunately, most of the pathogenic organisms, which can be
transmitted from food to the person who eats it, are not very resistant to heat.
The most common application is pasteurization of liquid milk.
We have learnt that the nutritional and sensory characteristics of most foods
are only slightly affected by the pasteurization process because of its mild heat
8 treatment. However, because it is only a temporary method of shelf-life
extension, the product quality continues to change (deteriorate) during storage.
The shelf life depends on the post –pasteurization packaging conditions and Introduction to
storage environment. The most important nonacid liquid food is milk, which Food Preservation
and Processing
has received much attention as a result. Fat-soluble vitamins A,D,E and K are
relatively insensitive to heat, and generally there are no losses of these
vitamins when milk is pasteurized. The extent of loss in thiamin, vitamin B6,
vitamin B12, and folic acid due to pasteurization is less than 10%. Vitamin C
can be lost up to 25%. In milk, pasteurization has no pronounced effect on
colour. Colour differences between raw and pasteurized milks are attributed
mainly to the homogenization. Small losses of volatile aroma compounds
occur during the mild heat treatment of pasteurization. Colour changes in fruits
and vegetable are mainly caused by enzyme activity (polyphenoloxidase) and
the presence of oxygen. Deaeration prior to pasteurization excludes oxygen,
and the heat treatment inactivates the enzyme to minimize colour deterioration
of fruits and vegetables.
(iii) Sterilization
As discussed earlier, sterilization processes are more severe with respect to the
heat treatment given generally to achieve commercial sterility. Obviously,
these products will be subjected to a nutrient loss. The following nutrients are
more sensitive to destruction by heat: vitamins A, B1, B6, B12, C, D, E, folic
acid, inositol, and pantothenic acid, and amino acids such as lysine and
threonine. Because of the possibility of using numerous (infinite) time-
temperature combinations for achieving thermal sterilization, the influence of
the process cannot be easily quantified. The severity of the heat treatment is
determined by the pH of the food (low-acid foods require more severe heat
treatment to ensure the destruction of C.botulinum); the composition of the
food (protein, fats, and high concentrations of sucrose increase the heat
resistance of microorganisms); the heating behavior of the food (conduction,
convection); the nature, size, and shape of the container; as well as the nature
and mode of application of the heating medium. Agitation during processing
offer additional variables to optimize the process.
Studies of the microorganisms that occur in foods, have led to the selection of
certain types of bacteria as indicator organisms. These are the most difficult to
kill, in their spore forms, of the types of bacteria which are likely to be
troublesome in foods.
15.2.3 Thermal Death Time
It has been found that microorganisms, including C. botulinum, are destroyed
by heat at rates which depend on the temperature, higher temperatures killing
spores more quickly. At any given temperature, the spores are killed at
different time durations, some spores being apparently more resistant to heat
than other spores. If a graph is drawn, the number of surviving spores against
time of holding at any chosen temperature, it is found experimentally that the
number of surviving spores fall asymptotically to zero.
An enzyme present in milk, phosphatase, is destroyed under somewhat the
same time-temperature conditions as the M. tuberculosis and, since chemical
tests for the enzyme can be carried out simply, its presence is used as an
indicator of inadequate heat treatment. In this case, the presence or absence of
phosphatase is of no significance so far as the storage properties or suitability
for human consumption are concerned.
The processes for sterilization and pasteurization illustrate very well the
application of heat transfer as a unit operation in food processing. The 9
Food Processing temperatures and times required are determined and then the heat transfer
and Preservation equipment is designed using the equations developed for heat-transfer
operations.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What, in your opinion, is the role of food technology in the modern
society?
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2) What are the four basic methods of processing foods ?
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3) What is pasteurization? Who invented it?
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4) What is the difference between pasteurization, UHT treatment and
sterilization?
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15.2.4 Food Drying/ Dehydration
Drying or dehydration is one of the oldest methods of preserving food.
Primitive societies practised the drying of meat and fish in the sun long before
recorded history. Today the drying of foods is still important as a method of
preservation. Dried foods can be stored for long periods without deterioration
occurring. The principal reasons for this are that the microorganisms which
cause food spoilage and decay are unable to grow and multiply in the absence
of sufficient water and many of the enzymes which promote undesired changes
in the chemical composition of the food cannot function without water.
The low water content attained by drying extends the shelf life of dried foods
without the need for refrigerated storage or transportation. As well, available
surplus can be converted to stable forms. For example, liquid milk is highly
perishable, whereas milk powder is more stable and easy to preserve and
handle. Other examples of dehydrated products in this category include egg
10 and juice powders. Usually, a significant reduction in weight and bulk volume
occurs during drying, which can lead to savings in the cost of transportation
and storage. The rapid reconstitution characteristics and relatively good Introduction to
organoleptic qualities of many modern dehydrated products make them Food Preservation
and Processing
acceptable as convenience foods. A quick look around a modern supermarket
will reveal a wide range of dried foods. Examples of such foods include instant
coffee, tea, milk, chocolate, instant drinks, soup mixes and instant meals
containing dried vegetables, breakfast cereals, and cereal products such as rice,
baby foods containing dried cereals, pasta, dried vegetables (such as potato
flakes or granules), peas, beans, carrots, dried meat and fish ingredients, dried
fruits for use as snacks or in desserts or baked products, and many more for use
in home cooking. To provide such a comprehensive range of products, it is
obvious that food dehydration constitutes a large and very significant part of
manufacturing or food processing activities worldwide.
Drying processes fall into three categories:
• Air and contact drying under atmospheric pressure. In air and contact
drying, heat is transferred through the foodstuff either from heated air or
from heated surfaces. The water vapour is removed with the air.
• Vacuum drying. In vacuum drying, advantage is taken of the fact that
evaporation of water occurs more readily at lower pressures than at higher
ones. Heat transfer in vacuum drying is generally by conduction,
sometimes by radiation.
• Freeze drying. In freeze drying, the water vapour is sublimed off frozen
food. The food structure is better maintained under these conditions.
Suitable temperatures and pressures must be established in the dryer to
ensure that sublimation occurs.
(i) Heat requirements for vaporization
The energy, which must be supplied to vaporize the water at any temperature,
depends upon this temperature. The quantity of energy required per kg of water
is called the latent heat of vaporization, if it is from a liquid, or latent heat of
sublimation if it is from a solid. The heat energy required to vaporize water
under any given set of conditions can be calculated from the latent heats given
in the steam table, which is available in any standard thermal processing text
book, as steam and water vapour are the same thing.
(ii) Heat transfer in drying
We have been discussing the heat energy requirements for the drying process.
The rates of drying are generally determined by the rates at which heat energy
can be transferred to the water or to the ice in order to provide the latent heats,
though under some circumstances the rate of mass transfer (removal of the
water) can be limiting. All three of the mechanisms by which heat is
transferred - conduction, radiation and convection - may enter into drying. The
relative importance of the mechanisms varies from one drying process to
another and very often one mode of heat transfer predominates to such an
extent that it governs the overall process.
In cases where substantial quantities of heat are transferred by radiation, it
should be remembered that the surface temperature of the food may be higher
than the air temperature. Estimates of surface temperature can be made using
the relationships developed for radiant heat transfer although the actual effect
of combined radiation and evaporative cooling is complex. Convection
coefficients also can be estimated using the standard equations.
11
Food Processing For freeze drying, energy must be transferred to the surface at which
and Preservation sublimation occurs. However, it must be supplied at such a rate as not to
increase the temperature at the drying surface above the freezing point. In
many applications of freeze drying, the heat transfer occurs mainly by
conduction.
As drying proceeds, the character of the heat transfer situation changes. Dry
material begins to occupy the surface layers and conduction must take place
through these dry surface layers which are poor heat conductors so that heat is
transferred to the drying region progressively more slowly.
(iii) Drying and water activity
Dehydration accomplishes preservation in two major ways. First, it removes
the water necessary for the growth of microorganisms and for the enzymatic
activity. Second, by removing the water, it increases the osmotic pressure by
concentrating salts, sugars, and acids, creating a chemical environment
unfavorable for the growth of many microorganisms. The microbial stability of
dehydrated foods results from the interruption of vital processes essential to
microbial growth or spore germination. The number and types of
microorganisms that can be associated with foods are extremely large.
Moreover, they differ, depending on the type of foods. And might not remain
constant during the life of a food. These can originate from the raw material or
from contaminations (by people, animals, insects, water, air, contact surface,
etc.).
The water activity of fresh fruits, vegetables, meats, and milk falls in the range
of 0.97 to 0.99. Most dehydrated foods exhibit a maximum water activity
below 0.70, which is below the minimum value for food pathogens. Only
Staphylococcus aureus is capable of growing at aw of 0.85. Fungi (yeasts and
molds) tend to grow more slowly than bacterial unless bacterial growth is
limited, but they are also more resistant to harsh environmental conditions and
can cause spoilage under these conditions. Some molds can produce
mycotoxins that can result in a variety of acute and chronic toxicities for
human beings and animals. Examples of foods in which mycotoxins can be
present include grains, nuts, figs, cocoa, coffee, etc. The reduction of water
activity is not sufficient to destroy all microorganisms. During air drying, the
increased temperature of the food could affect the living forms of
microorganisms, but spores of species of Bacillus or Clostridium are relatively
unaffected. As well, drying does not necessarily destroy food toxins (from C.
botulinum, S. aureus or B. cereus) occurring as contaminants prior to or during
drying. Other microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa, algae, and prions are
not known to grow on foods. Therefore, only their pathogenicity or
toxigenicity and their resistance to thermal drying are normally considered.
These microorganisms are more sensitive than most vegetative bacteria.
Along with water activity, many other factors will influence the microbial
growth such as temperature, pH, nutrients, preservatives, other food
components, and oxygen content. It is important to remember that for the
same food water content, several water activity values are possible. This will
influence significantly the shelf life of foods.
A dehydrated product remains stable only when it is protected from the
subsequent exposure to the surrounding environment (e.g. water, air, sunlight
and contaminants). Hence, appropriate packaging of a dried product is an
12 important consideration.
15.2.5 Cooling and Freezing Introduction to
Food Preservation
The situation during freezing is one of product cooling, while in the case of and Processing
thawing, it is of product warming. During freezing, there will be an initial drop
in the temperature of the product from its initial level (usually at a temperature
above its freezing point) until it reaches its initial freezing point. Then, the
temperature of the product remains relatively steady as the latent heat is
removed. For food products, rather than a constant temperature, it slowly drops
until the majority of water is frozen as ice and then drops more rapidly as the
ice temperature is lowered further.
On the other hand, in the case of thawing, the material is initially frozen. To a
completely frozen product at a temperature far below its freezing point, heat is
added so it warms up. As with the freezing process, the temperature of ice
along the surface first rises until it reaches the freezing point. Following this
time, the latent heat is added, and the ice begins to melt.
Thus, in the freezing process heat is removed from water, and during the
thawing process heat is added to ice. Thermal conductivity and thermal
diffusivity of ice are much larger than that of water. So, under comparable
conditions, which process will last longer – freezing or thawing? Freezing,
when the food water is frozen to ice or thawing, when the product ice melts
into water? Answer: Freezing? No! It is thawing that takes longer to
accomplish. Why? See the explanation below.
Note that, during freezing, after the phase change process has begun, the latent
heat of ice needs to be removed from the product. As the heat gets removed,
the water layer on the surface first gets frozen, and then the layer next to it and
so on. So, as the freezing process proceeds, we have an increasing layer of ice,
through which the heat from the inner unfrozen layers are removed. Hence,
during the freezing process, the transfer of heat is essentially through an
expanding ice layer. During thawing, as the heat is added to the ice, the surface
of frozen material melts, forming a layer of water. As more heat is added, more
ice melts and hence the water layer expands. Added heat needs to be
transferred to the inner ice layers through the enlarging water layer. Hence, the
thawing process is driven by the addition of heat through a layer of water that
is increasing in size. Thus, in the thawing process, the heat transfer is through
and expanding layer of water.
The different methods of freezing are generally grouped as :
1. Air freezing
2. Plate freezing
3. Liquid immersion freezing
4. Cryogenic freezing
(i) Air freezing
Air freezing is one of the most common methods of commercial freezing. The
material, packaged or unpackaged, is frozen by exposure to air at temperatures
ranging from -18 to -40OC. Slow or “sharp” freezing refers to freezing in a
room under very slow air circulations. This should be more closely called “still
air freezing,” and the “sharp” appears to be a misnomer. It is not common
either. This process is obviously undesirable because the freezing will be very
slow and tend to produce large ice crystals that damage the product quality.
The slow cooling of the product might also allow some of the undesirable
activity of enzymes and microorganisms prior to the completion of freezing, 13
again damaging the product quality. Air blast freezing refers to freezing the
Food Processing product in a powerful blast of circulating cold air at temperatures ranging from
and Preservation -18 to -40OC under forced circulation. Various systems are available including
cabinet, tunnel, belt, fluidized bed, etc. The product can be placed on trays or
one conveyor. When the latter is employed, it is sometimes referred to as a
“tunnel” freezer. In this case, generally, the product is conveyed through an
insulated tunnel through which cold air is forced to flow at high velocity.
Usually, a counter current flow is employed. The conveyor length is designed
such that by appropriately varying the conveyor speed, a variety of products
are frozen as they emerge out of the tunnel. Fluidized bed freezing is another
form of air blast freezing. Here, particulate foods, such as peas, kernel corn,
cut beans, brussels, sprouts, strawberries, cherries, etc., are fluidized by a
powerful blast of cold air. Typically, the product is placed on a perforated
mesh or belt to a layer of 1-to-10-cm thick. Then the cold air is passed from
below, under such pressure and velocity that the product will actually float in
the air current. Due to thorough contact with the medium and agitation, the
freezing is accomplished at a very fast rate. A similar setup is sometimes used
for non fluidizable products like fish fillets. Basically, this is similar to tunnel
freezing, except that the cold air is passing from bottom to top rather than the
counter current system of the tunnel. This type of freezing is referred to as
“through flow” freezing, because the air flows through the product.
(ii) Plate freezing
In this type of freezer, the food, generally in regular-sized packages, is frozen
by contact with a metal plate, which is cooled either by circulating cold brine
or refrigerant. Generally, double contact plates are employed between which
the packaged products are sandwiched under a slight pneumatic pressure,
which provides a good contact between the package and the contact surface.
Heat transfer occurs from both sides of the package. This has some advantages
over the air-freezing technique by way of minimizing moisture loss from the
product during freezing.
(iii) Liquid-immersion freezing
As the name indicates, this technique involves immersion of the product,
packaged or non packaged, in the cooling medium. The process is relatively
fast, because heat transfer from direct contact liquid medium is much more
efficient than from air. Aqueous solutions of propylene glycol, glycerol,
sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and sugars have been tried (for example, in
the freezing of orange juice concentrates).
(iv) Cryogenic freezing
Cryogenic freezing provides for a very rapid freezing by virtue of the very low
temperatures of the cooling medium. Liquid nitrogen and liquid or solid carbon
dioxide are common cryogenic freezing agents. Liquid nitrogen boils at -
196OC, whereas solid CO2 sublimes at -79OC. The sublimation process, which
takes CO2 from solid to vapour, can absorb about three times the latent heat
picked up by liquid N2 (246 to 86Btu/lb). In this procedure, the product is
generally conveyed through the freezing chamber by way of a tunnel. As the
product enters, it will meet the emerging vapors of the nitrogen gas at about-30
to -40OC, which pre cools the product. The product is frozen in the freezing
chamber at the center of the tunnel, with a brief exposure to a spray of liquid
N2. The conveyor speed determines the contact time. Following this, the
product will flow out along with the vapors of N2, where is gets equilibrated to
14 the desired finishing temperatures. Application with CO2 involves tumbling of
the product with powdered CO2, which might not be desirable for delicate Introduction to
products. Food Preservation
and Processing
Liquid CO2 acts somewhat differently in a freezer than liquid nitrogen. CO2 is
piped to the tunnel as a high-pressure liquid (300 psi), but once is exits the
injection orifice, it instantaneously expands into a mixture of gas and tiny dry
ice solid particles (15-109OF). The dry ice solid, commonly referred to as dry
ice “snow,” is driven into the surface of the food product, where the heat from
the food product rapidly causes the dry ice to “sublimate,” or phase directly
from a solid into a gas.
15.2.6 Food Preservation Using Chemicals
Many chemicals are used today in the preservation of foods. They range from
very simple substances such as salt and sugar, to complex compounds such as
benzoates. The following table lists some of the most common chemical
preservatives used today and the foods that they are used in. Keep in mind that
all of these chemicals have been deemed GRAS (generally regarded as safe) in
the amounts that are specified.
Table 15.1: List of some common chemical preservatives.
Amount Organism(s)
Chemical Use in Foods
GRAS affected
200 - 300 Insects & Dried fruits, wine, lemon
Sulfites
ppm microorganisms juice
Dehydroacetic
65 ppm Insects Strawberries
acid
Sodium nitrite 120 ppm Clostridia Cured Meats
15 - 220
Ethyl formate Yeasts & molds Dried fruits and nuts
ppm
Propionic acid 0.32% Molds Bread, cakes, cheeses
Hard cheeses, cakes, salad
Sorbic acid 0.2% Molds
dressings
Margarine, relishes, soft
Benzoic acid 0.1% Yeasts & molds drinks, ketchup, salad
dressings

The above table 15.1 is only a partial list of chemicals that are used in food
preservation. The chemicals listed have complex mechanisms by which they
inhibit their target organisms. We will take an in-depth look at two substances
that use the same mechanism and which have been used since ancient times:
salt and sugar.
(i) Salt and Sugar Preservation
These substances use a mechanism that can be employed by other means:
drying. However, the result is the same. As we will discuss later, most
microorganisms cannot live in a relatively dry environment. This is what salt
and sugar accomplish. When a microbe is in a non-saline environment,
available water can pass through the membrane of the microbe easily. In the
non-saline environment, water inside and outside of the cell comes into
equilibrium because of diffusion. Diffusion is the process by which water
moves from areas of low concentration of solutes to areas of high 15
concentration of solutes. (A solute is any substance that can be dissolved in
Food Processing water). This means that the amount of water moving out of the cell is the same
and Preservation as water moving into the cell. This must happen for the organism to survive.
However, if we add salt to the water to make a saline environment, this creates
an isotonic condition for the cell. It means that there is more water moving out
of the cell than moving into the cell. This results in slower growth for the
microbe or even death. Because of the drying effect of salt it has been used for
thousands of years. It usually takes about 20% salt to inhibit microbes.
However, there are some microbes (as you will see later) that can survive high
salt concentrations. Sugar has the same mechanism as salt, but it takes much
more sugar (~6X) than salt to produce the same effect.
(ii) Other preservatives
The chemical preservatives given in the table and sugar and salt have a direct
effect on organisms. However, there are other chemicals that have a
preservative effect without directly targeting an organism. These include
antioxidants, flavoring agents, and spices. Other direct chemicals include
antibiotics and antifungals.
Use of chemical preservatives is guided by the law of the land where it is
manufactured and/or intended to be sold. The legal requirements vary from
nation to nation. Except salt, sugar and vinegar which are naturally occurring
substances, the upper limit of other permitted chemicals are guided by the law.
Also, there are strict guidelines governing labelling of foods preserved by
chemicals. The general perception is that addition of chemicals can be
detrimental to human health over long periods and hence this method is
avoided as far as possible these days.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) As a method, in what way is hot air drying superior to sun-drying?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
2) Which are the foods that are normally preserved by refrigeration?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
3) What precautions would you take while thawing frozen foods and why?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…

16
15.2.7 Minimal Processing of Fresh Foods Introduction to
Food Preservation
The concept of minimal processing applies mostly to vegetables, fruits and and Processing
juices. The principles and applications of hurdle theory are used together with
the development of emerging techniques for the minimal fresh processing or
fresh-cut industry to improve the quality, safety and shelf-life of plant-derived
commodities in order to satisfy increasing consumer demand.
There is growing interest in this concept in the food industry as the consumer
demand for healthier and fresher food products is rising every year. The main
spoilage changes that affect minimally fresh processed fruits and vegetables, as
well as how the traditional processing and preservation techniques solve these
problems, are tackled in this exciting new branch of food technology. Also the
need for seeking alternatives or secondary techniques which use mild but
reliable treatments in order to achieve fresh-like quality and safe products with
a high nutritional value is considered. Additionally, there is focus on the keys
for the production of safe foods, which include screening materials entering the
food chain, suppressing microbial growth and reducing or eliminating the
microbial load by processing and preventing post-processing contamination.
Some successful combinations of sub-inhibitory processes, based on the
application of a combination of various mild treatments, take advantage of the
synergisms of the different preservation hurdles known as ‘hurdle technology’.
The success of the new technologies also depends on a good understanding of
the physiological responses of microorganisms to stresses imposed during food
preservation.
Emerging technologies like high pressure processing, pulsed electric field
processing, pulsed light processing, ohmic heating, etc. are used for keeping
microbial and sensory quality of minimally fresh processed fruits, vegetables
and juices especially relating to disinfection of the products. Novel modified
atmosphere packaging, hydrogen peroxide, ultraviolet-C radiation, ozone,
acidic electrolysed water, biocontrol cultures, organic acids, chlorine dioxide
or hot water treatments have been tried to ensure food safety and quality.
As consumers increasingly perceive fresh food as healthier than heat-treated
food, it motivates a general search for food production methods with reduced
technological input. This phenomenon was observed over the last few years
since the per capita consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables has increased
significantly over the consumption of processed vegetables such as canned
vegetables. However, a food which meets nutritional requirements is unlikely
to be accepted by consumers if they do not like the flavour or other quality
attributes, and herein lies another challenge to food technologists.
Fruit & vegetables are the major dietary sources of substances with
antioxidants and free radical scavenging properties like anthocyanins and other
phenolic compounds, of high importance from the human nutritional point of
view. Carotenoids, tocopherols and vitamin C are also appreciated due to their
possible role in the prevention of several human diseases. Advances in
agronomic, processing, distribution and marketing technologies, as well as the
current preservation techniques, have enabled the produce industry to supply
nearly all types of high-quality fresh fruit and vegetables to those who desire
and are willing to purchase them year round. Despite the benefits derived from
eating raw fruits and vegetables, safety is still an issue of concerns as these
foods have long been known to be vehicles for transmitting infectious diseases.
Whole fruit and vegetable products are highly susceptible to deterioration 17
between harvest and consumption. Since minimal processing damages plant
Food Processing tissues, leading to additional quality losses, the derived fresh-cut commodities
and Preservation are in fact more sensitive to disorders than the original. The main features are
the presence of cut surfaces and damaged plant tissues, the minimal processing
that cannot guarantee microbial stability of the product, the active metabolism
of the plant tissue and the limited shelf life of the product. Therefore,
deterioration of minimally fresh processed fruits and vegetables is mainly due
to further physiological ageing, biochemical changes and microbial spoilage
which originate changes in respiration, ethylene emission, transpiration and
enzymatic activity of the living tissues after harvesting and processing. Many
of the compositional changes influence their colour, texture, flavour and
nutritive value.
As mentioned, the traditional processing of this kind of product usually
consists of a sequence of operations (trimming, peeling, cutting, washing/
disinfection, drying and packaging) and, generally, the extension of the shelf
life depends on a combination of correct chilling treatment throughout the
entire chill chain, dips in anti-browning solutions, optimal packaging
conditions (usually MAP) and good manufacturing and handling practices in
well designed factories. Additionally, some authors have proposed the use of
edible coatings in combinations with anti-browning compounds to improve the
colour preservation of fresh-cut fruit.
Once these traditional processing and preservation techniques have been able
to provide food products with acceptable sensorial and microbial quality, the
next step forward is to design mild but reliable treatments in order to achieve
fresh-like quality and safe products with a high nutritional value. Therefore,
the minimally fresh processing industry is currently seeking alternatives or
secondary technologies to maintain most of the fresh attributes, storage
stability and above all safety of fresh processed fruits and vegetables,
meanwhile extending their shelf-life, although long shelf-life is not the most
important selling argument anymore, with the market trends tending towards
more fresh-like products.
Production of safe food includes screening materials entering the food chain,
suppressing microbial growth and reducing or eliminating the microbial load
by processing and preventing post-processing contamination.
15.2.8 Other Emerging Techniques
(i) Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
It is well known that MAP has been successfully used to maintain the quality
of minimally fresh processed fruits and vegetables. However, novel MAP
technologies that allow an extension of the shelf-life are still much demanded
by producers and distributors. It was observed that exposure to high O2 alone
did not strongly inhibit microbial growth and the results were highly variable.
On the other hand, many authors have found that superatmospheric O2 (higher
than 70kPa O2), when combined with increased CO2 concentrations, inhibits
enzymatic discoloration and microbial growth in fresh-cut vegetables and
prevents anaerobic fermentation reactions. Therefore, it could be considered as
a good alternative to conventional MAP with moderate-to-low O2 and high
CO2 levels (Day, 2001). The development of new packaging materials will
allow definitive avoidance of anaerobic conditions and a reduction in
respiration rate, ethylene emissions, browning as well as weight loss in order to
keep the fresh properties of minimally fresh processed fruits and vegetables
18 longer, attenuating undesirable changes in sensory quality and controlling
microbial growth. It is known as ‘active’ and ‘smart’ packaging, which
responds actively to changes in the food package. As an example, smart Introduction to
packaging can now include materials designed to absorb or emit chemicals Food Preservation
and Processing
during storage, thereby maintaining a preferred environment within the
package which maximizes product quality and shelf-life. Therefore, the use of
non-conventional MAP combined with antimicrobial, moisture absorbers and
edible films or those films fitted with porous substrates covered with side-
chain crystallizable polymers or with an O2 emitter and/or CO2 or C2H4
scavenging devices will also have many potential applications.
(ii) Genetic Engineering
The possible use of genetic engineering to develop higher production and more
resistant plant foods (GM Foods) is relatively well known. Currently, this
technology is being used to introduce desirable attributes such as improved
colour, aroma, flavour and taste of different fruit and vegetable products. In
fact, the first transgenic product introduced as a food commodity was a tomato
with reduced polygalacturonase activity. Although the huge advance of these
techniques was in the last decade, there is still a lack of published information
about the development of genetically modified fruit and vegetables which
overcome some relevant problems of the post-harvest science such as chilling
injury resistance, longer storage duration and pathogen resistance. Therefore,
much more effort should be done in this area and recent advances in functional
genomics should bring candidate genes to manipulate. In addition, the industry
has to take into account the lengthy food safety studies required by legislation
in many countries, particularly, the European Union.

15.3 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR

MINIMALLY PROCESSED FRESH FRUIT
JUICES
The market for minimally processed refrigerated fruit juices, like ready-to-eat
plant foods, has experienced substantial growth over the past few years.
Traditionally, fruit juices were subjected to heat treatments between 60 and
100 degree C for a few seconds. However, by using this technology,
undesirable reactions may take place producing unwanted changes in the
product or by-product formation, which decrease the overall quality of the
juices. Therefore, the development of emerging technologies, which use a
lower temperature to the traditional heat treatment and guarantee a final food
product which preserve the fresh properties of the fruit juices as much as
possible, is needed. Their success relies on a mild preservation treatment
(generally, heat) combined with chilling to keep flavour and nutritional
properties. Some researchers contrast minimal processing techniques with
thermal processing, however, developments in thermal technologies have been
considered ‘minimal’ where they have minimized quality losses in food
compared to conventional thermal techniques.
The emergence of novel spoilage microorganisms in juices also poses a new
challenge for the correct preservation of these food products. Fruit juices have
been considered for many years susceptible to spoilage only by yeast, moulds
and lactic acid bacteria. Their acid pH, lower than 4.0 in most cases, was
considered sufficient to prevent growth of almost all spore-forming
microorganisms. This fact has allowed the fruit beverage industry to apply
successfully a hot-fill-hold process to pasteurize these products. However, in
the last few years an increasing number of incidents of spoilage of acid foods, 19
Food Processing such as fruit juices, has been reported. Most of these spoilage incidents have
and Preservation been related to spore-forming thermo-acidophilic microorganisms. Spoilage
caused by this kind of microorganisms is difficult to detect. The juice appears
normal or has light sediment and no gas is produced. Often, the only evidence
of the alteration is a ‘medicinal’ or ‘phenolic’ off-flavour.
Only in the last ten years has there been any real recognition of mild
preservation treatments as non-thermal methods to preserve food products and
there is a growing interest for non-heat treatment of juices. The juices can be
processed by using pulsed electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, high
intensity pulsed light, irradiation, new chemical and biochemical additives and,
of course, the hurdle technology. The use of membrane disrupting novel
preservation techniques, such as ultrasound, high pressure or pulsed electric
field is based in their potentially synergistic effects with chill storage or mild
heat treatment.
15.3.1 Pulsed Electric Fields
Pulsed electric fields (PEF) have been shown to be able to reduce the microbial
population of refrigerated fruit juices, such as apple or orange and carrot juice.
At the same time, this technology induces sub-lethal damage in bacteria, which
causes a significant delay in their ability to grow and spoil the product.
However, PEF can only be applied to liquid products. While the shelf-life of
the orange juice processed with PEF was extended to 14 days, the non-treated
juice was not acceptable after 4 days of storage. However, to prevent spoilage
of orange-carrot juice, it would be necessary to combine an efficient PEF
treatment with chilling temperatures during the distribution and storage periods
and to guarantee low initial concentrations of contaminating bacteria in fresh-
squeezed juice.
15.3.2 High Hydrostatic Pressure or High Pressure Technology
The application of high hydrostatic pressure for processing food products
consists of a pressure treatment in the range of 4000-9000 atmospheres. The
high hydrostatic pressure is used to inactivate microbial growth as well as
certain enzymes to prolong the shelf-life of the food products, although the
microbial inactivation will depend on the pH, food composition, osmotic
pressure and the temperature of the environment. It is known that Gram
negative bacteria are inhibited at lower pressure than Gram positive bacteria.
The inhibition of microbial spores can be managed by combining the high
pressure treatment with chilling temperatures.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Why has the demand for minimally processed foods increased in the recent
years?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…

20
2) What in your opinion is the significance of the modern super market in the Introduction to
present food chain? Food Preservation
and Processing
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…

15.4 LET US SUM UP

The history of food preservation and processing is as old as that of human
civilization. Need for food security, being an integral part of human
development, has contributed to the gradual development of food processing
and preservation techniques and technologies.
Food Technology/ Processing is a multi-disciplinary science requiring in-depth
knowledge of several basic and applied sciences.
Some of the major food processing techniques of modern times are based on
addition of heat/ thermal processing, drying/ removal of moisture, cooling/
removal of heat and addition of preservatives.
Some of the important reasons for resorting to food processing & preservation
are: conversion of basic foods into forms that render them directly eatable,
increasing the shelf life of foods-especially the perishables, making seasonal
foods available round the year and making raw foods safe to eat.
Inspite of all the advances of food science and technology, there are still
significant number of cases of food borne illnesses and contaminations even in
advanced nations resulting in considerable productivity loss, medical costs and
loss due to food recalls from the market. Therefore food safety is a major issue
especially when it comes to processed food commerce and international trade.
Food processing and preservation therefore plays a vital role in the long chain
between farm and fork.
There is inevitably some loss of nutrition and quality during processing of
foods as compared with raw foods. This has led to the modern trend of
minimally processed foods and of the HACCP techniques.
The real challenge for the food technologist is to carry out food processing
efficiently and hygienically with minimal losses in quantity and quality, using
minimal quantities of energy, water and other inputs, while ensuring that the
final product is tasty, nutritious and safe.

15.5 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• B. Sivasankar. (2004). Food Processing and Preservation Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd
• Desrosier, N.W. (1963). The Technology of Food Preservation, AVI
Publications.
• Eckles & Eckles. (1991). Technology of Milk & Milk Products, AVI
Publications.
• Gaurav Tewari (Ed) and Vijay Juneja (Ed). (2001). Advances in Thermal 21
and Non-Thermal Food Preservation; ARS, USDA.
Food Processing • Gustavo V. Barbosa-Canovas (Ed), Grahame W. Gould (Ed). (2000).
and Preservation
Innovations in Food Processing (Food Preservation Technology Series) :
CRC Publishers
• Mahindru, S.N., (2000). Food Additives; Published by Tata McGraw Hill.
• Ramaswamy, H.S. & Michele Marcott. (2005). Food Processing –
Principles & Applications; CRC Publications

# 15.6 KEY WORDS

Absorption : Uptake of moisture by dry foods.
Acid Food : A food with a pH of less than 4.6 and a water
activity (aw) equal to or greater than 0.85.
Additives : Chemicals added to improve their eating quality or
shelf-life.
Decimal Reduction : The time needed to destroy 90% of micro-organism
Time count (to reduce their numbers by a factor of 10).
Food Preservation : is the process of treating and handling food in such
a way as to stop or greatly slow down its spoilage
and to prevent food borne illness while
maintaining the food item’s nutritional value,
texture and flavor.
Food Processing : is the set of methods and techniques used to
transform raw ingredients into food for
consumption by humans or animals. The food
processing industry utilises these processes. Food
processing often takes clean, harvested or
slaughtered and components convert into attractive
and marketable food products. Various techniques
are used for this purpose.
HACCP : Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points.
Heat Sterlization : Destruction of the majority of microorganisms in a
food by heating.
Latent Heat : Heat taken up or released when a material
undergoes a change of state.
Pulsed Electric Field : Application of electric field with a strength in the
Processing range of 12-35 kV cm-1 to a liquid food in a short
pulse (1-100 ps) produces lethal effect on micro-
organisms.
Thermal Centre : The point in a food that heats or cools most slowly.
Thermal Death Time : The time required to achieve a specified reduction
in microbial numbers at a given temperature.
Ultra High Tempera- : Processing/ Heat sterlization at above 135oC for a
ture (UHT) Treatment few seconds.
Water Activity (aw) : It is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure of
water in a material (p) to the vapour pressure of
pure water (po) at the same temperature. It is ratio
22 of moisture content of the product and the relative
humidity of air surrounding it.
 Introduction to
15.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Food Preservation
EXERCISES and Processing

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Your answer should include following points:
1. Most of the foods we eat and raw materials for them are products of
agriculture and hence seasonal in nature and with limited shelf life.
Before they reach the consumers` tables, there are possibilities of losses
and contamination which could pose serious economic and health issues.
Modern food technology helps in ensuring that these foods are available
to the consumer round the year in tasty and safe forms using a multi-
disciplinary scientific & engineering approaches. Also such processing &
preservation is done through food technology to achieve economies of
scale, optimal energy & water consumption efficiencies and with
minimal damage to the environment. Food processing and preservation is
the largest industry in the world and hence there is a great responsibility
on food technologists.
2. a-addition of heat (thermal processing)
b-removal of heat (cooling or refrigeration)
c-removal of moisture (drying or dehydration) and
d-addition of preservatives
3. Pasteurization is a technique in which a liquid food is subjected to heat
treatment with a particular time-temperature combination that would
effectively destroy all the pathogenic micro-organisms. Milk, for instance
is subjected to 72 degree celsius for 15 seconds for effective
pasteurization. This process was invented by Louis Pasteur, a French
microbiologist and hence has been named after him.
4 Pastuerization means elimination of pathogenic microorganism and not
all microorganisms. In UHT and sterilization processes, we aim at
elimination of all microorganism in food being processed. Further, UHT
is meant for liquid foods while sterilization is a generic term used for all
types of foods.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Your answer should include following points:
1. Sun-drying, as the name suggests makes use of the natural heat from the
sun for drying of foods. Therefore it is prone to quality variations &
problems since it depends on the vagarities of the weather. In rainy
season or cloudy weather, the drying could take too long resulting in
deterioration of food quality. On the other hand, hot air drying is done
under controlled conditions of temperature, air velocity and of course,
time. The results are much better and since the drying equipments are
designed for better hygiene, the overall physical and microbiological
quality of hot air dried foods is usually far superior.
2. The shelf life of raw foods, semi processed foods and intermediate &
high moisture foods can extended by refrigeration. While the shelf-life
benefits from refrigeration in case of raw foods like fruits & vegetables,
raw milk, raw meat & fish may not be much, the benefits, in terms of
shelf-life, could be significant in case of processed/semi-processed foods
like dairy products, cooked/blanched meats/vegetables etc. Dried 23
Food Processing products, sterile products packed under sterile conditions do not require
and Preservation refrigeration.
3. Frozen foods have to be thawed gradually to prevent cellular damage
which could adversely affect their texture. Indiscriminate heating of
frozen foods could also result in localized burning of foods which could
cause havoc with their flavours and nutritional quality.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Your answer should include following points:
1. There is now a wave of wellness and not merely health in the more
discerning sections of population all over the world. Fresh and natural
foods as well as nutraceuticals are integral parts of this concept. People
are now looking for fresh and natural products grown in an
environmentally sustainable manner. However, getting such produce
directly to the urban consumer is not always feasible. Therefore, the
concept of minimally processed foods in conjunction with a reliable cold
chain has become quite popular especially in advanced western nations.
In fact this is the fastest growing segment of the retail food sector in the
world today. In minimally processed foods the food technologist strikes a
delicate balance between shelf life of processed foods and nutrition &
safety. Minimally processed foods are more nutritious, healthy and
flavoursome.
2. Supermarkets play a vital role in the modern food chain since it the main
interface between the producer/processor and the consumer. The buying
pattern of foods in the modern societal set up is a weekly / monthly visit
to the nearby supermarket and buy one`s requirement of food and stack
them at home in the refrigerator for consumption during the week or
month. Major food companies vie for shelf space in popular supermarket
chains and the latter are slowly but surely getting a stranglehold over the
processors and producers in the food chain. There is a growing awareness
about the influential role of the supermarkets and a debate is on about
hefty percentage of the costs that is contributed by them in the overall
costs of food chain management.

24
 Food Packaging
UNIT 16 FOOD PACKAGING
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Need for Packaging of foods
16.3 Types of Packaging
16.4 Forms of Packaging
16.4.1 Choosing an appropriate packaging material
16.4.2 Packaging and consumer needs
16.4.3 Attributes that consumer appreciate
16.4.4 Packaging materials for different food products
16.5 Packaging Material
16.5.1 Flexible Packaging Materials
16.5.2 Rigid Packaging Materials
16.5.3 Semi Rigid Packaging Materials
16.6 Some Modern Packaging Concepts
16.6.1 Form-fill-seal system
16.6.2 Aseptic packaging technique
16.6.3 Retort packaging for long life foods
16.7 Modified Atmosphere Packaging
16.8 Active and Intelligent Packaging
16.8.1 Active packaging technique
16.8.2 Intelligent packaging technique
16.8.3 Current use of novel packaging techniques
16.9 Labelling
16.10 Bar Coding in Packaging
16.11 Packaging and Environment
16.12 Edible Packaging of Foods
16.12.1 Edible packaging
16.12.2 Advantages
16.12.3 Requirements of edible films and coatings
16.12.4 Materials for edible films
16.13 Biodegradable Plastics
16.14 Recycling of used Packaging Materials
16.15 Packaging Machines
16.16 Let Us Sum Up
16.17 Key Words
16.18 Some Useful Books
16.19 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

16.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, we shall be able to:
• characterize different types of packaging materials for foods;
• reflect upon need and importance of packaging of foods;
• explain new modern packaging concepts;
• outline salient features of modified atmosphere packaging and active and
intelligent packaging;
• undertake labelling and Bar coding in food packaging;
• specify advantages, requirements and materials for edible packaging films.

25
Food Processing
and Preservation 16.1 INTRODUCTION
Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting
products for distribution, storage, sale and use. Packaging also refers to the
process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Packaging of foods
is perhaps one of the most challenging industrial activities, since safety of the
foods we eat is dependent upon it. Packaging is heavily integrated into our
daily lives, we see it all around us, on everyday items such as chocolate bars
and potato chip (crisp) packets. As explained below, the main use for
packaging is protection of the goods inside, but packaging also provides us
with a recognizable logo and information, so that we instantly know what
goods are inside.
Packaging can be defined as a tool that protects and contains our goods with
the aim of minimizing the environmental impact of our consumption. Ideal
packaging can be compared with that of a banana, orange peel, coconut and
eggshell- the packaging provided by Mother Nature.
I think the best definition of packaging, is by Mr. Robert Rausina, founder of
Tetra Pak Sweden. According to him “a good packaging is one that saves more
than it costs, including refrigeration, transportation, storage, handling, labour,
etc.”
Considerable advancements have taken place in area of food packaging. A
major change has been our ability to protect and preserve products with
packaging. We have ensured the availability of products out of season, over
long distances in various forms, fresh as well as processed. Today, the
consumer has a wider selection of food items. Armed with disposable income,
he is keen to try new products.
Packaging has become a modern socio-scientific discipline having the
following roles:
- Containing and safety of product that is of paramount importance.
- Facilitating the handling, storage and distribution.
- Protecting against biological, chemical and distribution damages.
- Providing convenience.
- Informing through the medium of labeling.
- Security through a tamper evident design.
- Contribution to the product image through structural and graphic design.
- Increasing the shelf-life and ensuring longer availability.
- As a marketing and advertising tool.
- Environment protection by taking responsibility of empty packaging
material after its use.
The packaging industry in India is a heterogeneous mix of both organized and
unorganized sectors. The industry comprises of manufacturers of basic
materials, converted package forms, ancillary materials and packaging
machinery. The packaging conversion machinery and ancillary materials
production units are primarily in the small-scale sector and being gradually
updated to reach international standards. The packaging lines generally occupy
50% of the floor space, and the packaging and related activities engage about
60% of the 5 million labor force concerned with the Indian food industry.

26
 Food Packaging
16.2 NEED FOR PACKAGING OF FOODS
Packaging and package labelling have several objectives:

• Physical protection - The objects enclosed in the package may require

protection from, among other things, shock, vibration, compression,
temperature, etc.
• Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is
often required. Package permeability is a critical factor in design. Some
packages contain desiccants or Oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life.
Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in
some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh and safe for the
intended shelf life is a primary function.
• Containment or agglomeration - Small objects are typically grouped
together in one package for reasons of efficiency. For example, a single
box of 1000 pencils requires less physical handling than 1000 single
pencils. Liquids, powders, and flowables need containment.
• Information transmission - Information on how to use, transport, recycle,
or dispose of the package or product is often given on the package or label.
With pharmaceutical, food, medical, and chemical products, some types of
information are required by legislation.
• Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to
encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has
been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for dozens of
years. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the
surface of the package and (in many cases) the point of sale display.
• Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security
risks of shipment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance
to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help
indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of
package pilferage: Some package constructions are more resistant to
pilferage and some have pilfer indicating seals. Packages may include
authentication seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not
counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-
packs, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags, or electronic article
surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points
and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a
means of loss prevention.
• Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in
distribution, handling, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use and reuse.
• Portion control - Single serving or single dosage packaging has a precise
amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can
be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual
households. It is also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter-
bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill
themselves.

16.3 TYPES OF PACKAGING

Individual packaging: This means the packaging of individual items of goods
and includes the technique of application of appropriate materials and
containers, etc. to protect each individual item of goods, or to increase the 27
Food Processing merchandise value as well as the conditions of the goods to which those
and Preservation
techniques are applied. This could also be called as ‘Primary Packaging’.
Inner packaging: This means the inner packaging of packaged goods, the
techniques of application of the appropriate materials or container, etc., with
consideration of the protection of goods against water vapour, light, heat,
impact, etc. as well as the condition of the goods to which these techniques
have been applied. This could also be called as ‘Secondary Packaging’.
External packaging: This indicates the outer packaging of packed goods, in
other words, the techniques of placing the goods in a box, bag or other
container such as a barrel or can, etc., or bundling without the use of a
container, and adding markings to identify the goods as cargo; as well as the
conditions of application of these procedures. This could also be called as
Tertiary Packaging.
In case of food packaging, the word ‘goods’ can be substituted by ‘food’.
Another classification of food packaging is into `Rigid Containers` like cans,
glass bottles etc.; semi-rigid containers like standi-packs, Tetra-bricks and
plastic bottles, etc. and Flexible packages like LDPE milk pouches, laminates
containing spices and Tetrafino pillow pouches etc.

16.4 FORMS OF PACKAGING

Metal cans: These can be classified into round, square, oval or pill-shaped,
flat, etc. Cans are often classified into 2-piece or 3-piece cans. The latter uses
tin-plate as its basic material, and the can is joined by soldering or welding. In
the case of tin-free-steel (TFS) cans, body making is done by using an organic
adhesive agent. 2-piece cans include cans punched out by a press machine,
aluminium can is made by impact extraction, D1 cans ironed after contraction
process and DR cans are manufactured by carrying out contraction process two
or more times. D1 cans are used where high internal pressure resistance is
required. Bonded and welded cans may be used as alternative to conventional
soldered cans.
Glass bottles: Glass bottles and containers are available in many different
shapes such as large “free-size” bottles, small “one-shot” styles, light-weight
bottles for soft drinks, heavy-weight “hand-crafted” type liquor bottles
returnable bottles, etc.
Stretch-wrap packaging: In this method, food is placed in a tray and film is
stretched over the food to cover it. Stretchable PVC films, PE films, etc. are
used as packaging materials. Shrink packaging is a form of packaging in which
one or more items are covered with film, which shrinks when heated. The film
is shrunk using either dry or moist heat. Films that are used for this application
include PVC, PP and PE.
Flexible pouches: A pouch is a container made of a flexible packaging
material, such as plastic film, aluminium foil, paper, etc. which is used either
singly or in continuation.
Bag-in-box packages: Bag-in-carton or bag-in-box containers have double
construction, with both an inner and an outer package. The former type is used
for several food items including liquids while the latter is used for institutional
use and for bulk shipment. The external package provides mechanical strength,
while the inner bag protects the contents against water vapour, gases and
28 volatiles. This can be made of single substance or multi-layer structure.
Cups/trays: The types of cups used as containers include thermo-formed, air- Food Packaging
pressure formed and expanded plastic sheets. Recently, a cup with a barrier
layer manufactured using pressurized air with laminated sheet and a composite
cup with an inner layer of aluminium foil has been introduced. Paper cups,
with PE, PP or PET inserts, thermo-formed are also being used.
Paper-board containers: The ‘pure-pak’/`tetra-pack` type of containers, with
its distinctive gable-top and the ‘brick-type’ smaller containers are the
predominant packages used for milk products. Paper laminated to PE is used
for ordinary milk while for long-life milk, fruit drinks, etc. laminated
aluminium foils are used.

16.4.1 Choosing an Appropriate Packaging Material

In modern food business which is heavily dependent on the retailing sector, it
is important to choose the best packaging for the food being marketed in the
most cost effective manner. Choice of an appropriate packaging material is
governed by several factors such as:
− The specific sensitivities of the contents, e.g. moisture, oxygen, etc.
− Factors changing the contents viz. temperature, RH, pH, and the
reaction mechanism involved.
− Weight and shape of container.
− Effect on filling and sealing speeds.
− Contamination of food by constituents of the packing material.
− Storage conditions- How long the product needs to be protected.
− Bio-degradability and recycling potential.
− Most of the food production has been in the rural pockets of the country,
while the major markets are in the urban areas. So the need for its
transportation over long distances has become a necessity.
− Dairy and fruit products being highly perishable products, utmost care is
needed in its preservation during storage, handling and transportation.
− Food products spoil fast at high temperatures, in the presence of oxygen
and other contaminating agents present in the atmosphere.
− There are many more peculiarities, which could be identified under the
following headings for determining the packaging of processed food
products.
-> Product range
-> Market
-> Consumer needs
-> Operating margins
In India, there are 12 different types of thermoplastics used as raw materials
for manufacturing of plastic products along with separate standard on positive
list of constituents that have been formulated. These standards prescribe
requirements, methods of test and sampling for respective materials, vis-à-vis
positive list of constituents of respective material such as homopolymer,
polymer, etc. The standards are used for food contact application and to be
used in combination to provide a system of control to the plastic manufactures
as well as fabricators of thermoplastic packaging material to derive maximum
benefits.
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has formulated guidelines on suitability of
plastics for food packaging (IS 10171). It provides guidance to the food packer 29
Food Processing in selecting the specific thermoplastic material to design an acceptable food
and Preservation
packaging system. Since there is always the possibility of transfer of a part of
packaging material to the contents of packed material due to intimate contact,
it is essential that formulation of the package should be selected to ensure that
any such transfer is at minimum and substances which migrate from the
package to the packed material are within limits and cause no toxic hazards
when consumed.
16.4.2 Packaging and consumer needs
In deciding the type of packaging, consumer trends play a vital role. Some of
the trends in the food industry in India are:
- Well-packed food products are associated with quality.
- Packaging is expected to make food products safe.
- Increasing mobile lifestyle.
- Time has become a precious commodity.
- The younger generation is looking for health and wellness foods and
beverages.
- The consumer is ready to try new products.
- Concern for freshness.
- Seeking a home-meal dining experience. The traditional family meal is fast
becoming a rarity in urban India.
- For children, innovative or fun flavoured fortified foods and beverages.

16.4.3 Attributes that Consumers Appreciate

− Product quality and protection with a great emphasis on freshness.
− Easy to open, dispense, reseal and store.
− Appealing product presentation is gaining prominence.
− Durable and eco friendly is being viewed together.
− Leak and spillage proof is a must for the producer as well as the consumer.
− Reusable packaging.
− Less hassles, more convenience.
− Selection from a wider choice of available sizes.

16.4.4 Packaging Materials for different Food Products

Let us now get familiar with packaging materials that are normally used for
common food items. The following table 16.1 should effectively familiarize
you with some commonly used materials and terminology:
Table 16.1: List of Food Products and Normal Packaging Materials.
Food Product Normal Packaging material*
Milk LDPE/LLDPE laminate
Milk powder Tin cans with alu foil or
Alu Foil/Poly laminate
Baby/malted food Tin cans with alu foil or
Alu Foil/Poly laminate
Ghee LDPE/HDPE laminate or Nylon
Chocolate bars Alu Foil/Poly laminate
PET/Poly laminate
Confectioneries/candy Paper wax
PET/Poly
30
 Ready-to-eat foods PET or BOPP/Poly Food Packaging
Edible oil 3 and 5 layer nylon films
GEMS like products BOPP/Poly
Vanaspati LDPE/HDPE and Nylon based films
Biscuits Wax coated Paper
Glassine/Poly
Alu Foil/Paper
PET/BOPP/Poly
Paper/Poly
Bread Waxed Paper
Tea PET/Poly
Paper/Poly
Alu Foil/Paper
Coffee PET/Poly
Extruded foods PET or BOPP/Poly
Spices PET/Poly
Salt LDPE/LLDPE
Potato chips Met. PET or Foil Poly
Juices Foil/Poly
Legend :-
LDPE : Low density Polyethylene
LLDPE : Linear LDPE
Poly : Polythene
Alu Foil : Aluminium foil
PET : Polyethylene teripthallate
BOPP : Biaxially oriented Polypropylene
We must appreciate that packaging is a constantly evolving, dynamic subject
and major changes keep occurring in the food industry with respect to
packaging.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
(1) Can you recapitulate the practical definition of good packaging given by
Mr. Rausina?
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(2) Please list out some of the major roles played by packaging in the farm to
fork journey of foods the important types of paper and paper board.
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(3) Which are the two types of major metal cans used for food packaging?
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31
Food Processing (4) There are professionals who think glass may the packaging material of
and Preservation
the 21st century – why?
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(5) Please list out some of the major factors that decide the most appropriate
packaging materials for specific foods
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(6) Please list out some of the attributes that consumers appreciate when it
comes to food packaging.
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16.5 PACKAGING MATERIAL

The packaging material used for food products can be classified into three
categories i.e. Flexible, rigid and semi rigid. Different materials under these
three categories are discussed below:
16.5.1 Flexible Packaging Materials
It has been estimated that there would be average growth of 20-25% of
consumption of flexible packaging materials by the end of 2010 A.D. These
materials are not rigid. They are soft and elastic in nature Different types of
Flexible material used for packaging of food products are enumerated here.
16.5.1.1 Paper and Paper Board
Paper could be simply explained as a combination of fibres, joined together by
means of binding agent. However, a number of chemicals are also used to
improve different properties of paper like brightness, opacity, strength
properties, etc. Paper and paper boards can be clearly differentiated by
considering the grammage (gms/ sq.metre). More than 180 grammage papers
are called as paper board. Paper boards are having certain improved properties
like high stiffness, high bending resistance and less water absorption, etc.
Types of Paper and Paper Boards: Depending upon the properties, there are
different types of paper and paper boards which have got wide application in
packaging of dairy products. The details are as follows:
Paper: Tissue paper, Coated paper (Varnish coated, wax coated, plastic
coated), Glassine paper, Art Paper, Kraft Paper, VPI paper, High Gloss Paper,
Vegetable parchment paper and Grease proof paper (G.P.P). Kraft paper is a
strong paper which is used for 25-30 kgs, multi-wall sacks for powders, flours,
sugar, fruits and vegetables.

32
Paper Boards: Duplex Board, Clay coated board, Triplex Board, Kraft Board, Food Packaging
Coated board, Chip Board, Asphalted board, Straw board, Grey Board and Mill
board.
Properties of Paper: Paper is used for the packaging due to the following
advantages: (1) Flexible in nature, (2) Easy amenable to printing, (3)
Easy amenable to any kind of coating, (4) Good temperature resistance
either high or low, (5) Excellent properties towards recycling, (6) High
strength properties (7) Good insulation properties, (8) High gloss properties
on smooth side (i.e. felt side), (9) Could be manufactured with high
brightness properties, (10) Excellent folding endurance properties, (11) Good
tear resistance properties and (12) Compatibility with other packaging
materials for lamination.
Properties of Paper Board: (1) Paper boards are having all the properties of
paper, (2) In addition, these materials are having good dead fold
characteristics, (3) High stiffness properties, (4) Amenability to fabricate
folding cartons, display carton, etc. and (5) Less cobb value as compared to
paper.
16.5.1.2 Aluminium Foils
What is Aluminium Foil?
Aluminium foil is a continuous web/sheet of aluminium metal rolled to
thickness/gauges ranging from 0.005mm to 0.2mm. It is produced from
commercial purity aluminium with aluminium content of not less than 98%
purer metal with 99.8% content is of more interest to the electrical industry. It
is available as free unsupported or unlaminated or laminated to paper or film. It
is available in plain, coloured, coated, lubricated and embossed forms.
Properties of Aluminium Foils: The important properties are as follows:
(i) Impermeable, (ii) Non Toxic, (iii) Stable, (iv) Light and heat barriers and
(v) Tasteless and Odourless.
Advantages of Foil: The advantages are: (1) Tearing properties facilitates to
use as sealing surface in the blister pack. (2) Extensively used for lamination
due to impermeable properties.
16.5.1.3 Plastic Materials
“A plastic material is solid at ordinary temperatures and allows appreciable and
permanent change of form without losing its coherence on the application of
pressure and heat.” Plastic materials are perhaps the most versatile group of
materials used in packaging. The plastic resins are generally categorized in
two ways i.e. thermo set and thermoplastic resin. Some of the important
thermoplastic materials which have got extensive application in packaging are
like polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyester, nylon or
polyamide, polystyrene etc. These polymeric materials are normally classified
into different group based on the polymerization process and molecular
structure like
(a) Polyolefins - Polyethylene and Polypropylene (PP)
(b) Polyvinyl group - Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
(c) Condensation - Polyester(PET), Nylon-6 or Polyamide (PA)
(d) Styrene Polymers - Polystyrene (PS) and Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
(e) Carbonate group - Polycarbonate (PC)
33
Food Processing (a) Polyolefins Groups : The properties of different polymeric films are as
and Preservation
follows:
(i) Low-density Polyethylene (LDPE) film: Density ranges from 0.910 –
0.925 gms/cc, Average molecular weight is 3 x 105, Resistance to heat
is about 180 – 2120F, Translucent type of clarity, Water absorption is
0.015%, Permeability to gas is 1.0 cc/m2/ 24hrs at 270C & 1
atmospheric pr., Good tensile strength properties & high percentage of
elongation, Good dart impact resistance, Resistance to the effect of
weak acids and alkalies and Good barrier to moisture vapours, but has a
relatively high gas permeability.
(ii) Linear Low-density Polyethylene (LLDPE): High film tensile
strength properties as compared to LDPE, High percentage of
elongation as compared to LDPE, High tear strength properties, Better
stress crack resistance and low temperature brittleness, Improved
stiffness properties, Excellent Puncture resistance and Excellent heat
seal properties.
(iii)Medium-density Polyethylene (MDPE) film: Density varies from
0.926 – 0.940 gm/cc, Average molecular weight is 2 x 105, Resistance
to heat is 220 – 2500F, Translucent type of clarity, Percentage of water
absorption is 0.01, Permeability to gas is 1.33 cc/m2/24 hrs at 270 & 1
atms. Pressure, Very resistance to the effect of weak acids, alkalies etc.
Exposure to sunlight turn its colour to yellowish.
(iv) High-density Polyethylene (HDPE) film: Density varies from 0.941 –
0.965 gm/cc, Average molecular weight is 1.25 x 105, Resistance to
heat is 2500F, Opaque in nature, High barrier to moisture vapour,
Permeability to gas is less as compared to other polyethylene film and
exposure to sunlight turn it yellowish.
(v) High molecular high-density polyethylene film (HMHDPE): High
mechanical strength in both directions, Has got pleasant translucence in
clarity, High tear resistance properties, Does not impart any taste or
odour, Suitable for food contact application, Less elongation as
compared to other polyethylene film and Excellent moisture barrier
properties.
(vi) Polypropylene (PP) film: High tensile strength, High chemical
resistance and high temperature performance than HDPE.
Very low permeability to moisture vapour and gas compared to
polyethylene, High transparency, Chemical inertness and High softing
point.
(b) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): It is hard, brittle and transparent materials,
Low GTR, Moderate WVTR and good resistance to fat and oil, Glass like
clarity, Good mechanical strength, Retention of flavour, Excellent
printability, Lower weight/ volume ratio and Resistance to chemicals.
(c) Condensation Polymer: The properties of polyester and polyamide are
as follows:
(i) Polyester film: It has got excellent gloss & thus enhance sales appeal;
Very Low moisture and gas permeability; High mechanical strength;
Resistance to tear, puncture; burst and flex crack; Dimensionally stable
over a wide range of temperature from 70C0 to + 1300C; Excellent
34 machinability; Excellent printability; Light in weight & thus economise
 the transport expenditure; Free from all kinds of additives and thus does Food Packaging
not contribute off flavours; Good surface properties for metallization.
(ii) Polyamide or Nylon-6 film: High mechanical strength, High
elongation capability, Excellent resistance to cutting, perforation,
abrasion and bursting, High chemical resistance to oils and fats,
Outstanding impermeability to gases and vapours, Easy printability, Easy
metallising, Economical (considering best yield/kg) and Could be
biaxially oriented.
(d) Styrene Polymers: The important characteristics are:
(i) Polystyrene (PS): Polystyrene is not flexible in nature unlike LDPE and
PP and is mostly used as rigid containers in the field of packaging. The
important features or properties of this polymer are as follows:
Crystal clarity of containers, Availability in attractive light or dark
colours, Lustrous finish, Rigidity and dimensional stability, Resistance to
chemicals, Easy processing, Good barrier to moisture and ability to take
post moulding decorations like hot stamp foiling, screen printing, inlay
foil moulding etc.
(ii) Expanded Polystyrene (EPS): Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is neither
flexible nor rigid in nature rather the materials are cushioning in nature.
Normally, these materials are called as ‘thermocole’. The important
properties of this material are as follows:
Fully resistant to dilute acid, alkalis, alcohols, sea water but reacts with
aliphatic hydro carbons, ketones etc., The density (kg/m3) varies from 20-
30, Stress at 10% compression (kg/cm2) is 1 to 1.4, Shear strength
(kg/cm2) from 6 to 8, Flexural Strength (kg/cm2) ranges from 2.5 to 3,
Tensile strength (kg/cm2) is from 2.5 to 3.2, Thermal conductivity at
100C (k. cal. m/hr. m2 0C) is 0.028, Water vapour transmission rate is
ranging from 0.6 to 1 gms/m2/14hrs at 380C & 90% RH, Water
absorption % volume after 7 days immersion is 0.6, Has no nutritive
value for any known organism and does not provide a breeding ground
for fungi, bacteria or insects and its contact with food stuff is perfectly
safe.
(e) Multilayer Plastic Film: In order to have all the properties in a single
form of polymeric materials so as to meet the requirement of processed
food products especially for dairy products with desired shelf-life, a
remarkable development has taken place to produce multiplayer plastic
film either as laminate form or Co-extruded form.
Properties of multi layer Co-extruded Plastic films: High barrier
properties to moisture and oxygen gas, improved in flexural endurance
properties, dart impact strength properties is increased, no possibility of
delamination of individual layer unlike laminates, Cheaper as compared
to laminates and amenable to easy printing on surface.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

35
Food Processing (1) How do you differentiate between paper and paperboard?
and Preservation
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(2) Indicate the important types of paper and paper board.
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(3) Explain five important properties of paper.
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(4) Explain five important properties of aluminium foil.
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(5) What are the important groups of plastic materials used in packaging?
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(6) How many types of multi layer plastic film are used in packaging?
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16.5.2 Rigid Packaging Material
A wide variety of rigid packaging materials has been developed over a period
of time. The most important packaging material like metal container have been
widely used for the packaging of milk powder since long due to certain
important properties like complete barrier to light, oxygen gas and moisture. In
addition, glass bottles are also used for the packaging of flavoured milk and
fresh milk. But now-a days, the application of flexible pouches have gone
ahead to glass bottle for the packaging of pasteurised chilled milk. The plastic
bottles are also used to a great extent for the packaging of dairy products. The
corrugated fibre board boxes are considered to be the most important transport
packaging materials for all processed food products including dairy products.
16.5.2.1 Glass Containers: Glass is the oldest packaging materials and
used as containers for over 3000 years. The first glass container was made in
Egypt in 1500 B.C. Despite of having certain inherent characteristic like
fragility, tare weight, the glass containers have made an established application
in packaging of dairy products.

Properties of Glass: Chemically Inert, Non – Permeable, Transparent,

Mouldable, Excellent impact strength, light Weight, unlimited Supply and see
through property.
Advantages of Glass Packaging: High or low temperature resistance, do not
contaminate the contents with crystals or fibres, climatic variation do not affect
the glass container, see through property, can be made in any size shape and
capacity, does not taint, pollute or affect the quality of product, there are
Various types of closures for glass container made of metal, plastic, cork or
36
rubber and Impermeable to moisture and gases thus suitable for processed food Food Packaging
products.
Composition: The main constituent of glass are sand, lime stone and soda ash.
The sand used is known as silica or glass sand. In some cases, arsenic,
selenium and cobalt oxides in proper proportion are added to make clear glass.
The green or brownish shade in glass comes from the impurities in natural
sand, mainly iron. Boron from borax added to glass to make the container
stronger and to increase its resistance to acids. Colours are added to glass,
adding of small quantities of chromium, cobalt, iron and other colorants
depending on the colour required. For amber (brown) glass, carbon and
sulphide are added.
Types of Glass: The three universally accepted standard are :
Type III : All soda lime glasses are mainly Type III.
Type II : This is the same glass as Type III but the inside of the glass
container is coated at the time of manufacture, usually with
sulphur.
Type I : This is Borosilicate glass which has the added property of
almost complete neutrality.
Application of Glass Containers: Glass containers have wide application for
the packaging of pharmaceuticals, dairy, liquor, breweries, food products, soft
drinks, cosmetics, chemicals, inks and other industries.
16.5.2.2 Metal Containers
Metal containers could be made from either aluminium, tinplate or tin free
steel. But the tinplate container have got extensive application in packaging of
food product especially dry products. There are two types of tinplate container
namely:
a) Open top sanitary can.
b) General line can
a) Open top sanitary can: These cans are made of three pieces i.e. body, top
and bottom ends. Hence, this OTS cans are also called as 3 piece can.
These containers are normally round in shape, extensively used for dried
products such as:
b) General Line Container: General line containers are ranging from tiny
containers to 15 lts capacity containers for packaging of milk based biscuits
or vanaspati.
Properties of Metal Cans: This materials are completely opaque, Complete
barrier to moisture, oxygen gas as well as light, Amenable to print with
multicolour decoration, Provides longer shelf life to dairy products, High
impact strength to withstand stress during transit and Lighter in weight as
compared to glass container.
16.5.2.3 Plastic Containers
Plastic containers are also used as an alternate rigid packaging materials for the
packaging of dairy products mainly milk powder and ghee.
Properties of Plastic Containers: Could be manufactured in different size,
shape and capacity, High barrier to moisture and oxygen gas, It is possible to
manufacture the containers in different colours, Impact strength could be
37
Food Processing improved, Plastic containers could be manufactured with handle to facilitate to
and Preservation
carry, Could be made either opaque or transparent, Amenable to make surface
printing and it is possible to make leak proof container.
16.5.2.4 Corrugated Fibre Board Boxes
Corrugated fibre board boxes are the world’s most popular and environment
friendly packaging materials. The intelligent use of corrugated fibre board
boxes can replace some of the use of wood, thermocole and plastics.
A single layer of kraft paper is passed through the corrugating machine to get
the corrugations or fluting media and then stuck into a plain layer of kraft
paper by means of adhesives or gum to form 2 layer or 2 ply corrugation roll.
Corrugating Media

Plain layer OR

Liner
Subsequently, the 2 ply corrugation roll could be converted into 3 ply
corrugated fibre board by pasting another Kraft liner or facing material. In the
same manner, corrugated fibre board could be made either of 3 ply or 5 ply or
7 ply by means of pasting the corrugation roll and facing material. This could
be illustrated with the following diagram.
Liner

FLUTING
MEDIA
GUM OR
ADHESIVE
3 Ply or Single Wall Corrugated Fibre Board.
5 Ply or Double Wall Corrugated Fibre Board.
7 Ply or Triple Wall Corrugated Fibre Board.
The corrugated fibre board is converted into corrugated fibre board boxes by
considering the following steps.
Scoring Slitting Creasing Slotting
Stitching
Advantages of Corrugated Fibre Board Boxes: The advantages are:
Availability of raw materials i.e. Kraft paper and adhesive; The technology of
box making is simple; Availability of box making machineries; Cost effective;
Amenable to make display package; Tare weight of box is less resulting to the
reduction of freight cost; Maximum utilization of storage space due to
collapsing nature of boxes; Recognised as Eco-friendly packaging materials;
Facilitates to have excellent printing on the outer surface of the boxes; Easy to
handle in the shop floor due to collapsing nature as compared to wooden box.
38
 Limitations: The Limitations are: a) Strength properties are influenced by Food Packaging
the environmental condition; b) Requires special condition for storage to
maintain the strength properties; c) Shortage of best quality of kraft papers in
India and d) Lack of technology in the converting machineries.
Applications of CFB Boxes: Visual merchandising, danglers and promotional
material, Die-cut box for display pack, Extensively used for office stationery
items like- trays, pen-stand, filing cabinets, folders for conferences etc.,
Explored around the world by various designers in its application in furniture
item, Wide application for making educational aids, toys etc., As a unit pack
for the packaging of horticultural produce, Popularly used as transport
packages for all types items including dairy products.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the important properties of glass?
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2) What are the constituents of glass?
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3) Explain the important properties of metal cans?
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4) Indicate the important properties of plastic containers?
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5) What are the important raw materials for making CFB box?
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6) Mention the important steps to be followed for the manufacturing of CFB
boxes?
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7) Indicate five important advantages of CFB boxes?
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16.5.3 Semi-rigid Packaging Materials
The semi rigid packaging materials are those materials which are neither rigid
nor flexible in nature. The important packaging materials under this category
are discussed below: 39
Food Processing
and Preservation
16.5.3.1 Folding Carton
The folding cartons are primarily made from duplex board or triplex board.
The duplex board of having grammage ranging from 220 gsm to 300 gsm are
used to convert into folding carton by means of different steps like creasing,
scoring, slotting and finally gluing.
Properties of Folding Carton: Amenable to more number of colour printing,
Ease of handling, distribution and storage at retail outlet under refrigeration,
Amenable to make pilfer proof closing device, Stiffness nature of folding
carton facilitates to stack the product easily, Empty cartons provide excellent
space utilization due to collapsing in nature.
16.5.3.2 Lined Carton
The term indicates that this package is made of paper board and then lined
internally with appropriate packaging materials.
Properties of Lined Carton: The properties are: a) Very economical as
compared to metal containers; b) Provides excellent shelf life due to excellent
barrier properties against moisture, gas, light of the internal liner material; c)
Easy to stack at the outlet due to rectangle in shape; d) Could be made
available at different capacity ranging from 100 ml, 200 ml, 1 kg, 2 kg.; e)
Suitable to pack solid, semi solid as well as liquid product; f) Amenable to
print on the outer surface; g) Easy open device in the form of knotch or spout
facilitate and h) Tailor made lined cartons.
16.5.3.3 Aseptic Carton
In this system, both the package and the product are sterilized separately and
then the packaging operation is carried out under aseptic (sterile) conditions.
This system offers a long storage life for about three months with out any
preservatives or refrigeration. The carton is formed by using three important
materials like
(a) Paper board (about 80%) :- Provides mainly the rigidity and stiffness.
(b) Polyethylene (about 15%) :- Contribute to have heat seal and also
provide barrier to microorganisms.
(c) Aluminium foil (about 5%):-Mainly responsible to provide barriers
against air, light and off flavour.
Combining each of these three materials has enabled carton to produce a
packaging material with optimal properties and excellent performance
characteristics.
Properties of Aseptic Cartons: Higher degree of safety, hygiene and
nutrient, retention, Preserving taste and freshness, can be kept for months,
efficient device to achieve this function by using minimum quantity of
material, a good example of resources efficiency and lightest packaging
material.
16.5.3.4 Thermoformed Containers
The containers or packages are made by means of thermoforming techniques.
The containers could be made in the form of tub or plastic cups. The containers
are closed by means of plastic lid made of either polyethylene (PE) or
polypropylene (PP).
Properties of Thermoformed Containers: Amenable to screen printing on
40 the surface, Provides high barrier against moisture, gas and light, Lighter in
 weight as compared to other packaging material, Resistance to low temperature Food Packaging
and thus suitable to refrigeration, suitable to make toiler made design based on
the mould, could be amenable to make coloured containers and easy to handle
and are hygienic.

# Note:
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
(1) What do you mean by folding carton?
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(2) Indicate the important three packaging materials used in Aseptic Cartons?
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(3) What are the different forms of Aseptic Cartons available in India?
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(4) Explain the important properties of Aseptic Cartons?

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(5) How do you define Thermoformed Containers?

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(6) What are polymeric materials used for manufacturing thermo formed
containers?
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16.6 SOME MODERN PACKAGING CONCEPTS

Packaging, like food processing, is a multi-disciplinary subject and
considerable research goes into it. As a result, the packaging scenario in the
commercial food business undergoes periodic upheavals causing the packaged
product quality to improve accompanied normally by lower costs and better
product handling convenience. Some of the more recent packaging systems
and concepts are “form, fill and seal (FFS)” system, aseptic packaging system,
retortable pouches, modified atmospheric packaging (MAP), active packaging
systems and intelligent packaging systems. Some of these will be described
briefly below:
16.6.1 Form, Fill and Seal System
FFS system is one in which the processed food product stored in a tank is
continuously fed to the packaging system and gets packaged as pouch or a
semi-rigid rectangular pack. This system is suitable for liquids and/or free- 41
Food Processing flowing solids only. In this the packaging material is purchased in the form of
and Preservation
rolls. The machine unwinds the roll, sterilizes it by hydrogen peroxide or UV
light, forms into a tube and then seals one end of it. The product is filled into
this through a measuring mechanism and then the top end of the tube is sealed
thereby hermetically sealing the product. The top sealing, which also acts as
the bottom seal for the next package can be accompanied by a cutting action if
so desired by the packer. These machine can pack 30-35 units per minute and
have revolutionized the pasteurized milk packaging in the dairy industry and
spices, ready mixes, etc. in other food industries.
16.6.2 Aseptic Packaging Systems
Aseptic packaging is a relatively new packaging concept aimed at developing
new product group, namely pre-sterilized and aseptically packaged foods.
During aseptic packaging process, a pre-sterilized product is filled under sterile
conditions into sterile packages in a sterile environment and then germproof
sealed.
Although both the aseptic can filling and aseptic carton filling systems became
commercial during the late fifties and early sixties, only the latter found
application in aseptic packaging of liquid foods, more particularly UHT milk
and fruit juices. During the past few years, environmental considerations have
led to the use of recyclable glass bottles instead of cartons in countries like
Germany.
Requirements of aseptic packaging systems
The major requirement of an aseptic packaging unit is to prevent
recontamination of the sterilized product. The principal considerations in this
regard include sterilization of the filling machine and packaging material by
suitable physical and/or chemical means and maintaining aseptic barriers
during filling and sealing. Besides the equipment and packaging, gas used to
pressurizing the filling space is one of the sources of recontamination of
processed foods. Thus mechanical failures such as inadequate heating of the
gas, leaks in valves and pinholes in filters may cause recontamination and
must, therefore, be checked.
Types of packaging materials for aseptic packaging systems and their
properties:
(a) Glass: Glass bottles have been used for packaging of many liquid foods
but it has not been a commercial success with aseptic filling plants. Glass
as such offers protection against oxygen and light if it has been provided
with anti-actinic compounds.
(b) Cans: Aseptic canning is expensive, particularly for a low cost product
like milk. Cans are not preferred for packaging of UHT processed
products as the processors and marketers of the product generally want to
emphasise the newness of the process whereas cans are identified with
conventionally retorted products. The cans may be of tinplate or drawn
aluminium: the solder in tinplate cans may have to be of higher melting
point than normal to withstand the can sterilization temperatures.
(c) Paper board cartons: Such packaging materials are commonly used in
aseptic filling systems for milk, cream, fruit juices, soups, etc. The filling
systems could be either of the following two types: those in which the
carton is formed within the filler from a continuous reel of materials; and
42 those in which the cartons are supplied as performed blanks, folded flat,
 which are assembled into cartons in the filler. The packaging material is Food Packaging
mainly composed of printed-paper coated with aluminium foil and
several plastic layers (polyethylene-paper board-polyethylene-aluminium
foil-polyethylene). The inner material side of the finished package is
coated with a special layer facilitating the sealing process. Each layer has
a specific function:
Î The outer polyethylene layer protects the ink and enables the sealing
process of the package flaps.
Î The paperboard serves as a carrier of the décor and gives the package
required mechanical strength.
Î The laminated polyethylene binds the aluminium to the paper.
Î The aluminium foil acts as a gas and light barrier.
Î The inner polyethylene layer provides liquid barrier and enables sealing of
the package.
Sterilization of the packaging and the filler environment: Chemical
sterilization processes for the packaging film include treatment with ethylene
oxide, sodium hypochlorite, peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).Ethylene oxide is not only slow in action but its desorption requires
very long time. Hence it can be used for pre-treatment of packaging, but not
for final sterilization on the packaging unit. Sodium hypochlorite and peracetic
acid are very effective sterilants, but removal of their residues from the
packaging necessitates a sterile-water rinse. Alcohols such as glycols require
high temperature (e.g. 100 degree C) application for the desired sporicidal
effect. Although H2O2 also shows poor effectiveness at ambient temperatures,
its high sporicidal effect at 80 degree C makes it useful for packaging
sterilization. It is first applied on the material and then evaporated by heating
through hot air or infrared radiation. The limitations of the use of H2O2 are: (1)
the surfactant/surfactants or wetting agents used for uniform deposition on the
packaging film, cannot be evaporated by heat and thus may find their way into
milk, (2) the vapours of H2O2 must be exhausted to avoid injury to the
workers, and (3) the efficacy of its removal by evaporation must be monitored
through routine testing of milk.
While steam or hot water is effective in sterilization of the milk carrying tubes,
hot air (300 degree C) with or without filtration, is commonly used for
sterilization of the air injected in the filling space. Air at 330-350 degree C (for
30 mins) may also be used for milk tube sterilization. Sterilized at 180-200
degree C is used to evaporate H2O2 and when cooled to 50 degree C can be
employed for pressurizing the filling chamber.
Effective use of UV radiation imposes certain stringent requirements such as
perpendicular incidence of rays, dry atmosphere, smooth surface, low
concentration of microorganisms, and absence of visible light to avoid
reactivation of microorganisms and shields to protect the operator. Therefore,
UV radiation is suitable only for a complementary treatment of already
sterilized packaging. Filtration by means of depth filters (mats of compressed
glass- or asbestos-fibre, or of sintered metal or ceramic) is effective in freeing
air from bacteria. The filters themselves may be sterilized by fumigation, hot
air or steam.
Aseptic barriers in the form of steam or circulated liquid sterilant become
necessary with valves and fittings coming in contact with sterile milk.
43
Food Processing Detection of leaks by using a dye test is imperative to check recontamination
and Preservation
of the packaged sterile milk.
Aseptic packaging systems
Filling of commercially sterile milk and fruit juices in sterilized
packages/containers in a sterile environment, and hermetically sealing the same
to prevent recontamination of the milk can be achieved in two major ways: (a)
using presterilized preformed containers such as bottles and cans, and (b)
sterilizing the packaging material, forming it into suitable containers, filling the
sterile product and sealing the package on the so called form-fill-and-seal (FFS)
machines. The latter employs a multiply laminate of polyethylene, polystyrene
and/or polypropylene films, paper and aluminium foil.
The Dole aseptic canning system has been used for UHT milk in the USA, but
only to a limited extent. The most widely used FFS Tetrapak systems using
tetrahedron cartons, and tetrabriks or hexahedron cartons are characterized by
continuous formation of the package below the milk level from a paper/PE/AI
laminate strip which has been continuously sterilized by H2O2 boiled off by
radiant heat in the region immediately above the milk surface thus giving a
sterile atmosphere in the packaging zone. Recently, tetra pak has introduced the
so called ‘pillow pak’ to cut down the packaging cost of UHT milk.
Coupling of aseptic packaging with the UHT plant: In small processing
units, a single flow-sterilizing plant can be connected with a single packaging
plant of the matching capacity. But this system is inflexible because both the
sterilizer and filler must operate simultaneously. If one stops for any reason, the
other must be shut down, or in case of the filler stopping, the sterilized products
must be recirculated for reprocessing. This problem can be solved by providing
an aseptic tank at the interface between the two plants.
In large units, it is a general practice to feed two or more fillers from a single
sterilizing plant whose capacity is equal to the total of filling capacity. So, if one
of the fillers has to be shut down only a small portion of the UHT processed
products will be required to be recycled. Use of a variable speed homogenizer
can altogether eliminate the need of recirculation of sterilized product in such a
situation. Even with a multiple filler system, aseptic tank is very useful for
smooth operation of the whole system without jeopardizing the product quality.
Aseptic balance tank, however, adds to the investment cost as well as cleaning
and sterilization requirements. It also requires a supply of sterilized air for
partial positive pressure during its use.
16.6.3 Retort Packaging for Long Shelf-life Foods
The concept of retort pouch which took shape in the 1940’s, was developed
again in response to the military need, as the rigid cans conventionally used by
the combat forces posed problems such as difficulty in opening, injurious, and
the potential to be used in makeshift explosives by the enemy. The retortable
flexible packages are characterized by their structural components of heat-
resistant plastic layers with or without aluminium foil and their ability to be
thermo processed to result in shelf-stable food product. Its cost is also less as
compared to cans. An early pioneer in proving the production reliability of the
retort pouch was the US Army Natick Research and Development Center. In
many developed countries, most ready-to-eat foods are packaged in retort
pouches. Japan has been a pioneering country in this respect. In most recent
times, focus has shifted to retortable semi-rigid trays or tubs because of their
44 added convenience in use.
 Retort pouch material Food Packaging

The materials used in making retort pouches should possess toughness and
puncture resistance properties normally required of flexible packaging, good
barrier properties for long shelf-life, and heat sealability over a wide
temperature range along with the ability to with stand processing temperatures
of the order of 110-140 degree C. To have all of these properties, laminated
structures or co-extruded films are used.
The outer film of the composite structure is needed for strength and resistance.
It should be resistant to heating temperatures, printable and be able to
withstand temperatures without bursting, shrinking and delamination. The
most common material used in polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It has the
added advantage of being reverse printed so that ink is embossed between the
outer layer and the next inner layer. In order to achieve a shelf life of one or
more years, aluminium foil layer as one of the inner layers for barrier
properties is essential. The thickness range of aluminium foil varies from 9 to
25μm, though a thickness of 9-10μm is most common. In Japan, retort pouches
without aluminium foil layer are also very common as some products with a
low shelf life of 3-6 months are also acceptable. Nylon is another material used
as a barrier film in place of aluminium foil because of its low gas transmission
rate and toughness. However, being transparent, nylon based laminates cannot
provide protection from light unless covered with a carton or wrap. The current
material most commonly used as innermost sealant layer is cast polypropylene,
though high density polyethylene modified with isobutylene rubber has also
been used.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 5

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What, is a FFS system for food packaging? For which types of food is it
suitable?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
2) Which is the system of packaging used for long life milk and fruit juices in
modern food industry?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…

16.7 MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING FOR

MINIMALLY PROCESSED FOODS
It has been known for over a century that the shelf-life of some foods can be
extended by storage in gas environments different from that which is normally
observed in the earth’s atmosphere (i.e. 78.08 vol% N2, 20.95 vol% O2).By
1938, a significant percentage of the meat exported from Australia and New
45
Food Processing Zealand to England was being shipped with added dry ice (solid CO2) which
and Preservation
improved its quality compared to crushed ice shipments. The storage of apples
and pears in warehouses under reduced O2 and elevated CO2 conditions was
also first exploited in the 1930’s where it was shown to double the shelf-life of
produce. Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage is the term commonly applied to
these mobile or large-scale fixed enclosures in which gas concentrations are
maintained via various mechanical systems.
Starting in the 1960’s, packaging materials also began to be used to alter the
gas makeup surrounding smaller-scale consumer and restaurant-sized food
servings. Known as modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), this technology
has grown substantially since then and is now used for a wide variety of food
products.
MAP works on the principle of providing the ideal storage micro-atmosphere
to packaged food in conjunction with or without other techniques. Fresh fruits
and vegetables, meats, poultry and fish for instance require MAP with low
temperature storage to maintain good quality with reasonable shelf life.
The gas atmosphere surrounding a particular food product can be altered to
retard chemical and metabolic processes that are detrimental to product quality
or to inhibit the growth of undesirable microbial populations. The optimal gas
atmosphere inside the package depends on the composition of the contained
food and the microbial contaminants that could potentially be present. The
table 16.2 below lists the gas compositions commonly used for a variety of
MA packaged non-respiring foods.
Table 16.2: Gas Composition used for Modified Atmosphere Packaged
Non-respiring Foods.
Commodity N2 (vol%) CO2 (vol%) O2 (vol%)
Oily fish 40-60 40-60
White fish 60 40
Crustaceans 80-100
Red meat 15-30 70-85
Poultry 70-80 20-30
Bakery and pasta 20-50 50-80
Cheese 30-100 0-70
Coffee 100
Potato chips 100
Oxidation is a reaction that generally has a negative impact on food quality. In
particular, lipid oxidation leads to rancidity, so foods with elevated fat levels
(e.g. nuts, snack foods, cheese and oily fish) are usually packaged with as
much oxygen removed as possible. However, there are some exceptions. Retail
red meat, which contains substantial amounts of fat, is usually packaged in
elevated levels of O2 in order to maintain myoglobin’s consumer-appealing
bright red colour. Fresh meat has been packaged under low O2 conditions, but
this technology has been restricted to bulk industrial packaging because of the
unsightly blue appearance of the meat under these conditions. Of course, O2
levels do not strongly affect the colour of cooked meat, so these products can
be packaged under low O2 conditions. Many marine fish contain the
osmoregulator trimethylamineoxide (TMAO). Spoilage organisms use this
compound as a terminal electron acceptor, reducing TMAO to the unpleasant-
smelling compound trimethylamine. Marine fish should be packaged in O2
46 concentrations>30% in order to inhibit this reaction.
Post-harvest fresh fruit and vegetables continue to respire and thus packaged Food Packaging
produce requires a constant supply of oxygen. Otherwise, anaerobic respiration
will lead to the creation of off-flavour producing compounds such as ethanol
and acetaldehyde. However, if MAP O2 concentrations are decreased below
subatmospheric levels, but are kept above levels that would induce anaerobic
respiration, the rate of aerobic respiration can be significantly reduced, leading
to increased shelf-life. The table 16.3 shown below provides suggested optimal
O2 concentrations for various produce stored under MAP. Some work has
suggested that very high O2 levels can have a significant antimicrobial effect
with packaged produce, but more work needs to be done to determine if this
packaging strategy truly has significant positive effects.
Table 16.3: Suggested Optimal Oxygen Concentration for MAP
Commodity O2 (vol%) CO2 (vol%)
Broccoli florets 2-3 6-7
Shredded cabbage 5-7.5 15
Carrot sticks 2-5 15-20
Chopped romaine lettuce 0.5-3 5-10
Diced onions 2-5 10-15
Potato 1-3 6-9
Apple <1 4-12
Kiwifruit 2-4 5-10
Strawberry 1-2 5-10
Watermelon cubes 3-5 10

Because of its antimicrobial properties, CO2 is added to a wide variety of

systems. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain this inhibitory
effect (Farber, 1991). Depending on the buffering capacity of the food, CO2
dissolution can reduce the pH of the aqueous phase, making it more difficult
for some microbial species to grow (Daniels et al., 1985). CO2can also
penetrate into microbial cells, disrupting cell membrane function (Farber,
1991). Bicarbonate ion produced from CO2 hydration and ionization is also
known to be inhibitory to some important cellular metabolic enzyme (Mathew
et al., 1986). However, it would appear that CO2 has, in most cases, only a
moderately inhibitory effect on the aerobic respiration of fruit and vegetables.
Furthermore, care must be taken with some produce like lettuce, because
elevated CO2 concentrations cause metabolic problems that lead to the
formation of ‘brown stain’ (Brecht et al., 1973). The above table also provides
suggested optimal CO2 concentrations for some MAP fruit and vegetable
systems.
For non-respiring foods, 100% CO2 is rarely used and is often blended with
cheaper N2. Because of its high solubility in both the aqueous and fat phases of
food, large amounts of CO2 can dissolve in the food, reducing the pressure in
the void volume, which leads to the collapse of the package and subsequent
product compression. This phenomenon can be inhibited by using CO2/N2
mixtures. In low water activity foods that are much less susceptible to
microbial spoilage, pure nitrogen is typically used. With snack food such as
potato chips, the nitrogen-filled MAP can also cushion the fragile product. For
less fragile foods like cooked meats, simple vacuum packaging can produce an
optimal atmosphere.

47
Food Processing
and Preservation 16.8 ACTIVE AND INTELLIGENT PACKAGING
For a long time packaging has also had an active role in processing,
preservation and in retaining quality of foods. Changes in the way food
products are produced, distributed, stored and retailed, reflecting the
continuing increase in consumer demand for improved safety, quality and
extended shelf-life for packaged foods, are placing greater demands on the
performance of food packaging. Consumers want to be assured that the
packaging is fulfilling its function of protecting the quality, freshness and
safety of foods. The trend to ensure the quality and safety of food without, or at
least fewer, additives and preservatives means that packaging has a more
significant role in the preservation of food and in ensuring the safety of food in
order to avoid wastage and food poisoning and to reduce allergies.
Well accepted definitions of active and intelligent packaging are:
Î Active packaging changes the condition of the packed food to extend
shelf-life or to improve safety or sensory properties, while maintaining
quality of the packaged food.
Î Intelligent packaging systems monitor the condition of packaged foods
to give information about the quality of the packaged food during
transport and storage.
16.8.1 Active Packaging Techniques
Food condition in the definition of active packaging includes various aspects
that may play a role in determining the shelf-life of packaged foods, such as
physiological processes (e.g., respiration of fresh fruit and vegetables),
chemical processes (e.g., lipid oxidation), physical processes (e.g., staling of
bread, dehydration), microbiological aspects (e.g., spoilage by micro-
organisms) and infestation (e.g., by insects). Through the application of
appropriate active packaging systems these conditions can be regulated in
numerous ways and, depending on the requirements of the packaged foods,
food deterioration can be significantly reduced.
Active packaging techniques for preservation and improving quality and safety
of foods can be divided into three categories: absorbers (i.e. scavengers),
releasing systems and other systems. Absorbing (scavenging) systems remove
undesired compounds such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethylene, excessive
water, taints and other specific compounds. Releasing systems actively add or
emit compounds to the packaged food or into the head-space of the package
such as carbon dioxide, antioxidants and preservatives. Other systems may
have miscellaneous tasks, such as self-heating, self-cooling and preservation.
Table 16.4: List of Active Packaging Systems for Foods Products.
Packaging Examples of Purpose Examples of
type working possible
principle/mechanis applications
ms/reagents
Oxygen Ferro-compounds, Reduction/preventing Cheese, meat
absorbers ascorbic acid, metal of mould, yeast and products,
(sachets, salts, glucose aerobic bacteria ready-to-eat
labels, films, oxidases, alcohol growth. Prevention of products,
corks) oxidase oxidation of fat, oil, bakery
vitamins and colour. products,
48
 Prevention of damage coffee, tea, Food Packaging
by worms, insects and nuts, milk
insect eggs. powder.
Carbon dioxide Calcium hydroxide Removing of carbon Roasted
absorbers and sodium dioxide formed during coffee, beef
(sachets) hydroxide or storage in order to jerkey,
potassium prevent bursting of a dehydrated
hydroxide calcium package poultry
oxide and silica gel product
Ethylene Aluminium oxide Prevention of too fast Fruits like
absorbers and potassium ripening and softening apples,
(sachets, permanganate apricots,
films) (sachet) banana,
Activated carbon+ mango,
metal catalyst cucumber,
(sachet) tomatoes,
Zeolite (film) avocados and
Clay (film) vegetables like
Japanese oya stone carrot,
(film) potatoes and
brussels
sprouts
Humidity Polyacrylates Control of excess Meat, fish,
absorbers (sheets) moisture in packed poultry,
(drip-absorbent Propylene glycol foods bakery
sheets, films, (films) Reduction of water products, cuts
sachets) Silica gel (sachet) activity on the surface of fruits and
Clays (sachet) of food in order to vegetables.
prevent the growth of
moulds, yeast and
spoilage bacteria
Absorbers of Cellulose acetate Reduction of Fruit juices
off flavours, film containing bitterness in grapefruit Fish
amines and naringinase enzyme juice Oil-containing
aldehydes ferrous salt and Improving the flavour foods such as
(films, sachets) citric or ascorbic of fish and oil- potato chips,
acid (sachet) containing food biscuits and
Specially treated cereal products
polymers Beer
UV-light Polyolefins like Restricting light- Light-sensitive
absorbers polyethylene and induced oxidation foods such as
polypropylene ham
doped the material Drinks
with a UV-
absorbent agent
Crystallinity
modification of
nylon 6
UV stabilizers in
polyester bottles
Lactose Immobilised lactase Serving milk products Milk and other
remover in the packaging to the people suffering dairy products
material lactose intolerance 49
Food Processing Cholesterol Immobilised Improving the Milk and other
and Preservation
remover cholesterol healthiness of milk dairy products
reductase in the products
packaging material
The table 16.4 above shows examples of sachet, label and film type absorbing
(scavenging) active packaging systems for preservation and shelf-life
extension of foods or improving their quality and usability for consumers.
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethylene and humidity absorbers have the most
significant commercial use, lactose and cholesterol removers are not yet in use.
Examples of sachet and film type releasing active packaging systems for
preservation and shelf-life extensions of foodstuffs or improving their quality
are shown in the table 16.5 below. So far, none of these systems are in wide
commercial use.
Table 16.5: Sachet and Film Type Releasing Active Packaging Systems for
Foods.
Packaging type Examples of working Purpose Examples of
principle/ possible
mechanism/reagent applications
Carbon dioxide Ascorbic acid sodium Growth Vegetables
emitters (sachets) hydrogen inhibition of and fruits,
carbonate and gram-negative fish, meat and
ascorbate bacteria and poultry
moulds
Ethanol emitters Ethanol/water mixture Growth Bakery
(sachets) absorbed onto silicon inhibition of products
dioxide powder moulds and (preferably
generating ethanol yeast heated before
vapour consumption)
Dry fish
Antimicrobial Organic acids, e.g. Growth Meat, poultry,
preservative sorbic acid inhibition of fish, bread,
releasers (films) Silver zeolite spoilage and cheese, fruit
Spice and herb pathogenic and
extracts; bacteria vegetables
allylisothiocyanate
enzymes, e.g.
lyzozyme
Sulphur dioxide Sodium metabisulfite Inhibition of Fruits
emitters (sachets) incorporated in mould growth
microporous material
Antioxidant BHA Inhibition of Dried
releasers (films) BHT oxidation of fat foodstuffs
Tocopherol and oil Fat containing
Maillard reaction foodstuffs
volatiles
Flavouring Various flavours in Minimisation of Miscellaneous
emitters (films) polymers flavour scalping
Masking off-
odours
Improving the
50 flavour of food
Pesticide emitters Imazalil Prevention of Dried, sacked Food Packaging
(the outer or Pyrethrins growth of foodstuffs,
inner layer of spoilage bacteria e.g. flour,
packaging Fungicidal or rice, grains.
materials) pest control

The table 16.6 below shows various examples of active packaging systems.
Table 16.6: Examples of Active Packaging Systems
Packaging Examples of working Purpose Examples of
type principle/mechanism/ possible
reagent applications
Insulating Special non-woven Temperature Various foods to
materials plastic with many air control for be stored
pore spaces restricting refrigerated
microbial growth
Self-heating The mixture of lime Cooking or Sake, coffee, tea,
aluminium or and water preparing food ready-to-eat
steel cans and via built-in meals
containers heating
mechanism
Self-cooling The mixture of Cooling of food Non-gas drinks
aluminium or ammonium chloride,
steel cans andammonium nitrate and
containers water
Microwave Aluminium or Drying, crisping Popcorn, pizzas,
susceptors stainless steel and ultimately ready-to-eat
deposited on browning of foods
substances such as microwave food
polyester films or
paperboard
Modifiers for A series of antenna Even heating, As above
microwave structures that alter the surface
heating way microwaves arrive browning,
at the food crisping and
selective heating
Temperature- The gas permeability To avoid Vegetables and
sensitive of the polymer is anaerobic fruits
films controlled by filler respiration
content, particle size of
the filler and degree of
stretching of the film
UV-irradiated The use of excimer Growth Meat, poultry,
nylon film laser 193nm UV inhibition of fish, bread,
irradiation to convert spoilage bacteria cheese, fruit and
amide groups on the vegetables
surface of nylon to
amines
Fresh pad Releasing natural Growth Meat
volatile oils, absorbing inhibition of
oxygen and excess bacteria
juice Moisture control
Shelf-life 51
Food Processing improvement
and Preservation
Surface- Fluorine-based Growth
treated food plasmas inhibition of
packaging bacteria
materials
16.8.2 Intelligent Packaging Techniques
The definition of intelligent packaging includes indicators to be used for
quality control of packaged goods. They can be so-called external indicators,
i.e., indicators which can be attached outside the package (time-temperature
indicators), and so-called internal indicators which are placed inside the
package, either to the head-space of the package or attached into the
lid(oxygen indicators for indication of oxygen or package leak, carbon dioxide
indicators, microbial growth indicators and pathogen indicators).
The table 16.7 below shows examples of external and internal indicators and
their working principle or reacting compounds to be used in intelligent
packaging for quality control of packed foods.
Table 16.7: Examples of Indicators under Intelligent Packaging Systems
Indicator Principle/reagents Gives Application
information
about
Time-temperature Mechanical Storage Foods stored
indicators Chemical conditions under chilled
(external) Enzymatic and frozen
conditions
Oxygen indicators Redox dyes Storage Foods stored in
(internal) pH dyes conditions packages with
Enxymes Package leaks reduced oxygen
concentrations
Carbon dioxide Chemical Storage Modified or
indicator (internal) conditions controlled
Package leaks atmosphere food
packaging
Microbial growth pH dyes Microbial Perishable foods
indicators All dyes reacting quality of food such as meat,
(internal/external) with certain (i.e., spoilage) fish and poultry
i.e., Freshness metabolites
indicators (volatiles or non-
volatiles)
Pathogen Various chemical Specific Perishable foods
indicators(internal) and pathogenic such as meat,
immunochemical bacteria such as fish and poultry
methods reacting Eschericchia
with toxins coli 0157
16.8.3 Current use of Novel Packaging Techniques
In the USA, Japan and Australia, active and intelligent packaging systems are
already being successfully applied to extend shelf-life or to monitor food
quality and safety. Despite this, regardless of intensive research and
development work on active and intelligent packaging, there are only a few
commercially significant systems on the market. Oxygen absorbers added
52
separately as small sachets in the package head-space or attached as labels into Food Packaging
the lid probably have the most commercial significance in active food
packaging nowadays. Also, ethanol emitters/ generators and ethylene absorbers
are used, but to a lesser extent than oxygen absorbers. Other commercially
significant active techniques include, e.g., absorbers for moisture and off-odour
and absorbers/ emitters for carbon dioxide. With regard to intelligent
packaging, time temperature indicators and oxygen indicators are most used in
countries mentioned above.
In Europe, only a few of these systems have been developed and are being
applied. This lag compared to the USA, Japan and Australia is partly due to the
strict European regulations for food-contact materials that cannot keep up
entirely with technological innovations and currently prohibit the application
of many of these systems. In addition, exiguous knowledge about consumer
acceptance, economic aspects and the environmental impact of these novel
technologies and, in particular, the exiguous knowledge of hard evidence of
their effectiveness and safety demonstrated by independent researchers have
inhibited commercial usage. Furthermore, vacuum packaging and protective
gas packaging (modified atmosphere packaging) have had an established
position in many European countries since 1980. Vacuum packaging, gas
packaging and active packaging compete with each other, at least to some
extent. However, all these technologies have their own advantages and
disadvantages, and the best package technology should be selected according
to individual requirements case by case.

16.9 LABELLING
Different nations have their own legal requirements for labeling. It might be
out of place to discuss all of them. However, some of the most common
universally accepted requirements are listed below:
• Name – A label gives the brand name of the product contained in the
package. It must also inform the customer the nature of the product. It may
also be necessary to attach a description to the product name. However,
there are certain generic names which must be only used for their
conventional uses, for example: Muesli, Coffee, prawns.
• Ingredients – All ingredients of the food must be stated under the heading
Ingredients and must be stated in descending weight. Moreover, certain
ingredients must be identified by a specific name, such as preservatives
must be identified as ‘Preservatives’, and then identified by its standardised
European serial number, e.g. sodium nitrate or E250.
• Nutritional information – Although it is not a legal requirement to declare
Nutritional information on the product, if the manufacturer makes claims
that the product is ‘Low in Sugar’, it must be supported with nutritional
information (normally in tabulated form). However, as a rule it is
recommended to declare nutritional information as consumers more than
ever are investgating this information before making a purchase. Moreover,
there are two European nutritional labelling standards which must be
adhered to if nutritional information is shown.
• Medicinal or nutritional claims – Medicinal and nutritional claims are
tightly regulated, some are only allowed under certain conditions while
others are not authorised at all. For example, presenting claims the food
product can treat, prevent or cure diseases or other ‘adverse conditions’ are 53
Food Processing prohibited. While claiming the food is reduced in fat or rich in vitamins
and Preservation
require the food to meet compulsory standards and grades, in addition, the
terms must be used in a form specified in regulations.
• Date tagging – There are two types of date tagging:
o Use by Date – ‘Use by Date’ must be followed by a day or/and month
which the product must be consumed by. To be employed on perishable
foods that usually would be kept cold, for example, fish, meat, dairy
products and ‘ready to eat’ salads.
o Best Before Date – 'Best Before Date` is used as an indicator of when
the product will begin to degrade from optimal quality: this includes
when the food becomes stale, begins to taste ‘off’ or decays, rots or
goes mouldy. There are also regulations on which type of best before
date must be applied:
ƒ Best before + Day for foods with a shelf life of up to 3 months.
ƒ Best before end + Month for foods with more than a 3 month shelf
life.
ƒ Best before end + Year for food with more than an 18 month shelf
life.

• Storage conditions – If there are any particular storage conditions for

the product to maintain its shelf life, these must be pointed out.
However, as a rule it is recommended to always describe the necessary
storage conditions for a food product.
• Business name and address – In addition to the business name and
address, it is necessary to indicate the manufacturer or packager, if
independent to the main business and the seller established within the
European Union.
• Place of origin – The food is required to specify its place of origin,
especially if the name or trademark is misleading - such as if the
product is called ‘English Brie Cheese’ when it is produced in France.
• Instruction for use – This is only necessary if it is not obvious how to
use or prepare the product, in which case the consumer's own initiative
must be used.
• Presentation – The label must be legible and easy to read, also it must
be written in English, however, the manufacturer may also include
other languages.
1) Lot Mark or batch code – It must be possible to identify individual
batches with a lot mark or batch code - the code must be prefixed with
the letter ‘L’ if it can not be distinguish from other codes, however, the
date mark can be used as a lot mark. Manufacturers must bear in mind
that the smaller the size of a batch, the smaller financial consequences
in the case of a product recall.

• Sectioning – All of the following must be in the same field of vision:

o Product name
o Date mark
o Weight
o Quantity
o Alcohol strength (if applicable).
54
In India, the labeling requirements are governed by “The Packaged Food Packaging
Commodities Act” and also the other Acts & Rules which govern food
products. These have been dealt with separately in your study materials under
“Food Laws”.

16.10 BAR CODING IN PACKAGING

Definition: A bar code is a series of bars and spaces arranged according to the
encodation rules of a particular specification in order to present data. Its
purpose is to represent information in a form that is machine-readable.
Benefits of the codes: The main benefits are speed and accuracy. Compared to
manual key entry, capturing data automatically by reading bar code can be
done in a fraction of a second. Generally the error rate is extremely low, of the
order of one error per 10 lakhs readings. Other advantages include:
Î Computer aided checkout
Î Avoidance of over and under charging
Î Self-service
Î Instant inventory control
Î Market survey-products sold and rate
Bar code basics: A bar code symbology is a set of rules discussing the way
bar and spaces have to be organized to encode data characters. Only a few are
being used on a large scale.
Code 39: The code 39 symbology introduced in 1975 is widely used for
industrial applications. It is a discrete, variable length symbology encoding
the 36 numbers and uppercase alpha characters (A-Z, 0-9) and seven
special characters, these being space, dollar sign ($), percent (%), plus (+),
minus (-), dot (.) and slash (/). A symbol character comprises 9 elements, 5
bars and 4 spaces. An element is either wide or narrow. There are 3 wide
elements and 6 narrow elements in a symbol character.
A code 39 symbol begins with a start character and ends with a stop
character. It can be read either from left to right.
ITF: Inter leveled 2 of 5 (ITF) is well adapted to materials and printing
conditions frequently used on fibreboard cases. It is a continuous
symbology encoding only numeric digits. A pair of digits is represented by
5 bars and 5 spaces. One of the pair is represented by the dark bars and the
other by the light bars. These 2 are interleaved. In addition to the digit
characters, there are 2 auxillary characters used as guard bars at the
beginning and at the end of the digit representation.
Code 128: Code 128 was developed to address the need of a compact
alpha-numeric code symbol that could be used to encode complex data,
capable of being printed by existing data processing printers. Code 128
fulfils the need with most compact, complete, alphanumeric symbology
available. In addition, code 128 has been designed with geometric features
to improve scanner-reading performance and to be self-checking.
EAN/UPC: European Article Numbering (EAN) system and Universal
Products Code (UPC) system is a continuous symbology encoding fixed
length number digits. Several variants exist, known as EAN-8, EAN-13,
UPC-A and UPC-E. In addition, the symbology enables to encode 2 small
symbols encoding 2 and 5 digits. These are called add-ons.
55
Food Processing In the system, a symbol character is composed of 7 modules, 2 bars and 2
and Preservation
spaces. A bar or a space is composed of 1 to 4 modules. An EAN/UPC symbol
begins and ends with a guard pattern. In EAN-8 and 13 as well as UPC-A
version, a centre pattern separates the symbol into segments that can be read
separately thereby making the symbol to be read omni directionally.
The EAN/UPC symbology is widely used to encode the identification number
of consumer products.
National Numbering Organisation (EAN – India) is a society registered under
the Societies Registration Act with objectives of promoting Article
Numbering, Bar Coding and EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) in Indian trade
and Industries. It is managed by a board of management comprising
representatives of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. At present it is
implemented by the Global Solution 1 India, promoted by the Ministry of
Commerce. The details are available at www.gs1india.org.
Printing and reading of bar code: Virtually any printing technology can be
used to print bar codes, provided it is accurate enough to achieve the right level
of required quality. The printing processes are of 2 categories, commercial and
on-site, the choice being dependent on the nature of the information to be
coded and the number of codes to be printed. If the information is of typical
static type, i.e. the identification number of a product to be placed on a
package, and if the number of codes to be printed is large, the traditional
commercial method using film masters is appropriate. If the information is
variable, e.g. different for each item or short series of items or if the quantity
required is small, then on-site printing process is preferable.
Many types of devices are available to read bar codes. They all illuminate the
symbol and analyse the resulting reflectance. High reflectance areas are
interpreted as spaces while areas of low-reflectance are represented as bars.
The decoder assigns binary values to the signal and forms a complete message.
This is checked by the decoder and transformed into data.
Fixed-beam readers depend on external motion to read the symbol. A popular
reading device is the low-cost hand help contact scanner. Moving-beam
readers use a mirrored moving surface to provide the illumination. The light
source appears as a continuous line of light. The moving-beam reader is also
called as laser scanner. Imaging devices (camera) are also used to read bar
codes. The reflected image of the bar code is projected onto photodiodes
composed of many photo-detectors. These in turn are sampled by
microprocessors and produce a video signal that is then decoded.
Applications: The bar coding technology has gained wide acceptance in
numerous applications. Today, virtually all packages from the ultimate
consumer to the biggest transport units bear one or several codes, carrying their
identification number and other data relevant to agencies of shipping, carrying
and receiving goods.
Scanning at retail point of sale is a major application relying on the EAN/UPC
identification number and the associated bar code symbol. Scanning at point of
sale enables automatically to register the sales through price look-up files.
Further extensions include inventory management, automatic re-ordering and
sales analyses.
Bar coding technology is also applied to supply chain goods ready for
shipment are packed and each package is numbered and bar-coded with a
56
 unique number when processed by the receiver, the original message is Food Packaging
matched and what has been ordered and delivered can be checked. Inventories
can then be updated automatically.
Check Your Progress Exercise 6
# Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Which are the foods that require MAP in the modern food retailing
concept?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
2) What are the essential labelling requirements on a food package under
Indian laws?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
3) What are the five benefits of going in for bar coding on the food packages?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….

16.11 PACKAGING AND ENVIRONMENT

From the environmental point of view, food packaging can at best be
considered a “necessary evil”. All we need is a visit to our cities ( and recently
even villages), where garbage is strewn on the road sides and most of the
garbage happens to be empty packaging materials thrown by households. More
importantly, most of these are non-biodegradable plastics and a major
environmental hazard. Hill stations like Ooty have banned the use of plastics
for use as carry bags. But they cannot ban foods packaged in non-
biodegradable materials from the organized sector.
Now there is a strong global movement promoting environmental friendly, bio-
degradable materials (i.e. materials which will decompose into harmless
components in a reasonable time after disposal) for food packaging.

16.12 EDIBLE PACKAGING OF FOODS

16.12.1 Edible Packaging
Edible films and coatings are based on proteins, polysaccharides and/or lipids
have much potential for increasing food quality and reducing food-packaging
requirements. Edible films formed as coating or placed between food
components provide possibilities for improving the quality of heterogeneous
foods by limiting the migration of moisture, lipids, flavour/aromas, and colours
between food components. Edible coatings also have the potential for
maintaining the quality of foods even after the packaging is opened. In
addition, edible films formed as coatings on foods could have an impact on 57
Food Processing overall packaging requirements. Edible coatings also have the potential for
and Preservation
carrying food ingredients and improving the mechanical integrity or handling
characteristics of the food.
16.12.2 Advantages: The advantages are:
Î Can be consumed with packaged products.
Î No disposal problem, hence eco-friendly.
Î Can be produced exclusively from renewable edible ingredients and
anticipated to degrade more readily than polymeric materials.
Î Can enhance the organoleptic properties of packaged foods by
providing flavour, colour and sweetness to them.
Î Can supplement the nutritional value of the foods.
Î Can be applied inside heterogeneous foods at the interfaces between
different layers of components.
Î Can be tailored to prevent deteriorative inter-component moisture
and solute migration in foods such as pizzas, pies and candies.
Î Can function as carrier for antimicrobial and antioxidant agent.
Î Can control the diffusion rate of preservative substance from the
surface to the interior of the food.
Î Can be used for microencapsulation of food flavourings.
Î Can be used in multi-layer food packaging materials together with
non-edible films.
16.12.3 Requirements of Edible Films and Coatings
Î Should prevent product dehydration.
Î Should control transmission of gasses, vapour and solutes.
Î Should provide mechanical protection to foods.
Î Should restrict microbial invasion.
Î Should have good mechanical properties.
Î Should serve as a carrier for additives, viz. antioxidants,
antimicrobial agents, flavours, colouring, nutrients, etc.
Î Composition should conform to the regulations those apply to the
food product concerned.
These properties depend upon the types of materials used, its formation and
application.
16.12.4 Materials for Edible Films
(a) Protein: There are different proteins like milk protein, wheat gluten,
corn protein, soy protein, etc. that are used for film formation.
Manufacture of edible films and coatings are from whey protein
products, represent an effective means of increasing excess whey
utilization consequently alleviating the whey disposal problem.
(b) Polysaccharide: Polysaccharides that have been used for film
forming are cellulose and cellulose derivatives, starch, some
hydrocolloids like carrageenan, pectin, etc. polysaccharides films
have poor moisture barrier but have good mechanical properties.
(c) Lipid: Lipids like bee waxes, rice bran, paraffin wax, acetylated
monoglycerides, etc. have been used for film making. Wax has
been used for coating of cheese, fruit, etc. Lipids are hydrophobic
and therefore act as a good moisture barriers, however, their
mechanical properties are inferior to proteins and polysaccharide
58 based films.
 (d) Composite films: composite films consist of two or more Food Packaging
components so that characteristics of the film are enhanced by
individual contribution from each component, e.g. protein and
polysaccharide films by themselves are fairly hydrophilic but have
very good mechanical properties.
Sources: Some of the more common sources of proteins and polysaccharides
which can be modified to be effective packaging materials are:
Wheat protein: Wheat protein films are brittle due to extensive intermolecular
forces. Plasticizers reduce these forces and increase the mobility of the
biopolymer chains and thereby improve the mechanical properties of the films.
However, the resulting loose structure reduces the ability of the films to act as
a barrier to the diffusion of various gases and vapours. The greatest obstacle to
commercial exploitation of wheat gluten film appears to be their high water
permeability. Edible food packaging films and sausages castings are made
from blends of collagen and gluten using filters and softening agents.
Corn protein: Zein is the only protein that continues to be produced
commercially. It is characterized by its ability to form tough, glossy, hard
grease proof coatings after evaporation of the aqueous alcoholic solvent. Zein
coatings for pharmaceutical tablets and candies are formed by spraying or
dipping the product into aqueous ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol solutions
of zein. The solution also contains a FDA approved plasticizer viz. glycerin,
propylene glycol or acetaldehyde glycerides. Upon evaporation of the solvent a
shiny protective zein film is formed on the surface of the product.
Milk protein: Casein is the major protein of milk. Highly concentrated casein
solutions are firmly gelatinized using trans-glutaminase resulting in film with
favourable tensile property. Transglutamine is a calcium dependent enzyme
that catalyses the formation of covalent glutamyl-lysyl cross-links. Films are
insoluble in water mercaptoethanol and guanidine hydrochloride. Pure
caseinate films are attractive for use in food products due to their transparent
and flexible nature and solubility in water.
Polysaccharides: A new edible film made of natural polysacchrides has been
developed for packaging foods. Polysacchrides films have high OTR and their
tensile strength is not as great as that of plastic, yet they have wide applications
in meat industry. Processed, smoked meats can be wrapped in such films prior
to smoking to reduce moisture loss. They may also be used to extend the shelf-
life of fresh fruits by absorbing moisture given off by fruits. An edible
composition is formed by mixing glucomannan and optionally, another natural
polysaccharide with a polyhydric alcohol (glycerin) and dried into a film,
which may be eaten directly or serve as shell of soft fillings.

16.13 BIO-DEGRADABLE PLASTIC

Biopolymers or bioplastics are intrinsically biodegradable and their use would
reduce the damage inflicted to the environment by petrochemical plastics due
to their extended lifetime in the environment. They are polymers utilized by
bacteria as carbon and energy reserve material and accumulated by them when
other essential nutrients are depleted from the medium. Plant derived starches
has been used to produce biodegradable plastic articles viz. pharmaceutical
capsule by blow molding process. Further sources of biodegradable materials
are poly lactic acid, poly malic acid, or poly E-caprolactones, which are
synthesized chemically. In contrast, poly B-hydroxy alkanoates (PHAs) are 59
Food Processing produced microbially from renewable, plant-derived feedstock. It can be
and Preservation
processed by traditional techniques used in the plastic industry viz. Injection
molding, PHA has the potential to become an important source material for
biodegradable plastics. It has been estimated that in the year 2002 only 3% of
the estimated annual 15 million tones of plastic-packaging waste was
biodegradable.
Sources of biodegradable plastic are:
Î Biopol polymers: produced by fermentation of carbohydrate by the
bacterium Alcaligenes eutrophbus.
Î Poly (L-lactide): derived directly or indirectly from starch or sucrose.
Î Starch based materials: incorporation of starch into traditional
plastics.
Î Cellulose-based: microbial cellulose is mixed with chitin, chitosan,
CM-cellulose guar gum, collagen, dextran and gelatin.
Î Pectin-based: Reaction of pectin with polyol like glycerol, sorbitol
propylene glycol and ethylene glycol.
Î Pollaulan: Microbial polysaccharide is synthesized by Aureobasidium
pollulans.
Î Poly hydroxyl alkanoate (PHA): bacterial polyesters.

16.14 RECYCLING OF USED PACKAGING

MATERIALS
Another excellent way to save the environment is to recycle waste and use
packaging materials like glass, metals like steel and aluminium and plastics.
Glass is the most amenable recyclable material out of this lot since it the
easiest to recycle and the recycled glass is as good as new. Metal containers
and plastics on the other hand require a much more elaborate collection and
reprocessing mechanism and the recycled material may not be as good as new
material and hence may have to be put to some other usage. In mainland
Europe, which has a high environmental consciousness, glass, which has been
one of the most ancient packaging materials, is regarded as one of the best
packaging materials of the 21st century!

16.15 PACKAGING MACHINES

Packaging machinery are as important as packaging materials since they
ensure that:
● the packaging can be done at high speeds with minimal breakdowns and
with high energy efficiency
● the packaging is done efficiently and the packaging integrity is
maintained at close to 100 %
● the wastage of packaging materials and packaged food items is kept at a
very low minimum
Packaging facilities concerning food fall into 2 categories, i.e. inner packaging
and external packaging. Inner packaging is intended for individual items
include machines for weighing, filling, wrapping, sealing, etc. Filling
operations are for solids, powders, liquids and semi-liquid or paste foods.
Filling methods are classified according to container form:
(a) filling a pre-formed container with product and

60
 (b) filling a container with contents after the container is formed from a Food Packaging
roll-stock
The types of filling and packaging machines and their application for specific
packaging types are indicated below:
Product Types Machine Types
1. Filling and sealing machines Container supply type filling and
for glass and plastic containers, sealing machines
metal cans
2. With supply system for flexible Bag-supply type filling and sealing
and pouches/bags machine
3. Vertical filling and scaling Container-forming filling and sealing
machines machines
a) Pillow-type bag making, filling
and sealing
b) 4 or 3 sides seals filling and
sealing, horizontal filling and
sealing machines.
i) Horizontal pillow type sealing
ii) Horizontal 4-sides and 3-sides
seal, stand up pouch packing
Twist seal bag making, filling and
sealing machines
Square bottom bag-forming, filling
and sealing
Tying and packing machines
Lined folding carton packing
Thermoforming, filling and sealing
Packing machines with injection
moulders for plasters
Folding type over-wrapping, twist-type Over-wrapping machines
wrapping, stretch film.

16.16 LET US SUM UP

Packaging is a very important as well as innovative component of the modern
food industry. A good packaging not only serves as an adequate protection to
the processed or raw food, but is also the interface of the food with the
customer. It would be difficult to find buyers for processed food, however
good it may be, unless the customer finds it attractively packaged and clearly
labeled and branded.

During the 2nd world war and at the advent of modern food processing during
the mid 20th century, the most popular packages were tin-coated steel cans and
glass bottles. However, towards the end of the century flexible packages made
from a variety of plastics had by and large edged out cans. Extruded cans made
from aluminium have also gained ground by the end of last century.

These days most foods are packaged in multi-layered composites of different

plastics and paper. The packaging machineries also have undergone a sea
change. Form-fill and seal machinery are extensively used for liquids and
powders to make optimum use of these new age packaging in large volumes.
These are cost effective and are amenable for mechanical handling and 61
Food Processing transportation. Retortable plastic pouches containing intermediate moisture
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(semi-cooked) foods are also gaining popularity in urban Indian markets and
for defence applications.

With the well-to-do urban shopper getting habitual of his/her weekly shopping
in shopping malls, UHT processing combined with aseptic packaging for milk
and fruit juices is gaining ground inspite of the increased costs. Also, the
modern urban consumer who is conscious of the concept of “wellness” and
food as nutraceutical, is increasingly looking for minimally processed foods
which in turn has given a fillip to modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).

Packaging also provides space for the food packer to declare information
regarding the contents of the package. The nature of the minimum contents of
labeling is governed by the laws of the land.
Bar coding on the packaging has been a great help in inventory control,
invoicing/ billing, compliance to traceability requirements etc in big
departmental stores because of its amenability to electronic computing.

16.17 KEY WORDS

Annealing : Regulated way of cooling an article to eliminate
internal stress and thus breakage.
Breathing holes : 5 cm. diameter hole either four or more numbers
in a corrugated fibre board box to provide
respiration.
Blister form : A container or cup like structure packaging,
made from plastic materials by means of
thermoforming technique.
Bio-degradable : Degradation of any materials with the help of
biological organisms.
Canning : Filling the product in the can and processing and
seaming it under sterile conditions.
Composite Containers : A Container is made of two dissimilar materials
where the body is made from paper and the ends
are either from plastics or metal.
Eco-friendly : The packaging materials comply with the norms
of environment, called eco-friendly.
Exhausting : The metal cans filled with fruit pieces and sugar
syrup or cut vegetables dipped into salt solution
are subjected to a chamber under 70oC for 30
min. to get the vacuum at the top of cans, called
as exhausting.
Flanging : Both the ends of metal cans are curled which is
called as flanging.
Hermetically sealed : Completely airtight container.
HIPS : High impact polystyrene – a kind of polymeric
material
Impact strength : The strength which determines the rigidity of
packaging materials.
Laminate : A sandwich of either two or more packaging
materials in a single form like paper with
polyethylene or polyester film with polyethylene
62 film.
 Reforming : Normally, the metal cans are received by the Food Packaging
processor in flattened condition. The cans are
further reformed into original round shape.
Recyclable : Any material that could be regenerated into
original materials.
Storage life : The life of the product till gets unacceptable for
consumption
Spout : An opening device made of plastic normally
fitted to lined carton.
Snap-On : A kind of lid which is placed on the
thermoformed container by putting pressure
downwards.
VPI : Vapour phase inhibitor – a kind of coating on
paper to avoid corrosion

16.18 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Arthur Hirsch, (1991). Flexible Food Packaging : Van Nostrand Reinhold.

• Frank A. Paine, Heather Y. Paine, (1992). A Handbook of Food Packaging:
Blackie Academic and Professional, London.
• Geoffrey M. Levy, (1999). Packaging Policy and the Environment :
Publisher: Springer; 1st edition
• J Ralph Blanchfield, (2000). 1 edition. Food Labelling Publisher: CRC;
• Modern Food Packaging, (1998) by Indian Institute of Packaging, Mumbai
– 93.
• Moulding of Plastics, edited by Norbert M-Bikales, (1971). Wiley-
Interscience, a division of John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York.
• Packaging Technology educational volumes, (Set-A), (2001), Indian
Institute of Packaging, Mumbai- 93.
• Raija Ahvenainen, (2003). Novel Food Packaging Techniques ; CRC
Publications
• Shapiro, (1995). Nutrition Labelling Handbook (Food Science and
Technology) ; Publisher: CRC

# 16.19 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Your answer should include following points:
1. The best definition of packaging, is by Mr. Robert Rausina, founder of
Tetra Pak Sweden, a leading global food packaging company.
According to him, “a good packaging is one that saves more than it
costs, including refrigeration, transportation, storage, handling, labor,
etc.”
2. Packaging protects the foods (may be raw, processed, bulk or
consumer-portioned) from contamination, physical damage and
deterioration. It helps in protecting the foods during transportation of
raw, semi-processed or processed food from farm to processor, from
processor to retail seller (through the distribution network) and from
the retailer to home of consumer (refrigerator/kitchen). Packaging also
provides printing space which enables the processor/packer to pass on 63
Food Processing information/instructions on the contents of the package to the
and Preservation
consumer. It also provides space for printing of barcodes on the
package so that it becomes machine readable and aids in buying/selling.
It is thus a great marketing aid as well!
3. Tin-coated steel cans and aluminium cans are the two major types of
cans used for packaging foods.
4. Glass is an excellent packaging material that has proved its worth for
many decades. It is made from sand, a raw material that is abundant on
earth. It is inert, rigid, strong and transparent – attributes that make it
ideal as a packaging material for foods. In the environmental context, it
is fully reusable and recyclable and hence does not demand too much of
resources or pollute the earth`s surface. Therefore, many planners,
processors and packers, who are environmentally conscious consider
that there is tremendous scope for reviving glass as the preferred
packaging material of the 21st century.
5. Choice of an appropriate packaging material is governed by several
factors such as:
− The specific sensitivities of the contents, e.g. moisture, oxygen, etc.
− Factors changing the contents viz. temperature, RH, pH, and the
reaction mechanism involved.
− Weight and shape of container.
− Effect on filling and sealing speeds.
− Contamination of food by constituents of the packing material.
− Storage conditions- How long the product needs to be protected.
− Bio-degradability and recycling potential.
− Most of the food production has been in the rural pockets of the
country, while the major markets are in the urban areas. So the need for
its transportation over long distances has become a necessity.
− Dairy and fruit products being highly perishable products, utmost care
is needed in its preservation during storage, handling and
transportation.
− Food products spoil fast at high temperatures, in the presence of
oxygen and other contaminating agents present in the atmosphere.
− There are many more peculiarities, which could be identified under the
following headings for determining the packaging of processed food
products.
-> Product range
-> Market
-> Consumer needs
-> Operating margins
6. Some of the attributes of good packaging that consumers appreciate are:
− Product quality and protection with a great emphasis on freshness.
− Easy to open, dispense, reseal and store.
− Appealing product presentation is gaining prominence.
− Durable and eco friendly is being viewed together.
− Leak and spillage proof is a must for the producer as well as the
consumer.
64 − Reusable packaging.
 − Less hassles, more convenience. Food Packaging
− Selection from a wider choice of available sizes.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Your answer should include following points:
(1)
• It is differentiated mainly by grammage
• Grammage of paper is upto 180 gsm.
• More than 180 gsm is called paperboard.
(2)
• Tissue paper, kraft papers, high gloss paper
• Grease proof paper, glassine paper
• Duplex board, Triplex board, chip board
• Clay coated board
(3)
• Flexible in nature
• Easy amenable to printing
• Good insulation properties
• Good tear resistance properties
(4)
• Impermeable
• Non toxic
• Excellent barrier to moisture, oxygen gas and light
• Resistance to low temperature
• Dead fold characteristics
(5)
• Polyolefin group – PE, PP
• Polyvinyl group – PVC
• Condensation group – polyester, nylon or polyamide
• Styrene polymer – polystyrene, high impact polystyrene
• Carbonate group – polycarbonate
(6)
• Co-extruded film – 3 layers, 5 layers
• Laminated form – 2 layer, 3 layer, 4 layer

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Your answer should include following points:
1)
• Chemically inert
• Non – permeable
• Transparent
• Strength
• Light weight
• Unlimited supply
2)
• The main constitutes are soda, lime stone and soda ash
• Other ingredients like arsenic, selenium and cobaloxides are added to
made clear glasses.
• Boron is added to make stronger
• Carbon and sulphide are added to make amber (brown) coloured glass 65
Food Processing • Type I – Borrosilicate glass
and Preservation
• Type II – Sulphur coated glass
• Type III – Soda lime glasses
3)
• Can be fabricated easily
• Impermeable to light, gases and moisture
• Non-toxic
• Amenable to heat sterilization
• Amenable to printing.
4)
• Fabricate in different size, shape and capacity
• Improved impact strength properties
• Could be made either transparent or opaque
• Could be made in different colour
• Could have handle to carry.
5)
• Kraft liner, fluting media and adhesive
6)
• Scoring, slitting, slotting, joining and closing
7)
• Eco-friendly packaging material
• Manufacturing technology is very simple
• Availability of raw materials
• Availability of machinery supplier
• Space utilization in godown is excellent due to collapsing in nature.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Your answer should include following points:
1)
• Cartons made of either duplex board or triplex board.
• Cartons made by means of creasing, scoring, slotting, folding and then
joining by means of glue.
• Used mainly as intermediate packs for dairy products like butter, indian
sweets, milk based confectioneries etc.
2)
• Paper board (80%)
• Polyethylene ( about 15%)
• Aluminium foil (about 5%)
3)
• Tetra Brick Aseptic (TBA)
• Tetra Classic Aseptic (TCA)
• Tetra Fino Aseptic (TFA)
• Tetra Wedge Aseptic (TWA)
4)
• Higher degree of safety, hygiene and nutrient retention in foods
• Preserving taste and freshness
• A good example of resources efficiency
• Lightest packaging materials as compared to glass, metal or plastic
containers
66 5)
 • A container is made of thermoforming technique Food Packaging
• Thermoplastic materials are softened by means of heat, followed by
vacuum drawing to the mould and the cooling
• Extensively used for dairy products like ice cream, shrikhand, dahi etc.
6)
• Polyethylene (PE)
• Polypropylene (PP)
• High impact polystyrene (HIPS)
• Acrylo Butadiene – Styrene (ABS)
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
Your answer should include following points:
1) FFS system or form-fill and seal system of packaging is one in which
the flexible packaging material (which could be multi-layered) which is
manufactured in the form of huge rolls are fed from one end of the
packaging machine. The packaging material is first converted into a
tube by vertically sealing the edges of the unwound roll, the lower
vertical heat seal is done (FORM) and then a measured quantity of the
product is filled into the partially formed package (FILL). It is finally
closed by sealing the top-end of he package (SEAL). Since this is a
continuous operation, such systems give opportunity for high-speed
packaging of powders and liquids such as milk, milk powders, soup
powders etc.

2) Asceptic FFS systems of packaging are ideally suited for packaging

presterilised milk or fruit juices by UHT methods. The packaging
material used is a laminate comprising a suitable plastic material in the
innermost layer, followed by aluminium layer in the middle and a
printed paper layer on the outside. In between there may be addition
layers of plastic materials to meet the performance requirements of the
package. Of late, however, a new system using presterilized glass
bottles, which is also amenable for high-speed operations is also used
especially in Europe.
Check Your Progress Exercise 6
Your answer should include following points:
1) It is mostly fresh fruits, vegetables, meats and fish that require MAP to
preserve their freshness as well as to maintain the physical appearance
of being fresh. Such products attract the consumers in the supermarkets
to go in for them by their quality and appearance.

2) The requirements for food labels under the Indian laws are:
- Name (for all types of products) & brief description of the product (for
proprietary products)
- Composition of the product
- Nutrition information
- Raw materials used
- Declarations reg vegetarian/halal, etc.
- Date of manufacture, batch no.
- Best before and/or expiry date
67
Food Processing - Net weight
and Preservation
- Max retail price
- Name and address of manufacturer/packer
- Name and address of marketing agency

3) Some of the benefits of using barcodes in modern packaging and

retailing are listed below:
The main benefits are speed and accuracy. Compared to manual key
entry, capturing data automatically by reading bar code can be done in a
fraction of a second. Generally the error rate is extremely low, of the
order of one error per 10 lakhs readings. Other advantages include:
Î Computer aided checkout
Î Avoidance of over and under charging
Î Self-service
Î Instant inventory control
Î Market survey-products sold and rate

68
 Waste
UNIT 17 WASTE MANAGEMENT IN FOOD Management in
Food Processing
PROCESSING INDUSTRY Industry

Structure
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Energy Efficiency and Conservation
17.3 Water Conservation
17.4 Byproduct Utilization
17.5 Treatment of Solid Wastes
17.6 Treatment of Liquid Wastes
17.7 Corporate Social Responsibility
17.8 Let Us Sum Up
17.9 Key Words
17.10 Some Useful Books
17.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

17.1 INTRODUCTION
Food processing industry essentially uses biological material, which could be
agricultural, animal or aquatic in origin as its raw material. It is also highly
energy intensive and consumes significantly high quantities of water. The
process of preparing the raw material for processing also generates significant
amounts of solid and liquid wastes, e.g. stalks, shells, peels and cores of fruits
and vegetables; trimmings, bones, hides, offals and shells in case of farm and
aquatic animals and spillages, whey, etc. in case of dairy industry. It also uses
significant quantities of cleaning and sanitizing agents which have to be
discharged into the effluent lines. It is a big consumer of all types of packaging
materials some of which find their way into the waste stream due to various
reasons.
Waste materials generated from food processing and food service facilities can
present difficult treatment problems since they contain large amounts of
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and mineral salts. For example, the waste from
dairy plants, food freezing and dehydration plants, and processing plants for
red meats, poultry, and seafood can produce distinct odors and heavy pollution
of water if the discharge is not properly treated. Organic matter of these wastes
must be treated by biological stabilization before discharge into a body of
water. A hazard to humans and aquatic forms of life results from improper
waste disposal.
The problems of the treatment and disposal of wastes are similar for all food
plants. These industries experience an increasing demand from the central
(federal), state and local regulatory agencies and the public for the abatement
of alleged nuisances such as water pollution.
Processors and regulatory agencies are charged with the prompt and complete
disposal of waste materials. Accumulation of wastes, even for short periods of
time, can create an unsanitary condition which may attract insects and rodents,
produce odors, and lead to a public nuisance or an unsightly condition inside or
outside the plant. In India, the air and water pollution issues are handled by the
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control
Boards. Air pollution is dealt with by the Central Board but is administered by
the respective State Boards while water pollution is a state subject. The
69
Food Processing administrative ministry for the CPCB is the Ministry of Environment &
and Preservation
Forests (MoEF).
Wastes from food plants generally present minimal public health concern
because they are not a direct means of disease transmission. The major
objection to these wastes is the presence of organic matter that provides a food
source for microbial growth. With an abundant food supply, microorganisms
multiply rapidly and subsequently reduce the dissolved oxygen contained in
the water. Water normally contains approximately 8ppm of dissolved oxygen
(DO). A minimum standard for fish life is 5ppm of dissolved oxygen, and
values below this level can result in the death of fish by suffocation.
If dissolved oxygen is completely eliminated from water through high organic
water content, a septic condition with foul odors and darkening of water
occurs. Septic conditions with sulfur-containing proteins or water with a high
content of natural content of sulfates can produce hydrogen sulfides, which
causes an undesirable odor and blackening of painted buildings.
The large volume of waste water produced in food plants contains vast
quantities of organic residues. The intermittent production schedule of most
plants places greater demands on wastewater treatment systems.
In processing, water is an essential tool to help cleanse the product and serve
as a cleaning medium to convey unwanted materials to the sewage system. In
wastewater handling, water presents the problem of a diluter that flushes and
dissolves organic soil and carries it to the sewer.
The table 17.1 below shows the typical composition of wastes from food and
related industries.
Table 17.1: Average composition of waste from food industries
Type of waste BOD 5 Suspended solids
(parts per million) (parts per million)
Packing house and 595 606
stockyards
Meat products 1141 820
Glue and gelatin 431 307
Food products 796 505
Yeast and vinegar 1329 307
Vegetable oils 528 475
Dairy and mild products 674 387

Reduction, recycling and efficient processing of wastes forms the core of waste
reduction management in food processing industry. To achieve this overall
objective, the food processing plants have to take recourse to the following
general principles:
1. Use raw materials of good quality;
2. Minimize wastage during handling, preparation and processing of raw
materials and packaging of processed foods;
3. Use appropriate technology and process equipment to minimize energy
consumption;
4. Minimize the wastage of water by reasonable care during preparation and
processing without sacrificing quality;
70
5. Use recyclable or biodegradable packaging material as far as possible; Waste
Management in
6. Recycle raw material and process waste as far as possible; Food Processing
Industry
7. Use appropriate technology to process the non-recyclable wastes
preferably into usable inputs, products or energy.
These principles, if adhered to religiously and implemented intelligently
will bring down costs, improve product quality, improve the image of the
company and pay rich dividends to the owners of the company.

17.2 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION

Energy efficiency was not always a priority in the industry especially when
cheap power was in abundance globally till the early 1970`s. However, with
the raise in demand for power and greater dependence on increasingly costlier
petroleum fuels for power generation, energy conservation has become the
mantra of the industry. Food processing industry is quite energy intensive and
can benefit greatly from modern methods of energy conservation. Some of the
steps in energy efficiency and conservation are:
• Having energy efficiency as a major criterion in the selection of
technology and process equipment;
• Having in-built mechanism in the circuitry and processes for avoiding
wastage of electricity;
• Heat recovery in process flows and multi-stage heating;
• High quality insulation in cold areas and cold processes;
• Modern methods of illumination;
• New high efficiency methods of heating and/or steam generation;
• Periodic review of the energy scenario by energy audits and follow up
action;
• Review of preparation and process methodologies to keep the heating/
cooling to minimum.

17.3 WATER CONSERVATION

Gone are the days when water was cheap and plentiful. As human population
is growing in our planet, water is becoming a scarce commodity. Many
developing nations including India are not able to ensure per capita water
supply in conformity with globally accepted standards for water requirement
for human hygiene and survival. In this scenario, it is vital for the food
industry to ensure proper water management to bring down the costs as well as
to meet its social obligations.
Water is used in the food processing industry for washing of raw materials, for
cooking, blanching, etc., for steam generation, cooling purposes, maintaining
plant sanitation and for use by the employees. Water management and
conservation consists of a study of consumption pattern in each of these
applications and use of innovative techniques and steps to ensure that water
consumption is minimized without affecting product quality. Some of the
principles and steps in water conservation are:
• Select technologies, processes and equipment that use less water
• Exercise supervision and develop systems whereby wasteful use of water
can be curtailed
71
Food Processing • Minimize water entering the effluent stream by recycling water at
and Preservation
different stages e.g. steam condensate can be collected used as boiler
feed; wash water in some food industries can be used for gardening
purpose without much processing – remember, industry and domestic
effluents are quite difficult and expensive to treat
• Have high tech water level controllers for sumps, overhead tanks, etc.
and have spring-loaded hose guns for process plant washing applications
to avoid overflows, unnecessary spillages, etc. due to human carelessness
• Have a good effluent treatment system which not only meets the legal
requirements but also gives treated effluents which can be recycled for
various industrial purposes
Good practices of water management and conservation, when implemented
well, can save on water bills, money spent on energy for pumping water and
costs of effluent treatment and disposal – remember, it costs money even to let
off treated effluent into waterways or municipal lines.

17.4 BYPRODUCT UTILIZATION

Food Industry generates a huge volume of wastes especially at the pre-
processing/raw material preparation phase. The quantities would vary, but
could be as high as 50-60% in meat processing industry! Treating such
quantities as waste would be counter-productive since it would not only add to
the cost of waste management but also deprive the food industry of useful
income that could be derived by utilization of much of the waste as saleable
byproducts.
Type of wastes from the food industry would vary considerably depending
upon the raw material consumed. However, almost all the wastes would be
organic (biological) in nature except those from the packaging section. The
concept of waste recycling, when implemented imaginatively, could make
significant contributions to the profitability of the industry. The basic principle
of recycling is to use as much of the wastes as raw material for conversion to
some other product like animal feed, food/ feed ingredient, industrial
chemicals, agricultural inputs and energy etc. Some of the wastes from major
categories are listed below table 17.2.
Table 17.2: Types of Waste from the Industry
Type of Waste Type of process End product
industry description
Fruit & stems, stalks, Composting. Bio-fertilizer.
vegetable leaves, rotten (Anaerobic treatment.) Bio-gas &
processing fruit and Fertilizer.
vegetables Landfill. Fertilizer,
Animal feed.
-do- Seeds, pulp, Extraction of pectin. Pectin for jams, etc.
peel, etc.
(post- Extraction of oleo-resins, Various food
processing) antioxidants, colours, ingredients
essential oils, Enzymes
Fermentation of residual Alcohol, vinegar,
sugars & carbohydrates. residual dietary
fibres, etc.
72
 Meat & Skins & Salting, tanning, Leather, dresses Waste
Management in
poultry hides valorization Food ingredients, Food Processing
processing Blood feeds, Industrial & Industry
pharma compounds,
fertilizers
Offals Cleaning & processing. Sausage casings,
feeds, fertilizers.
Bones Crushing, processing. Bone meal, mineral
supplements,
gelatine.
Fat Fat Extraction. Cooking fats, Soaps

Left over Cleaning, mincing. Minced Meats,

meats after sausages, pet foods,
prime cuts. etc.
Sea food Skins, bones, Size reduction & steam Fish meal & fish
processing heads, left cooking. protein concentrate
over meat
after filleting Oil extraction & refining Fish Oil.
Hydrolyzing Fish Protein
hydrolyzate.
Composting Biofertilizer.

Skins & Cold water extraction Collagen.

bones Hot water extraction Gelatine

Shells, legs, Processing Chitins & chitosans

etc. of
crustaceans
Dairy Whey from Precipitation, Whey powder,
Industry cheese concentration whey proteins,
making lactose
Cheese Cleaning & processing Cheese
granules preparations,
animal feeds
Fat Centrifugation, Butter oil (ghee)
dehydration
Waste fat Soap
Buttermilk Tray drying Buttermilk powder

# Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) List out the general principles of waste reduction, recycling & efficient
processing for the food industry?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…

73
Food Processing 2) What are the different types of wastes one encounters in the food
and Preservation
industry?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
3) Why is water used in the food industry?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
4) Why is it important to invest in energy reduction measures industry?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…

17.5 TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTES

Solid wastes after recycling to the extent possible has to be segregated into
biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes. Biodegradable wastes are those
which are organic or biological in origin. Non-biodegradable materials will
include metals, plastics, paper-poly composites which cannot be decomposed
by naturally occurring micro-organisms.
Some years back, solid wastes were disposed off as land-fill materials by
dumping them into designated land-fill areas. However, with increasing costs
and environment consciousness, biodegradable solid wastes are now used as
raw materials for composting.
What is compost?
Composting is the natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic
material into a humus rich soil amendment known as compost. For any
business or institution producing food waste, this organic material can be
easily decomposed into high quality compost.

74
Fruits, vegetables, dairy products, grains, bread, unbleached paper napkins, Waste
Management in
coffee filters, eggshells, meats and newspaper can be composted. Any material Food Processing
which can be eaten or grown in a field or garden, it can be composted. Items Industry
that cannot be composted include plastics, grease, glass, and metals --
including plastic utensils, condiment packages, plastic wrap, plastic bags, foil,
silverware, drinking straws, bottles, polystyrene or chemicals. Items such as
red meat, bones and small amounts of paper are acceptable, but they take
longer to decompose. Add red meat and bones to only a well-controlled
compost pile to avoid attracting vermin, pests and insects to partially
decomposed meat scraps.
Food waste is unique as a compost agent
Food waste has unique properties as a raw compost agent. Because it has a
high moisture content and low physical structure, it is important to mix fresh
food waste with a bulking agent that will absorb some of the excess moisture
as well as add structure to the mix. Bulking agents with a high C:N ratio, such
as sawdust and yard waste, are good choices.
Food waste is highly susceptible to odour production -- mainly ammonia -- and
large quantities of leachate. The best prevention for odour is a well-aerated pile
that remains aerobic and free of standing water. Leachate can be reduced
through aeration and sufficient amounts of a high carbon bulking agent. It is
normal to have some odour and leachate production. Captured leachate can be
reapplied to the compost.

A typical composting operation

Pre-consumer food wastes are particularly suitable (being devoid of the
complexities of household wastes) for composting and the end product is an
excellent bio-fertilizer in good demand and hence fetches a good price to the
food processor.
Non-biodegradable wastes are sorted into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic,
glass, plastic and paper wastes and sent separately for reuse through well
established channels.
Some of the benefits of composting to environment and agriculture are listed
below. (Table 17.3)

Table 17.3: Benefits of compost to the environment and agriculture

Environment: Agriculture:

• Water and soil conservation • Adds organic matter, humus and

• Protects groundwater quality. cation exchange capacity to
• Minimizes odours from regenerate poor soils.
agricultural areas. • Suppresses certain plant diseases
75
Food Processing
• Avoids methane production and parasites and kills weed
and Preservation
and leachate formation in seeds.
landfills by diverting organics • Increases yield and size in some
from landfills into compost. crops.
• Prevents erosion and turf loss • Increases length and
on roadsides, hillsides, playing concentration of roots in some
fields and golf courses. crops.
• Drastically reduces the need • Increases soil nutrient content and
for pesticides and fertilizers. water holding capacity of sandy
• Binds heavy metals and soils and water infiltration of clay
prevents them from migrating soils.
to water resources, being • Reduces fertilizer requirements.
absorbed by plants, or being • Restores soil structure after
bioavailable to humans. natural soil microorganisms have
• Off-farm materials can be been reduced by the use of
brought in and added to chemical fertilizers; compost is a
manure to make compost. soil innoculant.
• Facilitates reforestation, • Increases earthworm populations
wetlands restoration, and in soil.
wildlife habitat revitalization • Provides slow, gradual release of
efforts by amending nutrients, reducing loss from
contaminated, compacted and contaminated soils.
marginal soils. • Reduces water requirements and
• Long-term stable organic irrigation.
matter source. • Provides opportunity for extra
• Buffers soil pH levels. income; high quality compost can
• Off-farm materials can be be sold at a premium price in
brought in and added to established markets.
manure to make compost. • Moves manure to non-traditional
• Composted manure weights markets that do not exist for raw
about one-fourth as much as manture.
raw manure per ton. • Brings higher prices for
organically grown crops.
• Minimizes odours from
agricultural areas.
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

17.6 TREATMENT OF LIQUID WASTES

Food industries generate large volumes of liquid wastes which after all
possible recycling steps are finally led to a common sump called the effluent
sump. Since food processing is a continuous activity usually going round the
clock, the sump acts as a storage cum equilibrium tank since the characteristics
of the effluent entering the sump could be quite varying at different times.
Thus the equilibrium tank acts as a buffer against possible damage to the
working of the effluent treatment plant (ETP), which in effect a delicate
bioreactor, due to varying influent characteristics.
17.6.1 Need for ETP`s
The food plant effluents have several undesirable characteristics like high
biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), apart
from high suspended solids, etc. Every nation now has legislation regarding
the quality parameters for effluents that can be let out into public waterways
76
like streams, ponds and rivers or into the municipal sewage lines. To meet Waste
Management in
these stringent criteria, the food processor has to go in for an ETP. Food Processing
There are basically two types of ETP`s in the food industry- those working on Industry
aerobic conditions (i.e. in the presence of oxygen) and those working under
anaerobic conditions (i.e. in the absence of oxygen). The choice of the ETP
would depend upon the influent characteristics, the required characteristics in
the treated effluent, budgetary considerations and whether it would be viable to
go in for systems that generate energy (combustible gases), etc.
Some of the terminology used in this chapter, including those in the earlier
paragraphs are explained below:
(i) What is biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)?
-The BOD is an important measure of water quality. It is a measure of the
amount of oxygen needed (in milligrams per liter or parts per million) by
bacteria and other microorganisms to oxidize the organic matter present in a
water sample over a period of 5 days. The BOD of drinking water should be
less than 1. That of raw sewage may run to several hundred.
(ii) What is chemical oxygen demand (COD)?
- COD (chemical oxygen demand) is a measure of the oxygen required to
oxidize all compounds in water, both organic and inorganic.
(iii) What is primary treatment?
-The simplest, and least effective method of treatment is to allow the
undissolved (suspended) solids in raw sewage to settle out of suspension,
forming sludge. Such primary treatment removes only one-third of the BOD
and virtually none of the dissolved minerals.
Attempts to use digested sludge as a fertilizer have been hampered by its
frequent contamination by toxic chemicals derived from industrial wastes.
(iv) What is secondary treatment?
-Many treatment plants pass the effluent from primary treatment to secondary
treatment. Here the effluent is brought in contact with oxygen and aerobic
microorganisms. They break down much of the organic matter to harmless
substances such as carbon dioxide.
Primary and secondary treatment together can remove up 90% of the BOD.
After chlorination to remove its content of bacteria, the effluent from
secondary treatment is discharged to surface waterways.
(v) Advanced waste treatment or tertiary treatment
The combination of primary and secondary treatment removes most of the
organic matter in sewage and thus lowers the BOD. However, most of the
nitrogen and phosphorus in sewage remains in the effluent from secondary
treatment. These inorganic nutrients can cause eutrophication of surface water
receiving the effluent causing blooms of algae. To avoid this, a few add a third
stage of treatment called tertiary treatment.
(vi) Biological treatment
Biological treatment is the process of utilizing naturally occurring living
organisms to degrade, stabilize and destroy organic contaminants. These
microorganisms use the waste as their source of energy and carbon. Biological
treatment technologies are restricted to organic wastes, and therefore, are quite
77
Food Processing suitable for food industry applications. It is appropriate at this point to review
and Preservation
some principles of biological process.
All living organisms require a source of energy and carbon to be able to
develop and reproduce. Many organisms (autographic) get their carbon from
inorganic compounds (such as CO2), while other organisms (heterotrophic) use
organic compounds to get their carbon. Aerobic and anaerobic metabolic
pathways are used by microorganisms to degrade organic waste. During
aerobic respiration, the organism utilizes oxygen to break down complex
organic compounds into simple inorganic salts, carbon dioxide and water.
These microorganisms require an electron acceptor (oxygen in the case of
aerobic), nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P), and other trace
elements.
One of the most important characteristics of the food industry waste is its
biodegradability. Microorganisms can either directly use the contaminated
waste and gain energy and carbon from it; or, with the help of another
substance they can co-metabolically break down the contaminated waste. The
biodegradability of a waste can be measured in the laboratory through BOD 5 /
COD tests. BOD (biological oxygen demand) is a test through which
contaminants can be categorized according to their biodegradability. COD
(chemical oxygen demand) is a measure of the oxygen required to oxidize all
compounds in water, both organic and inorganic.
Aerobic process
While the aerobic process is less capital intensive, it does not yield any useful
end product. The biomass is converted mostly into heat and CO2 and a
significant portion into sludge. The energy required to run the aerobic plants is
generally higher.
Anaerobic process
The cost of installing the plant is higher. However, operating costs are lower
and we get methane as biogas which can be made use of in the food industry as
a heating source. The quantum of sludge is also less and hence cost of disposal
of sludge is higher.

Conversion of organic pollutants to biogas (methane) by anaerobic

microorganisms

78
 Waste
Management in
Food Processing
Industry

Comparison of the COD balance during anaerobic and aerobic treatment of

wastewater containing organic pollution

Let us now examine in more detail how the liquid effluents can be effectively
handled.
17.6.2 Wastewater Handling
Wastewater can be salvaged through recycling and reuse and the recovery of
solids. The degree of conservation and salvage value of wastewater are based
on factors such as (a) wastewater treatment facilities for recoverable materials,
(b) operating costs of independent treatment, (c) market value of the
recoverable materials, (d) local regulations regarding effluent quality, (e)
surcharge cost for plants discharging into public sewers, and (f) anticipated
discharge volume in the future. The economics of disposal of solids,
concentrates, blood, and concentrated stick (in wet rendering) determine how
much of these pollutional solids are kept out of the sewer. The design of a
wastewater control plan is to remove and convey organic solids using “dry”
methods, without discharging those solids to the sewer and by using a minimal
amount of water in the cleaning operation.
Whenever food, regardless of form, is handled, processed, packaged, and
stored, wastewater is generated. Quantity, pollutant strength, and nature of
constituents of processing wastewater have both economic and environmental
consequences concerning treatability and disposal. Economics of treatment are
affected by the amount of product loss from the processing operations and the
treatment costs of this waste material. Significant characteristics which
determine the cost for wastewater treatment are the relative strength of the
wastewater and the daily volume of discharge.
Ecological ramifications can result from inadequate removal of pollutants from
effluent discharge. A eutrophic condition can develop within the aquatic
environment due to the discharge of biodegradable, oxygen-consuming
compounds if inadequately treated wastewater is discharged to a stream or
other body of water. Maintenance of the eutrophic condition for an extended
time can upset the ecological balance (i.e., aquatic microflora, plants and
animals) of the receiving body of water. Also, development of undesirable
odors and unattractive scenes can result from continual depletion of the oxygen
in wastewater.
It is frequently more economical to invest in waste prevention technique and
utilization of waste products than in waste treatment facilities. Yet, many food
plants generate waste effluents that pollute. Insufficient treatment capacity of 79
Food Processing many municipal waste treatment plants necessitates special waste treatment
and Preservation
facilities in a large percentage of food plants.
I. Pretreatment
Most common pretreatment processes include flow equalization and the
separation of floatable matter and settleable solids. Separation is frequently
enhanced by addition of lime and alum, ferric chloride, or a selected polymer.
Paddle flocculation may follow alum and lime and lime and ferric chloride
additions to assist in coagulation of the suspended solids. Separation is usually
accomplished by gravity or by air flotation. Screening by vibrating, rotary or
static-type screens is a step that precedes the separation process and
concentrates the separated floatable and settled solids. The various
pretreatment processes are discussed under the following topics.
(a) Flow equalization
Flow equalization and neutralization are adopted to reduce hydraulic loading in
the waste stream. Equalization facilities consist of a holding tank and pumping
equipment designed to reduce the fluctuation of effluent discharge. This
operation can be economically advantageous whether processing firms treat
their own waste water or discharge into a municipal sewage treatment facility
after pretreatment. The equalizing tank has the capacity to store wastewater for
recycling and reuse, or to feed the flow uniformly to the treatment facility
throughout the 24 hr day. The tank is characterized by a varying flow into the
tank and a constant flow from the tank. Equalizing tanks can be lagoons, steel
construction tanks, or concrete tanks, often without a cover.
(b) Screening
The most frequently used process for pretreatment is screening. Screening
normally employs vibrating screens, static screens, or a rotary screen.
Vibrating or rotary screens are more frequently used since they permit
pretreatment of a larger quantity of wastewater that contains more organic
matter. These screening devices are well adapted to a flow-away (water in
forward flow and passes through with solids constantly removed from the
screen) mode of operation and can vary widely in mechanical action and in
mesh size. Mesh sizes used in pretreatment range from approximately 12.5mm
in diameter in a static screen to approximately 0.15mm in diameter in high-
speed circular vibratory polishing screens. Various screens are sometimes used
in combination (i.e., prescreen-polish screen) to attain the desired efficiency of
solids removal.
(c) Skimming
This process is frequently incorporated if large flotable solids are present.
These solids are collected and transferred into some disposal unit or preceeding
equipment. Lime and alum, FeCl3, or a selected polymer may be added to
enhance separation of solids, and paddle flocculation may follow to assist with
coagulation of these solids.
II. Primary treatment
The principal purpose of primary treatment is to remove particles from the
wastewater. The processes involved in primary treatment are discussed under
the topics that follow.
(a) Sedimentation - This is the most common primary treatment technique
used to remove solids from the wastewater influent because most sewage
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contains a substantial amount of readily settleable solids. According to Green Waste
Management in
and Kramer (1979), as much as 40-60% of the solids, or about 25-35% of the Food Processing
BOD5 load, can be removed by pretreatment screening and primary Industry
sedimentation. Some of the solids removed are refractory (inert) and are not
measured by the BOD test.
A rectangular settling tank or a circular tank clarifier is most frequently used
for the sedimentation process of primary treatment. Many settling tanks
incorporate slowly rotating collectors with attached flights (paddles) which
scrape settled sludge from the bottom of the tank and skim floating scum from
the surface.
Design of a sedimentation system should incorporate sizing of the detention
vessel and providing a quiescent state for the raw wastewater. Temperature
variation of the wastewater also affects sedimentation because of the
development of heat convection currents and the potential interference with
marginal settling particles. Grease removal is also accomplished during this
pretreatment process through removal of the surface scum.
(b) Flotation- This is a treatment process in which oil, grease and other
suspended matter are removed from wastewater. A primary reason that this
treatment process has been used in the food industry is because of the
effectiveness that oil can be removed from the wastewater. This system is also
beneficial in the removal of other contaminants from the waste streams of food
processing plants.
Air bubbles can be created in the wastewater treatment process by (a) use of
rotating impellers or air diffusers to form air bubbles at atmospheric pressure;
(b) saturation of the liquid medium with air and subsequent combination of the
mixture to a vacuum to create bubbles; and (c) saturation of air with liquid
under high pressure with subsequent release of pressure to form bubbles. The
latter is known as dissolved air flotation (DAF), which is widely used in
flotation treatment. This technique normally involves air forced under pressure
into a portion of the liquid held in a retention tank.
Flocculating agents are commonly used to pretreat waste water prior to
treatment by a dissolved air flotation unit. Treatment by DAF is frequently
used because of the relatively fast passage, and solids of nearly the same
density or lighter than water can be removed. This treatment technique requires
high investment and operating costs, especially for chemical additives and
sludge handling.
Dissolved air flotation involves a process for removing suspended matter from
wastewater that uses small air bubbles. When discrete particles attach to tiny
air bubbles, the effective specific gravity of the aggregate particle becomes less
than that of water. Reduction of the specific gravity for the aggregate particle
causes separation from the carrying liquid in an upward direction through
attachment of the air bubble to the particle to induce the vertical rate of rise.
The mechanism of operation involves a clarification vessel where the particles
are floated to the surface and removed by a skimming device to a collection
trough for removal from the wastewater. Further activity of this pretreatment
process involves contact of the raw wastewater with a recycled, clarified
effluent which has been pressurized through air injection in a pressure tank.
The combined flow stream enters the clarification vessel and the release of
pressure causes tiny air bubbles to form, which ascend to the surface of the
water, carrying the suspended particles with them.
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Food Processing Flotation technology has also been adapted to sludge handling and to
and Preservation
secondary and tertiary treatments. Food processors with substantial quantities
of grease and oil in their wastewater use this treatment technique as part of
their waste treatment system.
Collected sludge from primary treatment contains approximately 2-6% solids,
which can and should be concentrated before final disposal. Sludge treatment
and disposal costs are the major costs of sewage treatment if this product is not
used as a fertilizer or some other practical use. Treatment system exists that
biodegrade most of the organic matter and create little sludge. These systems
can reduce treatment and disposal costs. If sludge is recovered as a by-product,
disposal costs can be reduced and the value of the salvaged material can
provide enough profit to defray other treatment costs. Recovered solids
(sludge) can also be treated by biological oxidation methods as a means of
ultimate disposal.
III. Secondary treatment
Treatment through biological (or bacterial) degradation of dissolved organic
matter through biological oxidation is the most common technique for
secondary treatment. However, secondary treatment can range from use of
lagoons to sophisticated activated sludge processes. Secondary treatment may
also include chemical treatment to remove phosphorus and nitrogen or to aid in
the flocculation of solids.
Although primary treatment removes screenable and readily settleable solids,
dissolved solids remain. The primary purpose of secondary treatment is to
continue the removal of suspended solids. Microorganisms most frequently
involved in biological oxidation of existing solids are those that naturally occur
in water and organic matter. Microflora involved in biological oxidation can
assimilate some of the dissolved solids and convert them into terminal
oxidation products such as CO2 and H2O or into cellular material which can be
removed as particulate matter. Microbial cellular matter and assimilated
organic matter continue to undergo aerobic degradation.
Some of the dissolved solids and small suspended solid matter in the form of
colloidal and supracolloidal particles escape secondary clarification. Secondary
treatment involving bacterial degradation is needed for further oxidation of
these particles. Further discussion of types of secondary treatment follows.
(a) Anaerobic Lagoons
Anaerobic lagoons and aerobic lagoons have frequently been referred to as
stabilization ponds, and have been used for primary wastewater treatment or
for sludge disposal. Use of this treatment technique has increased during the
past three decades because of the relatively low capital investment, low
operating costs, and ease of operation. Because of space requirements,
anaerobic and aerobic lagoons are not well suited where land costs are
extremely high or for extremely large waste loads.
The treatment principle involved with lagoons involves biological oxidation
and solid sedimentation. This treatment system involves conversion of
dissolved, suspended and settled solids to volatile gases such as O2, CO2, N2
and CH4; water; and biomass such as microflora, macroflora and fauna.
Anaerobic and other lagoons also equalize the discharge flow to further
treatment facilities or receiving waters.

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The depth of anaerobic lagoons varies from 2.5 to 3.0m. Surface area to Waste
Management in
volume ratios should be minimal. Anaerobic conditions are created throughout Food Processing
the entire lagoon through heavy organic loads. Under anaerobic conditions, Industry
anaerobes digest the organic matter. Loading rates are expressed as BOD5,
COD, SS, etc., per unit volume of the lagoon. BOD5 loadings range from 225
to 1120 kg/ha/day. Operating temperature of 22 degree C or above is required
with 4-20 days of detention. BOD reduction efficiency is 60%- 80%.
Anaerobic lagoons are used for primary treatment or for secondary treatment
of primary effluents containing high organic loads, or as sludge treatment
systems. Anaerobic lagoons are normally followed by aerobic lagoons or
trickling filters.
(b) Aerobic Lagoons
These incorporate use of mechanical aerators to supply atmospheric oxygen for
enhancing biological oxidation. Mechanical agitators maintain a dissolved
oxygen environment of from 1 to 3 mg/liter and can handle up to 450
kg/ha/day of BOD5 loading rate. Aerated lagoons have been frequently
subdivided into aerated facultative lagoons, which have supplemental aeration
applied to only part of the lagoon cell, thus leaving anaerobic areas and
complete-mix aerated lagoons that use mechanical means to completely aerate
the entire lagoon and keep solids in suspension.
Depth of aerobic lagoons varies with some of the complete-mix aerated
lagoons as deep as 3m. Approximately 20% of the BOD sent to an aerobic
lagoon is converted to sludge solids and BOD and is reduced by 70-90%. Since
sludge solids are produced, a polishing pond usually follows the aerated
lagoons for tertiary treatment of secondary effluents.
(c) Trickling Filters
These reduce BOD and SS by bacterial action and biological oxidation as
wastewater passes by a thin layer over stationary media (usually rocks)
arranged above an overdrain. Aeration is accomplished by exposing large
surface areas of wastewater to the atmosphere. Use of this technique is
responsible for growth and attachment of layers of zooglea on the media
surface. Clarification of the reactor effluent is essential to remove
bioflocculated organic matter and sloughed fragments of zooglea (filter
sludge).
The efficiency of trickling filters is affected by factors such as temperature,
waste characteristics, intensity of the hydraulic loading rate, characteristics of
the filter media, and depth of the filter. Media characteristics such as size, void
space, and surface area as well as hydraulic loading rates tend to affect the
performance of trickling filters more than other factors. Removal efficiency,
unlike activated sludge systems, is independent of organic loading within
broad ranges. Incorporation of plastic with more surface area and void space
than rock filter media has permitted improvements in design and efficiency.
(d) Activated Sludge
The activated sludge process involves return of a portion of the clarifier-settled
sludge to be mixed with wastewater entering the reactor. The term “activated
sludge” applies since this returned sludge has viable microorganisms that
actively decompose the waste being treated. The activated sludge process is
frequently called the “fluid bed” biological oxidation system, whereas the
trickling filter is referred to as a “fixed bed” system. The previously discussed
process requires a reactor which is an aeration tank or basin, a clarifier, and a 83
Food Processing pumping system for returning a portion of the settled sludge to the reactor and
and Preservation
discharging the balance to waste disposal.
The conventional process of an activated sludge system has been designed as a
continuous secondary treatment of domestic sewage. The conventional system
is not effective in treating dissolved solids. This process normally incorporates
surface aerators to achieve mixing. The influent solids are mixed with
activated sludge and undergo a series of changes as they pass from the heavy
end of the reactor to the discharge end in approximately 6 hr. When the
activated sludge contacts the influent waste, there is a short period of less than
30min when influent particulate matter is rapidly absorbed onto the gelatinous
matrix of the returned sludge. Absorption removes a large portion of the
influent BOD.
(e) Oxidation Ditch
This treatment technique has been developed as a compact, efficient and
economical process for treating wastewater. The process maintains waste
material in contract with the sludge biomass for 20-30 hr under constant
aeration. After the aeration step, the stabilized suspended solids enter a
clarification step which removes the solids from the water by settling. An
oxidation ditch can accommodate a BOD loading of from 200 to 500 g/day
applied for each cubic meter of available aeration space. Sludge solids should
have a 16- to 20-day turnover. For each kilogram of BOD applied,
approximately 200-300 g of new sludge solids can be produced with an
expected BOD reduction of 90-95%. Temperature can have a significant
influence on the waste removal performance of the oxidation ditch since
reported cases of developed pinpoint flocculae loss of biological activity will
decrease the performance efficiency under cold weather operating conditions.
The typical oxidation ditch aeration basin design is either a single closed-loop
channel or multiple closed-loop channels. An attractive feature of oxidation
ditches is that a minimum of operator attention is required once a proper
operation is established. Several food processing firms use oxidation ditches
for wastewater treatment.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Briefly describe the ways of treating solid wastes.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
2) What are the two principles of treating waste water (effluents) in the food
industry? What are the relative merits & demerits of these processes?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
3) What is BOD?
………………………………………………………………………………
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 ……………………………………………………………………………… Waste
Management in
…………………………………………………………………………….… Food Processing
Industry
4) What is the purpose of flow equalization?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
5) Describe aerobic and anaerobic processes?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
6) Can you suggest some ways in which treated effluent can be utilized?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…
7) What do you think would be the competitive advantage to companies that
take corporate social responsibility seriously?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….…

17.7 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Food processing industry is perhaps the largest industrial sector in the world. It
is also one of the most polluting industry. Therefore while its contribution to
the global economy & to food safety & security is laudable, the negative
impact of the polluting nature has to be effectively countered by resorting to
appropriate pollution control measures so as to protect the global environment.
This is as important as food safety, conformance to standards, truthful labelling
and ethical advertising.
An example of good CSR is an announcement by a Cola Drink company in
India, in March 2008 that it would be a positive water balance company by
2009, which would be a global first. In other words, the company says it will
save and replenish more water in its plants and communities than the total
water it uses in India.

17.8 LET US SUM UP

Food processing is a capital intensive, high energy & water consuming and
moderate to highly polluting industry. Though there are a small number of
people who consider waste water treatment a wasteful and unnecessary
activity, a large majority of human population considers it as an absolute
necessity and a saviour of human race. However, the fact remains that food
industry wastages in terms of raw materials, water and energy consumption
can be minimized and a major source of environmental pollution can be
avoided.
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Food Processing The modern food industry goes in for technology and equipments that are
and Preservation
efficient, require minimal quantities of water and energy and create minimal
wasted. Even in existing processing units of large food processors it is
important to have specially designated officers who can periodically study the
efficiencies of energy, water consumption and raw material wastages so that
necessary remedial measures can be taken by investing in new technologies
and/or equipments.
Most governments have prescribed standards for quality parameters of treated
effluents of food industries so that the onus of conforming to them is on the
managements of these processing units. In India, the central and state
governments have their own pollution control boards which set standards for
industry, monitor and guide them and if necessary, take punitive action.
Solid wastes of organic nature are best converted to manures which can be
disposed off as a commercial product. The non-organic wastes which can be
recycled also have an established market. The remaining solids would have to
be used as landfills or incinerated.
Liquid wastes are collected and treated biologically using effluent treatment
plants (ETP`s), which may be based on aerobic or anaerobic processes. While
ETP`s using aerobic processes are less capital intensive, it does not generate
any useful byproducts. Even though the ETP`s using anaerobic processes are
more capital intensive, they generate energy as methane gas which can be used
by the company or sold as a commercial product.
With the information technology age, more and more focus is on industries
that pollute, waste water and energy. Therefore, most companies are now very
conscious of their roles in the societies they exist in and try to take corporate
social responsibility more seriously. Such affirmative action yields rich
dividends in the long run and give them advantage in the fiercely competitive
markets.

17.9 KEY WORDS

Aerobic biological : Treatment processes that occur in the presence of
treatment oxygen are called Aerobic processes.
Anaerobic biological : The decomposition by micro-organisms of
treatment organic matter in waste water in the absence of
dissolved oxygen is called anaerobic treatment.
Biological Oxygen : A measure of oxygen requirements by micro-
Demand (BOD) organisms when breaking down organic matter
used as a measure of the polluting potential of
material in water.
Chemical Oxygen : A chemical method used to measure the polluting
Demand (COD) potential of material in water.
Effluent : Water that flows from a sewage treatment plant
after it has been treated.
Floatation : Primary treatment process in which oils, grease
and other suspended particles are removed from
waste water.
Percolating filter : A percolating filters contains broken pieces of
pumice or plastic materials especially made for the
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 growth of bacteria, yeasts, fungi, protozoan and Waste
Management in
nematodes. Food Processing
Activated Sludge process Activated sludge refers to the brownish flocculent Industry
culture of organisms developed in an aeration tank
under controlled conditions.
Aerated Lagoon : An aerated lagoon consists of a large pond or tank
equipped with mechanical aerators to maintain an
aerobic environment.
Sedimentation : Primary treatment technique used to remove solids
from the waste water effluent.
Mechanical Treatment: Screening, filtration, sedimentation and floatation
operations.
Upflow Anaerobic : Anaerobic treatment system.
Sludge Blanket (USAB)

17.10 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Birdie G.S and Birdie J.S. (2003). Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering”
Dhanpat Rai, Publishing Company, New Delhi.
• Gina Cybulska; (2000). Waste Management in the Food Industry;
Publisher: Campden & Chorleywood Food Research Association
• Green, J.H. & Kramer A. (1979): Food Processing Waste Management ;
AVI Publishing
• Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis; (2007). Waste management for the Food
Industry; Publisher: Academic Press
• Jha S. N. (2004). Dairy and Food Processing Plant Maintenance: Theory
and Practice” By International Book Distribution (Publication Division)
Company, Lucknow.
• K Waldron (Ed); (2007). Handbook of waste management and co-product
recovery in food processing (Volume 1) ; Institute of Food Research, UK
• Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and Reuse” by Metcalf and
Eddy, (1995). Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi
• Robert R. Zall; (2004). Managing Food Industry Waste: Common Sense
Methods for Food Processors; 1st edition Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell;
• Websites
ƒ FDA/USDA website
ƒ FAO/CODEX ALIMENTARIUS website
ƒ Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Govt of India, website

# 17.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Your answer should include following points:
1. Some of the cardinal principles of running a food processing industry
efficiently and with minimal wastage are listed below:
o Use raw materials of good quality;
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Food Processing o Minimize wastage during handling, preparation & processing of
and Preservation
raw materials and packaging of processed foods;
o Use appropriate technology and process equipment to minimize
energy consumption;
o Minimize the wastage of water by reasonable care during
preparation & processing without sacrificing quality;
o Use recyclable or biodegradable packaging material as far as
possible;
o Recycle raw material & process waste as far as possible;
o Use appropriate technology to process the non-recyclable wastes
preferably into usable inputs, products or energy.

2. Food industry generates a wide variety of wastes depending upon the raw
materials used for processing. It could be solids like peels, stalks, seeds
etc of fruits & vegetables, bones & nails, fats, hair & skins from meat &
fish and husk, pods and bran from cereals and oilseeds; liquids
(suspension of fine solids in water) which can be pumped and even gases
from burning of fuels for steam generation etc. These have to be treated
appropriately and disposed off.

3. Water is one of the most useful utilities for the food industry. It is used
for a variety of purposes – as a solvent, as a washing medium, as a
coolant in refrigeration systems and as the raw material for steam
generation in boilers. As water is getting more scarce and expensive, it is
becoming an important cost factor demanding economy in usage and
requiring recycling.

4. In an energy-starved nation like India, a unit of power saved is as good as

a unit of power generated. Energy is becoming more expensive all over
the world and such saving of power makes economic sense by directly
resulting in lower energy bills. Power generation (by burning
coal/petroleum products) is also a major source of global warming due to
production of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide. Therefore lower
consumption of power also makes sense from environmental point of
view as well.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Your answer should include following points:
1. Solid food wastes which are biodegradable are best utilized for
composting. With organic/sustainable agriculture gaining momentum
globally, compost has excellent economic value. Non- biodegradable
wastes should be sorted to separate ferrous & non-ferrous metals,
plastics, papers etc which can be sold to specialized companies recycling
such wastes. What cannot be recycled, will have to be used as land-fills.

2. Liquid wastes can be treated using two basic principles / processes. One
is an aerobic process and the other an anaerobic process. The idea is to
convert waste water containing high BOD / COD into less toxic (less
harmful) water conforming to the specifications prescribed in the law of
the land. Such treated water can be reused for certain non-potable
purposes like gardening or in washrooms for flushing etc. The by-
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 products of these processes can also be useful as fuel (methane gas Waste
Management in
produced in anaerobic processes) and the residues as agricultural inputs. Food Processing
Industry
3. BOD is the milligrams of oxygen required by bacteria in 5 days at 20oC
to aerobically degrade the organic matter present in a wastewater sample.

4. To reduce the variations in flow rates and variations in concentration of

organic matter or BOD.

5. Aerobic–presence of oxygen; anaerobic–absence of oxygen in the

process.
6. Treated effluent can be used for a number of purposes, depending upon
the degree to which it has been treated. In fact well treated and clarified
waste water can be used for any purpose other than for potable purposes.
Some of the uses are – gardening, irrigation, cleaning of floors in the
factory areas and for cleaning and flushing in washrooms
7. Companies taking up CSR measures stand to benefit in many ways. We
are in an era where consumer is the king and the consumers are also a
very aware lot who are concerned about their environment and the state
of planet earth we will be leaving for the coming generations. Therefore
brands of companies that are concerned about environment and take
positive steps to prevent damage to environment, society and people are
held in high regard by the consumers. Market surveys have indicated that
in several markets, the consumer has shown distinct preference for
products of such enlightened organizations and are willing to pay a
premium price for their products. This trend is expected to strengthen
further in the years to come. Such organizations also have a better
relationship with the people in the neighborhood and are more likely to
succeed as business ventures. Needless to add that such passion for
environment must also be accompanied by sound business judgments and
decisions and management practices.

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