Understanding Personality

 Personality refers to the unique combination of thoughts, emotions,

and behaviors that make an individual distinct. It encompasses a person's
traits, attitudes, and characteristic patterns of thinking and acting,
shaping how they interact with the world and others around them
 Personality refers to person variations in function styles of thinking, feeling and
behaving.
 It is the individual’s characteristic pattern of thoughts, feelings
and behavior. The word personality stems from the Latin word persona,
meaning a dramatic or theatrical mask worn to project themselves in different
roles and hold back their identity.
 Personality makes a person unique or one of a kind. It arises subconsciously and
is more or less consistent throughout the life. It influences everything from the
way you live to the human relationships.
 There are a variety of influences that shape up a personality. Genetic
explanations of personality traits are biological/internal, whereas, environmental
explanations and experiences are external.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY
 Traits: Enduring qualities and attributes that influence how a person
responds to situations and interacts with others, such as introversion,
extroversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and emotional
stability.
 Patterns of Behavior: Consistent ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving
across different situations and over time.
 Emotional Expression: The manner in which emotions are experienced,
expressed, and managed, impacting a person's emotional reactivity and
stability.
 Cognitive Patterns: How an individual processes information, makes
decisions, and perceives the world.
 Social Interaction: How someone engages with others, communicates, and
maintains relationships, including communication style and social skills.
 Motivation and Values: The driving forces behind a person's actions and
the principles that guide their behavior and decision-making.
 Self-Concept and Self-Esteem: How an individual perceives and evaluates
themselves, affecting their self-confidence and self-worth.
 Adaptability: The ability to adjust and cope with changing circumstances
and challenges.
 Consistency: The tendency of individuals to display stable patterns of
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors across different situations and over
time. It implies predictability in how someone is likely to react and
respond in various circumstances.
 Psychological: Refers to anything related to the mind, mental processes,
and behavior. In the context of personality, it involves studying and
understanding the psychological factors that shape an individual's unique
traits and characteristics.
 Behaviors and Actions: The observable actions, reactions, and conduct of
an individual. These behaviors are influenced by various factors, including
personality traits, beliefs, and the environment.
 Multiple Expressions: Indicates that individuals can exhibit various facets
of their personality depending on the situation or the people they are
interacting with. Different social settings, roles, or contexts may bring out
different aspects of a person's personality, highlighting its complexity and
flexibility.

USES OF PERSONALITY
 Self-Awareness: Recognizing your personality traits helps you gain insight
into your strengths, weaknesses, and unique characteristics. This self-
awareness enables you to make more informed decisions and understand
how you interact with others.

 Personal Growth: Knowing your personality allows you to identify areas for
personal growth and development. You can focus on enhancing positive
traits and working on aspects that might be hindering your progress.

 Communication and Relationships: Understanding your communication

style and interpersonal preferences helps you navigate relationships more
effectively. It can improve your ability to connect with others, resolve
conflicts, and build meaningful connections.

 Career Choices: Knowledge of your personality can guide you in choosing

a career path that aligns with your interests, strengths, and values,
increasing the likelihood of job satisfaction and success.

 Stress Management: Awareness of how your personality responds to

stressors can aid in developing coping mechanisms and stress
management strategies.

 Decision Making: Understanding your personality can lead to better

decision making, as you become more conscious of how your traits may
influence your choices and actions.

 Goal Setting: Setting realistic and achievable goals becomes easier when
you are aware of your personality traits and how they impact your
motivation and perseverance.

 Mental Health: Recognizing certain personality traits can help you identify
potential mental health concerns, enabling you to seek appropriate
support and intervention when needed.

 Personal Relationships: Being aware of your personality can also be

helpful in personal relationships, allowing you to communicate your needs
 and boundaries effectively and understand the dynamics between you
and others.
(rank on specific traits, how some traits have changed over time, connection
to health and coping with stress)

HOW PERSONALITY DEVELOPS

TYPE THEORIES
They are based on early views on personality, suggesting that personality
types are limited and are related to biological influences.
 Type A: Perfectionist, impatient, competitive, work-obsessed,
achievement- oriented, aggressive, stressed
 Type B: Low stress, even-tempered, flexible, creative, adaptable to
change, patient, tendency to procrastinate
 Type C: Highly conscientious, perfectionists, struggle to reveal emotions
(positive and negative)
 Type D: Feelings of worry, sadness, irritability, pessimistic outlook,
negative self- talk, avoidance of social situations, lack of self-confidence,
fear of rejection, appearing gloomy, hopelessness

TRAIT THEORIES
As per these theories personalities are viewed as a result of genetic-
based characteristics that include.
 Concordant: Cares about others, feels empathy, enjoys helping others
 Conscientiousness: High levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse
control, goal- directed behaviours
 Eager-to-please: Accommodating, passive, and conforming
 Extroversion: Excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness,
and high amounts of emotional expressiveness
 Introversion: Quiet, reserved
 Neuroticism: Experiences, stress and dramatic shifts in mood, feels
anxious, worries about different things, gets upset easily, struggles to
bounce back after stressful events
 Openness: Highly creative, open to trying new things, focuses on tackling
new challenges

Trait theories of personality propose that individuals possess specific and

enduring traits or characteristics that influence their thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors. These traits are relatively stable over time and across different
situations, contributing to the consistency in a person's behavior and
reactions.
One of the most well-known trait theories is the *Big Five Personality Traits*
(also known as the Five-Factor Model). The Big Five traits are:

 Openness to Experience: Reflects a person's curiosity, imagination, and

willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.
 Conscientiousness: Refers to the degree of organization, responsibility,
and self-discipline a person exhibits in their actions and decisions.
 Extraversion: Measures the extent to which an individual seeks social
interaction, enjoys being with others, and is outgoing.
 Agreeableness: Reflects a person's tendency to be cooperative,
compassionate, and considerate towards others.
 Emotional Stability (Neuroticism): Represents a person's emotional
resilience and ability to cope with stress. Low emotional stability is
associated with higher levels of negative emotions and anxiety.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
Psychodynamic theories of personality are based on the idea that human
behavior and personality are influenced by unconscious processes and inner
conflicts. These theories were developed primarily by Sigmund Freud and his
followers and have had a significant impact on the field of psychology.

 Unconscious Mind: According to psychodynamic theories, a significant

part of our mental activity operates at an unconscious level, meaning it is
not accessible to our conscious awareness. This unconscious mind
contains hidden desires, fears, and memories that can influence our
thoughts and behaviors.

 Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud proposed a model of the mind consisting of
three structures. The id operates on the pleasure principle and seeks
immediate gratification of desires. The ego operates on the reality
principle and mediates between the id and external reality. The superego
represents the internalized moral standards and ideals, acting as a
conscience.
In the scenario of studying for an exam, the id desires to procrastinate and
avoid studying for immediate pleasure, while the ego acknowledges the
temptation but weighs the importance of studying for long-term success. The
superego reinforces the need for responsibility and hard work, leading to
feelings of guilt if procrastination is considered. The final decision on how to
spend time studying will depend on how these three aspects of personality—
id, ego, and superego—interact and influence the individual's choices and
actions.

 Defense Mechanisms: Psychodynamic theories suggest that the ego

employs defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety arising from conflicts
between the id, ego, and superego. These defense mechanisms, such as
repression, projection, and denial, help protect the individual from
uncomfortable thoughts and feelings.

 Psychosexual Stages: Freud proposed that personality development

occurs through a series of psychosexual stages, each associated with
different erogenous zones. Successful completion of these stages leads to
 the development of a healthy personality. The stages are oral, anal,
phallic, latent, and genital.

 Role of Childhood Experiences: Psychodynamic theories emphasize the

importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality. Events
and experiences during childhood, especially in relation to parental
interactions, can have a lasting impact on an individual's personality
development.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE
1. Oral Stage (0-1 years):
- This stage occurs from birth to around one year of age.
- The primary focus of pleasure is on the mouth, and infants derive
satisfaction from activities such as sucking on a mother's breast or a bottle
and exploring objects through their mouths.
- Freud believed that unresolved conflicts during this stage, such as
inadequate or excessive oral stimulation, could lead to personality traits
associated with oral fixations. For example, individuals fixated at this stage
may develop habits like smoking, overeating, or nail-biting, as ways to cope
with anxiety or seek oral pleasure (weaning process).

2. Anal Stage (1-3 years):

- This stage occurs during the toddler years, when children are learning to
control their bowel movements during toilet training.
- The focus of pleasure shifts to the anal region, and children experience
pleasure in retaining and expelling their feces.
- Freud suggested that conflicts during toilet training, such as harsh
discipline or overindulgence, could result in personality traits related to anal
retentiveness (excessive cleanliness, orderliness) or
anal expulsiveness (messiness, rebelliousness).

3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years):

- During this stage, children become more aware of their gender identity
and develop a stronger attachment to their opposite-sex parent.
- The primary erogenous zone is the genitals, and children may experience
feelings of attraction toward the opposite-sex parent and jealousy or rivalry
with the same-sex parent. This is known as the Oedipus complex ( boys
begin to consider their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affection and
feelings of the desire to possess the mother) in boys and the Electra
complex (a psychoanalytic term used to describe a girl’s sense of
competition with her mother for father’s affection) in girls.
- Freud believed that the resolution of these feelings is crucial for healthy
development. If the conflicts remain unresolved, it could lead to difficulties in
forming healthy relationships and may contribute to personality issues in
adulthood.
4. Latency Stage (6-11 years):
- During this stage, sexual feelings and desires are repressed, and the
focus shifts away from the erogenous zones.
- Children direct their energy toward academic pursuits, friendships, and
hobbies.
- Freud saw this stage as a period of relative calm in terms of psychosexual
development, with fewer significant conflicts.
- Fixation at this stage can result into immaturity and inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

5. Genital Stage (adolescence and adulthood):

- This final stage occurs during adolescence and continues into adulthood.
- The focus of pleasure returns to the genitals, and individuals seek mature
and intimate relationships.
- Successful resolution of previous stages leads to the development of
healthy adult sexuality and the capacity for intimate relationships.
- If the previous other stages were completed successfully, then the
individual should now be well- balanced, warm and caring.

Younger kids are governed by id—demands immediate satisfaction of basic

needs and wants. Whereas, teens are able to balance their most basic urges
against the needs, to conform to the realities of life and societal
norms. Unlike the previous stages of development, ego and superego are
fully formed and functional at this phase.

ALLPORT'S TRAIT THEORY

 Allport's trait theory, proposed by psychologist Gordon Allport, is a
psychological approach that focuses on identifying and understanding
individual personality traits.
 According to this theory, traits are enduring and stable characteristics
that influence a person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings across various
situations.
 Allport categorized traits into three levels:
cardinal traits (dominant traits that shape a person's entire life),
central traits (general characteristics that influence behavior),
secondary traits (specific traits that appear only in certain situations).
 The theory emphasizes the uniqueness of individuals and their personal
traits, contributing to the study of personality and individual differences.

CATTELL'S TRAIT THEORY

 Cattell's trait theory, developed by psychologist Raymond Cattell, is
another prominent approach in the study of personality traits. He
proposed a distinction between two types of traits: surface traits and
source traits.
 Surface traits refer to observable behaviors and characteristics, while
source traits are underlying and more fundamental factors that influence
multiple surface traits.
 Cattell used factor analysis to identify and measure these source traits,
which he called the 16 Personality Factors (16PF). These factors represent
different dimensions of personality, such as extraversion, agreeableness,
openness to experience, and others.
 For example, sociability, unselfishness and humor are surface traits which
when joined together create a source trait known as friendliness.

EYSENCK'S TRAIT THEORY

Eysenck's trait theory, developed by psychologist Hans Eysenck, is another
significant approach in the study of personality traits. He proposed a
hierarchical model of personality that revolves around three major
dimensions:

 Extraversion-Introversion: This dimension reflects a person's level of

sociability, assertiveness, and need for stimulation. Extraverts tend to be
outgoing and seek social interactions, while introverts are more reserved
and prefer solitude.

 Neuroticism-Emotional Stability: This dimension pertains to a person's

emotional stability and reactivity to stress. Individuals high in neuroticism
are more prone to experience negative emotions, anxiety, and mood
swings, while those with emotional stability are generally calmer and
more resilient to stress.

 Psychoticism: This dimension is related to a person's level of tough-

mindedness, aggressiveness, and lack of empathy. Individuals high in
psychoticism may display more antisocial or hostile behaviors, while those
low in psychoticism tend to be more empathetic and cooperative.

HUMANIST THEORY
Humanist theory, also known as humanistic psychology, is a psychological
approach that emphasizes the unique qualities and potential of individuals. It
emerged as a reaction to the prevailing behaviorist and psychoanalytic
theories and gained prominence in the mid-20th century.

 Self-Actualization: Humanists believe that individuals have an innate drive

to reach their full potential and become the best version of themselves, a
concept known as self-actualization.

 Personal Growth: The focus of humanistic psychology is on personal

growth, self-awareness, and self-improvement. It emphasizes the
importance of subjective experiences and feelings in understanding
human behavior.
 Subjectivity: Humanists stress the subjective nature of human
experiences and reject the idea of reducing individuals to mere stimulus-
response mechanisms.

 Holistic Approach: Humanistic psychology considers the whole person,

including their thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and social context, rather
than reducing them to isolated components.

 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow, a prominent humanistic

psychologist, proposed the hierarchy of needs, which categorizes human
needs from basic physiological ones to higher-level needs for self-
actualization.

 Rogers' Person-Centered Therapy: Carl Rogers, another influential

humanistic psychologist, developed person-centered therapy, which
emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness in
therapeutic relationships to facilitate personal growth and self-
understanding.

ERIK ERIKSON'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIO DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development propose that individuals

go through a series of eight stages throughout their lifespan, each marked
by a specific psychosocial crisis or conflict. These stages encompass various
challenges and tasks that individuals must navigate to develop a healthy
sense of self and interpersonal relationships. Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development highlight the importance of successfully resolving each crisis to
foster healthy psychological development and well-being throughout the
lifespan.
Erikson’s theory stressed upon the role of social experiences throughout life
on the personality development. He was interested in role of social
relationships in growth and development of human beings.
Each stage builds upon the previous phase of development and builds way
further to add upon the further stages in it. People experience a conflict at a
particular stage that becomes the turning point for development. These
conflicts are centered upon either developing or failing to develop certain
psychological qualities, and the potential to develop or underdeveloped (fail
to develop) is high.
When people successfully deal with the conflicts, they emerge with
psychosocial strengths, and, if they fail to, they may not develop or lack
essential skills for psychosocial developments—both impacting them
throughout their entire lifetime for a stronger sense of self.
Each stage in Erikson’s Theory is based on becoming competent in a certain
area of life. He believed that a sense of competition drives behaviours and
actions.
Stages handled well will create individuals with a sense of mastery—
enhancing ego strength and mastery, whereas, if not successfully completed
will have persons emerging with a sense of inadequacy and incompleteness
in that stage of development.

 Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year): The primary task is to develop a
sense of trust in caregivers. If the baby's needs are consistently met with
love and care, they will develop a basic trust in the world. Conversely,
neglect or inconsistent care can lead to mistrust.
(It occurs between birth and the very first year of age, and is the most
fundamental stage in life. As the infant is totally dependent, the success of
this stage—development of trust—depends on the dependability and quality
of availability of child’s caregivers. The survival of the child is dependent on
the caregivers for everything they need, in terms of food, love, safety,
reliability, warmth and nurturing. If the caregiver fails to provide these
basic necessities, the child develops mistrust for adults in their life. When the
child successfully develops trust, they feel safe and secure in the world.
Inconsistent, emotionally unavailable and rejecting caregivers contribute to
developing a feeling of mistrust in the child for adults. This results in belief
and fear that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. Successful
development of the child is about striking a balance between the trust and
mistrust, between the two opposite sides. With this, children acquire hope
and openness to face the world and its experiences. Formation of trust is
very important in formation of healthy attachments during childhood and
adulthood.)

 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years): The focus is
on developing a sense of autonomy and independence. Children start
asserting their will and exploring the world. Supportive and encouraging
caregivers foster a sense of autonomy, while overly restrictive or critical
environments may lead to shame and doubt.
(It takes place during early childhood years and is about children developing
an enhanced sense of personal control. The children start gaining little
independence and making decisions on their preferences. By allowing kids to
take decisions, make choices, and gain control, the kids feel a sense of
greater autonomy.
The essence of this stage is that kids need to develop a sense of personal
control over physical skills and sense of independence. Learning to control
one’s bodily functions leads to a sense of control and independence in
children. Other important aspects are gaining control over food choices, toy
preferences and clothing selection.
Success in this stage helps in gaining autonomy, feeling secure and
confident, whereas failure leads to shame and doubt, feeling of inadequacy
and self-doubt. The goal is to achieve a balance between autonomy and
shame. This will lead children to act with proper intention and their will,
within their own reasons and limits.)

 Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years): Children begin to take on more
responsibilities and explore their abilities. Encouragement from caregivers
allows them to develop a sense of initiative and purpose. If they face
constant criticism or limitations, they may develop feelings of guilt.
(The third stage occurs in the preschool years. At this point of psychosocial
interaction, children begin to put forward their power and play through social
interaction and directing play.
Successful children at this stage develop a sense of capability and leadership
skills—a sense of purpose, whereas, those who fail develop a sense of guilt,
self- doubt, and lack of adequacy and taking initiative. Too much of display
of power leads to disapproval and, hence, sense of guilt.
The essence of this stage for children is to begin to gain control and power
over the environment. The ideal goal is to strike a balance between
individual initiative and willingness to work with others, the ego quality
known as purpose emerges.)

 Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-11 years): The focus shifts to school
and social interactions. Success in learning and developing skills fosters a
sense of industry and competence. Failure to meet expectations or
experiencing constant criticism can lead to feelings of inferiority.
(This psychosocial stage takes place during early school years,
approximately, from age 5 to 11. Through societal interactions, children
begin to get aware of their skills and show a sense of pride in their
achievements, accomplishments and abilities.
Successful completion of this stage leads to a sense of competence,
whereas, failure leads to a feeling of inferiority. Successful accomplishment
of balance during this stage leads to make them aware of their strengths and
develop a sense of competition among themselves. This makes them believe
in their abilities to handle tasks set before them.)

 Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years): Adolescents

explore and establish their identities, including values, beliefs, and career
aspirations. Successful navigation of this stage results in a clear sense of
self, while unresolved identity issues may lead to role confusion.
(This fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the churning and riotous
teenage years. During this stage, a sense of personal identity and opinions
surface, and continues to develop throughout the life that leads to
continuation of development of personality, behaviour and overall
psychosocial development. It is very important that teenagers develop a
sense of self-identity and being aware of their personalities. Successful
completion of this stage leads to staying true to oneself, whereas failure
leads to confusion, delusion and a weak sense of self.
During this phase, adolescents like to explore their independence. With
proper encouragement, stimulus through personal exploration make the
individuals emerge with a strong sense of self and control towards their
independence. Those who feel unsure and waivered of their beliefs, faiths,
values and desires emerge as insecure and confused individuals, and
continue to remain further during their lifetime. This is termed as identity.
Identity: As per Erikson, beliefs, values and paragons that help shape up and
guide a person’s behaviour. Successful completion of this stage leads to
fidelity—ability to live by societal standards and expectations.
While each stage of psychosocial development was important, Ego holds a
particular space in emphasis, in terms of Ego identity. This is a conscious
self-sense developed through societal interactions that becomes a central
focus during the identity versus confusion state of psychosocial
development. As per Erikson, our Ego identity continues to evolve and
change, as we gather new information and experiences that we acquire in
our daily interactions within the society. As the Ego identity evolves, it also
throws new challenges that can hinder or help to grow the development of
identity. Identity is very important to the self, because it gives individuals an
integrated and cohesive approach towards a sense of self that last over
lifetime. It is shaped by our societal experiences and interactions, and helps
us guide through our actions, beliefs and behaviours, as we age.)

 Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 19-40 years): The primary task is
to form meaningful and intimate relationships with others. Developing
successful intimate relationships leads to a sense of connectedness, while
isolation and fear of commitment can result from unsuccessful
experiences.
(Young adults need to form intimate loving relationships with other people. It
is vital that people form close, committed relationships with their loved ones.
Successful relationships lead to strong relations that are resilient, enduring
and secure, whereas failure leads to loneliness and isolation. It starts from
period of early adulthood till entire lifetime, while people explore personal
relationships.
Importance of Building on Earlier Stages: We must remember and
understand the importance that each step builds over the skills learned in
earlier steps. A strong sense of personal identity is very important in
developing meaningful intimate relationships. Those with less self-sense tend
to have less committed relationships, and more likely struggle with self-
isolation, loneliness and depression.
Successful firmness and closure of this stage leads to a moral excellence
known as Love. It is marked by ability to form lasting meaningful
relationships with other people.)

 Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years): Adults focus

on contributing to society and the next generation, either through raising
children or contributing to their community. Achieving generativity leads
 to a sense of purpose and fulfillment, while stagnation may result from
feelings of unproductivity.
(Adults need to create things that outlast them over the generations—
having children or creating a positive change benefitting society. Success in
this stage leads to a sense of usefulness and sense of accomplishment,
whereas failure leads to sense of shallow involvement with the world. During
entire adulthood, we focus on our careers and continue to build lives
focusing our families. Successful people have a sense of achievement in that
they are contributing to the world by contributing to the family as a unit.
Those who fail will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is a virtue achieved from successful completion of this stage. Along with
being proud of your life’s achievements, developing a sense of unity with life
partner and seeing your children grow are important accomplishments
gained.)

 Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years): This final stage involves
reflecting on one's life and coming to terms with one's accomplishments
and failures. Achieving a sense of integrity leads to wisdom and
acceptance, while unresolved conflicts can result in feelings of despair.
(This is the final psychosocial stage occurring during old age, focusing on
reflecting back on life and its accomplishments. At this tenure, people look
back into their life and weigh the events to determine whether they have
lived a happy life or a regretful one for the things they missed or did. Older
adults should feel a sense of fulfilment, when they reflect back to their lives
the way they spent it. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom,
whereas failure results in regret, bitterness and abandoned hope. They get a
feeling of their lives to how well they have lived it. If they feel good and
satisfied about it, it helps them to be ready to face the end of their lives with
a sense of peace. Whereas, those who are not content with their lives are
afraid to face the end of it, without accomplishing the things they wanted to
and feel they should have completed or have lived their lives a certain way
for it to be complete. They feel their lives have been wasted and may
experience bitterness and regrets of dismay.
One who have successfully completed this phase, those who are proud will
feel a sense if integrity and a general feeling of satisfaction. They attain
wisdom, even when facing death.)

Weaknesses:
 Exact mechanisms of resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to
the next are not well described or developed.
 It fails to describe the experiences that are necessary at each stage, in
order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage
 It provides a broad framework to view from the development throughout
the lifespan.
 It emphasizes to the social nature of human beings and important
influences that societal relationships and behaviour have on
development.

Role of Nature and Nurture in Personality

Development
Nature: Genetic and Biological Factors
- Genetic inheritance and predispositions
- Biological influences on temperament and behavior
Nature refers to all the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we
are— ranging from physical appearance to personality characteristic type. As
suggested by Plato and Descartes, they are inborn and occur naturally,
regardless of environmental factors. They are more to do with the
inheritance, when it comes to behavior and characteristics. They are
evolutionary. Genetic traits handed down by parents make the individual
unique—they are the origins of individual differences.

Nurture: Environmental and Social Factors

- Upbringing and early childhood experiences
- Cultural and societal influences
- Social interactions and relationships
Nurture pertains to all the environmental factors that impact our being—
childhood experiences, the way we are being raised, and societal
relationships and our surrounding culture. As per John Locke, a concept
called Tabula Rasa—mind begins as a blank slate; our knowledge and
everything that we are is determined by our experience.

Interplay of Nature and Nurture

- How genetic factors interact with the environment
- Influence of the environment on shaping innate traits
- The dynamic nature of personality development over time

 Example of how nature may impact personality:

An individual may inherit a genetic predisposition for introversion, which
means they naturally tend to be more reserved and prefer solitude over
large social gatherings. This innate trait influences their personality, making
them more introspective and thoughtful in their interactions with others.
 Example of how nurture may impact personality:
A child growing up in a supportive and nurturing environment with loving
parents and positive role models is likely to develop a confident and
empathetic personality. The continuous reinforcement of
positive behaviors and emotional support from their surroundings shapes
their personality traits, making them more compassionate and self-assured
as they grow older.
Eugenics—a movement heavily influenced by nativist approach.
Psychologist Francis Galton, cousin of naturalist Charles Darwin, coined the
terms nature versus nurture and eugenics—accordingly intelligence is the
result of genetics. He encouraged that intelligent people should get married
and have children, whereas, less intelligent people should be discouraged
from doing so, reproducing. (selective breeding and controlling reproduction-
ethical concern and violation of human rights)

TEA Model of Self

TEA corresponds to Thoughts (internal processing), Emotions (internal
states) and Actions (external behaviours). These three components
constantly influence one another, but on an unconscious level. They are
interdependent on each other, and, if one changes, the others change too.

Thoughts- Thoughts are internal mental processes that involve cognitive

activities such as perception, reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and
beliefs. They are the ideas, interpretations, and mental representations
individuals have about themselves, others, and the world around them.
Thoughts can be conscious or unconscious and greatly impact emotions
and behaviors.

VAKOG:
It stands for Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, Olfactory, and Gustatory. It
represents different sensory modalities that individuals use to process and
understand information from the environment.

 Visual: This refers to the sense of sight and how individuals perceive and
understand information through images, colors, and visual cues.

 Auditory: This relates to the sense of hearing and how individuals process
information through sounds, tones, and auditory stimuli.

 Kinesthetic: This involves the sense of touch and bodily movements,

representing how individuals learn and interact with the world through
physical experiences.

 Olfactory: This pertains to the sense of smell, and how certain smells can
trigger memories or emotions.

 Gustatory: This involves the sense of taste, which can also evoke
memories or influence emotions.

Emotions- Emotions are complex psychological and physiological responses

to events, experiences, or thoughts. They are an essential aspect of human
experience, and each emotion carries unique qualities, such as happiness,
 sadness, fear, anger, and more. Emotions can be influenced by internal
processes (thoughts and beliefs) and external stimuli.

 Internal State: Emotions as internal states refer to how an individual feels in

response to specific situations or thoughts. For example, someone may
experience joy after achieving a personal goal, or sadness when facing a
loss.

 Values: Emotions are also linked to personal values and belief systems. The
significance an individual places on certain aspects of life can influence the
intensity and type of emotions they experience. For instance, a person who
values honesty might feel guilty after lying.

Self-anchoring:
Self-anchoring, also known as grounding or centering, is a technique used to
maintain a sense of stability and focus during moments of stress, anxiety, or
emotional turbulence. It involves connecting with the present moment and
the physical sensations of the body.

When using self-anchoring, individuals bring their attention to their

immediate surroundings or their physical sensations, such as the feeling of
their feet on the ground or their breath. By doing so, they can shift their
focus away from overwhelming emotions or thoughts, which helps them
regain a sense of control and reduce anxiety.

Self-anchoring techniques are often used in mindfulness practices,

meditation, and therapy to promote relaxation, emotional regulation, and a
sense of inner calmness. By anchoring oneself in the present moment,
individuals can navigate challenging situations with a clearer and more
composed mindset.

5 steps to anchor-
 Find a Calm Space: Choose a quiet and comfortable place where you
won't be disturbed.

 Focus on the Present: Bring your attention to your immediate

surroundings or your physical sensations.

 Breathe Deeply: Take slow, deep breaths to help relax your body and
mind.

 Engage the Senses: Use sensory cues like feeling your feet on the ground,
listening to calming sounds, or focusing on a specific object.

 Practice Regularly: Anchor yourself whenever you feel stressed or anxious

to develop the skill and experience its benefits
Action- Actions refer to the observable behaviors and verbal expressions of
an individual. These can be conscious or unconscious responses to internal
processes like thoughts and emotions. External behaviors include gestures,
facial expressions, body language, and actions performed in response to
specific situations. Verbal expressions encompass spoken words, tone of
voice, and how individuals communicate with others. Actions are a crucial
aspect of human interaction and communication, as they convey intentions,
emotions, and messages to others.

Rapport-
Rapport is a sense of mutual understanding, trust, and harmony established
between individuals during social interactions. It involves building a
connection and feeling comfortable with each other. Rapport is essential in
forming positive relationships, whether in personal or professional settings.
When people have rapport, they are more likely to communicate openly,
listen actively, and cooperate with each other. Establishing rapport enhances
communication, empathy, and a sense of camaraderie between individuals.
Four levels of rapport include-

 Sensory Acuity: Being attentive and perceptive to verbal and nonverbal

cues during interactions to understand the other person better.

 Calibration: Adjusting one's behavior based on the feedback received

from the other person to create a more harmonious interaction.

 Matching: Intentionally adopting similar body language, gestures, vocal

tone, and language patterns to create a feeling of familiarity and
connection.

 Mirroring: Subtly imitating the other person's nonverbal behavior in real-

time to establish unconscious synchronization and enhance rapport.

Component of Self
Basically, self-concept is a collection of beliefs one holds about oneself and
the responses of others. They are identity, body image, self-confidence, self-
esteem and role performance. It is this personal identity in terms of its
uniqueness that sets one apart from others. It is the psychological
explanation of “Who am I”? It is the image that we have of ourselves
developed in many ways, specifically by interactions in societal ways.
Individual’s belief about oneself, including the personal attributes of who and
what the self is.
It is the individual perception of our behaviour, abilities and unique
characteristics— mental image of oneself as a person. Self-concept is more
flexible, when people are young and are undergoing process of self-
discovery and identity. As people age, the concept becomes much more
 detailed, organized and clear, in terms of what and why they are a particular
way. Who they are and why they are?
Consist of personality traits.
Defined by our relationships.
Reflects our membership in our social group.

 Individual Self: The individual self is the unique and distinct identity of a
person, shaped by personal experiences, preferences, and characteristics.

 Rational Self: The rational self is the part of an individual's mind that
engages in logical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving based on
reason and evidence. (defined by the relationship with our significant
others)

 Collective Self: The collective self represents the social identity and sense of
belonging an individual derives from their group affiliations, such as cultural,
ethnic, or national communities.

THEORIES OF SELF CONCEPT-

Dr. Bruce A. Bracken (domains of self-concept)

 Social: Ability to interact with others
 Competence: Ability to meet the basic needs
 Affect: Awareness of emotional states
 Physical: Feelings related to looks, health, physical condition, and
overall appearance
 Academic: Success or failure in school
 Family: How good/bad one functions in a family as a unit

Carl Roger (parts of self-concept)

 Self-image refers to the mental picture an individual has of themselves,
including their perceptions of their physical appearance, abilities, and
characteristics. It is shaped by both internal beliefs and external feedback
from others.
How you see yourself. Each individual's self- image is a mixture of different
attributes including our physical characteristics, personality traits, and social
roles. Self-image doesn't necessarily coincide with reality. Some people
might have an inflated self-image of themselves, while others may perceive
or exaggerate the flaws and weaknesses that others don't see.
Physical description
Social roles
Personal traits
Existential statements
 Self-esteem is the overall evaluation and judgment an individual holds about
their self-worth and value. It is influenced by how a person perceives their
achievements, capabilities, and how they believe others see them.
The extent to which we like, accept or approve of ourselves, or how much we
value ourselves.
Self-esteem always involves a degree of evaluation and we may have either
a positive or a negative view of ourselves.
It is influenced by a number of factors as to how we compare ourselves to
others and how others respond to us. Upon getting positive response from
others, it builds to a positive self-esteem. When comparing oneself to others
and find ourselves lacking, builds to a negative impact on self-esteem.
High self-esteem (Confidence in our own abilities, Self-acceptance, Not
worrying about what others think, Optimism)
Low self-esteem (Lack of confidence, Want to be or look like someone
else, Always worrying what others might think, Pessimism)

 The ideal self is the vision an individual has of their "perfect" or desired self,
representing the qualities, achievements, and attributes they aspire to
possess or become. This ideal self often serves as a motivating force for
personal growth and self-improvement.
How you wish you could be. In many cases, the way we see ourselves and
how we would like to see ourselves do not quite match up.
o Congruence: Congruence refers to a state of harmony and
consistency between a person's self-image, thoughts, feelings, and
actions. When someone is congruent, there is alignment between
their internal experiences and external expressions, leading to a
sense of authenticity and genuine interactions with others.
o Incongruence: Incongruence, on the other hand, occurs when there
is a mismatch or discrepancy between a person's self-image,
thoughts, feelings, and actions. This lack of alignment can lead to
inner conflict, confusion, and difficulties in understanding and
expressing oneself authentically. Addressing incongruence through
self-awareness and personal growth is essential for achieving a
more authentic and fulfilling life.
A person's ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in the
life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a
person's ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence.

Real self, role self, ideal self

Real Self: The real self represents who an individual genuinely is, including
their actual traits, abilities, and characteristics, as well as their beliefs and
values.

Role Self: The role self is the aspect of an individual's identity that emerges
when they take on specific social roles or positions, often exhibiting certain
behaviors and characteristics associated with those roles.
Ideal Self: The ideal self is the person someone aspires to become,
encompassing their desired qualities, achievements, and values, reflecting
their vision of their "best" version.

How to develop self-concept?

 Self-reflection and understanding your values and beliefs and non
verbal cues.
 Acceptance of both strengths and weaknesses.
 Setting realistic goals for personal growth- who we are and what we want
to be.
 Surrounding yourself with positive influences.
 Challenging negative self-talk and using positive affirmations.
 Seeking feedback from trusted individuals.
 Engaging in enjoyable activities for a sense of accomplishment.
 Learning from mistakes and viewing them as opportunities for growth.

Self-Awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and have conscious knowledge of
one's own thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and traits. It involves introspection
and understanding how one's actions and beliefs may impact oneself and
others.
It is a psychological state in which oneself becomes the focus of attention.
It is one of the first components of the self-concept to emerge.
Self-awareness emerges at different points depending on the situation and
your personality (People are not born completely self-aware). Self-awareness
is one of the most important factors in building the self-esteem and
confidence
A self-aware person is aware of their:
 Wants in life
 Strengths and weaknesses
 Motivational factors and happiness factors
 Areas to change in one’s life
 Goals in life and timelines to implement
 How to relate oneself with others
 Need of improvement as a person
 Important beliefs and values in oneself
 Self-portrayal as a person: Directly related to self-value and self-esteem.

SELF AWARENESS DEVELOPMENT

Self-awareness development refers to the progressive understanding and
recognition of oneself as an individual with unique thoughts, emotions, and
characteristics.
It is believed to be related to the prefrontal cortex, which plays a significant
role in introspection and self-reflection.
It begins in early childhood when children start to differentiate themselves
from others and continues throughout life.
Key factors influencing and enhancing self-awareness include cognitive
maturation, social interactions, feedback from others, and introspective
practices.
As individuals grow and experience various situations, they gain insights into
their strengths, weaknesses, values, and beliefs, fostering a deeper
understanding of themselves and their impact on the world around them.
This ongoing process of self-awareness is crucial for personal growth,
emotional intelligence, and building meaningful relationships.

LEVELS OF SELF-AWARENESS
(level0= having no self-awareness; level5= explicit self-awareness)

1. Confusion: In the context of self-awareness, confusion refers to a state

where an individual may have difficulty understanding or recognizing their
thoughts, emotions, or behaviors. They may feel uncertain or lack clarity
about their self-identity.

1. Differentiation: This refers to the process by which individuals begin to

recognize themselves as separate entities from others. It starts in early
childhood when children realize that they are distinct individuals with
their own thoughts and feelings.

2. Situation: Self-awareness in situations involves being conscious of how

one's emotions, beliefs, and behaviors are influenced by the context or
environment they are in. It involves recognizing how external factors can
impact one's reactions and decisions.

3. Identification: Identification in self-awareness refers to the ability to

recognize and label one's emotions, traits, and qualities. It involves
understanding and acknowledging who one is and what makes them
unique.

4. Permanence: In the context of self-awareness, permanence refers to the

understanding that one's thoughts, emotions, and traits are enduring
aspects of their identity, even as situations and circumstances change.

5. Self-consciousness: Self-consciousness is the awareness of oneself as an

individual, especially in social contexts. It involves being conscious of how
one appears to others and can lead to self-evaluation and concern about
being judged.

TYPES OF SELF-AWARENESS
 Public awareness: This refers to the awareness an individual has about
their own behavior, emotions, and thoughts that are visible to others. It
 involves recognizing how one's actions and expressions may be perceived
by the people around them. (people are aware how they appear to
others)

 Private awareness: Private awareness is the understanding an individual

has of their internal thoughts, feelings, and emotions that are not visible
to others. It involves introspection and self-reflection on one's inner
experiences. (people become aware of some aspects of themselves)

 Self-consciousness: Self-consciousness is the awareness of oneself as an

individual, particularly in social situations. It involves being conscious of
how one appears to others and may include feelings of self-evaluation,
shyness, or concern about being judged. (becoming overly self-aware)

These types of self-awareness are interconnected and can influence each

other. For example, private awareness (self-reflection) can lead to a deeper
understanding of oneself, which in turn affects public awareness (how one
presents themselves to others) and self-consciousness (how one feels in
social situations). Developing a balanced level of self-awareness in all these
dimensions can contribute to personal growth, empathy, and improved social
interactions.

Techniques of Self Awareness

JOHARI WINDOW
Joseph Lott and Harri Ingham developed a model in 1955- Johari window- the
name of the technique is derived using the first two letters of the names of
both the psychologists.
In this technique or process, the participant of the exercise is given a list of
56 adjectives and is asked to choose five or six of them, which the best
depicts their personality. On the other hand, peers of the participant are
given the same list and are asked to choose five or six adjectives that best
describe the participant, all these are later mapped into a grid. The standard
model looks like:

The Johari Window is a psychological tool that helps individuals and groups
understand their self-awareness and how they relate to others. It consists of
four quadrants representing different aspects of knowledge about oneself:

 Open Area (Quadrant 1):

This quadrant represents the information about oneself that is known to both
the individual and others. It includes the aspects of the person's
personality, behavior, and feelings that are open and apparent to everyone.
Example: Suppose you are a team member in a project at work. You openly
communicate your ideas, share your opinions, and actively participate in
discussions during team meetings. Your colleagues know you as a proactive
and engaged team member.
 Blind Area (Quadrant 2):
This quadrant represents information about oneself that is not known to the
individual but is known to others. It includes the aspects of the
person's behavior and personality that others observe but the individual is
unaware of.
Example: In the same work project, your colleagues might notice that you
tend to interrupt others during meetings without realizing it. This behavior is
part of your blind area because you are not aware that you are doing it.

 Hidden Area (Quadrant 3):

This quadrant represents information about oneself that is known to the
individual but kept hidden from others. It includes thoughts, feelings, or
aspects of the person's personality that they choose not to reveal to others.
Example: While you are an active team member in the project, you might
have concerns about a particular aspect of the project but choose not to
share them during team meetings because you fear it might cause conflict.
These concerns are part of your hidden area.

 Unknown Area (Quadrant 4):

This quadrant represents information about oneself that is neither known to
the individual nor to others. It includes aspects of the person's personality
or behavior that are yet to be discovered or understood.
Example: In the course of working on the project, you might discover a new
skill or interest that you were not aware of before. This newly discovered skill
would be part of your unknown area until you or others recognize and
understand it. (the production manager of the plant may be very good at
handling the trade union representatives, but neither he nor the organization
knew it until he was forced to join a trade union meeting in order to explain
certain production-related aspects.)

The Johari Window encourages individuals and groups to increase their self-
awareness by expanding the open area (Quadrant 1) through honest and
open communication, reducing the blind area (Quadrant 2) by seeking
feedback from others, and sharing more of the hidden area (Quadrant 3) in a
trusting and supportive environment. By doing so, people can improve their
interpersonal relationships and collaborate more effectively in various
settings.

SWOT ANALYSIS
This technique was created by Albert Humphrey, who has done a research
project at Stanford university during the 1970’s and is specifically used for
determining the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats of a business
organization.
It is a common tool in the professional world to evaluate the past, present
and future position of a company
 It provides organizational leaders a new perspective on what the
organization does well, where its challenges lie and which avenues to
pursue.

SWOT ANALYSIS FOR YOURSELF

Personal SWOT analysis: provides insights based on personality strengths
and weaknesses, what challenges are ahead, and what opportunities are
present now and in the future.
What makes SWOT especially powerful: it can help uncover opportunities
that you would not otherwise have spotted.
By understanding your weaknesses, you can manage and eliminate threats
that might otherwise hurt your ability to move forward.

EXAMPLES-
 Strengths:
What are my key skills, talents, and areas of expertise?
What personal qualities and traits do I possess that set me apart?
What achievements am I proud of in my personal and professional life?
What do others see as my strengths or assets?
What values do you believe in that others fail to exhibit?

 Weaknesses:
In which areas do I struggle or lack confidence and therefore avoid doing
them?
What skills or knowledge do I need to improve upon?
What personal habits or behaviors hinder my growth or success i.e. negative
working habits (being late, being disorganised, having short temper, fear of
public speaking)?
What feedback have I received from others about areas needing
improvement?

 Opportunities:
What external factors could positively impact my personal and professional
growth?
Are there new technologies, trends, or industries I could capitalize on?
Are there any gaps in the market or competitors failing to do something
important where my skills or expertise could be valuable?
Are there networking or collaboration opportunities that could benefit me?

 Threats:
What external factors might hinder my personal and professional progress?
Are there any changes in the industry or job market that could negatively
affect me?
Do I have any personal weaknesses or limitations that could be threats to my
goals?
Are there any competitors or challenges like technology that I need to be
aware of?

Example -
Strengths- Opportunities-
Excellent CommunicationProfessional Development
Skills Industry Networking
Analytical Mindset Events
Creativity Remote Work
Leadership Abilities Digital Marketing
Adaptability Leadership Training
Weaknesses- Threats-
Public Speaking Market Competition
Time Management Economic Uncertainty
Limited Technical Skills Technological
Conflict Management Advancements
Networking Burnout
Changing Job
Requirements

Big 5 Factors
The Big Five model, also known as the Five Factor Model (FFM), is a widely
used framework in psychology for describing and assessing personality
traits. Developed by multiple psychologists independently, the model seeks
to understand and categorize the fundamental dimensions of human
personality. These five factors are believed to capture the main traits that
differentiate individuals in terms of their behavior, emotions, and thought
patterns. The Big Five model is considered one of the most comprehensive
and well-established models of personality.
The five factors or dimensions of the Big Five model are often remembered
by the acronym OCEAN:

 Openness to Experience: This dimension reflects an individual's openness,

imagination, creative, curiosity, and receptiveness to new ideas and
experiences. People high in openness tend to be creative, open-minded,
and willing to explore novel ideas, while those low in openness may prefer
routine, predictability, and traditional ways of thinking.
High on Trait- Low on Trait-
Very creative Dislikes change
Open to trying new things Does not enjoy new things
Focused on tackling new challenges Resists new ideas
Happy to think about abstract Not very imaginative
concepts Dislikes abstract or theoretical
concepts
 Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness refers to the degree of
organization, responsibility, and self-discipline in an individual. People
high in conscientiousness are usually diligent, reliable, and goal-oriented,
while those low in conscientiousness may struggle with impulsivity, time
management, procrastination, unreliability, disorganization, and lack of
follow-through.
High on Trait- Low on Trait-
Spends time preparing Dislikes structure and schedules
Finishes important tasks rightMakes messes and doesn't take care of things
away Fails to return things or put them back where they
Pays attention to detail belong
Enjoys having a set schedule Procrastinates important tasks
Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks

 Extraversion: Extraversion measures an individual's sociability,

assertiveness, and preference for social interaction. People high in
extraversion are typically outgoing, talkative, and enjoy being around
others, while those low in extraversion may prefer solitude, find social
situations draining and have a more reserved demeanor.
High on Trait- Low on Trait-
Likes to start conversations Prefers solitude
Enjoys meeting new people Feels exhausted when having to
Has a wide social circle of friends and socialize a lot
acquaintances Finds it difficult to start conversations
Finds it easy to make new friends Dislikes making small talk
Feels energized when around other people Carefully thinks things through
before speaking

 Agreeableness: Agreeableness relates to an individual's tendency to be

compassionate, cooperative, and considerate towards others. People high
in agreeableness are generally empathetic, kind, and value harmonious
relationships, while those low in agreeableness may be more competitive,
assertive, and less concerned about others' feelings or maintaining
harmonious relationships.
High on Trait- Low on Trait-
Has a great deal of interest in other people Takes little interest in others
Cares about others Doesn't care about how other
Feels empathy and concern for other people people feel
Enjoys helping and contributing to the happiness Has little interest in other people's
of other people problems
Assists others who are in need of help Insults and belittles others
Manipulates others to get what
they want

 Neuroticism: Neuroticism reflects an individual's emotional stability and

propensity to experience negative emotions like anxiety, depression, and
stress. People high in neuroticism are more prone to worry, mood swings,
 and emotional reactivity, while those low in neuroticism tend to be more
emotionally resilient and stable- experience less frequent and intense
negative emotions like anxiety and mood swings.
High on trait- Low on Trait-
Experiences a lot of stress Emotionally stable
Worries about many different things Deals well with stress
Gets upset easily Rarely feels sad or
Experiences dramatic shifts in mood depressed
Feels anxious Doesn't worry much
Struggles to bounce back after stressfulIs very relaxed
events
Both nature and nurture play a role in the development of each of the five
personality traits
With age, people become less extraverted, less neurotic, and less open to
the experience. Agreeableness and conscientiousness, on the other hand,
tend to increase as people grow older.

BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES
o Relationships: In marriage, if one partner scores lower than the other in the
traits of agreeableness, stability and openness, there is more likely to be
marital dissatisfaction.
o Health: Neuroticism is a risk factor for many health issues, including
depression, schizophrenia, diabetes, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, and
heart disease People high in neuroticism are particularly vulnerable to mood
disorders, such as, depression. Low agreeableness has also been linked to
higher chances of health problems. Conscientiousness is a protective factor
against health diseases. People who score high in conscientiousness have
been observed to have better health outcomes and longevity, because
conscientious people have regular and well-structured lives, as well as the
impulse control to follow diets, treatment plans, etc.
o Education: A high score on conscientiousness predicts better high school and
university grades. To the contrary, low agreeableness and low
conscientiousness predict juvenile delinquency.
o Work Conscientiousness is the strongest predictor of all five traits for job
performance. A high score of conscientiousness relates to high work
performance across all dimensions.The other traits have been shown to
predict more specific aspects of job performance. For instance,
agreeableness and neuroticism predict better performance in jobs, where
teamwork is involved efficiency. Extraversion is a predictor of leadership, as
well as success in sales and management positions.
 Relationships:
o Openness to Experience: Individuals high in openness may seek
partners who share their interests in intellectual pursuits, arts, and
adventure. They may be more willing to try new activities together and
engage in open communication about emotions and experiences.
 o -Conscientiousness: People high in conscientiousness tend to be
dependable and responsible partners. They are likely to contribute
actively to the relationship, set and honor commitments, and maintain
trust through consistent behavior.
o -Extraversion: Highly extraverted individuals may thrive in social
settings, enjoying frequent outings and gatherings with their partners.
They might be more open to meeting new people and expanding their
social circles as a couple.
o -Agreeableness: Those high in agreeableness are empathetic and
considerate partners, focusing on building harmony and resolving
conflicts amicably. They are likely to be more accommodating and
supportive in relationships.
o -Neuroticism: Individuals high in neuroticism might experience more
emotional ups and downs in relationships. They may seek reassurance
and support from their partners during stressful times.
 Health:
o -Openness to Experience: High openness may lead to a greater interest
in exploring alternative health practices and wellness therapies.
o -Conscientiousness: Individuals with high conscientiousness are more
likely to adhere to healthy habits and routines, such as regular
exercise, nutritious eating, and medication compliance.
o -Extraversion: Extraverted individuals may be motivated to engage in
group fitness activities and team sports, benefiting from the social
aspect of health-related activities.
o -Agreeableness: Those high in agreeableness may be more willing to
seek help from healthcare providers and be receptive to medical
advice.
o Neuroticism: High neuroticism might lead to increased health anxiety
and hypochondria, making individuals more prone to seeking medical
attention for minor symptoms.
 Education:
o Openness to Experience: Students high in openness might be more
curious and motivated to explore diverse subjects and unconventional
ideas.
o Conscientiousness: High conscientiousness correlates with diligent
study habits, meeting deadlines, and consistent academic
performance.
o Extraversion: Extraverted students might thrive in group discussions,
team projects, and public speaking engagements.
o Agreeableness: Individuals high in agreeableness may be collaborative
and supportive in group work, fostering a positive learning
environment
o Neuroticism: Students with high neuroticism might experience test
anxiety and stress during exams, potentially affecting their academic
performance.
 Work:
 o Openness to Experience: Individuals high in openness may excel in
creative professions, innovation-focused roles, and research-oriented
fields.
o Conscientiousness: High conscientiousness is associated with strong
work ethic, reliability, and attention to detail, making individuals
valuable employees.
o Extraversion: Extraverted individuals may thrive in sales, leadership
positions, and roles that involve networking and relationship-building.
o Agreeableness: Those high in agreeableness are likely to work well in
team settings, fostering cooperation and effective communication.
o Neuroticism: High neuroticism may lead to higher stress levels in the
workplace, affecting job satisfaction and overall performance.

LIMITATIONS
 Limited Scope: The Big Five model focuses on broad personality dimensions,
but it may not capture all aspects of personality. It doesn't account for more
specific or unique personality traits that might be relevant in certain
contexts.

 Situational Variability: Personality traits can exhibit situational variability,

meaning an individual's behavior may change depending on the context or
environment. The Big Five model doesn't account for these variations.

 Lack of Explanation: The Big Five model describes personality traits but
doesn't offer explanations for why individuals possess certain traits or how
these traits develop.

 Response Bias: Self-report measures used to assess personality in the Big

Five model may be subject to response bias, as individuals might respond in
ways they perceive as socially desirable.

 Neglect of Dynamic Processes: The model focuses on stable traits but

doesn't account for dynamic processes, such as how personality traits
interact with situational factors to influence behavior.

 Single-Domain Focus: The Big Five model primarily focuses on personality

traits and does not directly address other psychological constructs like
motivations, values, or beliefs.

Meaning, nature of attitude

An attitude is a psychological state or disposition that reflects an individual's
feelings, beliefs, and behavioral tendencies toward a particular person,
object, event, or situation. It can influence how a person perceives and
responds to various aspects of their life. Attitudes can be positive, negative,
or neutral and play a significant role in shaping human behavior and
decision-making.
 NATURE OF ATTITUDE
Attitudes are the complex combination of things we call personality, beliefs,
values, behaviors, and motivations.
It can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very
unfavorable.
All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, hold attitudes.
An attitude exists in every person's mind. It helps to define our identity.
guide our actions, and influence how we judge people.
Attitude helps us define how we see situations and define how we behave
toward the situation or object.

 Evaluative: Attitudes involve an evaluation or judgment of something, such

as liking or disliking, approval or disapproval.

 Learned: Attitudes are acquired through experiences, socialization, and

interactions with the environment.

 Enduring: Attitudes are relatively stable over time, but they can also change
or be influenced by new information and experiences.

 Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Components: Attitudes consist of

cognitive (thoughts and beliefs), affective (emotions and feelings), and
behavioral (actions and intentions) components.

 Subjective and Individual: Attitudes are personal and can vary from one
individual to another, even in response to the same stimuli.

 Situational: Attitudes can be influenced by the specific context or situation in

which they are formed or expressed.

 Hierarchical: Attitudes can vary in strength and importance, ranging from

strong and central attitudes that guide behavior to weaker and peripheral
attitudes with less impact.

 Consistency: People tend to seek consistency between their attitudes and

behavior, often modifying one or the other to reduce cognitive dissonance.

 Socially Influenced: Attitudes can be shaped by social norms, cultural values,

peer groups, and media influences.

 Predictive: Attitudes can serve as predictors of behavior, although this

relationship is not always straightforward and can be influenced by other
factors.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE
 Affective Cognitive consistency: The degree of consistency between the
affective and cognitive components influences the attitude—behaviour
relationship. That is, the greater the consistency between cognition and
evaluation, the greater the strength of the attitude–behaviour relation.

 Strength: Attitudes based on direct experience with the object may be

held with greater certainty. Certainty is also influenced by whether affect
or cognition was involved in the creation of the attitude. Attitudes formed
based on affect are more certain than attitudes based on cognition

 Valence: It refers to the degree or grade of likeliness or unlikeliness

toward the entity/incident. If a person is fairly unconcerned toward an
object, his attitude has low valence.

 Direct Experience: An attitude is a summary of a person’s past

experience; thus, an attitude that is grounded in direct experience
predicts future behaviour more accurately. Moreover, direct experience
makes more information available about the object itself.

 Multiplicity: It refers to the amount of features creating the attitude. For

example, one may show interest in becoming a doctor, but another not
only shows interest, but also works hard, with sincerity and seriousness.

 Relation to Needs: Attitudes vary in relative to requirements they serve.

Attitudes of an individual toward the pictures serve only entertainment
needs, but attitudes of an employee toward task may serve strong needs
for security, achievement, recognition and satisfaction.

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
 Cognitive component: This involves a person's belief or knowledge about
an attitude object. This component refers to the thoughts, beliefs, and
knowledge a person has about a particular object, person, event, or
situation.
"I think apples are a healthy and nutritious fruit."

 Affective component: An emotion generated in response to a person,

object or event. This component involves emotions, feelings, and
emotional responses associated with the attitude object. It represents the
person's emotional evaluation or response towards the object.
"I feel happy and satisfied when I bite into a juicy and sweet apple."

 Behavioral component: The way the attitude we have influences on how

we act or behave. This component relates to the behavioral intentions or
tendencies towards the attitude object. It reflects how a person is likely to
behave or act in response to their attitude.
"I regularly include apples in my diet, especially as a snack between meals."
 FACTORS AFFECTING ATTITUDE
 Personal experiences and interactions shape attitude formation.
 Social influence from family, friends, and media impacts attitudes.
 Cultural background and societal norms influence attitudes.
 Education and knowledge can modify attitudes.
 Personality traits can influence the development of attitudes.
 Emotional responses and mood can affect attitudes in the moment.
 Cognitive dissonance can lead to attitude change to reduce discomfort.
 Peer pressure and group conformity can shape attitudes.
 Exposure to diverse perspectives can broaden attitudes.
 Past behavior and self-perception can impact attitudes.
Social factors
Direct instruction
Family
Prejudices
Personal experience
Media
Educational and religious institutions
Physical factors
Economic status and occupations

ATTITUDE VS. BELIEFS

 Attitude: How you feel and what you think about something.
Attitude refers to feelings, beliefs and behaviour predispositions directed
towards people, groups, ideas or objects. Attitudes will always have a
positive and negative element and have a tendency to behave in a certain
way toward that person or object. Attitudes are formed primarily based on
underlying values and beliefs.

 Belief: What you accept as true or real about something.

Beliefs, on the other hand, are acquired through real experiences, but the
original experience related to a particular belief is mostly forgotten. It affects
the quality of our work and relationships, because we experience what we
believe, and it is not based on reality. Beliefs govern our experiences. They
are an important part of our identity. They may be religious, cultural or
moral. Beliefs reflect who we are and the way we live our lives.

Attitudes encompass beliefs as one of their cognitive components, but

attitudes are broader as they also include emotional and behavioral aspects
of evaluation and response. Beliefs form a foundation for attitudes,
influencing how individuals perceive and respond to the world around them.

TYPES OF ATTITUDE AT WORK

 Job Satisfaction: Positive feelings and contentment towards one's job,
leading to increased motivation and productivity.
 Job Dissatisfaction: Negative feelings and discontentment with aspects of
the job, which can result in reduced engagement and performance.

 Organizational Commitment: A sense of loyalty and attachment to the

organization, leading to higher job involvement and willingness to stay
with the company.

 Job Involvement: A high level of enthusiasm and interest in one's job,

resulting in active engagement and dedication to tasks.

 Work-Life Balance: Attitude towards achieving a healthy balance between

work and personal life, impacting well-being and job satisfaction.

 Organizational Citizenship: A positive attitude towards going beyond job

requirements to support the organization and colleagues.

 Resistance to Change: A negative attitude towards changes in the

workplace, which may hinder adaptability and innovation.

 Workplace Trust: Attitude towards having confidence in coworkers and

management, influencing collaboration and teamwork.

 Employee Engagement: A positive attitude characterized by dedication,

enthusiasm, and willingness to contribute actively to the organization's
goals.

 Burnout: A negative attitude resulting from chronic stress and exhaustion,

leading to reduced performance and well-being.

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES
 Utilitarian Function: Attitudes help individuals maximize rewards and
minimize punishments by guiding them towards things they like and away
from things they dislike.

 Knowledge Function: Attitudes provide a cognitive framework that

simplifies how people process and organize information about the world,
helping them make sense of complex situations.

 Ego-Defensive Function: Attitudes can protect individuals' self-esteem by

justifying their actions or beliefs, reducing cognitive dissonance, and
defending against threats to their self-concept.

 Value-Expressive Function: Attitudes allow individuals to express and

reinforce their values, beliefs, and identity, fostering a sense of belonging
and affiliation with like-minded individuals or groups.
  Social-Adjustive Function: Attitudes help people conform to social norms
and expectations, leading to smoother interactions and acceptance within
their social circles.

 Ego-Expressive Function: Attitudes enable individuals to express their

unique personality traits and emotions, contributing to a sense of
individuality and self-expression.

 Behavioral Guidance Function: Attitudes influence behavior by guiding

individuals' actions and decisions, providing a basis for making choices
and setting goals.

 Consistency Function: Attitudes promote internal consistency and

harmony between thoughts, emotions, and actions, reducing cognitive
dissonance and psychological discomfort.

 Utilization Function: Attitudes can be used as mental shortcuts to quickly

process information and make judgments, especially in situations with
limited time and cognitive resources.

DO'S AND DON'TS

 Do's of Attitude:
Do cultivate a positive and optimistic attitude towards challenges.
Do maintain an open-minded and receptive attitude to new ideas and
perspectives.
Do show empathy and understanding towards others' opinions and feelings.
Do strive to maintain a constructive and solution-oriented attitude in difficult
situations.
Do focus on continuous self-improvement and growth, fostering a growth
mindset.

 Don'ts of Attitude:
Don't harbor negative or prejudiced attitudes towards others based on
stereotypes.
Don't let past failures or setbacks negatively influence your present attitude.
Don't be dismissive or close-minded about alternative viewpoints and
opinions.
Don't engage in gossip or spreading negativity, maintain a professional and
respectful demeanor.
Don't let ego or arrogance overshadow the importance of teamwork and
collaboration.

Example of Attitude Guiding Behavior:

Attitude: "I believe in environmental conservation and sustainability."
Behavior: Recycling plastic bottles and paper regularly.
 Example of Behavior Guiding Attitude:
Behavior: Volunteering at a local animal shelter every weekend.
Attitude: Developing a strong sense of compassion and care for animals.

Attitudinal Change
Attitudinal change occurs anytime the attitude is modified. Change occurs
when the person goes from positive to negative, from slightly positive to
very positive, and no attitude to having one. Because of the change in values
and functionality of attitude, the processes changing them are a focus.
As per dual process of attitude change, the changing processes are under
two categories:
1. Low-effort processes: Attitude changing processes when one puts little
cognitive effect.
2. High-effort processes: Attitude change processes when one required to
put very high cognitive effect, greater use of mental insights and
imaginations.

LOW EFFORT PROCESSES

These low effort processes provide valuable insights into how attitudes can
be formed or changed with minimal cognitive effort, showcasing the various
ways our minds process and evaluate information in everyday situations.

ASSOCIATIVE PROCESSES (self automated)

 Classical Conditioning: In classical conditioning, an attitude is formed or
changed through the association of a neutral stimulus with a positive or
negative stimulus that elicits an emotional response. Over time, the neutral
stimulus acquires the emotional qualities of the positive or negative
stimulus.
Example: If a person always feels happy when eating ice cream (positive
stimulus), and they often see a particular logo while eating ice cream
(neutral stimulus), they might develop a positive attitude towards the logo
through the association with the pleasant experience of eating ice cream.
Imagine that every time you saw your uncle as a child he took you to the
zoo. Assuming you enjoy going to the zoo, you will likely start to feel more
positively toward your uncle. If, instead, every time you saw him he took you
to the doctor to get your immunization shots, the opposite result is more
likely.

 Affective Priming: Affective priming occurs when an attitude is influenced by

the immediate emotional context, where exposure to one emotional stimulus
affects the evaluation of a subsequent stimulus.
Example: If a person watches a heartwarming video (positive stimulus)
before rating a product, they might be more likely to rate the product
positively due to the influence of the positive emotions from the video.
 If a new meal you are trying is brought to you by a very attractive waiter or
waitress. your positive reaction toward this server is likely to influence your
initial attitude toward the food.

 Mere Exposure Effect: This effect suggests that people tend to develop a
more positive attitude towards something they are repeatedly exposed to,
even if it is initially neutral.
Example: After seeing a certain advertisement multiple times, a person
might start to develop a positive attitude towards the product being
advertised, simply because of the increased exposure to the advertisement.
The preference a newborn infant shows for his or her mother's voice.

INFERRENTIAL PROCESSES (simple)

 Balance Theory: Balance theory focuses on the cognitive consistency
between attitudes and beliefs, proposing that people prefer consistency
among their attitudes and will adjust them to maintain harmony.
Example: If a person has a positive attitude towards a certain celebrity and
learns about a controversial action taken by the celebrity, they might try to
justify or downplay the negative information to maintain consistency with
their positive attitude.

 Attribution Theory: Attribution theory examines how people infer the causes
of behavior and events, and it can influence attitude formation or change.
Example: If someone attributes their friend's rude behavior to stress or a bad
day, they might maintain a positive attitude towards their friend, assuming
that the behavior was due to temporary circumstances.

 Heuristics: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or simple rules of thumb that

people use to make quick judgments and decisions, often relying on readily
available information.
Example: A person choosing a restaurant based on its popularity or the
number of positive reviews without researching other options, using the
popularity heuristic to guide their choice.

HIGH EFFORT PROCESSES

In high effort processes, individuals invest more cognitive resources and time
in forming or changing their attitudes, relying on thoughtful analysis and
cognitive reflection to make informed decisions.

 Cognitive Responses:
In high effort processes, individuals engage in critical thinking and cognitive
elaboration to evaluate the information or arguments related to the attitude
object. Cognitive responses involve analyzing the content of the message,
considering its credibility, and reflecting on personal beliefs and values.
Example: If someone is presented with a persuasive argument about the
benefits of regular exercise for health, they might critically assess the
 evidence, consider their own health goals, and weigh the merits of the
argument before forming a positive attitude towards exercise.

 Expectancy-Value Processes:
Expectancy-value processes involve individuals assessing the likelihood of
certain outcomes and the value or importance they attach to those
outcomes when forming or changing their attitude.
Example: When deciding whether to accept a job offer, a person might
consider the expected salary (expectancy) and the importance they place on
financial stability and career growth (value) to determine their overall
attitude towards the job.

 Dissonance Processes:
Dissonance processes arise when individuals experience cognitive
dissonance, which is a feeling of discomfort caused by holding conflicting
attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. To reduce dissonance, individuals may
reevaluate their attitudes and align them with their behavior.
Example: If someone values environmental conservation (attitude) but
occasionally uses single-use plastic bags (behavior), they might experience
dissonance. To reduce this discomfort, they might change their behavior by
using reusable bags or strengthen their commitment to environmental
protection.

Prejudice, Discrimination, Stereotype

PREJUDICE
Prejudice refers to the preconceived opinions, attitudes, or judgments that
individuals hold about other people or groups based on their perceived
characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or social class. It
involves making assumptions about someone without having sufficient
evidence or firsthand knowledge about them, often leading to unfair and
biased treatment.

Prejudice is deeply rooted in human psychology and can be influenced by

various factors, including upbringing, cultural norms, media portrayals, and
personal experiences. It often arises from the human tendency to categorize
and simplify the world around us, which can lead to generalizations and
stereotypes.

Stereotypes are a significant component of prejudice, as they are simplified

and exaggerated beliefs about a group that can lead to discrimination and
unequal treatment. Prejudice can manifest in subtle ways, like
microaggressions, or in more overt forms, such as hate crimes.

Prejudice can have harmful consequences on both the individuals

experiencing it and society as a whole. It can perpetuate social inequalities,
limit opportunities for certain groups, and create tension and hostility among
different communities.

Overcoming prejudice requires acknowledging its existence, promoting

empathy and understanding, and actively challenging discriminatory
behaviors and beliefs. Education, exposure to diverse perspectives, and
fostering inclusive environments are essential steps in combating prejudice
and building a more tolerant and equitable society.

STEREOTYPE
Stereotype refers to a fixed, oversimplified, and often exaggerated belief or
image that people have about a particular group or category of individuals.
These beliefs are based on generalizations and assumptions, rather than on
individual characteristics or traits. Stereotypes can be related to various
aspects, including race, ethnicity, gender, age, religion, occupation, or
nationality.

Stereotypes are a natural cognitive process that allows humans to quickly

process information and make sense of the world around them. They serve
as mental shortcuts, helping individuals make rapid judgments about others
based on shared characteristics or perceived similarities. However, these
mental shortcuts can lead to biased and unfair evaluations of individuals or
groups, perpetuating prejudice and discrimination.

Stereotypes can be both positive and negative. Positive stereotypes can lead
to assumptions of exceptional abilities or qualities, but they still contribute to
oversimplification and can create unrealistic expectations. Negative
stereotypes, on the other hand, can lead to discrimination, social exclusion,
and systemic inequalities.

Media, cultural norms, and personal experiences play significant roles in

shaping and reinforcing stereotypes. Misrepresentation or biased portrayals
in media can perpetuate harmful stereotypes, influencing how people
perceive and treat others. Cultural norms can also affect the acceptance or
rejection of stereotypes within societies.

It is essential to recognize and challenge stereotypes to promote fairness,

equality, and inclusivity. Encouraging critical thinking, empathy, and
exposure to diverse perspectives can help individuals break free from relying
on stereotypes and instead recognize the uniqueness and complexity of each
individual, fostering a more tolerant and understanding society.

DISCRIMINATION
Discrimination is the act of treating individuals or groups unfairly or
differently based on certain characteristics or attributes, such as race,
ethnicity, gender, age, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or social class.
It involves making distinctions and judgments about people solely based on
these characteristics, rather than their individual merits, abilities, or
qualifications.
Discrimination can manifest in various forms, including:

 Direct Discrimination: This occurs when someone is treated less favorably

or excluded explicitly because of their perceived characteristics. For
example, not hiring someone because of their ethnicity or denying
someone access to services due to their disability.

 Indirect Discrimination: This type of discrimination occurs when seemingly

neutral policies or practices disproportionately disadvantage a particular
group. For instance, an employer imposing a dress code that prohibits
religious attire may indirectly discriminate against certain religious
groups.

 Systemic Discrimination: Also known as institutional discrimination, this

involves patterns of discrimination embedded within societal structures,
policies, and institutions. It perpetuates unequal treatment and
disadvantages certain groups over time. Examples include educational
disparities or wage gaps based on gender or race.

Discrimination is often fueled by prejudice, stereotypes, and implicit biases

that people may hold. It can have significant negative impacts on the
affected individuals and communities, leading to reduced opportunities,
limited access to resources, and a sense of social marginalization.

Legal measures and policies have been put in place in many countries to
combat discrimination, promote equality, and protect the rights of
marginalized groups. However, discrimination persists in various forms, and
addressing it requires ongoing efforts in education, raising awareness,
challenging societal norms, and promoting inclusive and diverse
environments. Combating discrimination is essential for building a just and
equitable society where all individuals have equal opportunities and respect,
regardless of their background or identity.

EXAMPLES
 Prejudice: Imagine someone assumes that all people from a specific
country are lazy and unproductive without having any personal
experience with individuals from that country. This negative attitude is an
example of prejudice.

 Stereotype: If someone believes that all engineers are highly introverted

and socially awkward, that's a stereotype. They are making a
generalization about a whole group based on a perceived characteristic,
which may not be true for all individuals.
 Discrimination: Let's say an employer refuses to hire a candidate solely
because of their religious beliefs, despite their qualifications. This is an act
of discrimination, as the employer is treating the candidate unfairly based
on their religious affiliation.

Prejudice is a negative attitude or belief towards a group, stereotype is a

generalization about a group, and discrimination involves unfair treatment or
actions directed at individuals based on their perceived group
characteristics.

THEORIES
 Social Identity Theory: Proposed by Henri Tajfel, this theory suggests that
individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups, leading
to ingroup favoritism and outgroup bias. Prejudice and discrimination can
arise when people identify strongly with their ingroup and perceive the
outgroup as different or threatening.

 Implicit Bias Theory: This theory suggests that individuals hold automatic,
unconscious biases or attitudes towards certain social groups. These
biases can influence behavior and decision-making, leading to
unintentional discrimination against specific groups.

 Contact Hypothesis: This theory, developed by Gordon Allport, posits that

intergroup contact can reduce prejudice and discrimination when certain
conditions are met. Positive and cooperative interactions between
individuals from different groups can help break down stereotypes and
foster understanding.

 Stereotype Threat: This theory, proposed by Claude Steele, explores the

impact of stereotypes on performance. When individuals are aware of
negative stereotypes about their group, they may experience anxiety and
perform worse in situations where the stereotype is relevant, reinforcing
the stereotype itself.

 Social Cognitive Theory: This theory, developed by Albert Bandura,

highlights the role of observational learning and cognitive processes in
shaping behavior. Stereotypes and discriminatory behaviors can be
acquired through observing others and the media, leading to their
perpetuation.

WAYS TO OVERCOME
 Overcome prejudice by promoting empathy and understanding through
education and intergroup contact.
 Challenge stereotypes by exposing yourself to diverse perspectives and
questioning preconceived notions.
 Address discrimination by advocating for equal rights and opportunities
for all individuals, regardless of their background or identity.
 Foster inclusive environments that celebrate diversity and discourage
discriminatory behaviors.
 Encourage self-awareness to recognize and confront implicit biases.
 Promote representation and positive portrayals of diverse groups in media
and society.
 Engage in open dialogues and discussions to break down barriers and
build bridges between different communities.
 Implement and enforce anti-discrimination policies in institutions and
workplaces.
 Support and participate in initiatives that aim to combat prejudice and
discrimination.

Building Positive Attitude

Mind is a powerful place. If you keep it in positive state, positive attitude will
follow.
 Focus on gratitude and appreciate the positive aspects of your life.
 Practice mindfulness and stay present in the moment.
 Surround yourself with positive and supportive people.
 Challenge negative thoughts and replace them with constructive ones.
 Engage in activities that bring joy and fulfillment.
 Practice self-compassion and be kind to yourself.
 Cultivate a growth mindset and embrace learning from challenges.
 Choose optimism and look for silver linings in difficult situations.
 Express kindness and appreciation towards others.
 Celebrate your achievements, no matter how small they may seem.
 Start each day with positive affirmations and intentions.

“I am no good at this!” could be changed to, “Maybe this is not one of my

strengths, but I’ve tried my hardest, and I am skilled in many other things.”

 Strengthen the positive neural pathways in your brain: spend more time
thinking about positive things, for example by memorizing and recalling
lists of positive words; which activates these regions of your brain and
make this information accessible in your daily life.

 Look for the silver linings: finding the upside to any downside or negative
situation.

 Practice random acts of kindness: It could be anything from telling a co-

worker they did a good job, to congratulating a friend on an important
achievement, to bringing a cup of soup to a family member who has the
flu.
 Smile and laugh and enjoy life: people who think positively have a lower
risk of dying of all causes compared with others their own age who have a
gloomier view of life.

 Savoring life pleasures: everyday pleasures, on the other hand, can slip
by without much notice unless they disappear or seem threatened. Slow
down and focus. You will enjoy things more, whether a meal or a visit with
a friend.

 Practicing gratitude: gratitude is a thankful appreciation for what you

receive, whether tangible or intangible.

 Cultivating mindfulness: mindfulness is generally acquired by training the

mind to focus its attention on the present moment in a systematic way,
accepting whatever arises.

 Retaining a sense of purpose: it's important at trying times to keep your

life as normal as possible and to focus on what you can control. Follow a
regular sleep schedule, get enough exercise, eat healthy meals, and stay
in touch with friends and family.

 Emphasizing the positive: winnowing out and focusing on the positive

aspects of a situation are key factors in acquiring resilience-the ability to
bounce back from bad times-that will help you weather the losses that
may occur in the years ahead.