Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level

Absolute Pressure

Absolute Pressure is the sum of the available atmospheric pressure and the gage pressure
in the pumping system

Absolute Pressure(PSIA) = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Absolute Pressure = 150 PSIG(Gauge Pressure) + 14.7 PSI(Atmospheric Pressure) =

164.7 PSIA

Vacuum

The full or partial elimination of Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure on the Moon = 0 = Full Vacuum

1 Inch Hg Vacuum = 1.13 Ft of Water

Specific Gravity

The ratio of the weight of anything to the weight of water.

Example Specific Gravity of HCl = Weight of HCl (/) Weight of Water = 10.0 (/) 8.34 =
1.2

PSI HT SG

Pressure and Liquid Height Relationship (Head)

Pressure, Liquid Height and Specific Gravity Relationship

Pressure(PSI) = Head(FT) x Specific Gravity(SG) / 2.31

Example - Water - 231Ft x 1.0 / 2.31 = 100 PSI

Example - HCL - 231 Ft x 1.2 / 2.31 = 120 PSI

Example - Gas - 231 Ft x .80 / 2.31 = 80 PSI

Vapor Pressure
The pressure pushing against atmospheric pressure
on liquids at elevated temperatures.

Suction Head

A Suction Head exists when the liquid is taken from an open to atmosphere tank where
the liquid level is above the centerline of the pump suction, commonly known as a
Flooded Suction.

Suction Lift

A Suction Lift exists when the liquid is taken from an open to atmosphere tank where the
liquid level is below the centerline of the pump suction.

Total Dynamic Head

Total Dynamic Head (TDH) = Elevation(ft) + Friction(ft)

Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its tendency to resist an internal shearing force.

Viscosity = Shear Stress / Shear Rate

Shear Stress = Force / Area = Mass(M) x Acceleration(Ft/sec/sec) / Ft x Ft

In other words the Shear Stress can be increased or decreased by either changing the
velocity of the liquid (acceleration) and/or the pipe size.

Shear Rate = Velocity / Film Thickness = Ft/sec / Ft = 1/Sec (Reciprocal Seconds)

The rate is a function of the flow and the pipe size measured in reciprocal seconds shown
in the following graph.
Effective Viscosity

The Effective Viscosity is the actual viscosity of the fluid at the shear rate which exists in
the pump and pumping system at the design condition.

Types of Fluids

Newtonian Fluids

The viscosity is constant with a change in the shear rate.

Thixotropic Fluids

The viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases.

Dilatant Fluids

The viscosity increases as the shear rate increases.

Viscosity vs. Temperature

Normally the viscosity decreases with an increase in temperature.

Viscosity Measurements

Centipoise

The Centipoise (CPS) is the most convenient unit of viscosity measurement. This
measurement of absolute viscosity units can be obtained from a type of instrument as
shown below. This type of instrument measures the force needed to rotate the spindle in
the fluid (Shear Stress) at a known velocity (Shear Rate).
Viscometer

Kinematic

Other units of viscosity measurement such as Centistokes (CKS) or Saybolt Second

Universal (SSU) are measures of Kinematic viscosity where the specific gravity of the
fluid influences the viscosity measured. Kinematic viscometers usually use the force of
gravity to cause the fluid to flow down a calibrated tube while timing its flow.
Viscosity Conversions

Kinematic Viscosity X Specific Gravity = Absolute Viscosity

Centistokes x SG. = Centipoise

SSU x .216 x SG. = Centipoise

Other Ways of Measuring Effective Viscosity

If a viscometer is not available an accurate method of determining the fluid viscosity is to

run the product in a pilot circuit, recording pressure drop through a linear length of line,
pipe I.D., and flow rate. From this data the actual viscosity of a Non-Newtonian fluid can
be determined by using the friction table backwards.
Pressure Drop = 1 psi/ft

Pump Components

Centrifugal Pump Components

The two main components of a centrifugal pump are the impeller and the volute. The
impeller produces liquid velocity and the volute forces the liquid to discharge from the
pump converting velocity to pressure. This is accomplished by offsetting the impeller in
the volute and by maintaining a close clearance between the impeller and the volute at the
cut-water. Please note the impeller rotation. A centrifugal pump impeller slings the liquid
out of the volute. It does not cup the liquid.
Specific Speed

The specific speed determines the general shape of a centrifugal pump impeller. As the
specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter to the inlet of the eye
diameter decreases. This ration becomes 1.0 for an axial flow pump. Radial flow
impellers develop head through centrifugal force. Radial impellers are low flow high
head designs. Pump of higher specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal force
and partly by axial force. A higher specific speed indicates a pump design with head
generation ore by axial forces and less by centrifugal forces. An axial flow or propeller
pump with a specific speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head exclusively through
axial forces. Axial flow impellers are high flow low head designs.

Specific speed (Ns) identifies the approximate acceptable ration of the impeller eye
diameter (D1) to the impeller maximum diameter (D2) in designing an impeller:

 Ns 500 to 5000 D1/D2 > 1.5 - radial flow pump

 Ns 5000 to 10000 D1/D2 < 1.5 - mixed flow pump
 Ns 10000 to 15000 D1/D2 = 1 - axial flow pump

N P S H ( Net Positive Suction Head)

There are two components that must be considered:

 Net Positive Suction Head Required(NPSHR)

 Net Positive Suction Head Available(NPSHA)
If the NPSHA < NPSHR the Pump will cavitate:

NPSHR

Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR)

The net positive suction head required is a function of the pump design at the operating
point on the pump performance curve. In our example on the Centrifugal Pump
Performance Curve -->page, the NPSHR by the pump at the operating point is 5 ft.

NPSHA

Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)

The net positive suction head available is a function of the pump suction system.

The Net Positive Suction Head is the absolute total suction head in feet.

The NPSH available in a flooded suction system is:

Atmospheric Pressure (- ) Vapor Pressure (+) Liquid Height (-) Friction in the Suction
Line.

The NPSH available in a suction lift system is:

Atmospheric Pressure (-) Vapor Pressure (-) Liquid Ht. (-) Friction in the Suction Line
Cavitation

Cavitation may occur in two different forms:

 Suction Cavitation
 Discharge Cavitation

Both are extremely damaging to pump components!

Suction Cavitation

Suction Cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low pressure/high vacuum
condition where the liquid turns into a vapor at the eye of the pump impeller. This vapor
is carried over to the discharge side of the pump where it no longer sees vacuum and is
compressed back into a liquid by the discharge pressure. This imploding action occurs
violently and attacks the face of the impeller. An impeller that has been operating under a
suction cavitation condition has large chunks of material removed from its face causing
premature failure of the pump.
Discharge Cavitation

Discharge Cavitation occurs when the pump discharge is extremely high. It normally
occurs in a pump that is running at less than 10% of its best efficiency point. The high
discharge pressure causes the majority of the fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of
being allowed to flow out the discharge. As the liquid flows around the impeller it must
pass through the small clearance between the impeller and the pump cutwater at
extremely high velocity. This velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the cutwater similar
to what occurs in a venturi and turns the liquid into a vapor. A pump that has been
operating under these conditions shows premature wear of the impeller vane tips and the
pump cutwater. In addition due to the high pressure condition premature failure of the
pump mechanical seal and bearings can be expected and under extreme conditions will
break the impeller shaft.
Parallel Pumps

 Parallel Pump Operation using Identical Pumps

 Parallel Pump Operation using Different Pumps

Identical Pumps

Operating two identical pumps in parallel the assumption is made that the flow will
double. This however is not the case. In order to calculate the additional flow realized
by running two identical pumps in parallel the following calculations must be made.
First let's look at the pump curve and system head curve with one pump running.

TDH FLOW

130' 100 GPM

120' 190 GPM

110' 280 GPM

100 360 GPM

OPERATING POINT (A)

85' 470 GPM

Second let's look at the pump curve and system head curve with two pumps running.

TDH FLOW

130' 200 GPM

 120' 380 GPM

110' 560 GPM

100 720 GPM

OPERATING POINT (B)

105' 660 GPM

The additions of the second identical pump produces an extra 190 GPM and does not
double the flow. Point C is the flow produced by each pump when both pumps are
running.

Different Pumps

Operating two different size pumps in parallel the assumption is made that the flow will
increase dramatically. This however is not the case. In order to calculate the additional
flow realized by running two different size pumps in parallel the following calculations
must be made.

System Head Curve

First let's look at the pump curve and system head curve with the 3" pump running.
 TDH FLOW

90' 0 GPM

87.5' 50 GPM

85' 100 GPM

80' 160 GPM

OPERATING POINT (A)

70' 300 GPM

Second let's look at the pump curve and system head curve with the 4" pump running.

TDH FLOW

90' 360 GPM

87.5' 410 GPM

85' 460 GPM

80' 470 GPM

OPERATING POINT (B)

87.5' 410 GPM

Third let's look at the pump curve and system head curve with the both the 3" & 4" pump
running.

TDH FLOW
 90' 360 GPM

87.5' 460 GPM

85' 560 GPM

80' 580 GPM

OPERATING POINT (C)

87.5' 460 GPM

With the 4" pump running and then adding the 3" pump produces an extra 50 GPM.
Point D is the flow produced by the 3" pump when both pumps are running. Point E is
the flow produced by the 4" pump when both pumps are running.
Series Pumping

Pumps in series double the head at the same flow condition point. One pump discharge is
piped into the suction of the second pump producing twice the head capability of each
pump separately. The second pump however must be capable of operating at the higher
suction pressure which is produced by pump number one.

This mode of operation is a very cost effective way of overcoming high discharge heads
when the flow requirement remains the same.

Viscous Fluids

The performance of centrifugal pumps is affected when pumping viscous liquids. A

dramatic increase in Brake Horsepower and a reduction of Flow and Head occurs.

To determine the affects of pumping viscous fluids using a centrifugal pump use the
Performance Correction Chart below:

CH = Head Correction

CQ = Flow Correction

CE = Efficiency Correction
EXAMPLE

To determine the affects of pumping a 1,000 SSU viscous hydrocarbon liquid with a
specific gravity of 0.9 using a pump with known water performance characteristics we
find that:

CALCULATIONS
WATER CAPACITY(GPM) 450 600 750 900
WATER HEAD (FT) 114 108 100 86
WATER EFFICIENCY 72.5% 80% 82% 79.5%
HORSEPOWER(BHPR) 16.1 18.4 20.8 22.1
SPECIFIC GRAVITY .90 .90 .90 .90
VISCOSITY 1,000SSU 1,000SSU 1,000SSU 1,000SSU
CQ (FLOW CORRECTION) 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
CH (HEAD CORRECTION) 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.89
CE( EFFICIENCY CORRECTION) 0.635 0.635 0.635 0.635
VISCOUS CAPACITY(GPM) 427 570 712 855
VISCOUS HEAD(FT) 109.5 101.5 92 76.5
VISCOUS EFFICIENCY 46% 50.8% 52.1% 50.5%
VISCOUS HORSEPOWER 23.1 25.9 28.6 29.4
These calculations can be plotted on a performance curve as follows:

PERFORMANCE CURVE

Pump Performance Curve

A Pump Performance Curve is produced by a pump manufacturer from actual tests

performed and shows the relationship between Flow and Total Dynamic Head, the
Efficiency, the NPSH Required, and the BHP Required.

Higher Head = Lower Flow

Lower Head = Higher Flow

Lower Flow = Lower Horsepower

Higher Flow = Higher Horsepower

Based on Water SG 1.0

Capacity

A Centrifugal Pump is a variable displacement pump. The actual flow rate achieved is
directly dependent on the Total Dynamic Head it must work against.

The flow capacity of a centrifugal pump also depends on three (3) other factors:

 Pump Design
 Impeller Diameter
 Pump Speed

Affinity Laws

The performance of a centrifugal pump is affected by a change in speed or impeller

diameter.

Q = Capacity (GPM)

D = Impeller Diameter
H = Total Dynamic Head(Feet)

BHP = Brake Horsepower

N= Speed(RPM)

 The affinity law for a centrifugal pump with the impeller diameter held constant
and the speed changed:

Flow:

Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2

Example: 100 / Q2 = 1750/3500

Q2 = 200 GPM

Head:

H1/H2 = (N1) x (N1) / (N2) x (N2)

Example: 100 /H2 = 1750 x 1750 / 3500 x 3500

H2 = 400 Ft

Horsepower(BHP):

BHP1 / BHP2 = (N1) x (N1) x (N1) / (N2) x (N2) x (N2)

Example: 5/BHP2 = 1750 x 1750 x 1750 / 3500 x 3500 x 3500

BHP2 = 40

 The affinity law for a centrifugal pump with the speed held constant and the
impeller diameter changed:

Flow:

Q1 / Q2 = D1 / D2

Example: 100 / Q2 = 8/6

Q2 = 75 GPM

Head:
H1/H2 = (D1) x (D1) / (D2) x (D2)

Example: 100 /H2 = 8 x 8 / 6 x 6

H2 = 56.25 Ft

Horsepower(BHP):

BHP1 / BHP2 = (D1) x (D1) x (D1) / (D2) x (D2) x (D2)

Example: 5/BHP2 = 8 x 8 x 8 / 6 x 6 x 6

BHP2 = 2.1

Brake Horsepower

BHP = Flow(GPM) X TDH(FT) x SG /3960xEFFICIENCY(%)

Example: BHP = (100 GPM) x (95 Ft) x (1.0) / 3960 x .6

BHP = 4.0
Atmospheric Pressure/Elevation Chart

Altitude Above Barometric Equivalent Equivalent

Sea Level Reading Head Pressure

Feet Inches of Mg Feet PSI

0 29.92 33.96 14.7
1000 28.86 32.76 14.18
2000 27.82 31.58 13.67
3000 26.81 30.43 13.17
4000 25.84 29.33 12.69
5000 24.89 28.25 12.22
6000 23.98 27.22 11.78
7000 23.09 26.21 11.34
8000 22.22 25.22 10.91
Vapor Chart

Water Vapor Pressure Chart

Temperature Vapor Pressure

F C PSI FT
40 4.4 .1217 .281
50 10 .1781 .4115
60 15.6 .2563 .592
70 21.1 .3631 .815
80 26.7 .5069 1.17
90 32.2 .6982 1.612
100 37.8 .9492 2.191
110 43.3 1.275 2.942
120 48.9 1.692 3.91
130 54.4 2.223 5.145
140 60 2.889 6.675
150 65.6 3.718 8.56
160 71.1 4.741 10.95
170 76.7 5.992 13.84
180 82.2 7.510 17.35
190 87.8 9.339 21.55
200 93.3 11.50 26.65
212 100 14.70 33.96
Fitting Chart

Fitting Losses

Equivalent Length of Pipe in Feet

Pipe Valves
Gate Plug Globe Angle Check Foot
Diameter
1.5" 0.9 - 45 23 11 39
2" 1.10 6.0 58 29 14 47
3" 1.6 8.0 86 43 20 64
4" 2.1 17 113 57 26 71
6" 3.2 65 170 85 39 77
Tube
Pipe
Elbows Tee Enlrg Contr
Turn
Diameter
45 90 45 90 Strt Side 1:2 3:4 2:1 4:3
1.5" 1.9 4.1 1.4 2.3 2.7 8.1 2.6 1.0 1.5 1.0
2" 2.4 5.2 1.9 3.0 3.5 10.4 3.2 1.2 1.8 1.2
3" 3.6 7.7 2.9 4.5 5.2 15.5 4.7 1.7 2.8 1.7
4" 4.7 10.2 3.8 6.0 6.8 20.3 6.2 2.3 3.6 2.3
6" 7.1 15.3 5.8 9.0 10.2 31 9.5 3.4 5.6 3.4
Friction Chart

Friction Drop Chart

Friction Loss of Water in Feet per 100 Feet of Pipe

U.S. 1"Pipe 2"Pipe 3"Pipe 4"Pipe 5"Pipe 6"Pipe

Vel Loss Vel Loss Vel Loss Vel Loss Vel Loss Vel Loss
GPM
10 3.72 11.7 1.02 0.50 0.45 0.07 - - - - - -
20 7.44 42.0 2.04 1.82 0.91 0.25 0.51 0.06 - - - -
30 11.15 89.0 3.06 3.84 1.36 0.54 0.77 0.13 0.49 0.04 - -
40 14.88 152 4.08 6.60 1.820.91 1.02 0.22 0.65 0.08 - -
50 - - 5.11 9.90 2.27 1.36 1.28 0.34 0.82 0.11 0.57 0.04
60 - - 6.13 13.9 2.72 1.92 1.53 0.47 0.98 0.16 0.68 0.06
70 - - 7.15 18.4 3.18 2.57 1.79 0.63 1.14 0.21 0.79 0.08
80 - - 8.17 23.7 3.65 3.28 2.04 0.81 1.31 0.27 0.91 0.11
90 - - 9.19 29.4 4.09 4.06 2.30 1.00 1.47 0.34 1.02 0.14
100 - - 10.2 35.8 4.54 4.96 2.55 1.22 1.63 0.41 1.13 0.17
110 - - 11.3 42.9 5.00 6.00 2.81 1.46 1.79 0.49 1.25 0.21
120 - - 12.3 50.0 5.45 7.00 3.06 1.72 1.96 0.58 1.36 0.24
130 - - 13.3 58.0 5.91 8.10 3.31 1.97 2.12 0.67 1.47 0.27
140 - - 14.3 67.0 6.35 9.20 3.57 2.28 2.29 0.76 1.59 0.32
150 - - 15.3 76.0 6.82 10.5 3.82 2.62 2.45 0.88 1.70 0.36
Viscosity Correction

Valves and Fittings

Viscosity Pipe Chart

Pipe Pressure Drop Chart