Ch12 - amplifiers

CHAPTER 12
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
APPLICATIONS
1
CHAPTER 12: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
APPLICATIONS
 INTRODUCTION
 CASCADED AMPLIFIERS
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOGUE CONVERSION
 ANALOGUE-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
2
INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the characteristics and designs of
multistage amplifiers including gain, input resistance and
output resistance.
D/A and A/D conversions discussed in chapter 1 are revisited

– and basic forms of D/A and A/D converters are discussed.
3
APPLICATIONS
 INTRODUCTION 
 CASCADED AMPLIFIERS
4
CASCADED AMPLIFIERS
In Electronics the desired gain, input resistance and output
resistance may not be achieved by a single-stage
amplification process.
More often, a desired yield is accomplished by connecting
several amplifiers in a cascaded fashion.
A cascaded amplifier is therefore any two-port network
constructed from a series of amplifiers, where
each amplifier sends its output to the input of the
next amplifier in a daisy chain.
How can we determine the overall voltage gain of a
cascaded amplifier network?
5
6
CASCADED AMPLIFIERS
A two-port model is used to represent or model the behavior of
amplifiers in complex systems. It helps us hide or encapsulate the
complexity of the circuit so we can more easily manage the
overall analysis and design.

NB: There are some conditions of use of the two-port models.
Please read section 10.3 of Chapter 10 (MCD – 4th Ed.)
7
8
CASCADED AMPLIFIERS
Using the methods and discussions of Chapter 10, the overall
voltage output of the multistage amplifier is given by
And the voltage gain is
Therefore the overall voltage gain is the product of the voltage

gains of the individual stages.
9
CASCADED AMPLIFIERS
HOMEWORK & DISCUSSION POINTS
1. What are the disadvantages of a cascaded amplifier?
2. In a 3-stage cascaded amplifier, discuss the conditions

around the relationships between 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴 and 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝐵 , 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐵 and
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝐶 .
3. Derive the expressions for calculating the overall power gain

and the overall current gain for a cascaded amplifier.
10
CASCADED AMPLIFIERS: Class Exercise
11
CASCADED AMPLIFIERS
PROBLEM-SOLVING ASSIGNMENT
DO PROBLEMS 12.1 -12.24

on
Microelectronic Circuit Design (4th Edition)
12
APPLICATIONS
 CASCADED AMPLIFIERS 
13
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOGUE CONVERSION
As discussed in Chapter 1, the D/A or DAC converter provides
an interface between the discrete signals of the digital
domain and the continuous signals of the analogue world.
Such conversion can be summarized schematically as
follows:
14
The resolution of D/A converter is measured in terms of the

least significant bit (LSB). The LSB of an n-bit converter is
equal to 𝑉𝐹𝑆 /2𝑛 , where 𝑉𝐹𝑆 is the full scale voltage range of
the converter. The most significant bit (MSB) of the converter
is equal to 𝑉𝐹𝑆 /2.
[PLEASE REVISE THE D/A CONVERTER FUNDAMENTALS
DISCUSSED IN CHAPTER 1].
The conversion process comes with some errors: gain errors,

offset errors, linearity errors and differential linearity errors.
15
Simple MOS D/A converters can be formed using the

following circuits:
 Weighted-resistor DAC.
 R-2R ladder DAC.
 inverted R-2R ladder DAC.
 Weighted-capacitor DAC.
 C-2C ladder DAC.
16
Weighted-resistor DAC
A (binary) weighted-resistor DAC

is the weighted-resistor DAC type
in which each digital level is
converted into an equivalent
analogue voltage or current.
In the circuit, an Op-amp is used
as a current to voltage converter.
This is also called a summing
amplifier circuit. READ chapter 10, section 10.9.5.
17
R-2R Ladder DAC
It makes use of two resistors R and

2R, with values of R typically
ranging from 2 kΩ to 10 kΩ.
Thѐvenin equivalents are formed
successively from left to right at
each node of the ladder. From DAC
fundamental discussions, it can be
shown that the contribution of each bit is reduced by a factor of
2 from MSB to LSB.
18
Inverted R-2R Ladder DAC
In this circuit, the currents in

the ladder and reference are
independent of the digital input
because the input data cause the
ladder currents to be switched
either directly to the ground or
to the virtual ground input at
the input of a current-to-voltage converter. Because both op amp
inputs are at ground potential, the ladder currents are independent
19
of switch position.
Weighted-capacitor DAC
This circuit is composed only of

switches, op amps and capacitors.
As a result, the only static power
dissipation in these circuits occurs in
the op amps. When a switch changes
state, current impulses charge or
discharge the capacitors in the
network. The current impulse is supplied by the output of the op amp
and changes the voltage on the feedback capacitor by an amount
20
corresponding to the bit weight of the switch that changed state.

C-2C ladder DAC
This circuit makes use of two

capacitors C and 2C. It operates the
same way as the weighted-capacitor
DAC.
21
CLASS EXERCISES
1. Suppose a 1 kΩ resistor is used for the MSB in an 8-bit

converter similar to that in Fig. 12.24. What are the
other resistor values?
2. What is the total resistance required to build an 8-bit
R-2R ladder DAC if R = 1 kΩ? What is the total resistance
required to build an 8-bit weighted resistor D/A converter
if R = 1 kΩ.
22
1. What are the draw-backs or disadvantages of each of the

DAC circuits discussed.
2. Mention at least TWO uses or applications of each of the
DAC circuits discussed.
23

on
24
APPLICATIONS
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOGUE CONVERSION 
25
ANALOGUE-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
As described in Chapter 1, the A/D or ADC is used to transform
analogue information in electrical form into digital data. The ADC
takes an unknown continuous analogue input signal, most often a
voltage 𝑣𝑋 , and converts it into an n-bit binary number that can be
readily manipulated by a digital computer. Such conversion can be
summarized schematically as follows:
26
[PLEASE REVISE THE A/D CONVERTER FUNDAMENTALS

DISCUSSED IN CHAPTER 1].
The ADC process also comes with some errors: gain errors, offset
errors, linearity errors and differential linearity errors.
Good quality ADCs exhibit linearity and differential linearity

errors less than ½ LSB and have no missing codes.
27
Basic ADC circuits compare an unknown input voltage to a known
time-varying reference signal.
The reference signal is provided by a DAC in the counting and
successive approximation converters.
The counting converter sequentially compares the unknown to all
possible outputs of the DAC.
A conversion may take as many as 2𝑛 clock periods to complete.
The counting converter is simple but relatively slow.
The successive approximation converter uses an efficient binary
search algorithm to achieve a conversion in only n clock periods
and is a very popular conversion technique.
28
ADCs employ circuits called comparators to compare an
unknown input voltage with a precision reference voltage.
The comparator can be considered to be a high-gain, high-
speed op amp designed to operate without feedback.
29
A/D converters can be formed using the following circuits:
 Counting ADC
 Successive Approximation ADC
 Single-ramp ADC
 Dual-ramp ADC
 Flash ADC (the fastest of them all)
 Delta-Sigma (∆-Σ) ADC (the most popular in ICs)
30
Mention at least TWO uses or applications of the following

ADC circuits discussed.
1. Flash ADC
2. Delta-Sigma ADC
31

on
32
APPLICATIONS
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOGUE CONVERSION 
 ANALOGUE-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 
33

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CHAPTER 12

D/A and A/D conversions discussed in chapter 1 are revisited

amplifiers in complex systems. It helps us hide or encapsulate the

complexity of the circuit so we can more easily manage the

overall analysis and design.

And the voltage gain is

Therefore the overall voltage gain is the product of the voltage

1. What are the disadvantages of a cascaded amplifier?

2. In a 3-stage cascaded amplifier, discuss the conditions

3. Derive the expressions for calculating the overall power gain

DO PROBLEMS 12.1 -12.24

The resolution of D/A converter is measured in terms of the

The conversion process comes with some errors: gain errors,

Simple MOS D/A converters can be formed using the

 R-2R ladder DAC.

 inverted R-2R ladder DAC.

 C-2C ladder DAC.

A (binary) weighted-resistor DAC

It makes use of two resistors R and

In this circuit, the currents in

This circuit is composed only of

corresponding to the bit weight of the switch that changed state.

C-2C ladder DAC

This circuit makes use of two

1. Suppose a 1 kΩ resistor is used for the MSB in an 8-bit

1. What are the draw-backs or disadvantages of each of the

DO PROBLEMS 12.68 -12.77

[PLEASE REVISE THE A/D CONVERTER FUNDAMENTALS

Good quality ADCs exhibit linearity and differential linearity

 Successive Approximation ADC

 Flash ADC (the fastest of them all)

 Delta-Sigma (∆-Σ) ADC (the most popular in ICs)

Mention at least TWO uses or applications of the following

DO PROBLEMS 12.85 -12.91

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