2.

Units and Measurements

Physical quantities:
These are the quantities, which can be measured.
Ex: length, mass, time, density, velocity, acceleration etc.
Types of physical quantities:
1. Fundamental physical quantities. 2. Derived physical quantities.
Fundamental physical quantities:
These are the quantities which cannot be derived.
Ex: length, mass and time.
Derived physical quantities: These are the quantities which can be derived using fundamental physical
quantities. Ex: area, volume, density, speed etc.
Measurement:
It is the process of comparison of given physical quantity accepted unit with an internationally of same
kind.
Terms required measuring the physical quantities
(1) unit and (2) numerical value or magnitude
Ex: Mass of the body =10 kg,
Where 10 is the numerical value and kg is the unit.
Unit:
It is the standard, used for measurement.
(Standard Þ internationally accepted unit)
Numerical value: It represents the number of times the unit is repeated.
Fundamental units: These are the units of fundamental physical quantities.
Ex: Length ---- metre
Mass ----- kg
Time -----second.
Derived units: These are the units of derived physical quantities.
Ex: Area ----- m2
Velocity ----- m/s
Force ------- N
Characteristics of a unit:
1. It must be well defined.
2. It must be of convenient size.
3. It should not change with time, place and temperature.
4. It should be easily reproducible.
5. It should be easily accessible.

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System of Units:
Systems of units are a set of fundamental units. There are 3 systems of units.
System Units
Length Mass Time
MKS Meter (m) Kilogram (kg) second (s)
CGS Centimeter (cm) Gram (g) second (s)
FPS Foot (ft) Pound (lb) second (s)
SI system (International System of Units):
As time passes it was found that all the physical quantities cannot be expressed in terms of length, mass
and time. MKS system was adopted in 1935, which consists of only units of length, mass and time. MKS
system was extended by the gradual addition of units for electric current, luminous intensity, amount of
substance, temperature and two supplementary units for plane angle and solid angle. In 1971, General
Conference on Weights and Measurement approved the new system, which is called as SI System. Therefore,
the SI system is an extended system of MKS system.
Fundamental units of SI system:
The SI system includes 7 fundamental physical quantities and units and 2 supplementary quantities
and units.

Physical Quantity Unit Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second S
Temperature kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
Amount Substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela Cd

Supplementary units:
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
Measurement of plane angle:
It is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by an arc of a circle.
arc length dl
\ Plane angle = Þ dq =
radius r
Measurement of solid angle:
It is the angle subtended at the centre of the sphere by the
intercepted area of spherical surface.
Area dA
\ Solid angle = Þ dW=
(radius) 2
r2

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Measurement of large distances:
Large distances such as the distance of a planet or a star from the earth is measured by parallax method.
Parallax:
It is the apparent shift in the position of a body with respect to its background due to the shift in the
position of the eye (observer).
Basis:
It is the distance between the two positions of observation in the parallax method.
Parallax angle (or) parallactic angle:
It is the angle subtended by the basis at the object.
Determination of large distance by parallax method:
In the figure, P is the planet, q is the parallax angle, D is the distance between
the planet/ star and the earth, b is the basis (b << D),
P1 and P2 two positions of observation on the earth. As b << D, q is very small.
Therefore, b = arc length of a circle with centre at P and D is the radius of the
circle.
arc length b b
\ Parallax angle = Þq = ÞD=
radius D q
Determination of diameter of moon:
In the figure,
P is the point of observation,
d is the diameter of the moon,
P1 and P2 two diametrically opposite points of the planet,
These points are observed using a telescope
D is the distance between the planet and the earth,
a is the angular diameter of the planet.
As d<<D, a is very small.
Therefore, d = arc length of a circle with centre at P and
D = radius of the circle.
arc length d
\ Angular diameter of the planet, a = Þa = Þ d =a D
radius D
Other units used to measure length:
1. l fermi = 1f = 10-15m
2. l angstrom = 1Ao = 10-10m
3. 1 astronomical unit = l AU = 1.496x1011m (1 AU = average (mean) distance between sun and earth)
4. l light year = l ly = 9.46x1015m (1 ly = distance traveled by the light in vacuum in 1 year)
5. 1 parallactic second = l parsec = 3.08x1016m. (l parsec=distance at which average radius of earth's orbit
subtends an angle of 1 arc sec)

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Range of length:
Physics explains atomic phenomena to astronomical phenomena. That is, it deals with the length of
range from 10-l5 m (radius of nucleus) to 1026m (radius of observable universe).
Determination of very small distances (molecular size):
A simple method for estimating the oleic acid molecular size is given below. Oleic acid is a soapy
liquid of large molecular size of the order of 10-9 m. To find the molecule of oleic acid, we form
monomolecular layer (ie single molecule layer)
We have, 1 cm3 oleic acid is dissolved in 20cm3 alcohol. Then 1cm3 of this solution is again dissolved in 20
cm3 of alcohol.
1
Now the concentration of oleic acid in alcohol = cm3.
20 ´ 20
n drops each of volume V of this solution is put on the surface of water contained in a flat and broad vessel.
The oleic solution spreads very fast on the surface of water and forms a very thin layer of thickness t (say).
The alcohol evaporates and oleic solution is left on the surface of water. The area of the film is measured using
a trace of paper and graph sheet.
Volume of n drops of solution = nV cm3
nV
Volume of oleic acid in n drops of solution = cm3
20 ´ 20
Volume of film
Molecular size = thickness of oleic acid film= ------- (1)
Area of film
nV
t= cm
20 ´ 20 ´ A
This value comes out to be the order of 10-9 m.
Unit of length ‘metre’:
!
metre is the length of the path traveled by the light in vacuum during a time interval of "##$#"%&' of a
second.
Measurement of mass:
Mass is a basic property of matter. It is the quantity of matter. SI unit of mass is kilogram. Mass of
commonly available objects can be measured by common balance like the one used in a grocery shop. Large
masses in the universe like planets, stars etc. can be measured using Newton's 1aw of gravitation. Mass of
atomic and sub atomic particles can be measured using mass spectrograph method.
Atomic mass unit (u):
This unit is used to express mass of atoms and molecules.
th
æ1ö
1 u = ç ÷ of mass of C12 atom = 1.66x10-27 kg
è 12 ø
Note: physics deals with mass range 10-30kg (mass of electron) to 1055kg (mass of universe).
Unit of mass ‘kilogram’:
kilogram is the mass of a platinum iridium alloy cylinder kept at international bureau of weights and
measures at Sevres, near Paris, France (1889)

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Measurement of time:
Time can be measured using clocks. Any phenomenon that repeats itself regularly can serve as a clock
Note: 1. Working of Cesium atomic clock is based on the periodic vibrations produced in the cesium atom.
2. Physics deals with time of range 10-24 s to 1017 s. Life time of unstable particle is 10-24 s and 1017 s is
the approximate age of earth.
Unit of time ‘second’:
second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom (1967)
Ampere (A):
One ampere is that constant current which when maintained in two straight, thin and parallel
conductors of infinite length and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors
a force of 2 × 10($ N/m of length (1948).
Kelvin (K):
!
One kelvin is the fraction "$).!+ of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (1967).
The triple point of water is the temperature at which ice, water and water vapuor co-exist.
Mole (mol):
One mole is that amount of a substance which remains as many elementary entitles as there are atoms
in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12 (1971).
Candela (Cd):
One candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
!
radiation of frequency 540 × 10!" Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of +') watt per steradian
(1979).
Radian (rad):
One radian is defined as the plane angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to
the radius of the circle.
Steradian (sr) :
One steradian is defined as the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a surface of the sphere
equal in area to that of a square, having each side equal to the radius of the sphere.
Error:
Error is the uncertainty in every measurement.
(or)
It is the difference between the measured and the true values of a physical quantity.
Accuracy:
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured value is to the true value of
the quantity.
(or)
The closeness of a measurement to the true value is called accuracy.
Precision:
Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured.

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Example: Suppose the true value of a certain length is near 3.678cm. Instrument-1 (scale) has resolution of
0.1 cm, the measured value using instrument-1 is found to be 3.5 cm, while in another instrument-2 (slide
calipers) of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm, the length is determined using instrument-2 to be 3.38cm. the first
instrument has more accuracy (because it is closer to the true value) but less precision (its resolution is only
0.1 cm), while the second Instrument is less accurate but more precise, Thus every measurement is
approximate due to errors in measurement.
Types of errors:
(a) systematic errors and (b) random errors.
Systematic errors:
These are the errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative.
Sources of systematic errors:
i. Instrumental errors:
The errors due to faulty or imperfect design or calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in
instrument, etc. are called instrumental errors.
For example: In a vernier calipers, the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with the zero mark of the
main scale.
ii. Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure:
To determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed under the armpit will always
give a temperature lower than the actual value of the body temperature. Other external conditions (such as
changes in temperature, humidity, wind velocity, etc.) during the experiment may systematically affect the
measurement.
iii. Personal errors:
The errors due to individual qualities of the experimenter himself are called personal errors.
These errors may arise due to lack of proper setting of the apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking
observations without observing proper precautions bad sight, habits, etc. are called personal errors.
For example, if you by habit always hold your head a bit too far to the right while reading the position of a
needle on the scale, you will introduce an error due to parallax.
Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental techniques, selecting better
instruments and removing personal bias as far an possible. For a given set-up, these errors may be estimated
estimated to a certain extent and the necessary corrections may be applied to the readings.
Random errors:
The errors due to unknown causes are called random errors.
Random errors occurrence is irregular. For example, when the same person repeats the same
observation, it is very likely that he may get different readings every time.
Least count: It is the smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument.
Least count error:
The error associated with the resolution of the measuring instrument is called least count error.
True value (or) absolute value (amean):
It is the average or mean of measured values in several measurements of a quantity.
a1 + a2 + - - - - + an
True value, amean =
n

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Absolute error:
The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement and the true value of the quantity
is called absolute error.
Example: Absolute error of a1, Da1 = amean - a1

Absolute error of a2 , Da2 = amean - a2 etc,.

Mean absolute error ( Damean ):

The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is known as mean absolute error.
Da1 + Da2 + - - - - + Dan ! ,
Damean = =, ∑- ∆𝑎-
n
Relative error (or) fractional error:
The ratio of mean absolute error and the mean value (true value) is called relative error.
Damean
Relative error =
amean
Percentage error:
Relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.
Damean
percentage error = ´100%
amean
Combination of errors:
a) Error of a sum or a difference.
b) Error of a product or a quotient.
Error of a sum (or) a difference:
If a quantity Z be expressed as sum or difference of two quantities A and B (if, Z = A+B or Z = A-B)
then the maximum value of error, DZ = DA + DB
Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values A ± ΔA, B ± ΔB respectively
where ΔA and ΔB are their absolute errors. We wish to find the error ΔZ in the sum
Z = A + B.
We have by addition, Z ± ΔZ
= (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB).
The maximum possible error in Z
ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB
For the difference Z = A – B, we have
Z ± Δ Z = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB)
= (A – B) ± ΔA ± ΔB or, ± ΔZ = ± ΔA ± ΔB
The maximum value of the error ΔZ is again
ΔA + ΔB.
When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the final result is the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.

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Error of a product (or) a quotient:
If a quantity Z be expressed as product (or) quotient of two quantities A and B (If, Z=A.B or Z = A/B)
Suppose Z = AB and the measured values of A and B are A ± ΔA and B ± ΔB. Then
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)
= AB ± B ΔA ± A ΔB ± ΔA ΔB.
Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,
1±(ΔZ/Z) = 1 ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔB/B) ± (ΔA/A)( ΔB/B).
Since ΔA and ΔB are small, we shall ignore their product.
Hence the maximum relative error
ΔZ/ Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔB/B).
For division:
!"
. .012 14 .6!± 8
#
Let 𝑍 = / then Z ± ΔZ = /013 ⇒ 𝑍 /1 ± 5
1= !$
/6!± 8
%
!" !"
14 6!±
#
8 14 6!±
#
8 14 12 13 (!
⇒ /1 ± 5
1= !$ ⇒ /1 ± 5
1= !$ ⇒ /1 ± 5
1 = /1 ± .
1 /1 ± /
1
6!± 8 6!± 8
% %

14 12 13 12 13 12 13
⇒ /1 ± 5
1 = /1 ± .
1 /1 ∓ /
1 = 1± .
± /
± . /
12 13
Neglecting the term . /
ΔZ ΔA ΔB
=± ±⇒
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
DZ DA DB
Then the maximum value of error in Z is given by = +
Z A B
Hence two quantities are multiplied or divided, the relative error is the sum of the relative errors in the
two quantities.
Errors in case of measurement of a Quantity raised to a power:
Suppose Z=𝐴"
Then, Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (A ± ΔA) = AA ± A ΔA ± A ΔA ± ΔA ΔA.

Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,

1±(ΔZ/Z) = 1 ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔA/A)( ΔA/A).
⇒ ΔZ/Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔA/A) = 2 (ΔA/A).
Hence, the relative error in 𝐴" is two times the error in A.
If Z = APBQCR etc. then maximum fractional error in Z is given by
DZ DA DB DC
=P +Q +R
Z A B C
The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power k is the k times the relative error in the
individual quantity.

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Significant figure:
The reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant figures.
Significant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits which are trustworthy.
The number of significant figures gives an idea of accuracy. Larger the number of significant figures,
greater is the accuracy.
Rules for counting significant figures:
1. All non-zero digits are significant.
2. All zeros appearing between two non-zero digits are significant.
3. The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are insignificant.
4. The trailing zeros in a number having a decimal point are significant.
5. If a number is less than one, the zeros on the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
6. For a measurement reported in scientific notation in the form of 𝑎 × 109 , all the digits appearing in the
base number ‘a’ are significant. The power of 10 is irrelevant in the determination of significant
figures.
Rounding off the uncertain digits:
1. If the insignificant digit to be dropped is more than 5, the preceding digit is raised by 1.
2. If the insignificant digit to be dropped is less than 5, the preceding digits is left unchanged.
3. If the insignificant digit to be dropped is 5, the preceding digit is raised by 1 if it is odd, and is left
unchanged if it is even.
Rules for Arithmetic operations with significant figures:
1. When two measured values are multiplied (or) divided, there should be as many significant figures
retained in the final result, as are there in the original number with the least significant figures.
2. When two physical quantities are added (or) subtracted, there should be as many decimal places
retained in the final result as are there in he number with the least decimal places.
Dimensions of a physical quantity:
Dimensions are the powers raised to the fundamental physical quantities to obtain the given physical
quantity.
The fundamental quantities like mass, length and time are denoted by [M], [L] and [T] respectively. In
order to represent the dimensions of a physical quantity in compact form, we use square bracket. The square
bracket indicates that we are referring only about dimensions and not the actual values.
Dimensional formula:
It is the expression which the physical quantity in terms of dimensions.
Ex: Dimensional formula for velocity is [MoL1T-1]. Dimensions of velocity are 1 in length, 0
in mass and -1 in time.
Dimensional equation:
It is an equation which shows the relation between physical quantity and its dimensional formula.
Ex: velocity = [MoL1T-1]
Finding the dimensions of gravitational constant (G):
According to the Newton’s law of gravitation
m1m2 m1m2 Fd 2 mad 2 kg ms -2 m 2 m 3 s -2
Fµ Þ F = G Þ G = = = =
d2 d2 m1m2 m1m2 kg kg kg

[
Þ [G ] = M -1 L3T -2 ]
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 The dimensions of gravitational constant are 3 in length, -1 in mass and -2 in time.
Dimensional Analysis:
Analyzing any equation by the method of dimensions is called as dimensional analysis.
Applications of Dimensional analysis:
Dimensional analysis is used
1) To check the correctness of an equation.
2) To derive the relation between various physical quantities.
3) To convert unit of a given physical quantity from one system to another.
Principle of homogeneity (or) consistency:
Statement:
All the terms on both sides of the physical equation must have same dimensions.
1
Checking the correctness of an equation x = ut + at 2 by the method of dimensions:
2
1
Given equation is x = ut + at 2 ----- (1)
2
Express the derived quantities in terms of fundamental quantities and neglect the constants.
l v l
We have, u = v = and a = =
t t tt
l l
(1) Þ x = t + t 2 Þ x = l + l
t tt
Write the dimensions on both sides in terms of M L T
[ ] [ ] [
Þ M o L1T o = M o L1T o + M o L1T o ] Þ LHS = RHS
From principle of homogeneity, the given equation in dimensionally correct.
1 2
Checking the correctness of an equation mv = mgh by the method of dimensions:
2
Given,
1 2
mv = mgh ----- (1)
2
Express the derived quantities in terms of fundamental quantities and neglect the constants.
l v l
We have, u = v = and g = a = =
t t tt
2
æl ö l
(1) Þ mç ÷ = m h
èt ø tt
Write the dimensions on both sides in terms of M L T
[ ] [
Þ M 1 L2T -2 = M 1 L2T -2 ]
LHS = RHS
From the principle of homogeneity, the given equation is dimensionally correct.

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Obtaining an expression for time period (T) of a simple pendulum in terms of length (l) and acceleration
due to gravity (g):
Given,
T µ l x g y Þ T = K l x g y ----- (1)
Writing dimensions on both sides in terms of L M T and simplify

[M ] [
L T 1 = M o L1T o
o o
] [M
x
L T -2
o 1
]
y
[
= M o LxT o ] [M o
LyT -2 y ] = [M o
Lx+ yT -2 y ]
On comparing the powers of T, we get,
1
-2y =1 Þ y = - ----- (2)
2
On comparing the powers of L, we get,
æ 1ö 1
x + y = 0 Þ x = - y Þ x = -ç - ÷ Þ x = ----- (3)
è 2ø 2
1
1 1 1 1
- - l2 l
Eq (2) and (3) in (1) Þ T = K l g 2 2
Þ T µl g 2 2
ÞT µ 1
ÞT µ
g
g 2

Limitations of dimensional analysis:

1. The dimensional analysis does not give any information about numbers like p, ½, etc.
2. It cannot be used to study relations involving exponential and trigonometric functions.
3. It cannot be used to obtained dimensions of proportionality constant without knowing its nature.
4. It cannot be used to derive relation for a physical quantity if it depends upon other than length, mass
and time.

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