Mekonnen-et-al-2021-1

Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 3 (2021) 100080
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current-research-in-environmental-sustainability
Traditional knowledge and institutions for sustainable climate change

adaptation in Ethiopia
Zenebe Mekonnen *, Marta Kidemu, Habtamu Abebe, Mihiret Semere, Marta Gebreyesus,
Adefris Worku, Musse Tesfaye, Abraham Chernet
Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box: 24536, code, 1000 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Local values, institutions and knowledge have enabled people to understand the happenings and changes in their
Culture environment. Local perceptions and knowledge provide a crucial foundation for community-based climate
Ethiopia change adaptation measures and natural resource conservation. This paper is specifically focused on the
Integration
assessment of the opportunities and challenges of traditional knowledge and institutions for community's sus-
Landscape
Resilience
tainable climate change adaptation in Ethiopia. We used knowledge products form journal articles, policy
Sustainability documents, working papers, policy briefs, and other gray literature. In addition, two case studies were conducted
in central and eastern Ethiopia by interviewing 251 randomly selected households. This helped to determine the
state-of-the art for knowledge co-products for community's sustainable climate change adaptation and natural
resource management. Regardless of the challenges from global change, cultural erosion and transformation,
traditional knowledge still serve as the bases for weather forecasting, agricultural and natural resource man-
agement thereby sustain community's livelihoods and landscape resilience against the impacts of climate change
and variability. Traditional knowledge and institutions in Ethiopia have maintained landscapes for millennia:
Konso cultural landscapes and Gedeo Agroforestry systems are some to mention. The knowledge systems have
also contributed for the large diversity of crops and livestock breeds in Ethiopia which play roles in community's
climate change adaptation. From this assessment, it can be concluded that both scientific and traditional
knowledge have their own gaps and what will be better is the integration of the two to give an additive impact
that can foster sustainable development and build livelihood and landscape resilience in times of climate change.
1. Introduction potential of resisting drought extreme. Due to their age-old experiences,

farmers and pastoralists know what changes were happened in the past,
Ethiopia is a fragile country with geographical setting ranging from what are the existing current situation and what will happen in the
−120 to 4600 m. This altitudinal rage has made the country to have future in their environments. Studies and reports (e.g. IPCC 2007 &
different climatic conditions with different degree of vulnerability to 2010; Gyampoh et al., 2009; McLean et al., 2011; Nakashima et al.,
climate change impacts. This physical diversity of the country is also 2012; Ramos and McLean, 2012; Ford et al., 2016; Magni, 2017) indi-
accompanied by cultural diversity with more than 80 ethnic groups. cated that local knowledge and practices have helped people to adapt
Farmers and pastoralists have adopted to lead their livelihood in these climate change impacts and form the foundation for modern
fragile and complex environments with the help of their own traditional adaptations.
ways of managing crops, livestock and natural resources. In both agri- In Ethiopia, there are over 80 ethnic groups with their own cultural
cultural and natural resource management, people use local knowledge identities. These ethnic groups have their own ways of traditional
to sustain their livelihoods and environments. By the use of indigenous knowledge systems on how to manage crops, biodiversity, soil, water
knowledge and practices, people have used different crops varieties to and livestock husbandry that enabled them to sustain their livelihoods
diversify their livelihood options. If one crop type fails due to climate as well as landscapes for millennia. Indeed, traditional knowledge is also
extremes, the other can give an alternative production. Similarly, they used in weather forecasting thereby help people in making decision in
have also accustomed to rear different livestock breeds with different their daily activities. In our context, the terms local, traditional and
* Corrresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Mekonnen).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2021.100080
Received 28 September 2020; Received in revised form 24 July 2021; Accepted 3 August 2021
2666-0490/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Z. Mekonnen et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 3 (2021) 100080
indigenous knowledge are used synonymously. The World Intellectual opportunities and challenges of traditional knowledge and institutions
Property Organization (WIPO-https://www.wipo.int/tk/en/tk/) for community's sustainable natural resource management and climate
described traditional knowledge as “knowledge, know-how, skills and change adaptation in Ethiopia.
practices that are developed, sustained and passed on from generation to
generation within a community, often forming part of its cultural or spiritual 2. Methodology
identity.” They are specific to a particular environment with a particular
community and are dynamic in their nature regardless of the claim that Different knowledge products such as journal articles, policy docu-
as they were static and inferior (Agrawal, 1995; Ellen and Harris, 1996). ments, working papers, policy briefs, and other gray literature were
Traditional knowledge and practices are, mostly, run through tradi- reviewed. These have helped us to verify the state-of-the art for
tional institutions that enabled people to enforce the practices and knowledge co-products for community's sustainable climate change
knowledge into practical application in their daily life (Fig. 1). adaptation as well as the existing and emerging opportunities and
The first step in the scientific method is observation. Local people challenges in Ethiopia with respect to the use of indigenous and scien-
had lived for millennia in their environments by observing all the tific knowledge co-products. In this context, it was emphasized on the
changes, including climate change, happening in a particular ecosystem. characteristics of traditional knowledge, their role in climate change
In recognition to this, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change adaptation with specific focus on natural and cultural resources man-
(IPCC), and the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity agement including landscape, forest, crop and livestock management. It
(SCBD) have accredited the role of traditional knowledge in sustainable was also given due emphasis on the role of traditional knowledge in
climate change adaptation and sustainable use and conservation of weather forecasting and how this information, combined with scientific
biological diversity (IPCC, 2007, SCBD, 2006). This again, implies that it information, will matters for decision making by pastoralists and agro-
is unwise to overlook the values of indigenous knowledge and practices pastoralists. Furthermore, assessment was made on traditional in-
when looking into sustainable climate change adaptation and natural stitutions from where the traditional knowledge is steam from and how
resource management initiatives (Chavez and Tauli-Corpuz, 2009; they play a role in climate change adaptation. And, what are the chal-
Nakashima et al., 2012). With indication to the role of traditional lenges of traditional knowledge and institutions to be applied in climate
knowledge and institutions in Ethiopia, it is worthwhile to consider the change adaptation interventions?
integration of traditional knowledge with that of scientific knowledge in In support to the review assessments, two communities (Oromo
order to attain sustainable adaptation agonist the impacts of climate community in central Ethiopia and Somali community in eastern
change. The objective of this study was, therefore, to showcase the Ethiopia) were assessed. Communities were selected based on experi-
ences of maintaining and using traditional practices or economies,
climate change vulnerable environment and livelihoods. Two hundred
Community’s values and fifty-one household heads, aged 29–75, were randomly selected: 92
for the Oromo community and 159 for the Somali community. Struc-
Culture
tured questionnaire was developed to conduct household interview. The
Experience
questionnaire was framed on communities' understanding on climate
Identity change and what multi-dimensional indicators (meteorological, lunar
Beliefs cycles and constellations, plant phenology and animals) they accus-
Observations tomed to use for weather forecasting; what traditional strategies are
Rituals availed to manage natural resources as well as crops and livestock, what
traditional institutions and cultural systems are prevailed and the role
they played during risks. The questionnaire was translated into native
Traditional Institutions languages (Afan Oromo and Somali) to make more clarity and under-
Geda-Oromo standing in the given questions by the interviewees.
Dagu-Afar Fifteen focus group discussions, five for Oromo community and ten
Idir- multi-ethnic for Somali community, were conducted. Each focus group, with 8–10
members consisting of both men and women, was composed of elders,
Iqub- multi-ethnic
youth and local leaders who have direct experience in traditional
Debo-multi-ethnic
practices including crop and livestock management, natural resource
Baaboo & Mona-Gedeo management and weather predictions. The elders have expressed their
Maal- Somali knowledge on what was happened in the past as compared to the current
Etc. situation. The youth were included to give us their current observation
on what is happening in their environment and how traditional
knowledge is transferred from generation to generation.
Traditional knowledge Key informants were selected based on a snowball method at which
Crop management one key informant was contacted based on the information given by
Livestock management kebele officials. The officials were advised to select a key informant who
is relatively knowledgeable about the community situation, local natu-
Biodiversity conservation
ral resources, climate conditions, the culture of the community, overall
Soil management
development and the respective changes in these. Then, he/she would
Water management inform us the second, the second would tell the third and so forth until a
Forest & wildlife management saturation number was reached. In addition, field observations and
Traditional medicine authors' experiences in different parts of the country were used to
Weather forecasting extract more information on traditional weather forecasting and
Cultural foods, clothing & houses resource management strategies of the local communities and the local
Humanitarian support institutions involved in the traditional knowledge and practices.
Fig. 1. The interaction between community's values, traditional knowledge and

institutions in Ethiopia.
2
3. Results and discussions 3.1.2. Land management

Many communities in Ethiopia have accustomed to own different
3.1. Traditional knowledge and climate change adaptation landscape management practices. The Konso people, for example, have
centuries of accumulated knowledge in managing the landscape sus-
Ethiopia is a diverse country both socio-culturally and ecologically. tainably. They accustomed to construct stone terraces and cultural dams
In this assessment, we have come up to pinpoint that there are different combined with agroforestry in such a way that could prevent soil erosion
traditional knowledge and practices in which communities are experi- and store rain water to maintain productivity (Mezgebe, 2011). These
enced in their day-to-day activities. These include, but not limited to, practices help to build landscape and livelihood sustainability of the
weather forecasting, cultural natural resource management, agrofor- community even in extreme cases of climate variability and environ-
estry and agricultural management, use of different medicinal plants for mental changes. That is the reason why the Konso community has
veterinary and human medication in different parts of Ethiopia. Devel- managed to survive for centuries in marginal and harsh environments.
oped and transferred through traditional institutions and with potential For their marvelous work, they have won the UN prize award in 1995 for
for influencing policy directions, traditional knowledge and practices being one of the best among fifty communities in the world. Later on,
have played a fundamental role to build sustainable climate change these indigenous talents of Konso community with their role in sus-
adaptation and coping strategies which also help to strengthen modern taining landscapes, livelihoods and means of tourist attraction have
adaptations. been given recognition by UNESCO (2012) and registered as World
Heritage Site in 2012. The synergies in the landscapes which integrate
3.1.1. Natural and cultural resource management crop-livestock, multi-cropping and multi-story trees have helped the
Traditional knowledge plays a role in awareness creation in the community in climate change adaptation. For instance, the multipur-
community to manage their day-to-day activities. They use in risk pose tree, Moringa stenopetalla, has been used as food and water purifi-
management during unseasonal rainfall to harvest crops by cooperation cation by Konso people for long before it has been known to be a magic
like debo; building ecosystem and economic resilience like in the case of tree throughout Ethiopia for its food, soft drinks, tea indigents and water
the Gedeo agroforestry and Konso houses and terraces (Fig. 2). These purification.
management systems have sustained the ecosystem and livelihoods for The Gedeo agroforestry system is another exemplary local knowl-
millennia for the reason that they can, compared to monoculture, reduce edge to mention in sustainable landscape management in Ethiopia.
soil erosion rates by half and hence increase productivity (e.g. Degefa, Despite that the Gedeo landscapes are undulating and rugged which are
2016; Muchane et al., 2020). These indigenous practices have enabled vulnerable to soil erosion and land degradation, the communities have
the communities to build resilience in their livelihoods and ecosystems sustained the landscapes for their ecosystem functions and livelihood
against the impact of climate change (e.g. Songok et al., 2011). support for longer periods by averting those risks (Kanshie 2002). The
Traditional houses made of stones by Tigrawai and bamboo houses Gedeo communities have adopted two systems of natural resource
by Dorze and Sidama communities are playing an important role in management-locally named baabbo and mona (Maru et al., 2019). The
moderating the air condition in the home. Likewise, the steles of Axum, first is about retaining or planting native trees on farm for cultural,
the castles of Gondar, the Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela, Dire Sheck socio-economic and ecological reasons by which those trees have been
Hussien Mosque, and so forth are all emanated from local knowledge given critical care for conservation by the community member. The
and are sources of tourist attraction in Ethiopia. These cultural resources second is a soil acidity amendment practice by which farmers collect
are contributing to the economy of Ethiopia from tourist attraction and animal manure and other organic inputs in order to improve soil fertility
will build the resilience of the community around these resources. The to sustain production and productivity. The old-aged traditional
foundations of traditional knowledge were emanated from observation, knowledge of agroforestry and soil management practices of the Gedeo
culture and experiences (Kirsten and Kathy, 2013). Indeed, strength- communities have build the resilience of the landscapes irrespective of
ening the existing local knowledge and institutions with modern ideas that the Gedeo zone is one of the most densely populated (~1000 per-
will help to build the resilience of communities and ecosystems to sons km−2) areas in Ethiopia SLUF, 2006). The combinations of efficient
maintain sustainability. agronomic and soil management practices and nutrient supply, not only
enabled to increase the productivity of crops but also to improve the
status of the natural resource base.
Fig. 2. Konso cultural houses (left) and Konso village (right).
3
Globally, the role of traditional knowledge for climate change national and sub-national efforts. This knowledge is our vital contribu-
adaptation has given due emphasis (Gyampoh et al., 2009, Vinyeta and tion to climate change adaptation and mitigation.” In North Shewa,
Lynn, 2013, Leonard et al., 2013, Royer, 2016, Granderson, 2017, Ethiopia, the local institution called Gizit related to the religious value of
Mafongoya and Ajayi, 2017, Makondoa and Thomas, 2018, Nalau et al., the church has played important role as effective means of preserving
2018, UNU (United Nations University), 2019, Hosen et al., 2020, indigenous trees in and around Debrelibanos Monastery. That is, the one
Huynh et al., 2020, Petzold et al., 2020, Camacho-Villa et al., 2021, who breaks the rules and regulations concerning the monastery's forest
Mugambiwa and Makhubele, 2021, Nyadzi et al., 2021a, 2021b). management will be penalized by the monastery's administration
Modern soil and water conservation (SWC) technologies, in one way or (Sahilu, 2011). Although there is increasing challenges (e. g. Yadav and
another, have been emanated from the improvement or modification of Mekonnen, 2013), this type of forest management (Fig. 4) is also com-
indigenous SWC practices of local communities (CGIAR, 2017). Tradi- mon in other Orthodox Tewahido churches and Monasteries in Ethiopia
tional SWC practices, like those in Fig. 3, are prevalent in different parts where church forests are protected and remained intact even in places
of Ethiopia such as in eastern Ethiopia (Mekonnen, 2012), central where the surrounding landscapes remained bare (Wassie, 2007; Aerts
Ethiopia (Demessie et al., 2000) and northern Ethiopia (Lemma and et al., 2016). This in turn helped to build carbon stocks in the church
Haile, 2000). These practices have contributed to climate change resil- forests both in biomass and soils (Yilma and Derero, 2020). On the other
ience in Ethiopia (Kosmowski, 2018; Yohannes, 2018). People in flood hand, traditional institutions related to traditional beliefs including, but
prone areas in the low-lying areas of Dire Dawa city, Afar and Somali not limited to, rituals and sacred places have also played important role
plains and South Omo lowlands of Ethiopia have accustomed to in forest conservation and conflict resolution (Mowo et al., 2013;
construct houses with raised plinths to prevent flood waters from Muchie and Bayeh, 2015; Mengesha, 2016).
entering into their houses or relocate their dwellings to higher grounds
during the flooding as a means of coping with the flood (Kitila, 2009). 3.1.4. Crop and livestock management
These have helped the communities to build resilience against the im- Farmers throughout Ethiopia cultivate diversified varieties of crops
pacts of flooding. having different growing periods. They know which variety is better to
address their local requirements (Mancini et al., 2017). In central
3.1.3. Forest management Ethiopia, a single farmer can cultivate potato, maize, peas, barely,
In south and south west Ethiopia forests are managed by local wheat, teff, check peas, millet and lentil by allocating small proportion
knowledge systems to sustain livelihood in forest coffee, different spices, of farmlands from what s/he already holds. In this case, potato help to
honey, bamboo, timber, civet cat, and so on. For instance, the Sheka secure food in the months of June to July, maize spike in August to
Forest, which is registered by UNESCO as biosphere reserve in 2012, has September, short rotation peas and barely in October to November, and
been the efforts of long time conservation of the forest by the diverse so on. By doing so, a farmer can close food gaps in each month of the
communities inhabiting in and around the forests. The same is true for year and builds family resilience in food security. Astonishingly, farmers
Yayu coffee forest biosphere reserve (designated in 2010) in Ilu Aba in Gojam, North West Ethiopia, mix three varieties of small millet,
Bora Zone in Oromia regional State. Borena traditional rangeland locally called dagusa, and sow them together on the same plot of land.
management is also local community knowledge to mention that help Type one needs small moisture and short maturing; the second type
the pastoralists to sustain the rangeland for centuries and thereby builds needs medium moisture and average maturing period; and the third type
the resilience of the community's livelihoods in times of climate change needs excusive moisture and long maturing period. Look this farmers'
and variability impacts. Traditional knowledge in some cases could also genius talent: in times of drought year or excessive rainfall year or mild
help to guide scientific experiments. For instance, in northern Ethiopia rainfall year, farmers will not loss production at least from one type of
farmers had accustomed to tap B. papyrifera trees in two opposite di- millet variety in each extreme cases.
rections- east and west directions only-so as to get better frankincense Intercropping is commonly adopted by farmers in different parts of
yield from a particular tree and better wound recovery of a tree (Cher- Ethiopia. A study in Dawro Zone in southern Ethiopia (Waje, 2013), for
enet et al., 2020). instance, identified that farmers grow bean, pea, yam, cotton, and
Traditional knowledge systems are not only important in building sometimes teff in maize or sorghum farms. This arrangement provides
resilience of ecosystems and communities but also in introducing new soil moisture and fertility maintenance, support to weak crop by strong
and appropriate technologies into the indigenous decision making sys- crop and increase productivity per plot of land. In turn, it helps farmers
tems (Azmeraw, 2006). This concern has been emphasized interna- in reducing risk in times of climate change and variability. That is, if one
tionally in the UNFCCC as stated: “…the need for recognition of our crop failed due to extreme weather, at least one other crop will give
traditional knowledge, which we have sustainably used and practiced production thereby sustains farmers' livelihoods.
for generations; and the need to integrate such knowledge in global, In Ethiopia, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists have accustomed to
Fig. 3. Traditional stone bunds on farms in West Haraghe- Mesela district, east Ethiopia.
4
Fig. 4. Examples of Church forests in Ethiopia managed by traditional knowledge.
rear different indigenous breeds of livestock which are selected and meteorological-color of the sky, movement of wind, type of cloud,
preferred for their adaptive traits. The Begait, Borena, Fogera, Hammer, temperature and precipitation conditions; (iii) biotic indicators- plant
Raya and Harar cattle are among the most known indigenous breed phenology, animal behavior and body (intestine) conditions.
types under indigenous livestock management (Gebru et al., 2017; Studies (e.g. Ayal et al., 2015; Ayal, 2017; Iticha and Husen, 2018)
Assefa and Hailu, 2018; Ayalew et al., 2018; Weldegerima, 2018). The showed that the weather information given to the community by Urgii
Bonga sheep, Afar and Somali goats are also known indigenous breed Elaltus (celestial observer for weather forecasting) and Uchuu (livestock
types providing quality meat. Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists have intestinal reader for weather forecasting) has helped the pastoralists to
their own indigenous methods and knowledge of breeding systems of set actions including, but not limited to, proper rangeland management,
these breeds. Most of the smallholder farmers are accustomed to use prepare feed, move their animals to better place, decrease the number of
pure breeding management by natural mating of selected bull within their livestock and change the times of social celebrities. This in turn
their own herd and/or with the neighborhood's herd. These traditional helped the herders to build their ecological and livelihood resilience
indigenous animal genetic resources management systems have played a against the impacts of climate change and variability.
role in genetic conservation for centuries. They also use harvesting of
feeds and stall feeding for fattening, preserve fodder for their livestock 3.1.5.1. Climate and weather information. Information matters to
during time of feed shortage (Fig. 5). These traditional knowledge sys- respond against the impacts of climate change by setting different
tems are importantly helped agro-pastoralists to cope and adapt the adaptation strategies (Gukurume, 2014; Tilahun et al., 2019; Nyadzi
impacts of climate change and variability (Abate, 2016; Gebeyehu et al., et al., 2021a, 2021b). As indicated in Fig. 6, having climate information
2021). at hand will help to deal with future uncertainty, setting livelihood
strategies, align governance options, resilience building and disaster
3.1.5. Weather forecasting preparedness options (Zillman, 2009). However, limited climate infor-
Several studies in different parts of Ethiopia had showed that most mation and low capacity to use the information have hampered such
farmers have perceived the changes in temperature (+) and precipita- development interventions in developing countries like Ethiopia
tion (−) by their cognition (Kitila, 2009; Regassa et al., 2010; Amdu (Radeny et al., 2019, Apollo and Mbah 2021, Mbah et al., 2021). In this
et al., 2013; Admasu et al., 2014; Melka et al., 2015; Mekonnen et al., regard, traditional climate knowledge, which the communities devel-
2017). Communities use different indicators for local weather fore- oped for millennia, has been found to be important to provide infor-
casting (e.g. Ayal et al., 2015; Ayal, 2017; Balehegn et al., 2019). The mation to local people to make decision on their day-to-day activities
most commonly used indicators for local weather forecasting includes: (Nyong et al., 2007).
(i) astrological-celestial body alignment, movements and sizes; (ii) Studies (e.g. Moeletsi et al., 2013; Kolawole et al., 2014; Roudier
Fig. 5. Traditional practices of fodder preservation by agro-pastoralists in Ethiopia (by doing so like this, the fodder will be aerated, not rotted, not affected by
termite and stays long).
5
Climate change adaptation knowledge sources

Future
uncertainty
Scientific knowledge Indigenous Knowledge

Resilience
Disaster
Climate
preparedness informaon Knowledge co-production
Livelihoods Sustainable adaptation

Governance and livelihoods
Fig. 7. Knowledge co-production for sustainable climate change adaptation.

Fig. 6. Access and usage of climatic information matters for climate
change adaptation. has allowed the integration of people and nature for millennia by pre-
senting a shift away from the concern with centralized, technically
et al., 2014) described that the ability of farmers and pastoralists to oriented solutions that have failed to change the life prospects of
anticipate climate and environmental changes and make adjustment on smallholder farmers.
their practices will enable them to build resilient livelihoods during Gearheard et al. (2010) have described that traditional knowledge
climate change shocks. The use of a combination of traditional knowl- owners use multiple environmental and social factors including, but not
edge and meteorological information adds the advantage of resilience limited to, patterns of precipitation, speed and direction of winds, ani-
building and sustain their livelihoods (Roudier et al., 2014; Mapfumo mal behavior, temperature variability, ritual deeds and star constella-
et al., 2015; Gbangou et al., 2021). tions to make decisions. Indeed, scientists will make decision based on
the extrapolation from a narrow data set of a range of climate variables.
Regardless of the differences in the use of parameters, the integration of
3.2. Knowledge co-production for climate change adaptation the two knowledge systems is found to be crucial for better under-
standing and decision making on climate change adaptations (Patt and
Armitage et al. (2011) defined knowledge co-production as “the Gwata, 2002; Nakashima et al., 2012; Chanza, 2014; Mapfumo et al.,
collaborative process of bringing a plurality of knowledge sources and 2015).
types together to address a defined problem and build an integrated or
systems oriented understanding of the problem.” In no doubt, climate
change adaptation requires new technologies. However, this is not by 3.3. Traditional institutions and climate change adaptation
ignoring the indigenous knowledge systems which played a great role in
local specific climate change adaptation in countries like Ethiopia. This Traditional knowledge and institutions are interlinked to each other.
is also acknowledged at the global level (Raygorodetsky, 2011; Mafon- Communities pass their traditional knowledge through traditional in-
goya and Ajayi, 2017). It is not difficult to imagine how the knowledge stitutions to act on such knowledge to maintain their interests, rules and
co-production from scientific and indigenous knowledge could play a regulations and natural resources management. For instance, the Geda
double role in climate change adaptation. Studies showed that agricul- System is one of the traditional institutions in the Oromo community by
tural practices that have been resulted from the knowledge co- which the knowledge of natural resource management will be enforced
production were found to be more superior in building resilience to through the rules and regulations of this system (Edossa et al., 2007;
droughts and floods (Gyampoh et al., 2009, Alexander et al., 2011, OXFAM, 2013). Similarly, the adda traditional administration system in
Kasali, 2011, Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2013). the Afar community uses weather forecasting system called Edos for
The role indigenous knowledge systems played and will continue to climate related information and Daguu for other communication
play to location specific sustainable climate change adaptation has been network to make decisions (Balehegn et al., 2019). Traditional in-
usually forgotten or ignored including in the basics of the first two IPCC stitutions are less bureaucratic, more democratic and egalitarian and use
reports (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2001). local languages that have built their wide acceptance by their
Integration of the knowledge systems could avoid maladaptation communities.
(Kasali, 2011; Admasie, 2014) or misconception (Mekonnen et al., For sustainable development to happen, formal institutions will be
2017) from the use of new technology or information by farmers. The important but not sufficient in themselves unless integrated with
interweaving of the two knowledge systems could provide a better un- informal ones (Sikor et al., 2010). Traditional institutions not only
derstanding and information on climate and weather forecasting played a role in natural resource management and conflict resolution
(Irumva et al., 2021). This in turn enables sustainable adaptation against but also make a basis for the development of modern institutions
the impacts of climate change and variability (Fig. 7). However, in (Mengesha, 2016; Bekele et al., 2020). There are several traditional and
Ethiopia, the dearth of effective linkages between indigenous and sci- cultural institutions in Ethiopia which have important role in climate
entific knowledge not only hinder sustainable agricultural development change adaptation. However, these institutions have given little
but also agricultural research and extension systems (Kebede, 2010). consideration and emphasis. Some of them forbids cutting of trees and
Ellen and Haris (2000) described that scientific knowledge is used as conflict resolution during resource sharing such as water in the
considered as open, methodical, objective and highly dependent on an arid and semi-arid areas. Since most traditional institutions are linked to
enthusiastic center of wisdom and intelligence, and takes the notion of spirituality (e.g. Geda and Wagas systems in the Oromo and Gamo
modernity. In the same token, traditional knowledge is considered as communities respectively), they help to manage natural resource con-
closed, static, unintellectual, narrow-minded, primitive and emotional, servation such as forests, soil, water and rangelands due to spiritual
and has given the perception of backwardness and savage. However, respects. Religious institutions such as the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
studies (e.g. Yemataw et al., 2016; Magni, 2017) have accredited the has accustomed to conserve, maintain and plant trees inside the church
importance of indigenous knowledge systems for sustainable develop- compound and surrounding landscapes. This is an area to learn lessons
ment. Agrawal (1995) had also described that indigenous knowledge on how to sustainably manage Ethiopian degraded landscapes.
6
When one is at risk of family member loss or livestock loss, there are case, the farm holder contributes only the land and the cultivator con-
financial supporting institutions. Moreover, communities could form tributes seeds, labor and oxen for plough and threshing. The agreements
working groups (e.g. Debo as in Mowo et al., 2013) to accomplish work and holding rights are similar to that in yekul. However, in Siso, the land
during farm cultivation and sowing, crop harvesting, especially during holder takes 25% of the produce and the cultivator takes 75%. These
unseasonal rainfall to save crops from damage, house construction when relationships, particularly the siso, are declining nowadays due to the
one want to construct new house or in case once own house might be increasing value of land.
burnt by accidental fire or damaged by flooding.
3.4. Case studies: Central and eastern Ethiopia
3.3.1. Financial institutions
Informal financial institutions have important role to build com- The case study in central Ethiopia showed that 85% of the re-
munity's resilience during shocks and are the basis for developing spondents use indigenous rainfall prediction for decision making in their
microfinance institutions in Ethiopia (Bouman, 1977; Mequanent, 1996; agricultural activities. Focus group discussants and key informants
Mackie et al., 2015). In most parts of Ethiopia, there are two commonly briefed that indigenous rainfall prediction had been used for long to
known traditional financial institutions. The first is iddir with the func- adjust their cropping calendar with the shift of rainfall, chose which
tion of: (i) organize burial ceremonies when death happened on a family crop to cultivate, manage water and range resources, mange livestock
or close relatives of a member; (ii) pays some amount of money to the and cultivate diversified crops (Table 1). In their traditional knowledge
iddir member who lost family member by death; (iii) assist a member of rainfall prediction, local communities, especially those who have the
when accidentally become sick and ill-health or loss livestock or damage expertise, have used indicators such as wind direction and speed,
on house due to fire or flood or strong wind; and (iv) coordinate iddir rainbow occurrence, moon and star position, water and sky colors, and
member and non-members for local development works such as school cloud types which converge to the indicators used by formal science.
maintenance, spring development and fencing, and so forth. In Eastern Ethiopia case study, the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists
The second is iqub, a form of rotating fund, in which a certain number have traditionally accustomed to practice water harvesting (93%),
of people have been organized into iqub members. Each member agrees fodder reservation for harsh times (68%) and livelihood diversification
to contribute some amount of money based on the members' financial (52%) for adaptation strategies against the impacts of climate change
capacity. Then, the money collected at the start up of the iqub from all and variability. In addition, the communities have traditional in-
members will be given to the first member with first lottery draw. The stitutions that enabled them to share resources during harsh times:
second time, the collected money will be given for a member with sec- Irmaansi, maal, rai, keyd and dhowrto are among the main traditional
ond lottery draw and it will continues with similar procedure until the institutions in Somali communities by which people share livestock,
last member with last chance of lottery draw obtains the final collected labor, credit and milk products in difficult times such as extreme
money. After all members, get their chances, the round will continues droughts.
similarly or discontinued with the agreement of the members. The observed mean annual rainfall for the period 1987–2016 from
NMA data in kebrebeya district has shown a decreasing trend with a
3.3.2. Share stock-raising change of 0.315 mm per annum. This was vaildated with the tradtional
Farmers are used to build their livelihood resilience by share stock- knowledge of the communities that only 26% of the respondents were
raising. A type of share stock-raising is ‘ribi’ at which a livestock agreed that the frequency of rainfall (average of long-rain and short-rain
owner gives female livestock (sheep, cow and goat) to a livestock seasons) before 30 years (1987) was less than a day per week. Indeed,
keeper, who has sufficient grazing lands and who can properly manage
the livestock. Then, when the livestock give offspring and grown up, the
Table 1
offspring will be sold and the cash income is equally shared among the Traditional weather forecast indicators and adaptive responses by farmers.
two. While the livestock keeper takes the milk and manure indepen-
Phenomenon/indicators Indication Adaptive responses
dently. The livestock that are given to the livestock keeper remain the
assets of the livestock owner and s/he can take them to her/his own Red sky at sunrise Rain is expected Start to cultivate land
Temperature of the day It is going to rain soon Stay at home, move livestock
home after one or more offspring sharing with the livestock keeper but
become hotter to tree shades
not before the first offspring sharing (Mowo et al., 2013). The other ‘Harbu’ tree started to Coming of rainfall in Start to cultivate land
share stock-raising is ‘agaji’ at which a livestock owner gives cattle flushing leaves a few days
(mostly oxen) during the rainy season, when there is no plough service Color of lake become It will be good season Plan to do more agricultural
by the oxen, to the livestock keeper, who has sufficient grazing lands, black activities
Rain started on woman's It will be good season
and pays an agreed amount of money for that. When the rainy season has
fortune day
passed, the livestock owner will turn back the ox or oxen to her/his Rain started on horse's It will rain erratically Plan to store grain to next
home to use the oxen for threshing and plough power services during the ‘fortune day season and use some available
dry seasons. irrigations
Rain started on elephant's Heavy rain is Plan to prepare for flood
fortune day expected diversion and control
3.3.3. Sharecropping Rain started on the bull's Drought is expected Prepare grass for livestock and
In central Ethiopia, there are two most commonly used share- fortune day store grain for next season,
cropping types (Mowo et al., 2013). The first is a 50 to 50 share, locally harvest water
named Yekul (meaning equal). This is a relationship between two Children unusually cry The coming season Pray God to liberation
for food will be bad
farmers by which one has farm lands but not oxen and the other has oxen
Bulls capering in the Rain to come soon Land preparation when it is
but limited farm lands. The farm holder contributes the land and the field during May or crop harvesting
cultivator contributes labor and oxen for plough and threshing. Both Hyenas screaming in low when it is during November
contribute equal seed amount for sowing. Finally, they share the pro- tone
duce equally. The agreement is mutual but not binding and can stay 2–3 Roaming of red ants
around home
years. The farm land remained for the holder and s/he can take over Bee migration to Better rainfall at Hang up beehives on trees and
when builds assets (oxen) and can cultivate by her/his own. The second lowland lowland prepare farm land
type of sharecropping is a 25 to 75 share, locally named Siso (meaning a Change in the direction Expectation of the Store fodder for livestock and
third). This is a relationship between two farmers by which one has farm of cloud movements absence of rainfall (i. grain for humans for the
from normal e. drought) coming drought year
lands but not oxen and the other has oxen but limited farm lands. In this
7
the percent of respondents that were agreed with this frequency of Table 3
rainfall has increased to 69% for the year 2016. In addition, 89% of the Local indicators of good or bad season by Somali communities, Eastern Ethiopia.
respondents were agreed the incrase of temprature in 2016 as compared Livestock related indicators
to the 1987 (the observed data shows 0.049 ◦ C increase per annum for • When livestock become skinny while good pasture, highly infested by pests (tick
the max temperature) and 99% of them agreed for the decrease of the and lice) and disease outbreak, it is an indicator of an upcoming drought.
• When cattle refused to go back to home; refuse to obey to follow the directions of
amount of rainfall. Focus group discussants and key informants high-
the herd man and run away in different directions; stertorouses when sleeping at
lighted that the communities in Kebrebeya and Ararso districts of Somali night; drink more water and stay long at the water resource, it is a sign of bad season
National Regional State have accustomed to classify their own seasonal while doing the reverse, a good season is coming.
calendar based on traditional knowledge thereby they plan and decide • When camels change their behavior and move here and there, do not browse and do
their herd and crop management practices accordingly (Tables 2 & 3). not hear normally, it depicts a bad season to come. When camels give more milk
than cows, the coming season will be bad.
Insect and reptile related indicators
3.5. Limitations of scientific and indigenous knowledge • When black ants move forth and back forming one root from their hole, it indicates
the coming of bad season while they make more than four routes from their holes, it
Despite the limitation in the provision of climate information service indicates the coming of a good season.
• When termite problems (e.g. damage on crops) and their population increases, it
in developing countries like Ethiopia, the acceptance and use of the
indicates the coming season will be bad.
service is hampered by lack of proper data, weak coordination, coarse • When tortoise become prevalent in the area or snake population and biting
projections and weak delivery to the users. When this has been com- increases, it indicates the coming season will be good and rainy.
bined with lack of awareness, data inaccessibility, limited capacity on Vegetation related indicators
the use of climate information for decision making, by the users, it ex- • When invasive plants appear more abundant and occupy large areas; death and/or
reduction in the number of some plants and others may grow with thorny and small
acerbates the poor uptake and utilization of the service provided
levels, and fodder plants decreased, it indicates the coming season will be bad. The
(UNECA 2017). In addition, the climate services provided from the opposites of the above indicate good season.
meteorological agencies are not location specific, unreliable and un- Ecological and physical indicators
timely, not easily understandable to non-professionals and do not • When soil erosion by wind become prevalent with dust storms; poor pasture, drying
of water points, soil compacted and crusted, the formation of sand sheets and dunes
showcase the opportunities and challenges specifically. As a result, they
by frequent sand storm, symbolizes drought for the coming season.
might not effectively address the vulnerability of the communities to the Astronomical Indicators
impacts of the changes in climate extremes. Due to these inefficiencies, • The rise of new moon whereby its crescent is directed to the north (left) indicates
people will inclined to use their own traditional knowledge of weather drought prevalence.
forecasting and prediction by using biological and physical indicators • When crescent moon tilts to right, it symbolizes the coming season is hoped to bring
good rains.
which they have mastered them for millennia (Makwara, 2013).
• When the star locally called Zikual appears long in the sky for about 2 years or
Although the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists are almost dependent locally named Zura star observed for more than two months in the sky and seen from
on their knowledge of traditional rainfall prediction to make decisions, east direction, it indicates the coming season will be bad and drought will occur.
there are potential limitations on traditional knowledge of weather • When Zura star is observed in the sky for long time and rotates from west direction
or locally named Duay star is observed in the sky in west direction, it indicates the
predictions. The constraints are criticism from religious people, lack of
coming of good season or rain.
trust by young generation that inclined to modernization, the degrada- Birds related Indicators
tion of biotic indicators due to changes in climate and environmental • When Humoya (black bird) songs between mid-night and dawn or Esankuye bird
degradation as well as absence of documentation. Desalegn et al. (2015) produces sharp sounds during the night, it indicates a sign of a good rain season
has noted that there is disagreement between religious followers and • When certain birds fly very high in the sky, it indicates drought, while when they fly
low, it indicates the coming of the rains.
local weather forecasters by which the former believes only in God. The
other challenges in local knowledge are lack of documentation, popu-
lation dynamics, development of technology and civilization (Mapara, been disappearing and/or shifting their phenology from the usual
2009) and the change in environment and climate that leads to change time accustomed by forecasters.
in the biological indicators used by local weather forecasters (Mafon- • Modernization and education-unacceptability by the youth and
goya and Ajayi, 2017) that create doubts on the reliability of traditional marginalization of local traditional institutions from development
knowledge. The main challenges to traditional knowledge in Ethiopia plans and interventions (Tessera, 2006). There is more inclination
include: toward scientific knowledge and information. There have been
wrong perceptions of considering traditional knowledge as static,
• Climate variability-unpredictability of the weather condition from simple, incomplete, unscientific and unverifiable while the opposites
time to time due to global climate change, biotic indicators have are true for all these considerations (Magni, 2017). Because of these
wrong perceptions, most researchers have failed to attempt a
Table 2
Local seasonal calender and the narration of the seasons by Somali Communities.
Kebrebeya district Season Dry Jilaal Gu (long rain season) Dry Jilaal
Diraa rainy Hagaa dry Karan rainy
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall
Ararso district Season Dry Jilaal Gu Hagaa dry Deyr (short rain)
Rainfall
Local season Local narrations /characterizations

Dry Jilaal High temperature, water shortage, drying of trees leaves, sand dune, decreased livestock production and livestock stay more in shading, clear sky
and cracking of soils
Rainy Gu (Diraa and Karan) High temperature at the beginning of the April, rainy, clouds cover the sky and very cold at nights and high winds
Dry Hagaa Too windy that reduces pasture productivity, animal weight reduced, outbreak of diseases, and skin of livestock infected by pests
Deyr High temperature, unpredictable clouds and rains, and the communities are uncertain on the coming or absence of rainfall
8
practical and insightful combination of these knowledge sources into as universities, research centers, meteorological agency, etc. In this re-
their studies (Vadigi, 2016). gard, knowledge co-production could help to build community support
• Religious–consideration as evil spirit by religious leaders and and trust so as to make sustainable climate change adaptation options.
expansion of Christianity in areas where traditional weather fore- Indeed, good policy environment and appropriate institutional ar-
casting are more accustomed, for example in Borena Oromo com- rangements are inevitable for sustainable knowledge co-production for
munity in southern Ethiopia. better climate change adaptation. In doing so: (i) policy makers and
• Data record-lack of documentation of traditional knowledge will lead development planners should integrate traditional knowledge, prac-
to a gradual disappearance of the knowledge before it is passed to the tices, skills, institutions and social mechanisms as part of the sustainable
next generation. development planning; (ii) choice on future adaptation strategies should
• Cultural erosion and life style transformation-domination and expan- acknowledge existing and age-old traditional knowledge systems of a
sion of the western culture in Ethiopia has resulted the consideration given community as the lessons learnt from this assessment show that
of those traditional knowledge and practices as backward and con- exclusion of these systems has facilitated social-ecological vulnerability
trary to modern science. The dynamic changes in the local indicators of rural communities; (iii) understanding and integrating traditional
and ways of life have also a role in cultural transformation. For knowledge systems into the formal planning systems has a multiplier
instance, the Nyangatom community in southwest Ethiopia has effect on other government interventions such as through facilitation of
replaced their leather skirts to cotton. In addition, seasonal celeb- technology adoption and/or absorption, building trust among differen-
rities have been changed from normal due to changes in the timing of tiated societal groups and between people and government, enhancing
natural indicators and they have accepted the transformation and rural-urban linkages, and minimizing transaction costs, among others.
adjust their seasonal calendar and livelihood strategies accordingly
to adapt the changes (McLean, 2012; Lumborg et al., 2021). The
Declaration of Competing Interest
gradual shifts in ways of life away from nomadic herding toward
settled agriculture in a recent time (as the focus group discussants in
The authors declare that as there is no conflict of interest.
Eastern Ethiopia case study foretold), has shifted the traditional
rangeland management practices to agricultural practices that are
Acknowledgements
new to the community. This in turn leads to the conversion of ran-
gelands to crop cultivation. Indeed, this has negatively affected
The authors are highly indebted to acknowledge Ethiopian Envi-
resource management and leads to their depletion that allows un-
ronment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI) for covering the financial
usual human mobility. In addition, regardless of providing useful
costs for this study. We are thankful to the interviewees, focus group
highlights of prediction, indicators used to predict weather and/or
discussants and key informants who have provided their information
climate by traditional knowledge are insufficient to provide detail
and ideas during the assessment. We extend our indebtedness to the
hazard warnings.
reviewers and editors of this paper who contributed to the improvement
of the paper.
4. Conclusion
References
In developing countries like Ethiopia, where modern technologies
are still immature, traditional knowledge systems and institutions will Abate, T., 2016. Contribution of indigenous knowledge to climate change and adaptation
help a lot in agricultural and natural resource management decision response in southern Ethiopia. J. Earth Sci. & Climatic Chang. 7 (11) https://doi.
making. Local forecasts focus on the distribution of rainfall regardless of org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000377.
Admasie, A., 2014. Assessing Integration Indigenous Practices with Modern Technologies
its quantity that is rather the basis for formal weather forecasting. They for Sustainable Land Management; the Case of Soil Conservation and Fertility
deal with weather conditions related to farmers' day-to-day activities Improvement in Debremitimak Kebele. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia,
which may not be touched by scientific forecasts. East Gojjam. MSc.
Admasu, Z., Kessler, A., Stroosnijder, L., 2014. Farmers’ strategies to perceived trends of
Based on their experiences and narrations, local people have devel- rainfall and crop productivity in the central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Environ.
oped their own adaptation strategies against climate change and vari- Develop. 11, 123–140.
ability. However, this has been challenged by more rapid and complex Aerts, R., Overtveld, K.V., November, E., Wassie, A., Abiyu, A., Demissew, S., Daye, D.D.,
Giday, K., Haile, M., TewoldeBerhan, S., Teketay, D., Teklehaimanot, Z., Binggeli, P.,
global change. Although indigenous knowledge is important in climate
Deckers, J., Friis, I., Gratzer, G., Hermy, M., Heyn, M., Honnay, O., Paris, M.,
prediction, agricultural and natural resource management, there still Sterck, F.J., Muys, B., Bongers, F., Healey, J.R., 2016. Conservation of the Ethiopian
remain some challenges to consider. Challenges to traditional knowl- church forests: threats, opportunities and implications for their management. Sci.
edge include rejection by the youth because of modernization; consid- Total Environ. 551–552, 404–414.
Agrawal, A., 1995. Dismantling the divide between indigenous and scientific knowledge.
eration as evil sprit in religious perspective; perceived incompatibility Dev. Chang. 26, 413–439.
with western science; absence of documentation (oral transformation); Alexander, C., Bynum, N., Johnson, E., King, U., Mustonen, T., Neofotis, P., Oettlé, N.,
considered as backward and hindrance to modernization; and confi- Rosenzweig, C., Sakakibara, C., Shadrin, V., Vicarelli, M., Waterhouse, J., Weeks, B.,
2011. Linking indigenous and scientific knowledge of climate change. BioScience 61
dentiality to tell the information by the owner. This recalls the need of (6), 477–484.
disseminating scientific information to reduce the risk of climate change Amdu, B., Ayehu, A., Deressa, A., 2013. Farmers’ perception and adaptive capacity to
impacts on local people. climate change and variability in the upper catchment of Blue Nile, Ethiopia. African
technology policy studies network, ATPS Working Paper No. 77. Nairobi, Kenya.
Scientific knowledge is also not free of significant gaps where local Apollo, A., Mbah, M.F., 2021. Challenges and opportunities for Climate Change
knowledge plays important role in aligning strategies of climate change Education (CCE) in East Africa: a critical review. Climate 9 (93). https://doi.org/
adaptation by the local communities. Since local knowledge is accus- 10.3390/cli9060093.
Armitage, A., Berkes, F., Dale, A., Kocho-Schellenberg, E., Patton, E., 2011. Co-
tomed by people in their day-to-day livelihood activities and their management and the co-production of knowledge: learning to adapt in Canada’s
observation in their life time, they acknowledge focusing on it than the Arctic. Glob. Environ. Change 21 (3), 995–1004.
scientific information. Therefore, the integration of the two knowledge Assefa, A., Hailu, A., 2018. Ethiopian indigenous cattle breed’s diversity, distribution,
purpose of keeping, and their potential threats. J. Biodiv. Innovativ. Assoc. 7 (5),
systems could strengthen the success of farmers and pastoralists in the
770–789.
decision of farm and natural resource management. This integration has Ayal, D.Y., 2017. Revisiting indigenous biotic and abiotic weather forecasting for
an additive impact to foster sustainable development and build resil- possible integration with scientific weather prediction: a case from the Borena
ience in times of climate change. people of South Ethiopia. In: Indigenous People. Intech Open, pp. 135–157. https://
doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69887.
Traditional knowledge and practices are interrelated with traditional Ayal, D.Y., Desta, S., Gebru, G., Kinyangi, J., Recha, J., Radeny, M., 2015. Opportunities
institutions as formal science are interrelated to formal institutions such and challenges of indigenous biotic weather forecasting among the Borena herders of
9
southern Ethiopia. SpringerPlus 4 (617). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015- Hosen, N., Nakamura, H., Hamzah, A., 2020. Adaptation to climate change: does
1416-6. traditional ecological knowledge hold the key? Sustainability 12 (676). https://doi.
Ayalew, H., Chanie, D., Lamesegn, D., 2018. Review on productive and reproductive org/10.3390/su12020676.
performance of indigenous dairy cattle breeds under farmer’s management practices Huynh, C.V., Le, Q.N.P., Nguyen, M.T.H., Tran, P.T., Nguyen, T.Q., Pham, T.G.,
in Ethiopia. Online J. Anim. and Feed Res. 8 (6), 169–174. Nguyen, L.H.K., Nguyen, L.T.D., Trinh, H.N., 2020. Indigenous knowledge in relation
Azmeraw, A., 2006. An Assessment of Community Management of Rural Water Supply to climate change: adaptation practices used by the Xo Dang people of central
Schemes: The Case of Eight Peasant Associations in North Gondar Zone. Addis Vietnam. Heliyon 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05656.
Ababa, University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, MSc. Thesis. IPCC, 2010. Review of the IPCC processes and procedures, report by the InterAcademy
Balehegn, M., Balehey, S., Fu, C., Liang, W., 2019. Indigenous weather and climate Council (IPCC-32/7), 32nd Session, Bussan, Seoul, 11–14 October 2010.
forecasting knowledge among Afar pastoralists of north eastern Ethiopia: role in IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2001. Chapter 16: Polar Regions
adaptation to weather and climate variability. Pastoralism: Research, Policy and (Arctic and Antarctic)-16.2.8.1. Impacts on indigenous peoples; and Chapter 19:
Practice 9 (8). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-019-0143-y. Vulnerability to climate change and reasons for concern: a synthesis-19.3.4.2.
Bekele, F., Tolossa, D., Woldeamanuel, T., 2020. Local institutions and climate change Indigenous communities. Contribution of working group II (impacts, adaptation, and
adaptation: appraising dysfunctional and functional roles of local institutions from vulnerability) (in the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
the Bilate Basin Agropastoral livelihood zone of Sidama, southern Ethiopia. Climate Climate Change).
8 (149). https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8120149. Irumva, O., Twagirayezu, G., Nizeyimana, J.C., 2021. The need of incorporating
Bouman, F.J.A., 1977. Indigenous Savings and Credit Societies in the Third World - any indigenous knowledge systems into modern weather forecasting methods. J. Geosci.
Message? Agricultural University Wageningen, The Netherlands. Environ. Protection 9, 55–70.
Camacho-Villa, T.C., Martinez-Cruz, T.E., Ramírez-López, A., Hoil-Tzuc, M., Terán- Iticha, B., Husen, A., 2018. Adaptation to climate change using indigenous weather
Contreras, S., 2021. Mayan traditional knowledge on weather forecasting: who forecasting systems in Borana pastoralists of southern Ethiopia. Clim. Dev. https://
contributes to whom in coping with climate change? Frontiers in Sustainable Food doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2018.1507896.
Systems 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.618453. Kanshie, T.K., 2002. Five Thousand Years of Sustainability? A Case Study on Gedeo Land
CGIAR, 2017. Healthy soils for productive and resilient agricultural landscapes. Use (Southern Ethiopia). PhD Thesis. Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
Colombo, Sri Lanka: international water management institute (IWMI). CGIAR Kasali, G., 2011. Integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge Systems for Climate
research program on water, land and ecosystems (WLE). 12p. (WLE towards Change Adaptation in Zambia. In: Filho, W.L. (Ed.), 2011, Climate Change
sustainable intensification: insights and solutions brief 2). https://doi.org/10.5337/ Management: Experiences of Climate Change Adaptation in Africa. Springer, Heidelberg
2017.211. Dordrecht, London UK and New York, USA, pp. 281–295.
Chanza, N., 2014. Indigenous Knowledge and Climate Change: Insights from Kebede, G.F., 2010. Farmers’ indigenous knowledge the missing link in the development
Muzarabani. Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, of Ethiopian agriculture: a case study of Dejen district, Amhara Region. Social
Zimbabwe. Science Research Report Series No 34, OSSREA (1st Ed.).
Chavez, R., Tauli-Corpuz, V. (Eds.), 2009. Guide on Climate Change & Indigenous Kirsten, V., Kathy, L., 2013. Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in
Peoples. Tebtebba Foundation, 2ed ed. Baguio City, Philippines, p. 196. Climate Change Initiatives. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Cherenet, E., Abiyu, A., Getnet, A., Sisay, K., Dejene, T., 2020. Tapping height and season Northwest Research Station, 37 p.
affect frankincense yield and wound recovery of Boswellia papyrifera trees. J. Arid Kitila, A., 2009. Assessment of Local Community Understanding of and Response to
Environ. 179 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104176. Climate Change: The Case of Four Kebeles of Dire Dawa City. Addis Ababa,
Degefa, S., 2016. Home Garden Agroforestry Practices in the Gedeo Zone, Ethiopia: A University, Addis Abaa, Ethiopia, Msc. Thesis.
Sustainable Land Management System for Socio-Ecological Benefits. UNU-IAS & Kolawole, O.D., Wolski, P., Ngwenya, B., Mmopelwa, G., 2014. Ethno-meteorology and
IR3S/UTIAS 2016, Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS) scientific weather forecasting: small farmers and scientists’ perspectives on climate
in Africa. United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of variability in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Clim. Risk Manag. 4 (5), 43–58.
Sustainability, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 28–36. Kosmowski, F., 2018. Soil water management practices (terraces) helped to mitigate the
Demessie, N., Merene, Y., Desta, G., 2000. Indigenous Technical Knowledge of Farmers 2015 drought in Ethiopia. Agric. Water Manag. 204, 11–16.
in North Shoa: Soil and Water Conservation and Pest Control. Paper Presented at Lemma, M., Haile, M., 2000. Farmer Innovators and Innovations in Land Husbandry in
OSSREA First National Workshop on Indigenous Knowledge Systems of the Ethiopian Tigray: The Experience of ISWC II Ethiopia. Paper Presented at OSSREA First
People. Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. National Workshop on Indigenous Knowledge Systems of the Ethiopian People. Addis
Desalegn, A., Desta, S., Robinson, L., 2015. Institutional Assessment for Climate Change Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Adaptation, Didahara, Borena, Southern Ethiopia. ILRI Project Report, Nairobi, Leonard, S., Parsons, M., Olawsky, K., Kofod, F., 2013. The role of culture and traditional
Kenya. knowledge in climate change adaptation: insights from East Kimberley, Australia.
Edossa, D.C., Awulachew, S.B., Namara, R.E., Babel, M.S., Gupta, A.D., 2007. Indigenous Glob. Environ. Chang. 23, 623–632.
Systems of Conflict Resolution in Oromia, Ethiopia. In: van Koppen, B., Lumborg, S., Tefera, S., Munslow, B., Mor, S.M., 2021. Examining local perspectives on
Giordano, M., Butterworth, J. (Eds.), Community-Based Water Law and Water the influence of climate change on the health of Hamer pastoralists and their
Resource Management Reform in Developing Countries. CAB International. livestock in Ethiopia. Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice 11 (10). https://doi.
Ellen, R., Harris, H., 1996. Concepts of indigenous environmental knowledge in scientific org/10.1186/s13570-021-00191-8.
and development studies literature - a critical assessment. In: Draft Paper Presented Mackie, P., Brown, A., Smith, A., GebreEgziabher, T., 2015. Microfinance and Poverty
at East-West Environmental Linkages Network Workshop 3. University of, Kent, Alleviation in Ethiopia. Ethiopia Country Report, Inclusive Growth.
Canterbury, UK. Mafongoya, P.L., Ajayi, O.C. (Eds.), 2017. Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Climate
Ellen, R., Harris, H., 2000. Introduction. In: Ellen, R., Parkes, P., Bicker, A. (Eds.), Change Management in Africa, CTA. Wageningen, The Netherlands, 316pp.
Indigenous Environmental Knowledge and its Transformations. Harwood Academic Magni, G., 2017. Indigenous knowledge and implications for the sustainable
Publishers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. development agenda. Eur. J. Educ. 52, 437–447.
Ford, J.D., Cameron, L., Rubis, J., Maillet, M., Nakashima, D., Willox, A.C., et al., 2016. Makondoa, C.C., Thomas, D.S.G., 2018. Climate change adaptation: linking indigenous
Including indigenous knowledge and experience in IPCC assessment reports. Nat. knowledge with western science for effective adaptation. Environ. Sci. Pol. 88,
Clim. Chang. 6, 349–353. 83–91.
Gbangou, T., Slobbe, E.V., Ludwig, F., Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G., Paparrizos, S., 2021. Makwara, E.C., 2013. Indigenous knowledge systems and modern weather forecasting:
Harnessing local forecasting knowledge on weather and climate in Ghana: exploring the linkages. Curriculum studies department, Great Zimbabwe University.
documentation, skills, and integration with scientific forecasting knowledge. J. Agri. and Sustain. 2 (1), 98–141.
Weather, Climate, and Society 13, 23–37. Mancini, C., Kidane, Y.G., Mengistu, D.K., Pè, M.E., Fadda, C., Dell’Acqua, M., 2017.
Gearheard, S., Pocernich, M., Stewart, R., Sanguya, J., Huntington, H.P., 2010. Linking Joining smallholder farmers’ traditional knowledge with metric traits to select better
Inuit knowledge and meteorological station observations to understand changing varieties of Ethiopian wheat. Sci. Rep. 7 (9120) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-
wind patterns at Clyde River, Nunavut. Clim. Chang. 100, 267–294. 017-07628-4.
Gebeyehu, A.K., Snelder, D., Sonneveld, B., Abbink, J., 2021. How do agro-pastoralists Mapara, J., 2009. Indigenous knowledge systems in Zimbabwe: juxtaposing postcolonial
cope with climate change? The case of the Nyangatom in the lower Omo Valley of theory. J. Pan African Stud. 3 (1), 139–155.
Ethiopia. J. Arid Environ. 189 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2021.104485. Mapfumo, P., Mtambanengwe, F., Chikowo, R., 2015. Building on indigenous knowledge
Gebru, T., Yigrem, S., Banerjee, S., 2017. Some morphometrical, production and to strengthen the capacity of smallholder farming communities to adapt to climate
reproduction traits of Begait cattle reared in Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Wayamba J. change and variability in southern Africa. Clim. Dev. 1–11. https://doi.org/
Anim. Sci. 1571–1585. 10.1080/17565529.2014.998604.
Gómez-Baggethun, E., Corbera, E., Reyes-García, V., 2013. Traditional ecological Maru, Y., Gebrekirstos, A., Haile, G., 2019. Farmers’ indigenous knowledge of tree
knowledge and global environmental change: research findings and policy conservation and acidic soil amendments: the role of “baabbo” and “mona” systems:
implications. Ecol. Soc. 18 (4), 72. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-06288-180472. lessons from Gedeo community, Southern Ethiopia. Cogent Food & Agriculture 5 (1),
Granderson, A.A., 2017. The role of traditional knowledge in building adaptive capacity 1645259. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1645259.
for climate change: perspectives from Vanuatu. Weather, Climate, and Society 9, Mbah, M., Ajaps, S., Molthan-Hill, P., 2021. A systematic review of the deployment of
545–561. indigenous knowledge systems towards climate change adaptation in developing
Gukurume, S., 2014. Climate change, variability and sustainable agriculture in world contexts: implications for climate change education. Sustainability 13.
Zimbabwe’s rural communities. Russian J. Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sci. 2 https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094811.
(14), 89–100. McLean, K.G., 2012. Land Use, Climate Change Adaptation and Indigenous Peoples.
Gyampoh, B.A., Amisah, S., Idinoba, M., Nkem, J., 2009. Using traditional knowledge to United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan.
cope with climate change in rural Ghana. Unasylva 231/232 (60), 70–74. McLean, K.G., Ramos, C.A., Rubis, J. (Eds.), 2011. Indigenous Peoples Marginalized
Populations and Climate Change: Vulnerability, Adaptation and Traditional
10
Knowledge. Proceedings of the Expert Workshop on Indigenous Peoples Raygorodetsky, G., 2011. Why Traditional Knowledge Holds the Key to Climate Change.
Marginalized Populations and Climate Change: Vulnerability, Adaptation and United Nations University. http://unu.edu/articles/global-changesustainable-deve
Traditional Knowledge. Mexico City, Mexico. lopment/why-traditional-knowledge-holds-the-key-toclimate-change.
Mekonnen, Z., 2012. Monitoring and Evaluation Report on Five Sustainable Watershed Regassa, S., Givey, C., Castillo, G.E., 2010. The Rain doesn’t Come on Time any More:
Activities in West Hararghe: Meta and Messela Districts. East Ethiopia, GAF Poverty, Vulnerability, and Climate Variability in Ethiopia. Oxfam International
Consulting Group, Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources Project, Addis Ababa, Research Report, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ethiopia. Roudier, P., Muller, B., D’Aquino, P., Roncoli, C., Soumaré, M.A., Batté, L., Sultan, B.,
Mekonnen, Z., Kassa, H., Woldeamanuel, T., Asfaw, Z., 2017. Analysis of observed and 2014. The role of climate forecasts in smallholder agriculture: lessons from
perceived climate change and variability in Arsi Negele District, Ethiopia. Environ. participatory research in two communities in Senegal. Clim. Risk Manag. 2, 42–55.
Dev. Sustain. 20 (3), 1191–1212. Royer, M.J.S., 2016. Climate change and traditional ecological knowledge climate.
Melka, Y., Kassa, H., Ketema, M., Abebaw, D., Schmiedel, U., 2015. The effect of drought Environment and Cree Observations, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies. https://doi.
risk perception on local people coping decisions in the central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. org/10.1007/978-3-319-25181-3_2.
J. Dev. Agric. Econ. 7 (9), 292–302. Sahilu, M., 2011. The Role of Local Institutions in Forest Resource Management: The
Mengesha, A.D., 2016. The role of Sidama indigenous institutions in conflict resolution: Case of Debre Libanos Monastery Forest. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, MSc.
in the case of Dalle Woreda, southern Ethiopia. Am. J. Sociological Res 6 (1), 10–26. Thesis.
Mequanent, G., 1996. The role of informal organizations in resettlement adjustment SCBD (Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity), 2006. Global Biodiversity
process: a case study of Iqubs, Idirs and Mahabers in the Ethiopian Community in Outlook 2. Montreal, Canada.
Toronto. Refuge 15 (3), 30–39. Sikor, T., Stahl, J., Enters, T., Ribot, J.C., Singh, N., Sunderlin, W.D., Wollenberg, L.,
Mezgebe, A.H., 2011. Indigenous talents of Konso people to cope with climate change 2010. REDD-plus, forest people’s rights and nested climate governance. Glob.
susceptibility, Ethiopia. In: A paper presented in International workshop on Environ. Chang. 20 (3) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.04.007.
Indigenous Peoples, Marginalized Populations and Climate Change, United Nation SLUF (Sustainable Land Use Forum), 2006. Indigenous Agroforestry Practices and their
University, 19–21 July 2011. Mexico, Mexico City. Implications on Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resources Management: The Case
Moeletsi, M.E., Mellaart, E.A.R., Mpandeli, N.S., Hamandawana, H., 2013. The use of of Wonago Woreda Research Report no 1. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
rainfall forecasts as a decision guide for small-scale farming in Limpopo Province, Songok, C.K., Kipkorir, E.C., Mugalavai, E.M., 2011. Integration of indigenous
South Africa. J. Agric. Educ. Ext. 19 (2), 133–145. knowledge systems into climate change adaptation and enhancing food security in
Mowo, J.G., Adimassu, Z., Catacutan, D., Tanui, J., Masuki, K., Lyamchai, C., 2013. The Nandi and Keiyo districts, Kenya. In: Filho, W.L. (Ed.), 2011, Climate Change
importance of local traditional institutions in the Management of Natural Resources Management: Experiences of Climate Change Adaptation in Africa. Springer, Heidelberg
in the highlands of East Africa. Hum. Organ. 72 (2), 154–163. Dordrecht, London UK and New York, USA, pp. 69–95.
Muchane, M.N., Sileshi, G.W., Gripenberg, S., Jonsson, M., Pumariño, L., Barrios, E., Tessera, S., 2006. The Role of Traditional Local Institutions to Improve the Livelihood of
2020. Agroforestry boosts soil health in the humid and sub-humid tropics: a meta- Rural Community: The Case of Tachgayint Wereda. Thesis, Addis Ababa University,
analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 295 (106899) https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Ethiopia, Amhara National Regional State. MSc.
agee.2020. Tilahun, M., Taye, G., Tesfaye, G., Gebremikael, B., 2019. Indigenous knowledge and
Muchie, Z., Bayeh, E., 2015. Traditional conflict resolution mechanisms among ambo scientific weather forecast: implication for climate change adaptation strategies in
Woreda communities. Journal of Political Sciences & Public Affairs 3 (147). https:// Dessa’a, Tigray, northern Ethiopia. INDILINGA – African Journal of Indigenous
doi.org/10.4172/2332-0761.1000147. Knowledge Systems 18 (2), 145–159.
Mugambiwa, S.S., Makhubele, J.C., 2021. Indigenous knowledge systems based climate UNECA (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa), 2017. WISER Policy and
governance in water and land resource management in rural Zimbabwe. J. Water Enabling Environment Climate Information Services Day, Enhancing Uptake and Use
and Climate Change. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2021.183. of CIS in Development Planning in Africa. Concept note, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Nakashima, D., Galloway, M., Thulstrup, H., Ramos, C., Rubis, J., 2012. Weathering UNESCO, 2012. Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural
Uncertainty: Traditional Knowledge for Climate Change Assessment and Adaptation. heritage. In: World Heritage Committee, Thirty-Sixth Session, 24 June – 6 July 2012.
UNESCO and UNU, Paris and Darwin. Russia, Saint Petersburg.
Nalau, J., Becken, S., Schliephack, J., Parsons, M., Brown, C., Mackey, B., 2018. The role UNU (United Nations University), 2019. Why Traditional Knowledge Holds the Key to
of indigenous and traditional knowledge in ecosystem-based adaptation: a review of Climate Change. https://unu.edu/publications/articles/why-traditional-knowled
the literature and case studies from the Pacific Islands. Weather, Climate, and ge-holds-the-key-to-climate-change.html (accessed 25-02-2019).
Society 10, 851–865. Vadigi, S., 2016. Indigenous knowledge systems and formal scientific research for
Nyadzi, E., Ajayi, O.C., Ludwig, F., 2021a. Indigenous knowledge and climate change climate change. J. Hum. Ecol. 53 (2), 148–156.
adaptation in Africa: a systematic review. CAB Reviews 16 (29). https://doi.org/ Vinyeta, K., Lynn, K., 2013. Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in
10.1079/PAVSNNR202116029. Climate Change Initiatives. In: Forest Service, United States Department of
Nyadzi, E., Werners, S.E., Biesbroek, R., Ludwig, F., 2021b. Techniques and skills of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station, general technical report, PNW-GTR-
indigenous weather and seasonal climate forecast in northern Ghana. Clim. Dev. 13 879.
(6), 551–562. Waje, T., 2013. Assessing the Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Natural Resource
Nyong, A., Adesina, F., Elasha, O.B., 2007. The value of indigenous knowledge in climate Management: The Case of Mareka Woreda, Dawro Zone. Thesis, Addis Ababa
change mitigationand adaptation strategies in the African Sahel. Mitig. Adapt. University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, South Ethiopia. MSc.
Strateg. Glob. Chang. 12, 787–797. Wassie, A., 2007. Ethiopian Church Forests: Opportunities and Challenges for
OXFAM, 2013. The Role of Local Institutions in Adaptive Processes to Climate Restoration. Wageningen University, The Netherlands, PhD. dissertation.
Variability: The Case of Southern Ethiopia. Woodrow Wilson Center, Washington Weldegerima, T.M., 2018. Characterization of productive and reproductive
DC, USA. performances, morphometric and challenges and opportunities of indigenous cattle
Patt, A., Gwata, C., 2002. Effective seasonal climate forecast applications: examining breeds of Ethiopia: a review. Int. J. Livestock Production 9 (3), 29–41.
constraints for subsistence farmers in Zimbabwe. Glob. Environ. Chang. 12, WIPO (World intellectual property organization). Traditional Knowledge https://www.
185–195. wipo.int/tk/en/tk/ (accessed 20-09-2020).
Petzold, L., Andrews, N., Ford, J.D., Hedemann, C., Postigo, J.C., 2020. Indigenous Yadav, R.H., Mekonnen, E., 2013. Degradation of preserved and isolated church forests
knowledge on climate change adaptation: a global evidence map of academic in Asebot, Ethiopia. Eur. Acad. Res. 1 (4), 529–534.
literature. Environ. Res. Lett. 15 (113007) https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ Yemataw, Z., Tesfaye, K., Zeberga, A., Blomme, G., 2016. Exploiting indigenous
abb330. knowledge of subsistence farmers’ for the management and conservation of Enset
Radeny, M., Desalegn, A., Mubiru, D., Kyazze, F., Mahoo, H., Recha, J., Kimeli, P., (Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) (Musaceae family) diversity on-farm.
Solomon, D., 2019. Indigenous knowledge for seasonal weather and climate J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 12–34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0109-8.
forecasting across East Africa. Clim. Chang. 156, 509–526. Yilma, G., Derero, A., 2020. Carbon stock and woody species diversity patterns in church
Ramos, C.A., McLean, K.G., 2012. Climate change mitigation with local communities and forests along church age gradient in Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. Urban Ecosystems.
indigenous peoples: Practices, lessons learned and prospects. In: Proceedings of the https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-020-00961-z.
International Expert Workshop Climate Change Mitigation with Local Communities Yohannes, A.Z., 2018. Indigenous knowledge of rural communities for combating climate
and Indigenous Peoples Held from 26 to 28 March 2012 in Cairns, Austria. United change impacts in west Central Ethiopia. J. Agri. Extension 22 (1), 181–195.
Nations University Traditional Knowledge Initiative, Darwin, Australia. Zillman, J., 2009. Adaptation to a Variable and Changing Climate: Challenges and
Opportunities for NMHSs. Scientific Lecture, World Meteorological Organization,
EC-LXI, Geneva, Switzerland.
11

Mekonnen-et-al-2021-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mekonnen-et-al-2021-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mekonnen-et-al-2021-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 3 (2021) 100080

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Current Research in Environmental Sustainability

Traditional knowledge and institutions for sustainable climate change

1. Introduction potential of resisting drought extreme. Due to their age-old experiences,

Fig. 1. The interaction between community's values, traditional knowledge and

3. Results and discussions 3.1.2. Land management

Fig. 2. Konso cultural houses (left) and Konso village (right).

Fig. 4. Examples of Church forests in Ethiopia managed by traditional knowledge.

Climate change adaptation knowledge sources

Scientific knowledge Indigenous Knowledge

Livelihoods Sustainable adaptation

Fig. 7. Knowledge co-production for sustainable climate change adaptation.

Diraa rainy Hagaa dry Karan rainy

Local season Local narrations /characterizations

You might also like