UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

KOLLAM

Components of Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs operations, displays results, and stores the data
or results as needed. It is a combination of hardware and software resources that integrate together and provides various
functionalities to the user. Hardware is the physical components of a computer like a processor, memory devices,
monitor, keyboard, etc., while software is a set of programs or instructions that are required by the hardware resources
to function properly.

There are basically three important components of a computer:

1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit(CPU)
3. Output Unit

Dept: of Computer Science

1. Input Unit:

The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices take input and
convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of the common input devices are keyboard,
mouse, joystick, scanner etc.

 The Input Unit is formed by attaching one or more input devices to a computer.
 A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, etc.
 The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.

2. Central Processing Unit:

Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor processes it. The
CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre of the computer. It first fetches instructions
from memory and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If required, data is fetched from memory
or input device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required computation, and then either stores the output
or displays it on the output device. The CPU has three main components, which are responsible for different
functions: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers

A. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical calculations and
takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logical decisions involve the comparison of two data items to see which one is larger or smaller or equal.

 Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU

 It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform arithmetic and logical operations.

B. Control Unit: The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the CPU, and also controls
all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying out
all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control signals
to input/output devices until the required operation is done properly by ALU and memory.

 The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer that directs the operation
of the processor.
 It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and output devices on how to
respond to the processor’s instructions.
 In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive signals from the control unit.
 It is also called the central nervous system or brain of the computer.

C. Memory Registers: A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to store the data,
which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and
each register inside the CPU has a specific function, like storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a
location in memory etc. The user registers can be used by an assembly language programmer for storing
operands, intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the main register in the ALU and contains one of the
operands of an operation to be performed in the ALU.

Dept: of Computer Science

Memory attached to the CPU is used for the storage of data and instructions, and is called internal memory The
internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of which can store data or instructions. Each
memory location is of the same size and has an address. With the help of the address, the computer can read any
memory location easily without having to search the entire memory. When a program is executed, its data is
copied to the internal memory and stored in the memory till the end of the execution. The internal memory is
also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory is also called RAM, i.e., Random Access
Memory. The time of access of data is independent of its location in memory, therefore, this memory is also
called Random Access memory (RAM).

 Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.

 It stores both data and instructions.
 Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are available whenever required.

3. Output Unit:

The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer. It converts the binary data coming
from the CPU to human understandable form. The common output devices are monitor, printer, plotter, etc.

 The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format.
 The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.
 The output unit accepts the information from the CPU and displays it in a user-readable form.

Characteristics of a Computer
1. Speed: Computers can perform millions of calculations per second. The computation speed is extremely fast.

2. Accuracy: Because computers operate on pre-programmed software, there is no space for human error.

3. Diligence: They can perform complex and long calculations at the same time and with the same accuracy.

4. Versatile: Computers are designed to be versatile. They can carry out multiple operations at the same time.

5. Storage: Computers can store a large amount of data/ instructions in its memory, which can be retrieved at
any point of time.

Dept: of Computer Science

System Bus Design
Definition:

The electrically conducting path along which data is transmitted inside any digital electronic device. A Computer
bus consists of a set of parallel conductors, which may be conventional wires, copper tracks on a PRINTED
CIRCUIT BOARD, or microscopic aluminum trails on the surface of a silicon chip. Each wire carries just one
bit, so the number of wires determines the most significant data WORD the bus can transmit: a bus with eight
wires can carry only 8-bit data words and hence defines the device as an 8-bit device.

 The bus is a communication channel.

 The characteristic of the bus is shared transmission media.
 The limitation of a bus is only one transmission at a time.
 A bus used to communicate between the major components of a computer is called a System bus.

System bus contains 3 categories of lines used to provide the communication between the CPU, memory
and IO named as:

1. Address lines (AL)

2. Data lines (DL)
3. Control lines (CL)

Dept: of Computer Science

1. Address Lines:

 Used to carry the address to memory and IO.

 Unidirectional.
 Based on the width of an address bus we can determine the capacity of a main memory

2. Data Lines:

 Used to carry the binary data between the CPU, memory and IO.
 Bidirectional.
 Based on the width of a data bus we can determine the word length of a CPU.
 Based on the word length we can determine the performance of a CPU.

3. Control Lines:

 Used to carry the control signals and timing signals

 Control signals indicate the type of operation.
 Timing Signals are used to synchronize the memory and IO operations with a CPU clock.
 Typical Control Lines may include Memory Read/Write, IO Read/Write, Bus Request/Grant,

Cache Memory in Computer Organization

Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. The cache is a smaller and faster memory that
stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory locations. There are various different independent
caches in a CPU, which store instructions and data. The most important use of cache memory is that it is used to
reduce the average time to access data from the main memory.

Characteristics of Cache Memory

 Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU.
 Cache Memory holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are immediately available
to the CPU when needed.
 Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but more economical than CPU registers.
 Cache Memory is used to speed up and synchronize with a high-speed CPU.

Dept: of Computer Science

Levels of Memory
 Level 1 or Register: It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are immediately
stored in the CPU. The most commonly used register is Accumulator, Program counter, Address Register,
etc.
 Level 2 or Cache memory: It is the fastest memory that has faster access time where data is temporarily
stored for faster access.
 Level 3 or Main Memory: It is the memory on which the computer works currently. It is small in size
and once power is off data no longer stays in this memory.
 Level 4 or Secondary Memory: It is external memory that is not as fast as the main memory but data
stays permanently in this memory.

Cache Performance
When the processor needs to read or write a location in the main memory, it first checks for a corresponding
entry in the cache.

 If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a Cache Hit has occurred and data is read
from the cache.
 If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache miss has occurred. For a cache
miss, the cache allocates a new entry and copies in data from the main memory, then the request is
fulfilled from the contents of the cache.

The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity called Hit ratio.

Hit Ratio(H) = hit / (hit + miss) = no. of hits/total accesses

Miss Ratio = miss / (hit + miss) = no. of miss/total accesses = 1 - hit
ratio(H)

Application of Cache Memory

Here are some of the applications of Cache Memory.

1. Primary Cache: A primary cache is always located on the processor chip. This cache is small and its
access time is comparable to that of processor registers.
2. Secondary Cache: Secondary cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest of the memory. It
is referred to as the level 2 (L2) cache. Often, the Level 2 cache is also housed on the processor chip.
3. Spatial Locality of Reference: Spatial Locality of Reference says that there is a chance that the element
will be present in close proximity to the reference point and next time if again searched then more close
proximity to the point of reference.
4. Temporal Locality of Reference: Temporal Locality of Reference uses the Least recently used
algorithm will be used. Whenever there is page fault occurs within a word will not only load the word in
the main memory but the complete page fault will be loaded because the spatial locality of reference rule
says that if you are referring to any word next word will be referred to in its register that’s why we load
complete page table so the complete block will be loaded.

Dept: of Computer Science

Advantages of Cache Memory
 Cache Memory is faster in comparison to main memory and secondary memory.
 Programs stored by Cache Memory can be executed in less time.
 The data access time of Cache Memory is less than that of the main memory.
 Cache Memory stored data and instructions that are regularly used by the CPU, therefore it increases the
performance of the CPU.

Disadvantages of Cache Memory

 Cache Memory is costlier than primary memory and secondary memory.

 Data is stored on a temporary basis in Cache Memory.
 Whenever the system is turned off, data and instructions stored in cache memory get destroyed.
 The high cost of cache memory increases the price of the Computer System.

SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply)

SMPS stands for Switched Mode Power Supply. It is an electronic gadget or module that comprises a
combination of inductors, capacitors and semiconductor gadgets like diodes and MOSFETs. It is utilized to change over a
specific DC voltage to another DC voltage level. It is utilized rather than straight or ohmic converters since of higher
efficiency. It could be a key portion an in almost all domestic electronic equipment’s (like portable chargers, PC control
supplies, etc). It works by employing a semiconductor switch like MOSFET to switch on-off the supply voltage at a specific
exchanging recurrence to control the yield voltage. Varying the exchanging recurrence will alter the yield voltage.

Motherboard
In a computer system, the motherboard is a main printed circuit. It is also called the main circuit board
or mainboard. It includes several components on a single platform. It allows communication between the RAM,
ROM, hard drive, and other computer hardware components. The motherboard is also called the backbone of a
computer.

History of the Motherboard:

The first motherboard was used in an IBM computer in the year 1981. Later, IBM also introduced the
full AT motherboard in 1984. After that, in 1985 the Baby AT motherboard was introduced and quickly filled
by western digital, in 1987 and the LPX motherboard was introduced. In July 1995, the first version of the ATX
motherboard was released by Intel. Later, Intel also introduced the micro ATX motherboard. As time passes
motherboards become more advanced in technology. In days, the advanced version of ATX is used.

Some special features of the motherboard:

 Motherboards significantly support various components of a computer.

 It supports a single type of CPU along with different types of memory.
 It is also responsible for compatible power supplies and allows everything works correctly together.

Dept: of Computer Science

  Other devices like a sound card, graphics card, network card, different adapters, and peripherals are also
compatible with motherboard. If they are not, then they will not work properly.

How a motherboard is connected to the computer:

A motherboard connected to a desktop computer case using standouts. These standouts are made with
lite metal or plastic screws and these standouts prevent the motherboard from touching the case of the computer.
If the motherboard keeps in touch with the computer case then some defects can arise in the motherboard.

Components of motherboards

 Heat sink
 Parallel port
 Capacitor
 Back pane connectors
 Northbridge
 Southbridge
 Jumpers
 IC (integrated circuit)
 PCI slot
 Memory slot
 USB headers
 Super I/O
 Serial port connector
 Serial ATA connections
 System panel connectors

1. Heat Sink: A heat sink is used to maintain the required temperature of the processor and other
components to work properly because most of the components are made with semiconductor material.
We know that semiconductor material varies their resistant as changes in temperature. As usual heat sink
made using aluminum and copper alloy. There are two types of heat sinks available: active heat sinks and
passive heat sinks.

2. Parallel Port: A parallel port was used for old printers. It has a 25-pin female DB connector. These
multiple ports were used to send and receive data collection in a single go.

3. Capacitor: A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that is used to store energy electrostatically
in an electric field. It is also known as condensers.

4. Back Panel Connectors: Like its name, it is the back portion of the motherboard that allows connecting
peripherals such as to monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers, etc.

5. Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that is directly connected to the memory, AGP (Accelerated
Graphics Port), and CPU interface. This integrated circuit has a chipset that is responsible for connected
components with it. Or in other words, north bridge is used to providing a communication channel
between the CPU and the external devices.

6. Southbridge: It is also an IC on the motherboard, used as an I/O controller, and hard drive controller.
Dept: of Computer Science
 7. Jumpers: Jumpers are small metal connectors to close off an electrical circuit. It is used to flow
electricity to some regions of the circuit board.

8. Integrated Circuit: The integrated circuit is a small chip that is used as an amplifier, timer, oscillator,
and it is also used in computer memory.

9. PCI Slot: PCI Slot stands for peripheral component interface slot. It is used to add internal components
to a desktop computer.

10. Memory Slot: A memory slot is used to insert RAM into a computer system. Usually, a motherboard
consists of two or four memory slots.

11. USB Headers: It is a collection of pins that are used to connect additional USB ports to the computer.

12. Super I/O: It is also an integrated circuit that is used on the mothers of PC.

13. Serial Port Connector: It is an interface to receive or transmit one-bit data on a computer system.

14. Serial ATA Connections: The serial ATA was introduced to replacement of parallel ATA. It can
provide 1.5Gbps of performance to every drive.

15. System Panel Connectors: It is also known as panel connectors that are used to control the power button,
reset button, lock button, and case speaker of a computer system.

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

The term CMOS stands for “Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor”. This is one of the most
popular technology in the computer chip design industry and it is broadly used today to form integrated circuits
in numerous and varied applications. Today’s computer memories, CPUs, and cell phones make use of this
technology due to several key advantages. This technology makes use of both P channel and N channel
semiconductor devices. One of the most popular MOSFET technologies available today is the Complementary
MOS or CMOS technology. This is the dominant semiconductor technology for microprocessors,
microcontroller chips, and memories like RAM, ROM, EEPROM and application-specific integrated circuits
(ASICs).

Dept: of Computer Science

Types of Computer Ports
A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input according
to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output. As we know that we can connect
multiple external devices with the computer system. Now, these devices are connected with the computer using
Ports. The ports are the physical docking points present in the computer through which the external devices are
connected using cables. Or in other words, a port is an interface between the motherboard and an external device
of the computer. There are different types of ports available:

 Serial port
 Parallel port
 USB port
 PS/2 port
 VGA port
 Modem port
 FireWire Port
 Sockets
 Infrared Port
 Game Port
 Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port
 Ethernet Port

1. Serial port (COM Port):

A serial port is also called a communication port and they are used for connection of external devices like a
modem, mouse, or keyboard (basically in older PCs). Serial cables are cheaper to make in comparison to parallel
cables and they are easier to shield from interference. There are two versions of it, which are 9 pin model and 25
pin model. It transmits data at 115 KB/sec.

2. Parallel Port (LPT ports):

Parallel ports are generally used for connecting scanners and printers. It can send several bits at the same time
as it uses parallel communication. Its data transfer speed is much higher in comparison with the serial port. It is
a 25 pin model. It is also known as Printer Port or Line Printer Port.

3. USB (Universal Serial Bus):

Dept: of Computer Science

In 1997 USB was first introduced. This can connect all kinds of external USB devices, like external hard disk,
printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc. There are minimum of two USB Ports provided in most of the computer
systems. It is a kind of new type serial connection Port that is much faster than the old serial Ports and These
USB Ports are much smarter and more versatile, as it allows the “daisy chaining” of up to 127 USB peripherals
connected to one port. The data transfer rate in this is Data12 megabits per second. It also provides plug & plays
communication.

4. PS/2 Port:

PS/2 ports are special ports used for connecting old computer keyboard and mouse. It was invented by IBM. In
old computers, there are minimum of two PS/2 Ports, each for the keyboard and the mouse. It is a 6 pin mini Din
connector.

5. VGA Port:

VGA ports also known as Video Graphic Array connector are those which connect the monitor to a computer’s
video card. VGA port has 15 holes and it is similar to the serial port connector. But VGA Ports have holes in it
and the serial port connector has pins in it.

6. Sockets:

Microphones and speakers are connected with the help of Sockets to the sound card of the computer.

7. FireWire Port:

Dept: of Computer Science

The IEEE 1394 interface, which is developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple as FireWire. It can
transfer large amount of data at very high speed. It is used to connect camcorders and video equipment to the
computer. It comes up with three variants which are 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400
connector, and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.

8. Infrared Port:

An Infrared(IR) port is used to sends and receives infrared signals from other devices. It is a kind of wireless
type port with a limited range of 5-10ft.

9. Game Port:

These ports are used previously to connect a joystick to a PC. But nowadays it is replaced by USB ports.

10. Modem Port:

As the name suggests, a Modem port is used to connects a PC’s modem to the telephone network.

11. Digital Video Interface ( DVI) Port:

DVI Port is used to connects LCD (flat panel) monitor to the computer’s high-end video graphic cards and it is
very popular among video card manufacturers.

Dept: of Computer Science

12. Ethernet Port:

Ethernet Port helps to connect to a network and high-speed Internet (provided by LAN or other sources). It
connects the network cable to a computer and resides in a Ethernet card. It provides a data travel speed of 10 Mb
to 1000 Mb (megabits) per second.

Expansion Card
An expansion card is an electronic card/board that is used to add extra functionality to a computer. It is
inserted into an expansion slot on the motherboard of a computer. Expansion cards contain edge connectors that
are used to create an electronic link between motherboard and card, thus enabling these two to communicate.

Many different classes of expansion card are available, including sound cards, video graphics cards, and
network cards and so on. All expansion cards are used to enhance the quality of their specific function. For
example, video graphics cards are used to enhance the video quality on a computer.

Expansion cards are also known as add-on cards or interface cards.

Memory Chips Information

Memory chips are semiconductor devices used as internal storage areas within a computer. Computer
memory refers to the storage of programs or data on a temporary or permanent basis. Memory devices can be
classified into two distinct groups: primary and secondary. Memory chips may be grouped into either of these
categories depending on the type as described below.

Primary memory

is directly accessible to the central processing unit (CPU) and includes any data actively or continuously
operated upon. Random access memory (RAM) is a good example of a primary memory type. Primary memory
allows for fast data access but is limited to smaller storage space.

Secondary memory

is not directly accessible by the CPU and is used for longer-term data storage. It is much slower to access
compared with primary memory, but it allows for much greater capacity. Secondary memory devices include
hard disks, solid state drives and optical drives.

Memory devices may also be grouped as volatile or non-volatile, depending on the device's behavior
when power is interrupted. Volatile memory (more frequently known as temporary memory) retains information
as long as it is supplied with power, but experiences the total loss of stored memory when power is cut off.
Conversely, non-volatile memory retains stored data even when not powered. Because of this fact, non-volatile

Dept: of Computer Science

devices are often used for long-term (secondary) storage. As with the distinction between primary and secondary
types, memory chips may be volatile or non-volatile depending on the device's technology and application.

As semiconductor devices, memory chips are composed of transistors and capacitors: the capacitors serve
to store two binary logic bits (0 or 1), while transistors allow reading and writing of data to the capacitors. A
memory chip is comprised of thousands of these tiny circuits, known as memory cells. Data stored in the cells
can be nondestructively accessed (or "read") by means of binary memory addresses assigned to each cell. While
early chips could hold only a few bits of information, the largest semiconductor memory chips can now store
several gigabits, with higher capacities constantly being developed and introduced.

Chip Types

Memory chips are primarily identified and specified based on their technology type, which includes their
methods for reading, writing, and storing data. Before exploring each specific type, it is helpful to examine two
broader classes of memory chips distinguished by their data storage qualities.

Random access memory (RAM)

is used as a generic term for any memory chip that can be written to and read from which is not a read-only
(ROM) chip, as described below. Most RAM is classified as volatile; special types of non-volatile RAM
(NVRAM), such as ferroelectric RAM (FRAM), are non-volatile. RAM types include:

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Non-volatile RAM (NVRAM)
 Ferroelectric RAM (FRAM)
 Non-volatile static RAM (NVSRAM)

Read-only memory (ROM)

is more difficult to modify than RAM and is normally used to read permanent data. ROM is typically non-
volatile and is used to store frequently-read (but not written/modified) system software. ROM types include:

 Programmable ROM (PROM)

 Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM)
 Electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM)
 Flash
 Mask ROM

Dept: of Computer Science

 The image below shows the function of both memory types in the hierarchy of a typical computer. Note that
ROM is distinct from the computer's hard disk, another type of permanent storage.

Hierarchy of computer memory.

Dept: of Computer Science

 The table below describes specific types of memory chips and their common parameters. The attributes
listed in the subtype column are described below the table.

Time of
Type Volatility Subtype Applications/description
introduction

Byte-
DRAM Volatile Main memory 1969
addressable

Byte-
SRAM Volatile High speed buffers/caches 1970s
addressable

Non- Rewritable-
EPROM Microcontroller programming Early 1970s
volatile when-removed

Byte-
Non-
EEPROM addressable Small data storage Early 1980s
volatile
(symmetric)

Non- Block write Hard drive replacement / serial

Flash 1988
volatile (asymmetric) data access

Mobile phones, RFID,

Non- Non-rewritable
PROM implantable medical devices, Mid-1960s
volatile (permanent)
video games

Non- Non-rewritable Microprocessors /

Mask ROM
volatile (permanent) microcontrollers

NVRAM
(includes Non- Byte- Effectively backed-up RAM
1980s-present
NVSRAM & volatile addressable chips
FRAM)

Dept: of Computer Science

Storage Device – Definition & Types
The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the information and
instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part of the computer hardware which stores
information/data to process the result of any computational work. Without a storage device, a computer would
not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage device is hardware that is used
for storing, porting, or extracting data files. It can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently.

Types of Computer Memory

1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Tertiary Memory

1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This is a section of the CPU
that holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary storage.

2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It is mainly
used for the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash
drives, SSD, etc, are examples of secondary storage.

3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used in personal computers and due
to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an important one. Tertiary memory works automatically
without human intervention.

Types of Computer Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market. These storage devices have
their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage devices are:

1. Primary Storage Devices

2. Magnetic Storage Devices
3. Flash memory Devices
4. Optical Storage Devices
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

1. Primary Storage Devices

 RAM:

It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information that is used immediately or we
can say that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk to RAM to
process it and to be used by the user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data is deleted. With the help
of RAM, computers can perform multiple tasks like loading applications, browsing the web, editing a
spreadsheet, experiencing the newest game, etc. It allows you to modify quickly among these tasks,
remembering where you’re in one task once you switch to a different task. It is also used to load and run
applications, like your spreadsheet program, answers commands, like all edits you made within the

Dept: of Computer Science

 spreadsheet, or toggle between multiple programs, like once you left the spreadsheet to see the email.
Memory is nearly always actively employed by your computer. It ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB
depending upon the specifications. There are different types of RAM, and although they all serve the
same purpose, the most common ones are :

1. SRAM:

It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of circuits that retain stored
information as long as the power supply is on. It is also known as volatile memory. It is used to
build Cache memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as compared to
DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared to DRAM.

2. DRAM:

It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to store binary bits in the form
of electrical charges that are applied to capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower as
compared to SRAM but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging density.

3. SDRAM:

It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is faster than DRAM. It
is widely used in computers and others. After SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded version of
double data rate RAM, i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was entered into the market and
widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.

 ROM:

It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these devices are non-volatile, i.e,
once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted. The memory from which will only
read but cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently
during manufacture only once. ROM stores instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation
is referred to as bootstrap. It is also used in other electronic items like washers and microwaves. ROM
chips can only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip.
There are two types of ROM:

1. PROM:

PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs that can be programmed.
A special PROM programmer is employed to enter the program on the PROM. Once the chip has
been programmed, information on the PROM can’t be altered. PROM is non-volatile, that is data
is not lost when power is switched off.

2. EPROM:

Dept: of Computer Science

 Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is possible
to erase the info which has been previously stored on an EPROM and write new data onto the
chip.

3. EEPROM:

EEPROM is Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. Here, data can be

erased without using ultraviolet light, with the use of just applying the electric field.

2. Magnetic Storage Devices

 Floppy Disk:

Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a personal computer to
store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a protective case.
Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB, etc.

 Hard Disk:

Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic storage. It is
a non-volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted n number of times without any problem.
Most computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It is actually a set of stacked
disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is recorded electromagnetically in
concentric circles or we can say track present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a
phonograph arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information present on the track. The read-write
speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few and more TB.

 Magnetic Card:

It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or rearranging the magnetism of tiny iron-based
magnetic particles present on the band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card. It is used like a
passcode (to enter the house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.

 Tape Cassette:

It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat container in which the data is stored
in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio recordings.

 Super Disk:

It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation Corporation and it is popular
with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240 MB.

Dept: of Computer Science

3. Flash Memory Devices

It is a cheaper and more portable storage device. It is the most commonly used device to store data because
is more reliable and efficient as compared to other storage devices. Some of the commonly used flash memory
devices are:

 Pen Drive:

It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with an integrated USB interface.
We can directly connect these devices to our computers and laptops and read/write data into them in a
much faster and more efficient way. These devices are very portable. It ranges from 1GB to 256GB
generally.

 SSD:

It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDD. It is more durable because it does
not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs less power as compared to hard disks, is
lightweight, and has 10x faster read and writes speed as compared to hard disks. But, these are costly as
well. While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard drives, their internal components are much
different. Unlike hard drives, SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state drives.
Instead of storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile storage. Since SSDs
haven’t any moving parts, they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a few more TB.

 SD Card:

It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic devices like phones,
digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD card is also small so that it
can easily fit into electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.

 Memory Card:

It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game consoles, etc. It is also used to store large
amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a memory card on a computer you require a
separate memory card reader.

 Multimedia Card:

It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is generally used in-car radios, digital
cameras, etc. It is an external device to store data/information.

4. Optical Storage Devices

Dept: of Computer Science

 Optical Storage Devices is also secondary storage device. It is a removable storage device. Following are
some optical storage devices:

 CD:

t is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to store data. It is made up
of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of two types:

o CD-R:

It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data is written can not be
erased. It is read-only.

o CD-RW:

It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD, you can easily write or erase data
multiple times.

 DVD:

It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs used to store data. It comes
in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs
look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as compared to CDs. It is of two types:

o DVD-R:

It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once the data is written
can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to write movies, etc.

o DVD-RW:

It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type of DVD, you can easily write
or erase data multiple times.

 Blu-ray Disc:

It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is up to 25GB. To run a Blu-ray
disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray technology is used to read a disc from a blue-violet
laser due to which the information is stored in greater density with a longer wavelength.

5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We can store our
files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay for the cloud storage. There are many
companies that provide cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft, etc. We can pay the rent for the
amount of space we need and we get multiple benefits out of it. Though it is actually being stored in a physical
Dept: of Computer Science
device located in the data centers of the service provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical device and
its maintenance. For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type of storage where users can store
data virtually instead of being stored in physical hard drive devices. These sorts of innovations represent the
frontier of where storage media goes.

Processor
Processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) refers to logic circuitry that responds to and processes basic
instructions that drive computers. This integrated electronic circuit performs calculations that run computers.
These circuits are found in electronic devices. They receive input in the form of program instructions and execute
calculations for providing with which the user will interact.

Components of a Processor

A processor has four components: a floating point unit (FPU), an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), registers,
and cache memories.

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU is the main component in a processor that performs various arithmetic and logic operations. It is an
integrated circuit within the CPU/GPU, due to which it is also known as an integer unit (IU). This is the last
component that performs calculations in the processor.

2. Floating-Point Unit (FPU)

It is part of the computer system used for carrying out operations on floating-point numbers. These
operations include square root, multiplication, division, subtraction, and addition. It can perform transcendental
functions such as trigonometric and exponential functions; however, it may not be accurate.

3. Registers

Registers are types of computer memory that accept, transfer, and store data and instructions being used.
It instructs ALU about the processes that must be carried out and stores the results of these operations.

4. Cache

Cache is the smaller yet faster memory located close to the processor’s core. This memory stores the
copy of data from the frequently used main locations. There are three levels of cache: L1, L2 and L3 cache. L1
is the primary chip, which is embedded in the processor chip.

Since it is small, it has limited storage. L2 cache is the secondary cache that is either embedded on a
processor chip or a separate chip with a high-speed bus that connects it to the CPU. Also known as processor
cache, L3 is a specialized backup memory for L1 and L2. It boosts the performance of L1 and L2.

Types of Processors

1. Application-Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP)

Dept: of Computer Science

It is a component used in the system-on-a-chip design. The instruction set of ASIP is customized to benefit
specific applications. For certain ASIPs, this instruction set is configurable. ASIP can be an alternative to
hardware accelerators for video coding or baseband signal processing.

2. Processor based on Flynn’s classification

According to Flynn’s taxonomy, processors can be classified based on concurrent instructions and data
streams available in architecture. Let us now discuss each of the above one by one.

2.1 SISD (Single Instruction Single Data)

It is a computer architecture in which a single uni-core processor executes a single instruction

stream. This is done for operating on data stored in a single memory. SISD can have (as per Flynn)
concurrent processing characteristics.

Here, instructions are sent to the control unit from the memory module. Then, they are
decoded and sent to a processing unit that processes data retrieved from the memory module and then
sends it back. Examples of SSID are traditional uniprocessor machines such as PCs, old mainframes,
pipelined, and superscalar processors.

2.2 Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD)

It is a type of computer that comes with multiple processing elements. It simultaneously performs
same operation on multiple data points as well as parallel computations on only a single instruction
at a given time. SIMD may be a part of the hardware design and is directly accessible through
instruction set architecture (ISA). These machines do not exploit concurrency.

2.3 Multiple instruction Single Data (MISD)

It is a type of parallel computing architecture where multiple functional units perform different
operations on the same data. Every CU here handles and processes one instruction stream through
corresponding processing elements. It has an architecture that is used for fault tolerance. MISD
organization computers are used rarely. Space Shuttle flight control computer is an example of MISD.

2.4 Multiple Instruction Multiple Data (MIMD)

This refers to a technique used for achieving parallelism. Machines that have MIMD have several
processors that function independently and asynchronously. Multiple autonomous processors
execute, at any time, execute different instructions on different data pieces.

These machines can be either shared or distributed memory categories based on how MIMD
processors access memory. Shared memory may be bus-based, hierarchical or extended types.
Distributed memory may be of hypercube or mesh types.

3. Processor Based on Number of Cores

3.1 Single core

Dept: of Computer Science

 A single-core microprocessor has a single core in its die. It performs the ‘fetch-decode-execute
cycle’ once per clock cycle since it runs only on a single thread. These processors have been less in
demand due to lesser processing power. Their slow speed has made multi-core systems more popular.

3.2 Multi-core

Multi-core processors are microprocessors on a single integrated unit having two or more cores.
Each core reads and executes the program instructions. Here, a single processor can simultaneously
run instructions on a separate core. Due to this, the overall speed for programs supporting
multithreading and parallel computing techniques increases.

3.3 Hyper-Threading

It is a technology that is used in the Intel microprocessors. This technology allows a single
microprocessor to act as two processors for the operating system and the application. Through hyper
threading, processor resources are more efficiently used, allowing multiple threads to run on each
core.

4. Special processors

4.1 Graphics processing unit (GPU)

It is a specialized electronic circuit that manipulates and alters memory to accelerate the creation
of images in frame buffers that are intended for output to display devices. They can efficiently
manipulate image processing and computer graphics.

Due to their highly parallel structure, they are more efficient than general-purpose CPUs for those
algorithms where processing of large data blocks is performed in parallel. GPU may be embedded
on motherboards or video cards.

4.2 Physics Processing Unit (PPU)

Also known as the Physics Acceleration card, it is a dedicated microprocessor that handles physics
calculations, unlike GPU. It is used specifically for the physics engine of video games. This
microprocessor helps offload time-consuming tasks for the computer’s Central Processing Unit. It
provides physics simulation data and communicates this data to the CPU. These are used in high-
performance computers.

4.3 Digital Signal Processor (DSP)

It is another specialized microprocessor having an architecture optimized for the operational needs
of digital signal processing. This measures, compresses, and filters continuous real-world analog
signals. They are more power efficient, due to which they can be used in portable electronic data.

Dept: of Computer Science

 These processors fetch multiple instructions and data at the same time. DSPs are cost-effective since
they are cheaper yet provide better performance and lower latency. They do not have any
requirements for specialized cooling or larger batteries.

4.4 Network processor

It is a special-purpose hardware device that is programmable. Like RISC processors, these are low-
cost and flexible, scalable and fast as ASIC chips. Such processors are used for designing
networking applications.

They have characteristics that are similar to general-purpose CPUs used in different types of
equipment and products. Firewalls, routers, switches and network security devices use network
processors.

4.5 Front end processor

These are smaller computers that connect networks to host computers. Data is transferred
between the front-end processor and the host computer through high-speed parallel interfaces.

They offload the host computer from managing peripheral devices, packet assembly and
disassembly, and error detection and correction. These processors communicate with peripheral
devices using serial interfaces via communication networks.

CPU Registers
In Computer Architecture, the Registers are very fast computer memory which are used to execute
programs and operations efficiently. This does by giving access to commonly used values, i.e., the values which
are in the point of operation/execution at that time. So, for this purpose, there are several different classes of
CPU registers which works in coordination with the computer memory to run operations efficiently.

The sole purpose of having register is fast retrieval of data for processing by CPU. Though accessing
instructions from RAM is comparatively faster with hard drive, it still isn’t enough for CPU. For even better
processing, there are memories in CPU which can get data from RAM which are about to be executed
beforehand. After registers we have cache memory, which are faster but less faster than registers.

Dept: of Computer Science

  Accumulator:
This is the most frequently used register used to store data taken from memory. It is in different
numbers in different microprocessors.

 Memory Address Registers (MAR):

It holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory. MAR and MDR (Memory Data
Register) together facilitate the communication of the CPU and the main memory.

 Memory Data Registers (MDR):

It contains data to be written into or to be read out from the addressed location.

 General Purpose Registers:

These are numbered as R0, R1, R2….Rn-1, and used to store temporary data during any ongoing
operation. Its content can be accessed by assembly programming. Modern CPU architectures tends to
use more GPR so that register-to-register addressing can be used more, which is comparatively faster
than other addressing modes.

 Program Counter (PC):

Program Counter (PC) is used to keep the track of execution of the program. It contains the memory
address of the next instruction to be fetched. PC points to the address of the next instruction to be
fetched from the main memory when the previous instruction has been successfully completed.
Program Counter (PC) also functions to count the number of instructions. The incrementation of PC
depends on the type of architecture being used. If we are using 32-bit architecture, the PC gets
incremented by 4 every time to fetch the next instruction.

 Instruction Register (IR):

The IR holds the instruction which is just about to be executed. The instruction from PC is fetched and

Dept: of Computer Science

 stored in IR. As soon as the instruction in placed in IR, the CPU starts executing the instruction and the
PC points to the next instruction to be executed.

 Condition code register ( CCR ) :

Condition code registers contain different flags that indicate the status of any operation.for instance lets
suppose an operation caused creation of a negative result or zero, then these flags are set high
accordingly. And the flags are

1. Carry C: Set to 1 if an add operation produces a carry or a subtract operation produces a borrow;
otherwise cleared to 0.
2. Overflow V: Useful only during operations on signed integers.
3. Zero Z: Set to 1 if the result is 0, otherwise cleared to 0.
4. Negate N: Meaningful only in signed number operations. Set to 1 if a negative result is produced.
5. Extend X: Functions as a carry for multiple precision arithmetic operations.

Cache Memory
A faster and smaller segment of memory whose access time is as close as registers are known as Cache memory.
In a hierarchy of memory, cache memory has access time lesser than primary memory. Generally, cache memory
is very small and hence is used as a buffer.

Data in primary memory can be accessed faster than secondary memory but still, access times of primary
memory are generally in a few microseconds, whereas the CPU is capable of performing operations in
nanoseconds. Due to the time lag between accessing data and acting on data performance of the system decreases
as the CPU is not utilized properly, it may remain idle for some time. In order to minimize this time gap new
segment of memory is Introduced known as Cache Memory.

It is based on principle of locality of reference, which refers to the observation that program tries to access
a relatively small portion of their address space at any given time, and repeatedly tries to access some portion of
the memory. For ex: In fees department of your college, transactions are accessed frequently to check on the
dues.

Role of Cache Memory

 Cache memory plays a crucial role in computer systems.

 It provide faster access.

 It acts buffer between CPU and main memory (RAM).

 Primary role of it is to reduce average time taken to access data, thereby improving overall system
performance.

Dept: of Computer Science

Benefits of Cache Memory
1. Faster access: Faster than main memory. It resides closer to CPU , typically on same chip or in close
proximity. Cache stores subset of data and instruction.

2. Reducing memory latency: Memory access latency refers to time taken for processes to retrieve data
from memory. Caches are designed to exploit principle of locality.

3. Lowering bus traffic: Accessing data from main memory involves transferring it over system bus. Bus
is shared resource and excessive traffic can lead to congestion and slower data transfers. By utilizing
cache memory, processor can reduce frequency of accessing main memory resulting in less bus traffic
and improves system efficiency.

4. Increasing effective CPU utilization: Cache memory allows CPU to operate at a higher effective speed.
CPU can spend more time executing instruction rather than waiting for memory access. This leads to
better utilization of CPU’s processing capabilities and higher overall system performance.

5. Enhancing system scalability: Cache memory helps improve system scalability by reducing impact of
memory latency on overall system performance.

In order to understand the working of cache we must understand few points:

 Cache memory is faster, they can be accessed very fast

 Cache memory is smaller, a large amount of data cannot be stored

Whenever CPU needs any data it searches for corresponding data in the cache (fast process) if data is
found, it processes the data according to instructions, however, if data is not found in the cache CPU search for
that data in primary memory(slower process) and loads it into the cache. This ensures frequently accessed data
are always found in the cache and hence minimizes the time required to access the data.

Types of Cache Memory

L1 or Level 1 Cache:

It is the first level of cache memory that is present inside the processor. It is present in a small amount
inside every core of the processor separately. The size of this memory ranges from 2KB to 64 KB.

L2 or Level 2 Cache:

It is the second level of cache memory that may present inside or outside the CPU. If not present inside
the core, It can be shared between two cores depending upon the architecture and is connected to a processor
with the high-speed bus. The size of memory ranges from 256 KB to 512 KB.

L3 or Level 3 Cache:

It is the third level of cache memory that is present outside the CPU and is shared by all the cores of the
CPU. Some high processors may have this cache. This cache is used to increase the performance of the L2 and
L1 cache. The size of this memory ranges from 1 MB to 8MB.

Dept: of Computer Science

Cache vs. RAM
Although Cache and RAM both are used to increase the performance of the system there exists a lot of
differences in which they operate to increase the efficiency of the system.

RAM Cache
The cache is smaller in size. Memory ranges from 2KB
RAM is larger in size compared to cache. Memory
to a few MB generally.
ranges from 1MB to 16GB
It stores data that is currently processed by the It holds frequently accessed data.
processor.
OS interacts with primary memory to get data to be
OS interacts with secondary memory to get data to be
stored in Cache.
stored in Primary Memory or RAM
It is ensured that data in RAM are loaded before access CPU searches for data in Cache, if not found cache
to the CPU. This eliminates RAM miss never. miss occur.

Virtual Memory
Virtual Memory is a storage allocation scheme in which secondary memory can be addressed as though
it were part of the main memory. The addresses a program may use to reference memory are distinguished from
the addresses the memory system uses to identify physical storage sites and program-generated addresses are
translated automatically to the corresponding machine addresses.

The size of virtual storage is limited by the addressing scheme of the computer system and the amount
of secondary memory available not by the actual number of main storage locations.

It is a technique that is implemented using both hardware and software. It maps memory addresses used
by a program, called virtual addresses, into physical addresses in computer memory.

Dept: of Computer Science