22298

PUBLIC RELEASE VERSION
NAVSTAR GPS
USER EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
SEPTEMBER 1996
PUBLIC RELEASE VERSION

CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1: SYSTEM OVERVIEW..............................................................................................1-1

1.1 General Description .........................................................................................................1-1
1.2 System Overview.............................................................................................................1-2
1.2.1 Space Segment..................................................................................................1-2
1.2.2 Control Segment ...............................................................................................1-3
1.2.3 User Segment....................................................................................................1-5
1.3 GPS Services ...................................................................................................................1-5
1.3.1 Precise Positioning Service................................................................................1-5
1.3.2 Standard Positioning Service.............................................................................1-6
1.4 GPS Theory of Operation................................................................................................1-6
1.4.1 GPS Satellite Signals.........................................................................................1-7
1.4.1.1 C/A-Code..........................................................................................1-7
1.4.1.2 P(Y)-Code ........................................................................................1-7
1.4.1.3 Navigation Message..........................................................................1-7
1.4.1.4 Satellite Signal Modulation ..............................................................1-8
1.4.2 GPS Receiver Operation ...................................................................................1-9
1.4.2.1 Satellite Selection............................................................................1-10
1.4.2.2 Satellite Signal Acquisition..............................................................1-11
1.4.2.3 Down Conversion...........................................................................1-12
1.4.2.4 Code Tracking ................................................................................1-13
1.4.2.5 Carrier Tracking and Data Detection ..............................................1-13
1.4.2.6 Data Demodulation.........................................................................1-14
1.4.2.7 P(Y)-Code Signal Acquisition.........................................................1-14
1.4.2.8 PVT Calculations............................................................................1-14
1.4.2.9 Degraded Operation and Aiding .....................................................1-17
1.5 Program Management ...................................................................................................1-17
1.5.1 System Development and Management ..........................................................1-17
1.5.2 System Requirements, Planning, and Operations ............................................1-17
1.6 GPS Program History....................................................................................................1-18
1.6.1 Pre-Concept Validation (1960s-1972) ............................................................1-18
1.6.2 Phase I - Concept Validation (1973-1979)......................................................1-18
1.6.3 Phase II - Full Scale Development (1979-1985)..............................................1-19
1.6.4 Phase III - Production and Deployment (1986 to Present)..............................1-20
1.6.4.1 Space Segment (1986 to Present) ...................................................1-20
1.6.4.2 Control Segment (1986 to Present) ................................................1-21
1.6.4.3 User Segment (1986 to Present) .....................................................1-22
iii
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
CHAPTER 2: TYPES OF GPS RECEIVERS AND THEIR INTENDED

APPLICATIONS.....................................................................................................2-1
2.1 GPS Receiver Architectures ............................................................................................2-1
2.1.1 Continuous Receivers........................................................................................2-1
2.1.2 Sequential Receivers..........................................................................................2-1
2.1.2.1 One-Channel Sequential Receivers....................................................2-1
2.1.2.2 Two-Channel Sequential Receivers...................................................2-2
2.1.3 Multiplex (MUX) Receivers..............................................................................2-2
2.2 "All-In-View" Receivers ..................................................................................................2-2
2.3 Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Techniques................................................................2-3
2.4 Time Transfer Receivers..................................................................................................2-3
2.5 Differential GPS (DPGS) Receivers ................................................................................2-3
2.6 Surveying Receivers.........................................................................................................2-5
2.7 Analog/Digital Receivers .................................................................................................2-7
2.8 GPS As A Pseudorange/Delta Range Sensor ..................................................................2-8
CHAPTER 3: MINIMUM PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES OF A

GPS RECEIVER .....................................................................................................3-1
3.1 Basic Considerations........................................................................................................3-1
3.1.1 GPS System Accuracy Characteristics ..............................................................3-1
3.1.2 GPS PPS System Range-Error Budget.............................................................3-2
3.1.2.1 GPS UE Range-Error Budget...........................................................3-3
3.1.3 Geometric Dilution of Precision........................................................................3-4
3.2 Receiver Position Accuracy.............................................................................................3-6
3.3 Receiver Velocity Accuracy.............................................................................................3-7
3.4 Receiver Time Accuracy..................................................................................................3-7
3.5 Time-To-First-Fix............................................................................................................3-8
3.5.1 Warm Start, Cold Start, and Hot Start..............................................................3-9
3.5.2 Receiver Warm-Up ...........................................................................................3-9
3.5.3 Almanac Collection .........................................................................................3-10
3.5.4 Initial Uncertainties..........................................................................................3-10
3.5.5 Ephemerides Collection...................................................................................3-10
3.5.6 Enhanced Acquisition Techniques...................................................................3-10
3.5.7 Direct P(Y)-Code Acquisition.........................................................................3-11
3.5.8 TTFF Requirements ........................................................................................3-11
3.5.9 Satellite Reacquisition .....................................................................................3-11
CHAPTER 4: GPS RECEIVER INTERFACE AND ANCILLARY

EQUIPMENT ..........................................................................................................4-1
4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................4-1
4.2 General Purpose Interfaces ..............................................................................................4-1
4.2.1 MIL-STD-1553 Multiplex Data Bus.................................................................4-1
4.2.2 ARINC 429 Digital Information Transfer System.............................................4-2
iv
Page
4.2.3 Uses of the MIL-STD-1553 and ARINC 429 Interfaces ..................................4-2

4.2.3.1 Control-and-Display Unit..................................................................4-2
4.2.3.2 Data Loader System..........................................................................4-5
4.2.3.3 Flight Instrument Interface Unit........................................................4-6
4.2.3.4 Inertial Navigation Systems...............................................................4-8
4.3 Precise Time and Time Interval Interface.........................................................................4-9
4.3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................4-9
4.3.2 Precise Time Inputs...........................................................................................4-9
4.3.3 Precise Time Outputs ........................................................................................4-9
4.4 Roll/Pitch/Heading/Water-Speed Analog Input Interface..............................................4-10
4.5 Instrumentation Port Interface .......................................................................................4-10
4.6 RS-232 Interface............................................................................................................4-10
4.7 Barometric Altimeter Interface ......................................................................................4-10
4.8 GPS Interface Options...................................................................................................4-11
4.8.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................4-11
4.8.2 Implementing a New Interface in an Existing GPS Receiver...........................4-11
4.8.3 Redesign of HV Interfaces to Accommodate an
Existing GPS Receiver .................................................................................4-11
4.8.4 Separate Development of an Interface Box.....................................................4-11
CHAPTER 5: ANTENNA SUBSYSTEMS......................................................................................5-1

5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................5-1
5.2 FRPA...............................................................................................................................5-1
5.2.1 General Characteristics......................................................................................5-1
5.2.2 FRPA Types......................................................................................................5-2
5.3 CRPA Equipment............................................................................................................5-4
CHAPTER 6: SERVICE COVERAGE, SERVICE AVAILABILITY, AND SERVICE

RELIABILITY; SATELLITE SELECTION CRITERIA AND FIGURE OF
MERIT DESCRIPTION..........................................................................................6-1
6.1 Service Coverage, Service Availability, And Service Reliability ......................................6-1
6.1.1 Parameter Definitions........................................................................................6-1
6.1.2 Service Coverage Characteristics ......................................................................6-3
6.1.2.1 Service Coverage Standards .............................................................6-3
6.1.2.2 The GPS 24-Satellite Constellation...................................................6-3
6.1.2.3 Expected Service Coverage Characteristics ......................................6-4
6.1.3 Service Availability Characteristics....................................................................6-5
6.1.3.1 Service Availability Standards...........................................................6-5
6.1.3.2 Satellite Outage Effects on Service Availability ................................6-5
6.1.3.3 Expected Service Availability Characteristics....................................6-6
6.1.4 Service Reliability Characteristics......................................................................6-8
6.1.4.1 Service Reliability Standards.............................................................6-8
6.1.4.2 GPS Service Failure Characteristics..................................................6-9
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Page
6.1.4.3 Failure Frequency Estimate...............................................................6-9

6.1.4.4 Failure Duration Estimate .................................................................6-9
6.1.4.5 Failure Magnitude and Behavior.....................................................6-10
6.1.4.6 User Global Distribution and Failure Visibility................................6-10
6.1.4.7 Satellite Use in the Position Solution ..............................................6-10
6.1.4.8 Failure Effect on Position Solution..................................................6-11
6.1.4.9 Expected Service Reliability Characteristics....................................6-11
6.1.5 Additional Commentary ..................................................................................6-11
6.1.5.1 24 Operational Satellites and Service Availability ...........................6-11
6.1.5.2 PDOP Less Than Six ......................................................................6-13
6.1.5.3 Four-Satellite Solution and Five-Degree Mask Angle.....................6-13
6.1.5.4 Integrity Checking...........................................................................6-14
6.1.5.5 Summary of the Commentary .........................................................6-15
6.2 Satellite Selection Criteria..............................................................................................6-15
6.2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................6-15
6.2.2 Satellite Health ................................................................................................6-15
6.2.3 Geometric Dilution of Precision......................................................................6-16
6.2.4 User Range Accuracy......................................................................................6-16
6.2.5 Satellite Elevation Angle .................................................................................6-16
6.2.6 External Aids...................................................................................................6-16
6.3 Figure Of Merit (FOM) .................................................................................................6-17
CHAPTER 7: AIDING OPTIONS FOR A GPS RECEIVER ..........................................................7-1

7.1 Types of Aiding ...............................................................................................................7-1
7.2 Aiding During Initial Acquisition .....................................................................................7-2
7.2.1 Position and Velocity Aiding.............................................................................7-2
7.2.2 Time Aiding.......................................................................................................7-2
7.2.3 Almanac Data....................................................................................................7-2
7.2.4 Effect On TTFF.................................................................................................7-2
7.3 Aiding to Translate Navigation Solution..........................................................................7-3
7.4 Aiding to Replace a Satellite Measurement......................................................................7-3
7.4.1 Clock Aiding .....................................................................................................7-4
7.4.2 Altitude Aiding..................................................................................................7-4
7.5 Aiding to Maintain Satellite Track...................................................................................7-4
CHAPTER 8: POSSIBLE INTEGRATIONS OF GPS.....................................................................8-1

8.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................8-1
8.2 Mission Requirements......................................................................................................8-2
8.3 Integration Architectures .................................................................................................8-3
8.3.1 GPS Stand-Alone/Baro/Clock Aided................................................................8-3
8.3.2 GPS/INS Integrations .......................................................................................8-4
8.3.3 GPS and Mission Computer/Databus Emulator................................................8-5
8.3.4 GPS in a 1553 Databus Configuration ..............................................................8-5
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Page
8.3.5 Embedded GPS.................................................................................................8-6

8.4 GPS and Transit/Omega/Loran-C....................................................................................8-6
CHAPTER 9: GPS AND KALMAN FILTERING...........................................................................9-1

9.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................9-1
9.2 Kalman Filter Principle.....................................................................................................9-1
9.2.1 Kalman Filter Model..........................................................................................9-2
9.2.1.1 The System Dynamics Process..........................................................9-2
9.2.1.2 The Measurement Process ................................................................9-2
9.2.2 Kalman Filter Algorithm....................................................................................9-3
9.2.2.1 Propagation.......................................................................................9-3
9.2.2.2 Update ..............................................................................................9-4
9.2.2.3 Initial Conditions...............................................................................9-6
9.3 Kalman Filtering for Unaided GPS ..................................................................................9-6
9.3.1 The GPS Navigation Process ............................................................................9-6
9.3.2 The GPS Navigation Equation..........................................................................9-7
9.3.3 The GPS Kalman Filter Model..........................................................................9-8
9.3.4 GPS Augmented Kalman Filter.......................................................................9-10
9.3.5 GPS Kalman Filter Tuning ..............................................................................9-10
9.4 Kalman Filtering for Aided/Integrated GPS...................................................................9-11
9.4.1 The Integrated Navigation Solution ................................................................9-11
9.4.2 Kalman Filtering and GPS/INS .......................................................................9-11
9.4.2.1 System Architecture........................................................................9-11
9.4.2.2 The INS Navigation Process...........................................................9-14
9.4.2.3 The INS Kalman Filter States .........................................................9-16
9.4.3 Kalman Filtering and GPS/Precise Clock ........................................................9-16
9.4.4 Kalman Filtering and GPS/Barometric Altimeter ............................................9-16
9.4.5 Kalman Filtering and GPS/AHRS ...................................................................9-17
CHAPTER 10: DIFFERENTIAL GPS............................................................................................10-1

10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................10-1
10.2 DGPS Concept ..............................................................................................................10-2
10.3 DGPS Implementation Types ........................................................................................10-3
10.3.1 Ranging-Code Differential...............................................................................10-3
10.3.2 Carrier-Phase Differential................................................................................10-4
10.3.3 DGPS Data Link Implementations..................................................................10-5
10.3.4 Local Area and Wide Area Systems................................................................10-6
10.4 Solution Error Sources ..................................................................................................10-6
10.5 System Block Diagram ..................................................................................................10-9
10.6 DGPS Integrity............................................................................................................10-10
CHAPTER 11: SPECIAL APPLICATIONS FOR NAVSTAR GPS .............................................11-1

11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................11-1
vii
Page
11.2 DGPS Applications........................................................................................................11-1

11.2.1 Potential Uses of DGPS ..................................................................................11-1
11.2.1.1 Instrument Approach ......................................................................11-1
11.2.1.2 All Weather Helicopter Operations.................................................11-1
11.2.1.3 Narrow Channel Maritime Operations............................................11-2
11.2.1.4 Reference Station for Testing/Calibration of
Navigation Equipment................................................................11-2
11.2.1.5 Surveying for Mapping and Positioning..........................................11-2
11.2.1.6 Blind Take-Off................................................................................11-2
11.2.2 DGPS Data Link .............................................................................................11-2
11.3 GPS Used as an Attitude Reference System..................................................................11-3
11.3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................11-3
11.3.2 Concept of Operation......................................................................................11-3
11.3.3 3-D Attitude Reference System.......................................................................11-4
11.3.4 Use of Multiple Receivers and a Reference Oscillator.....................................11-5
11.3.5 Error Sources and Degradation of Performance .............................................11-5
11.3.5.1 Absolute Position Uncertainty.........................................................11-5
11.3.5.2 PDOP..............................................................................................11-6
11.3.5.3 Antenna Location............................................................................11-6
11.3.5.4 Antenna Position Difference Uncertainty
in the Body Frame ......................................................................11-6
11.3.5.5 Measurement Accuracy and Error Budget......................................11-6
11.4 Precise Time and GPS ...................................................................................................11-7
11.4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................11-7
11.4.2 Applications of Precise Time...........................................................................11-7
11.4.3 Interrelationship Between Different Definitions of Time.................................11-7
11.4.3.1 Time Based on the Rotation of the Earth
On Its Axis..................................................................................11-7
11.4.3.2 Atomic Time/UTC Time.................................................................11-8
11.4.3.3 GPS Time .......................................................................................11-9
11.4.4 Precise Time Dissemination from GPS............................................................11-9
11.4.4.1 Precise Time Dissemination Under Dynamic
Conditions.................................................................................11-12
11.4.4.2 Reduced Time Accuracy Due to SA.............................................11-13
11.4.5 Time Transfer Using GPS .............................................................................11-14
11.4.5.1 Coordinated Simultaneous-View Time Transfer...........................11-14
11.4.5.2 Coordinated Simultaneous-View Time Transfer
with USNO...............................................................................11-14
11.5 Satellite Orbit Determination Using GPS.....................................................................11-15
CHAPTER 12: GPS INTEGRITY AND CIVIL AVIATION ........................................................12-1

12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................12-1
12.2 Military Use of National Airspace..................................................................................12-2
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Page
12.3 Civil Aviation Authorities, Agencies, and Organizations ...............................................12-2

12.3.1 Regulatory Authorities ....................................................................................12-2
12.3.2 Advisory Groups.............................................................................................12-3
12.3.3 Industry Groups ..............................................................................................12-3
12.3.4 Civil Aviation Coordination with the U.S. and U.S. DoD...............................12-3
12.4 Primary Civil Aviation Concerns With GPS ..................................................................12-4
12.4.1 Integrity Requirements....................................................................................12-4
12.4.2 Required Navigation Performance ..................................................................12-5
12.4.3 Integrity Assurance..........................................................................................12-6
CHAPTER 13: DIGITAL MAPS....................................................................................................13-1

13.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................13-1
13.2 What Is A Digital Map?.................................................................................................13-1
13.2.1 Digitized Paper Maps......................................................................................13-1
13.2.2 Digital Database Maps ....................................................................................13-2
13.2.3 HYBRID Maps...............................................................................................13-2
13.3 Navigation Maps and Tactical Maps..............................................................................13-2
13.3.1 Use of Digital Maps for Navigation.................................................................13-2
13.3.2 Use of Digital Maps for Tactical Displays.......................................................13-3
13.3.3 Improvement of Common Reference Grids.....................................................13-3
13.3.3.1 Improved Gridlock..........................................................................13-4
13.3.3.2 Geodetic Gridlock...........................................................................13-4
13.3.3.3 Sensor Calibration...........................................................................13-4
13.3.3.4 OTHT Operations...........................................................................13-4
13.4 Other Issues Concerning Digital Maps and GPS ...........................................................13-5
13.4.1 Electrical Interface Between the Digital Map Display and
the GPS Receiver.....................................................................................13-5
13.4.2 Digital Maps Accuracy....................................................................................13-5
13.4.3 Map Datums....................................................................................................13-5
ANNEX A: GLONASS: RUSSIAN'S EQUIVALENT NAVIGATION SYSTEM........................A-1

A.1 Historical Perspective .....................................................................................................A-1
A.2 Purpose of Global Satellite Navigation Systems .............................................................A-1
A.3 System Accuracy ............................................................................................................A-2
A.4 Monitor and Control Subsystem.....................................................................................A-2
A.5 Space Segment ...............................................................................................................A-3
A.6 Maneuvering in Orbit......................................................................................................A-5
A.7 Spacecraft Description....................................................................................................A-6
A.8 Satellite Launch Program................................................................................................A-7
A.9 Transmission Frequencies.............................................................................................A-10
A.10 Transmission Powers and Protection Ratio ..................................................................A-11
A.11 Information Transmission, Bandwidth and Code Rates................................................A-11
A.12 Ranging Codes..............................................................................................................A-12
ix
Page
A.13 Navigation Data............................................................................................................A-12

A.14 Navigation Reference Frame.........................................................................................A-14
A.15 User Equipment............................................................................................................A-15
A.16 References ....................................................................................................................A-15
ANNEX B: WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984: A MODERN AND GLOBAL

REFERENCE FRAME...........................................................................................B-1
B.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................B-1
B.2 The Reference Frame......................................................................................................B-1
B.3 The Defining Parameters and Associated Constants.......................................................B-3
B.4 The Gravity Formula.......................................................................................................B-4
B.5 The Earth Gravitational Model .......................................................................................B-5
B.6 The Geoid.......................................................................................................................B-5
B.7 Relationship with Local Geodetic Datums......................................................................B-5
B.8 Accuracy.........................................................................................................................B-7
B.9 Summary.........................................................................................................................B-9
B.10 References ......................................................................................................................B-9
ANNEX C: BBS INFORMATION ..................................................................................................C-1

C.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................C-1
C.2 BBS Listing ....................................................................................................................C-1
ANNEX D: IMPACT OF MULTIPATH.........................................................................................D-1
ANNEX E: DOCUMENTATION.................................................................................................... E-1

E.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................E-1
E.2 ICDs ...............................................................................................................................E-1
E.3 Other Documentation ..................................................................................................... E-1
E.3.1 JPO Documents................................................................................................E-1
E.3.2 ION Documents...............................................................................................E-1
E.3.3 RTCM Document ............................................................................................E-1
E.3.4 RTCA Document.............................................................................................E-2
E.3.5 DoT Documents...............................................................................................E-2
E.3.6 Miscellaneous................................................................................................... E-2
ANNEX F: ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS...................................................................... F-1
x
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1-1 Navstar GPS Major Segments...................................................................................................1-1

1-2 GPS Satellite Constellation........................................................................................................1-3
1-3 GPS Control Segment Locations...............................................................................................1-4
1-4 Monitor Station and Ground Antenna .......................................................................................1-5
1-5 The Navigation Message ...........................................................................................................1-8
1-6 Satellite Signal Modulation........................................................................................................1-9
1-7 GPS Signal Frequency Spectrum.............................................................................................1-10
1-8 Spread Spectrum Generation and Reconstruction ...................................................................1-11
1-9 Generic GPS Receiver Tracking System .................................................................................1-12
1-10 GPS Receiver Theory of Operation.........................................................................................1-16
2-1 Analog GPS Receiver Architecture ...........................................................................................2-7
2-2 Digital GPS Receiver Architecture ............................................................................................2-8
3-1 Dilution of Precision ..................................................................................................................3-4
3-2 Time-To-First-Fix (TTFF).......................................................................................................3-12
4-1 Example of a Dedicated CDU ...................................................................................................4-3
4-2 Example of a Multifunction CDU..............................................................................................4-4
4-3 Example of a Data Loader System ............................................................................................4-6
4-4 Flight Instruments and TACAN.................................................................................................4-8
4-5 Flight Instruments and GPS.......................................................................................................4-9
5-1 FRPA Spiral Helix .....................................................................................................................5-3
5-2 FRPA Bifilar Helix.....................................................................................................................5-3
5-3 FRPA Crossed Monopoles........................................................................................................5-3
5-4 FRPA Ground Plane..................................................................................................................5-4
6-1 Satellite Global Visibility Profile ................................................................................................6-4
7-1 Aiding Options for a GPS Receiver...........................................................................................7-1
8-1 GPS Stand-Alone Configuration ...............................................................................................8-3
8-2 GPS INS-Aided Configuration..................................................................................................8-4
8-3 Configuration with Mission Computer/Databus Emulator.........................................................8-5
8-4 GPS in 1553 Databus Configuration..........................................................................................8-6
9-1 Simplified Diagram of Kalman Filter..........................................................................................9-3
9-2 Geometry for GPS Measurement ..............................................................................................9-8
9-3 Open-Loop GPS/INS Aided Architecture...............................................................................9-12
9-4 Closed-Loop GPS/INS Aided Architecture.............................................................................9-12
9-5 Open-Loop Integrated GPS/INS Architecture ........................................................................9-13
9-6 Closed-Loop Integrated GPS/INS Architecture......................................................................9-14
10-1 Typical Differential System Architecture .................................................................................10-1
10-2 Typical Reference Station........................................................................................................10-9
10-3 Typical UE Block Diagram....................................................................................................10-10
11-1 Interferometry Using GPS.......................................................................................................11-4
11-2 The Interrelationship of the Different Methods of Measuring
and Defining Time ................................................................................................................11-8
11-3 Determination of GPS-UTC (USNO) Time Difference.........................................................11-10
xi
11-4 Uncoordinated Time Transfer Using GPS.............................................................................11-11
11-5 Coordinated Time Transfer Using GPS.................................................................................11-15
A-1 GLONASS Orbit Planes and Slots ...........................................................................................A-4
A-2 GLONASS L1 C/A and P(Y) Code Spectrum.......................................................................A-13
B-1 World Geodetic System 1984 Reference Frame.......................................................................B-2
B-2 WGS 84 Geoid (n=m=18 Truncation)......................................................................................B-6
D-1 Multipath Induced North Position Error...................................................................................D-3
TABLES
Table Page
1-1 NTS and Block I Satellite Launch Dates and Status................................................................1-19

1-2 Block II Satellite Launch Dates and Status..............................................................................1-21
3-1 GPS PPS System Range Error-Budget .....................................................................................3-3
3-2 Time Error Budget ....................................................................................................................3-8
3-3 Precise Time Output Accuracy (95%) for a Typical PPS
P-code Receiver......................................................................................................................3-8
3-4 Precise Time Output Accuracy (95%) for a Typical SPS
C/A-code Receiver .................................................................................................................3-9
6-1 Service Coverage Standards ......................................................................................................6-3
6-2 Service Availability Standards....................................................................................................6-6
6-3 Service Availability as a Function of Specified Satellite
Outage Conditions..................................................................................................................6-7
6-4 Example of 3-Day Global Service Availability with Component Failure
on Worst Day .........................................................................................................................6-7
6-5 Example of 30-Day Global Service Availability Without Component Failure ...........................6-8
6-6 Service Reliability Standards......................................................................................................6-8
6-7 Probability of Operational Satellites.........................................................................................6-12
6-8 Service Coverage of a Typical 24-Satellite Constellation ........................................................6-12
6-9 Availability of the Integrity Decision........................................................................................6-14
6-10 FOM/TFOM Numerical Values and Estimated Errors............................................................6-18
10-1 PPS DGPS Error Budget ........................................................................................................10-8
11-1 Uncoordinated Time Transfer Using GPS PPS Receivers.....................................................11-11
11-2 Coordinated Time Transfer Using GPS PPS Receivers.........................................................11-12
12-1 Typical Range of Integrity Parameters.....................................................................................12-5
A-1 GLONASS Satellite Launches..................................................................................................A-8
A-2 GLONASS Transmitted Power..............................................................................................A-11
A-3 Almanacs ................................................................................................................................A-14
B-1 WGS 84 Ellipsoid Four Defining Parameters ...........................................................................B-3
B-2 Relevant Miscellaneous Constants and Conversion Factors .....................................................B-4
B-3 Transformation Parameters Local Geodetic Systems to WGS 84 ............................................B-8
B-4 Methods of Determining and Accuracy of WGS 84 Coordinates.............................................B-9
xii
CHAPTER 1: SYSTEM OVERVIEW
1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based radio-positioning and time-
transfer system. GPS provides accurate position, velocity, and time (PVT) information to an
unlimited number of suitably equipped ground, sea, air and space users. Passive PVT fixes are
available world-wide in all-weathers in a world-wide common grid system. Normally GPS
contains features which limit the full accuracy of the service only to authorized users and
protection from spoofing (hostile imitation).
GPS comprises three major system segments, Space, Control, and User (see Figure
-1).
1
Figure 1-1. Navstar GPS Major Segments
The Space Segment consists of a nominal constellation of 24 Navstar satellites. Each satellite
broadcasts RF ranging codes and a navigation data message. The Control Segment consists of a
network of monitoring and control facilities which are used to manage the satellite constellation
and update the satellite navigation data messages. The User Segment consists of a variety of
radio navigation receivers specifically designed to receive, decode, and process the GPS satellite
1-1
ranging codes and navigation data messages. The Space, Control, and User Segments are
described in more detail in paragraph 1.2.
The ranging codes broadcast by the satellites enable a GPS receiver to measure the transit time of
the signals and thereby determine the range between each satellite and the receiver. The
navigation data message enables a receiver to calculate the position of each satellite at the time
the signals were transmitted. The receiver then uses this information to determine its own
position, performing calculations similar to those performed by other distance-measuring
navigation equipment. Conceptually, each range measurement defines a sphere centered on a
satellite. The common intersection point of the spheres on or near the earth's surface defines the
receiver position.
For GPS positioning, a minimum of four satellites are normally required to be simultaneously "in
view" of the receiver, thus providing four range measurements. This enables the receiver to
calculate the three unknown parameters representing its (3-D) position, as well as a fourth
parameter representing the user clock error. Treating the user clock error as an unknown enables
most receivers to be built with an inexpensive crystal oscillator rather than an expensive precision
oscillator or atomic clock. Precise time estimates are required for precise positioning, since a time
error of 3 nanoseconds is roughly equivalent to a range error of 1 metre. Less than four satellites
can be used by a receiver if time or altitude is precisely known or if these parameters are available
from an external source. A more detailed explanation of the GPS theory of operation is provided
in paragraph 1.4.
1.2 SYSTEM OVERVIEW
1.2.1 Space Segment
The GPS Space Segment consists of 24 Navstar satellites in semi-synchronous (approximately 12-
hour) orbits. The satellites are arranged in six orbital planes with four satellites in each plane.
The orbital planes have an inclination angle of 55 degrees relative to the earth's equator. The
satellites have an average orbit altitude of 20200 kilometres (10900 nautical miles) above the
surface of the earth. Figure 1-2 illustrates the GPS satellite constellation.
The satellites complete one orbit in approximately 11 hours and 58 minutes. Since the earth is
rotating under the satellites, the satellites trace a track over the earths surface which repeats every
23 hours and 56 minutes. A user at a fixed location on the ground will observe the same satellite
each day passing through the same track in the sky, but the satellite will rise and set four minutes
earlier each day, due to the 4 minute difference between the rotational period of the earth and two
orbital periods of a satellite. The satellites are positioned in the orbital planes so that four or more
satellites, with a good geometric relationship for positioning, will normally be observable at every
location on earth. The effect of geometric relationships on GPS positioning accuracy is explained
in further detail in Chapter 3 .
1-2
Figure 1-2. GPS Satellite Constellation
The satellites transmit ranging signals on two D-band frequencies: Link 1 (Ll ) at 1575.42 MHz
and Link 2 (L2) at 1227.6 MHz. The satellite signals are transmitted using spread-spectrum
techniques, employing two different ranging codes as spreading fictions, a 1.023 MHz
coarse/acquisition code (C/A-code) on L1 and a 10.23 MHz precision code (P-code) on both L1
and L2. Either the C/A-code or the P-code can be used to determine the range between the
satellite and the user, however, the P-code is normally encrypted and available only to authorized
users. When encrypted, the P-code is known as the Y-code. A 50 Hz navigation message is
superimposed on both the P(Y) -code and the C/A-code. The navigation message includes
satellite clock-bias data, satellite ephemeris (precise orbital) data for the transmitting satellite,
ionospheric signal-propagation correction data, and satellite almanac (coarse orbital) data for the
entire constellation. Refer to paragraph 1.4 for additional details regarding the ranging codes and
navigation message.
1.2.2 Control Segment
The Control Segment primarily consists of a Master Control Station (MCS), at Falcon Air Force
Base (AFB) in Colorado Springs, USA, plus monitor stations (MS) and ground antemas (GA) at
various locations around the world. The monitor stations are located at Falcon AFB, Hawaii,
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Kwajalein, Diego Garcia, and Ascension. All monitor stations except Hawaii and Falcon AFB are
also equipped with ground antennas (see Figure 1-3). The Control Segment includes a Prelaunch
Compatibility Station (PCS) located at Cape Canaveral, USA, and a back-up MCS capability.
Figure 1-3. GPS Control Segment Locations
The MCS is the central processing facility for the Control Segment and is responsible for
monitoring and managing the satellite constellation. The MCS functions include control of
satellite station-keeping maneuvers, reconfiguration of redundant satellite equipment, regularly
updating the navigation messages transmitted by the satellites, and various other satellite health
monitoring and maintenance activities. The monitor stations passively track all GPS satellites in
view, collecting ranging data from each satellite. This information is transmitted to the MCS
where the satellite ephemeris and clock parameters are estimated and predicted. The MCS uses
the ground antennas to periodically upload the ephemeris and clock data to each satellite for
retransmission in the navigation message. Communications between the MCS the MS and GA are
typically accomplished via the U.S. Defense Satellite Communication System (DSCS). The
navigation message update function is graphically depicted in Figure 1-4.
1-4
Figure 1-4. Monitor Station and Ground Antenna
The PCS primarily operates under control of the MCS to support prelaunch compatibility testing
of GPS satellites via a cable interface. The PCS also includes an RF transmit/receive capability
that can serve as a Control Segment ground antenna, if necessary. The U.S. Air Force Satellite
Control Network (AFSCN) consists of a multipurpose worldwide network of ground- and space-
based satellite control facilities. Various AFSCN resources are available to support GPS but are
not dedicated exclusively to GPS.
1.2.3 User Segment
The User Segment consists of receivers specifically designed to receive, decode, and process the
GPS satellite signals. Receivers can be stand-alone, integrated with or embedded into other
systems. GPS receivers can vary significantly in design and function, depending on their
application for navigation, accurate positioning, time transfer, surveying and attitude reference.
Chapter 2 provides a general description of GPS receiver types and intended applications.
1.3 GPS SERVICES
Two levels of service are provided by the GPS, the Precise Positioning Service (PPS) and the
Standard Positioning Service (SPS).
1.3.1 Precise Positioning Service
The PPS is an accurate positioning velocity and timing service which is available only to
authorized users. The PPS is primarily intended for military purposes. Authorization to use the
PPS is determined by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), based on internal U.S. defense
requirements or international defense commitments. Authorized users of the PPS include U.S.
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military users, NATO military users, and other selected military and civilian users such as the
Australian Defense Forces and the U.S. Defense Mapping Agency. The PPS is specified to
provide 16 metres Spherical Error Probable (SEP) (3-D, 50%) positioning accuracy and 100
nanosecond (one sigma) Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) time transfer accuracy to authorized
users. This is approximately equal to 37 metres (3-D, 95%) and 197 nanoseconds (95%) under
typical system operating conditions. PPS receivers can achieve 0.2 metres per second 3-D
velocity accuracy, but this is somewhat dependent on receiver design.
Access to the PPS is controlled by two features using cryptographic techniques, Selective
Availability (SA) and Anti-Spoofing (A-S). SA is used to reduce GPS position, velocity, and time
accuracy to the unauthorized users. SA operates by introducing pseudorandom errors into the
satellite signals. The A-S feature is activated on all satellites to negate potential spoofing of the
ranging signals. The technique encrypts the P-code into the Y-code. Users should note the C/A
code is not protected against spoofing.
Encryption keys and techniques are provided to PPS users which allow them to remove the
effects of SA and A-S and thereby attain the maximum accuracy of GPS. PPS receivers that have
not been loaded with a valid cryptographic key will have the performance of an SPS receiver.
PPS receivers can use either the P(Y)-code or C/A-code or both. Maximum GPS accuracy is
obtained using the P(Y)-code on both L1 and L2. P(Y)-code capable receivers commonly use the
C/A-code to initially acquire GPS satellites.
1.3.2 Standard Positioning Service
The SPS is a less accurate positioning and timing service which is available to all GPS users. In
peacetime, the level of SA is controlled to provide 100 metre (95%) horizontal accuracy which is
approximately equal to 156 metres 3D (95%). SPS receivers can achieve approximately 337
nanosecond (95%) UTC time transfer accuracy. System accuracy degradations can be increased
if it is necessary to do so, for example, to deny accuracy to a potential enemy in time of crisis or
war. Only the President of the United States, acting through the U.S. National Command
Authority, has the authority to change the level of SA to other than peacetime levels.
The SPS is primarily intended for civilian purposes, although it has potential peacetime military
use. Refer to "Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS" for additional details regarding SPS
performance characteristics.
1.4 GPS THEORY OF OPERATION
The ranging codes broadcast by the satellites enable a GPS receiver to measure the transit time
of the signals and thereby determine the range between a satellite and the user. The navigation
message provides data to calculate the position of each satellite at the time of signal transmission.
From this information, the user position coordinates and the user clock offset are calculated using
simultaneous equations. Four satellites are normally required to be
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simultaneously "in view" of the receiver for 3-D positioning purposes. The following paragraphs
give a description of the GPS satellite signals and GPS receiver operation.
1.4.1 GPS Satellite Signals
1.4.1.1 C/A-Code
The C/A-code consists of a 1023 bit pseudorandom noise (PRN) code with a clock rate of 1.023
MHz which repeats every 1 millisecond. The short length of the C/A-code sequence is designed
to enable a receiver to rapidly acquire the satellite signals which helps the receiver transition to the
longer P-code. A different PRN is assigned to each GPS satellite and selected from a set of codes
called Gold codes. The Gold codes are designed to minimize the probability that a receiver will
mistake one code for another (minimize the cross-correlation). The C/A-code is transmitted only
on L1. The C/A-code is not encrypted and is therefore available to all users of GPS.
1.4.1.2 P(Y)-Code
The P-code is a 10.23 MHz PRN code sequence that is 267 days in length. Each of the GPS
satellites is assigned a unique seven-day segment of this code that restarts every Saturday/Sunday
midnight GPS time (GPS time is a continuous time scale maintained within 1 microsecond of
UTC, plus or minus a whole number of leap seconds). The P-code is normally encrypted into the
Y-code to protect the user from spoofing. Since the satellites have the capability to transmit
either the P- or Y-code, it is often referred to as the P(Y)-code. The P(Y)-code is transmitted by
each satellite on both L1 and L2. On L1, the P(Y)-code is 90 degrees out of carrier phase with
the C/A-code.
1.4.1.3 Navigation Message
A 50 Hz navigation message is superimposed on both the P(Y) code and the C/A-code. The
navigation message includes data unique to the transmitting satellite and data common to all
satellites. The data contains the time of transmission of the message, a Hand Over Word (HOW)
for the transition from C/A-code to P(Y)-code tracking, clock correction, ephemeris, and health
data for the transmitting satellite, almanac and health data for all satellites, coefficients for the
ionospheric delay model, and coefficients to calculate UTC.
The navigation message consists of 25 frames of data, each frame consisting of 1,500 bits. Each
frame is divided into 5 subframes of 300 bits each (see Figure 1-5). At the 50 Hz transmission
rate, it takes 6 seconds to receive a subframe, 30 seconds to receive one data frame, and 12.5
minutes to receive all 25 frames. Subframes 1, 2, and 3 have the same data format for all 25
frames. This allows the receiver to obtain critical satellite-specific data within 30 seconds.
Subframe 1 contains the clock correction for the transmitting satellite, as well as parameters
describing the accuracy and health of the broadcast signal. Subframes 2 and 3 contain ephemeris
(precise orbital) parameters used to compute the location of the satellite for the positioning
equations.
1-7
0 30 60 300
BIT NO.
SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER CLOCK CORRECTION 6 SEC

1 WORD WORD
300 330 360 600
SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER

EPHEMERIS 12 SEC
2 WORD WORD
600 630 660 900

3 WORD WORD EPHEMERIS 18 SEC
900 930 960 1200

(MULTIPLEX) MESSAGE (CHANGES THROUGH 25 FRAMES) 24 SEC
4 WORD WORD
1200 1230 1260 1500
SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER ALMANAC/HEALTH STATUS

5 WORD WORD (MULTIPLEX) (CHANGES THROUGH 25 FRAMES) 30 SEC
*12.5 MINUTES BEFORE THE ENTIRE MESSAGE REPEATS
Figure 1-5. The Navigation Message
Subframes 4 and 5 have data which cycle through the 25 data frames. They contain data which is
common to all satellites and less critical for a receiver to acquire quickly. Subframes 4 and 5
contain almanac (coarse orbital) data and low-precision clock corrections, simplified health and
configuration status for every satellite, user text messages, and the coefficients for the ionospheric
model and UTC calculation. A comprehensive description of the navigation message is provided
in "Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS", together with the standard algorithms needed
to use the data correctly.
1.4.1.4 Satellite Signal Modulation
The L1 carrier is BPSK modulated by both the C/A- and P(Y)-codes plus the navigation message
superimposed on both codes. The L2 carrier is BPSK modulated by the P(Y)-code superimposed
with the navigation message. The BPSK technique reverses the carrier phase when the
modulating code changes from logic 0 to 1 or 1 to 0. On L1, the C/A-code is 90 degrees out of
phase with the P(Y)-code. Figure 1-6 shows this modulation scheme in schematic form.
1-8
Figure 1-6. Satellite Signal Modulation
The BPSK modulation spreads the RF signals by the code bandwidth. The result is a symmetrical
spreading of the signal around the L1 and L2 carriers. The C/A-code spreads the L1 signal power
over a 2.046 MHz bandwidth centered at 1575.42 MHz. The P(Y)-code spreads the L1 and L2
signal powers over a 20.46 MHz bandwidth centered about 1575.42 MHz on L1 and 1227.6 MHz
on L2. Figure 1-7 shows the L1 and L2 signal spectrum as it appears at the 0 dB gain receiver
antenna at the Earth's surface. The C/A-code component of L1 signal has a power of -160 dBW
(decibels with respect to one watt), the L1 P(Y)-code signal has a power of -163 dBW, and the
L2 P(Y)-code signal has a power of -166 dBW.
1.4.2 GPS Receiver Operation
In order for the GPS receiver to calculate a PVT solution, it must:
Search for a PRN C/A code lock

C/A code track, carrier track
Obtain bit synchronization with the navigation message
Obtain frame synchronization, ie obtain HOW and Z count
Decode GUV or CVw
Remove SA
Transition to P(Y)-code, -code lock, -carrier lock
Data lock on P(Y) code
Search, acquire and track 2nd to 4th SVs, up to all in view
1-9
Figure 1-7. GPS Signal Frequency Spectrum
Take range and range rate measur

ements
Solve for range equations
P(Y) code measurements L2 to remove ionospheric delays and refine navigation
solution.
Details of the operations are expanded below.
1.4.2.1 Satellite Selection
A typical satellite tracking sequence begins with the receiver determining which satellites are
visible for it to track. If the receiver can immediately determine satellite visibility, the receiver will
target a satellite to track and begin the acquisition process. Satellite visibility is determined based
on the GPS satellite almanac and the initial receiver estimate (or user input) of time and position.
If the receiver does not have the almanac and position information stored, the receiver enters a
"search the sky" operation that systematically searches the PRN codes until lock is obtained on
one of the satellites in view. Once one satellite is successfully tracked, the receiver can
demodulate the navigation message data stream and acquire the current almanac as well as the
health status of all the other satellites in the constellation.
Depending on its architecture, a receiver selects either a "best" subset of the visible satellites to
track or uses all healthy satellites in view to determine an "all-in-view" PVT solution. The all-in-
view solution is usually more accurate than a four satellite solution although it requires a
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more complex receiver and receiver processing. The all-in-view solution is also more robust,
since the temporary loss of a satellite signal (for example due to a physical obstruction near the
receiver) does not disrupt the flow of PVT data while the receiver attempts to reacquire the lost
signal. Many receivers will track more than four satellites, but less than all-in-view, as a
compromise between complexity, accuracy, and robustness. Receivers that select a "best" subset
do so based on geometry, estimated accuracy, or integrity. More detailed discussion of specific
satellite selection criteria is provided in Chapter 6.
1.4.2.2 Satellite Signal Acquisition
The satellite signal power at or near the earth's surface is less than the receivers thermal (natural)
noise level, due to the spread spectrum modulation of the signal, orbital height and transmitting
power of the satellite. To extract the satellite signal the receiver uses code correlation techniques.
An internal replica of the incoming signal is generated and aligned with the received satellite
signal. The receiver shifts the replica code to match the incoming code from the satellite. When
the codes match, the satellite signal is compressed back into the original carrier frequency band.
This process is illustrated in Figure 1-8.
Figure 1-8. Spread Spectrum Generation and Reconstruction
1-11
The delay in the receiver's code is a measure of the transit time of the signals between the satellite
and the receiver's antenna and hence, the range between the satellite position and receiver
position. This measurement is called a pseudorange measurement, rather than a range
measurement, because the receiver's clock bias has not been removed.
Receivers typically use phase-locked-loop techniques to synchronize the receiver's internally

generated code and carrier with the received satellite signal. A code tracking loop is used to track
the C/A- and P-code signals while a carrier tracking loop is used to track the carrier frequency.
The two tracking loops work together in an interactive process, aiding each other, in order to
acquire and track the satellite signals. A generic GPS receiver tracking system is illustrated in
Figure 1-9.
ANTENNA
PSEUDO-
DELTA RANGE
CARRIER MEASUREMENT
TRACKING
CHANNEL 50 Hz
PREAMPLIFIER
NAVIGATION
DATA
DOPPLER
EST.
IF SIGNAL ON-TIME
RF CONVERTER EST.
CODE
TRACKING PSEUDO-RANGE
CHANNEL MEASUREMENTS
LO IF
FREQUENCY
SYNTHESIZER
REFERENCE
OSCILLATOR
Figure 1-9. Generic GPS Receiver Tracking System
1.4.2.3 Down Conversion
The received RF signal is converted, usually through two intermediate frequencies (IF), down to a
frequency near the code baseband, that can be sampled by an analogue to digital (A/D) converter.
Inphase and quadrature digital samples are taken to preserve the phase information in the
received signal. The samples are usually two bits to reduce conversion losses. The sampling rate
must be higher than the code chipping rate for a non return to zero code, that is, greater than
10.23 MHz for the P(Y)-code. To ensure the phase of the received signal is maintained, all local
oscillators are derived from, and phased locked through, a series of synthesizers derived from the
receiver's master oscillator. Following the A/D conversion there
1-12
is a final phase rotation circuit that enables the doppler in the satellite signal to be precisely
tracked.
1.4.2.4 Code Tracking
The code tracking loop is used to make pseudorange measurements between the GPS satellites
and the GPS receiver. The receiver's code tracking loop generates a replica of the C/A-code of
the targeted satellite. The estimated doppler is removed by the phase rotation circuit prior to the
correlator.
In order to align the received signal with the internally generated replica, the internally generated
code is systematically slewed past the received signal. Typically the output of the correlator is
integrated over 1 to 10 ms. If correlation is not detected the phase of the internally generated
code is advanced by one chip. If correlation is not detected after the whole code has been
searched the doppler is adjusted and the process repeated until correlation is achieved. Code
synchronization is initially maintained by also correlating the received signal with half chip early
and late codes. A simple feedback system keeps the prompt ("on time") code correctly positioned.
To extract the carrier which is still modulated by the navigation message, the prompt code is
subtracted from the incoming signal. The delay that the receiver must add to the replica code to
achieve synchronization (correlation), multiplied by the speed of light, is the pseudorange
measurement. Once the carrier is reconstructed, the center frequency of the replica code is
adjusted using Doppler measurements from the carrier tracking loop to achieve a precise
frequency lock to the incoming signal, thereby allowing more precise pseudorange measurements.
The bandwidth of the code tracking loop is typically 0.1 Hz, which implies that independent
measurements are available at approximately 10 s intervals.
1.4.2.5 Carrier Tracking and Data Detection
The receiver tracks the satellite carrier by adjusting the frequency synthesizers to produce a
stationary phase at the output of the code tracking loop. The inphase and quadrature components
are used to calculate the carrier's phase and doppler. A data bit is detected by a sudden change in
the phase of the detected signal. The bandwidth of the carrier tracking loop is typically 6 Hz for a
military airborne receiver, resulting in independent measurements being available every 150 ms.
Doppler is measured to provide an estimate of the relative velocity between the receiver and the
satellite. These measurements are typically termed pseudorange rate measurements or they can be
integrated over regular time intervals to produce deltarange measurements.
The receiver uses the doppler measurements from four (or more) satellites to determine the
receiver velocity (in three dimensions) plus the receiver's master oscillator frequency bias. The
deltarange measurements of the carrier tracking loop are also used to aid the code tracking loop
to ensure code tracking is maintained during dynamic maneuvers where the simple code tracking
system would be unable to maintain lock.
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1.4.2.6 Data Demodulation
Once the carrier tracking loop is locked, the 50 Hz navigation data message can be read. Each
subframe of the navigation message begins with a preamble contained in the Telemetry Word,
enabling the receiver to detect the beginning of each subframe. Each subframe is identified by bits
contained in the Handover Word (HOW), enabling the receiver to properly decode the subframe
data.
1.4.2.7 P(Y)-Code Signal Acquisition
The one millisecond C/A-code length permits a relatively narrow search window for code
correlation even if the receiver must "search the sky" to find the first satellite. However the week
long P(Y)-code sequence at 10.23 MHz does not allow the same technique to be used. Precise
time must be known by the receiver in order to start the code generator within a few hundred
chips of the correlation point of the incoming signal. The HOW contained in the GPS navigation
message provides satellite time and hence the P(Y)-code phase information. A P(Y)-code
receiver may attempt to acquire the P(Y)-code directly, without first acquiring the C/A-code, if it
has accurate knowledge of position, time and satellite ephemeris from a recent navigation
solution. External aiding and/or an enhanced acquisition technique are usually required to
perform direct P(Y)-code acquisition.
1.4.2.8 PVT Calculations
When the receiver has collected pseudorange measurements, deltarange measurements, and
navigation data from four (or more) satellites, it calculates the navigation solution, PVT. Each
navigation data message contains precise orbital (ephemeris) parameters for the transmitting
satellite, enabling a receiver to calculate the position of each satellite at the time the signals were
transmitted. The ephemeris data is normally valid and can be used for precise navigation for a
period of four hours following issue of a new data set by the satellite. New ephemeris data is
transmitted by the satellites every two hours.
As illustrated in Figure 1-10, the receiver solves a minimum of four simultaneous pseudorange
equations, with the receiver (3-D) position and clock offset as the four unknown variables. Each
equation is an expression of the principle that the true range (the difference between the
pseudorange and the receiver clock offset) is equal to the distance between the known satellite
position and the unknown receiver position. This principle is expressed below mathematically
using the same notation as Figure 1-10.
R - C B = c∆t - C B = (X - U X )2 + (Y - U Y )2 + (Z - U Z )2
These are simplified versions of the equations actually used by GPS receivers. A receiver also
obtains corrections derived from the navigation messages which it applies to the pseudoranges.
These include corrections for the satellite clock offset, relativistic effects, ionospheric signal
propagation delays. Dual frequency receivers can measure the delay between the L1 and L2
P(Y)-codes, if available, to calculate an ionospheric correction. Single frequency (either C/A-
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or P(Y)-code) receivers use parameters transmitted in the navigation message to be used in an
ionospheric model. The receiver (3-D) velocity and frequency offset are calculated using similar
equations, using deltaranges instead of pseudoranges.
The PVT calculations described here result in a series of individual point solutions. For receivers
that are required to provide a navigation solution under dynamic conditions a smoothed or filtered
solution that is less sensitive to measurement noise is employed. One of the most common types
of filters used in GPS receivers is the Kalman filter. Kalman filtering is described in detail in
Chapter 9.
The rate at which GPS receivers calculate the PVT solution is governed by their application. For
flight control applications a 10 Hz rate is required whereas in handheld equipment a fix may only
be required once every 4 to 5 seconds or at even longer intervals. A 1 Hz rate is typical for many
equipments. In this scenario pseudorange measurements are typically only made every 4 to 5
seconds; pseudorange rate measurements are made more frequently and can be used to propagate
the filter solution between updates. If a Kalman filter is used the measurements may be
incorporated independently into the filter removing the requirement for symmetrical
measurements from all channels. The filter also allows the solution to be extrapolated if
measurements are interrupted, or data is available from other navigation sensors.
A minimum of four satellites are normally required to be simultaneously "in view" of the receiver,
thus providing four pseudorange and four deltarange measurements. Treating the user clock
errors as unknowns enable most receivers to be built with an inexpensive crystal oscillator rather
than an expensive precision oscillator or atomic clock. Less than four satellites can be used by a
receiver if time or altitude are precisely known or if these parameters are available from an
external source.
GPS receivers perform initial position and velocity calculations using an earth-centered earth-
fixed (ECEF) coordinate system. Results may be converted to an earth model (geoid) defined by
the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84). WGS 84 provides a worldwide common grid
system that may be translated into local coordinate systems or map datums. (Local map datums
are a best fit to the local shape of the earth and not valid worldwide.) For more details regarding
WGS 84, refer to Annex B. For more details regarding how a receiver uses WGS 84, refer to
"Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS".
For navigation purposes, it is usually necessary for a GPS receiver to output positions in terms of
magnetic North rather than true North as defined by WGS 84. For details regarding how the
receiver calculates the magnetic variation from true North, refer to "Technical Characteristics of
the Navstar GPS".
1-15
Figure 1-10. GPS Receiver Theory of Operation
1-16
1.4.2.9 Degraded Operation and Aiding
During periods of high levels of jamming, the receiver may not be able to maintain both code and
carrier tracking. The receiver normally has the capability to maintain code tracking even when
carrier tracking is no longer possible. If only code tracking is available, the receiver will slew the
locally generated carrier and code signals based on predicted rather than measured Doppler shifts.
These predictions are performed by the receiver processor, which may have additional PVT
information available from an external aiding source. See Chapter 7 for additional discussion of
GPS receiver aiding.
1.5 PROGRAM MANAGEMENT
1.5.1 System Development and Management
The United States Air Force (USAF), Air Force Materiel Command, Space and Missile Center
(SMC), Navstar GPS Joint Program Office (JPO) has total system responsibility for the GPS.
The SMC and GPS JPO are located at the Los Angeles Air Force Base (AFB) in Los Angeles,
California. The GPS JPO is manned by personnel from the USAF, US Navy, US Army, US
Marine Corps, US Department of Transportation, US Defense Mapping Agency. NATO Nations
and Australia may have representatives stationed at the JPO. The GPS JPO was responsible for
development of the Control and Space Segments and is responsible for acquisition of
replenishment satellites and common user equipment (UE) for all military services. The GPS JPO
also provides technical support, security guidance, technical specification development, interface
control documents, and implementation guidelines. NATO and other allied Nations have
established Memoranda of Understanding with the United States which provides access to PPS,
interchange of technical information, and the ability to purchase or locally manufacture PPS GPS
UE.
The GPS JPO is supported by the Launch Vehicle System Program Office (SPO) and the
Network SPO, also located at the SMC. The Launch Vehicle SPO provides the expendable
boosters used to launch the Navstar satellites. The Network SPO is responsible for continuing
development of the multi-use AFSCN. GPS JPO program management operations are also
supported by the User Equipment Support Program Manager located at the Warner-Robbins Air
Logistics Center in Warner Robbins, Georgia and by Detachment 25 (from the Sacramento Air
Logistics Center) located at Colorado Springs, Colorado.
1.5.2 System Requirements, Planning, and Operations
The USAF Space Command (AFSPC) is responsible for GPS requirements, planning, and
operations. Headquarters of the AFSPC and the requirements and planning functions are located
at Peterson AFB in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Various agencies within the USAF Space
Command (AFSPC) operate and maintain the Control Segment, prepare and launch the Navstar
satellites, manage the operational constellation, and interface with the GPS user community.
Elements of the AFSPC Fiftieth Space Wing (50SPW) are responsible for launch, early orbit
support, and continued day-to-day operations of the GPS satellites.
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The First Space Operations Squadron (1SOPS) of the 50SPW, located at Falcon AFB in
Colorado Springs, Colorado, provides launch and early-orbit support for the GPS satellites. The
early orbit support includes control of the Navstar satellites to deploy solar arrays, perform
stabilization maneuvers, and complete other procedures to make the satellites ready for service.
The 1SOPS can also provide backup capability for critical day-to-day commanding procedures if
necessary. When a satellite is ready for service, command is transferred to the Second Space
Operations Squadron (2SOPS) of the 50SPW for payload turn-on and continued operations. The
2SOPS has responsibility for day-to-day operations and overall constellation management. The
2SOPS is also located at Falcon AFB.
The Forty-Fifth Space Wing (45SPW) of the AFSPC is responsible for management of Navstar
pre-launch operations, including receiving of the satellites, storage on the ground if necessary,
mating to the launch vehicle, and integration and compatibility testing. The 45SPW is located at
Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, which is the launch site for the GPS satellites.
1.6 GPS PROGRAM HISTORY
1.6.1 Pre-Concept Validation (1960s-1972)
Since the early 1960s various U.S. agencies have had navigation satellite programs. The John
Hopkins' Applied Research Laboratory sponsored the TRANSIT program and the U.S. Navy
(USN) sponsored the TIMATION (TIMe navigATION) program. TIMATION was a program to
advance the state of the art for two-dimensional (latitude and longitude) navigation. TRANSIT
became operational in 1964 and is currently providing navigation service to low dynamic vehicles
such as ships. It is scheduled to be phased out in 1996. The USAF conducted concept studies to
assess a three-dimensional (latitude, longitude, and altitude) navigationstem
sy called 621B.
1.6.2 Phase I - Concept Validation (1973-1979)
A memorandum issued by the US Deputy Secretary of Defense on 17 April 1973 designated the
USAF as the executive service to consolidate the TIMATION and 621B concepts into a compre-
hensive all-weather navigation system named Navstar GPS. The Navstar GPS JPO was
established on 1 July 1973.
Two experimental Navigation Technology Satellites (NTS) were built and launched to support
concept validation of the GPS. The first true GPS signals from space came from NTS-2. NTS-2
was launched on an Atlas booster from Vandenberg AFB in June 1977 but malfunctioned after
only 8 months. The first Navstar GPS Block I (research and development) satellite was launched
in February 1978. A total of 11 Block I satellites were launched between 1978 and 1985. All of
the Block I satellites were launched from Vandenberg AFB using the Atlas booster. Block I
satellites did not incorporate SA or A-S features. As of June 1995 only one Block I satellite
remained operational. Table 1-1 contains the launch dates and status (as of June 1995) of the
NTS and Block I satellites.
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Table 1-1. NTS and Block I Satellite Launch Dates and Status
Navstar Space PRN Code

Number Vehicle No. Number Launch Date Status (June 95)
(SVN)
NTS-1 - - 14 Jul 74 Deactivated
NTS-2 - - 23 Jun 77 Deactivated Jan 78
I-1 1 - 22 Feb 78 Deactivated 25 Jan 80
I-2 2 - 12 May 78 Deactivated 30 Aug 80
I-3 3 - 06 Oct 78 Deactivated 19 Apr 92
I-4 4 - 11 Dec 78 Deactivated 06 Sep 86
I-5 5 - 09 Feb 80 Deactivated 28 Nov 83
I-6 6 - 26 Apr 80 Deactivated 05 Mar 91
I-7 7 - 18 Dec 81 Launch Failure
I-8 8 - 14 Jul 83 Deactivated 4 May 93
I-9 9 - 13 Jun 84 Deactivated 28 Feb 94
I-10 10 12 08 Sep 84 Operational
I-11 11 - 09 Oct 85 Deactivated 14 Apr 94
The first Control Segment consisted of a control station, ground antenna, and monitor station
located at Vandenberg AFB in California, supported by additional monitor stations located at
Elmendorf AFB in Alaska, Anderson AFB in Guam, and the Naval Communications Station in
Hawaii. This Phase I Control Segment was designated the Initial Control System (ICS).
The first user equipment (UE) testing began at Yuma Proving Ground (YPG) in March 1977
using ground transmitters to simulate the GPS satellites. As the Block I satellites were launched,
a combination of satellites and ground transmitters were used for testing until December 1978,
when four satellites were available to provide limited 3-D navigation capability. Shipborne UE
was tested off the coast of California starting in October 1978 when three GPS satellites were
available for two-dimensional (2-D) navigation.
1.6.3 Phase II - Full Scale Development (1979-1985)
In September 1980, a contract was awarded to upgrade and operate the ICS, as well as develop
an Operational Control System (OCS). The ICS upgrades ensured continued support to the UE
test team while the OCS was being developed. OCS equipment was delivered to Vandenberg
AFB in May 1985. In October 1985, after installation and initial testing, the OCS conducted
dual operations with the ICS. The OCS equipment was moved from Vandenberg to its permanent
site at Falcon AFB by the end of 1985. In December 1980, the contractor was
1-19
selected to provide 28 Block II (operational) Navstar GPS satellites. Development of the
satellites continued throughout Phase II.
Phase II for the User Segment was divided into two parts. In Phase IIA, starting in July 1979,
four contractors were selected to conduct performance analyses and preliminary design of UE. In
Phase IIB, starting in 1982, two of the four contractors were selected to continue UE
development. Phase IIB included design refinement, fabrication of prototypes, qualification
testing, and extensive field testing of the UE. The UE was tested at YPG and at sea. Testing at
sea was conducted by Naval Ocean Systems Center located in San Diego, California.
1.6.4 Phase III - Production and Deployment (1986 to Present)
1.6.4.1 Space Segment (1986 to Present)
The Block II satellites were originally designed to be launched aboard the Space Transportation
System (Space Shuttle). Following an accident with the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986, the
Block II satellite-to-launch-vehicle interface was modified to enable launch aboard the Delta II
booster. The first Block II satellite was launched on 14 February 1989. The combined
constellation of Block I and Block II satellites achieved worldwide two-dimensional positioning
capability in June 1991. Worldwide 3-D capability was achieved in 1993. The Initial Operational
Capability (IOC) was declared on 8 December 1993. A full 24-satellite constellation of Block II
satellites was achieved in April 1994. The military Full Operational Capability is planned for
1995. The remaining Block II satellites will be launched on demand. Table 1-2 is a summary of
the Block II launch dates and status.
In June of 1989 a contract was awarded for 20 GPS replenishment satellites, designated Block
IIR. The Block IIR satellites will have the capability to autonomously generate their own
navigation messages. The Block IIR production schedule may allow a first launch as early as
August 1996. In 1994, efforts were begun by the GPS JPO to procure additional Navstar
satellites to sustain the GPS satellite constellation past the year 2000. These satellites are
designated Block IIF (Follow-On). The contract to provide the Block IIF satellites is planned for
November 1995. The planned production schedule supports a first launch in the year 2001.
In 1994 the GPS JPO also began studies for an Augmented GPS (AGPS). The AGPS concept is
to enhance the availability, accuracy and integrity of the GPS system using up to six geostationary
AGPS satellites. The satellites would broadcast integrity information and range corrections for all
GPS satellites via GPS-like ranging signals.
1-20
Table 1-2. Block II Satellite Launch Dates and Status
Navstar Space Vehicle PRN Code

Number No. (SVN) Number Launch Date Status (June 95)
II-1 14 14 14 Feb 89 Operational
II-2 13 2 10 Jun 89 Operational
II-3 16 16 17 Aug 89 Operational
II-4 19 19 21 Oct 89 Operational
II-5 17 17 11 Dec 89 Operational
II-6 18 18 24 Jan 90 Operational
II-7 20 20 25 Mar 90 Operational
II-10 23 23 26 Nov 90 Operational
II-11 24 24 03 Jul 91 Operational
II-13 28 28 09 Apr 92 Operational
II-14 26 26 07 Jul 92 Operational
II-15 27 27 09 Sep 92 Operational
II-16 32 01 22 Nov 92 Operational
II-17 29 29 18 Dec 92 Operational
II-20 37 07 12 May 93 Operational
II-21 39 09 26 Jun 93 Operational
II-25 TBD TBD TBD To Be Launched
1.6.4.2 Control Segment (1986 to Present)
The GPS OCS achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) in December 1986. In March 1986,
the ICS at Vandenberg AFB was deactivated. In December 1989, verification of the OCS
operational capability was completed by the USAF Operational Test and Evaluation Center.
Turnover of the OCS to AFSPC was accomplished in June 1990. Since then, Control Segment
development activities have been limited to upgrades of the operational software and additions
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to the equipment and facilities. The OCS has been augmented with a transportable GA capability
and Back-Up MCS capability.
1.6.4.3 User Segment (1986 to Present)
1.6.4.3.1 GPS JPO Activities
In April 1985, the contractor was selected for the Phase III production GPS UE. Low rate initial
production of the UE was begun and the first set was delivered to the JPO in June 1988. In
January 1992, full rate production of the UE was approved. The Phase III production UE
includes the 5-channel Receiver 3A (R-2332/AR) for airborne use, the 5-channel Receiver 3S (R-
2331/AR) for shipboard use, the 2-channel Receiver OH (R-2399/AR) and UH (R-2400/AR) for
helicopter use, and the RPU-1 (R-2401/U) for manpack and ground vehicle use.
In 1989, a contract was awarded for 2-channel SPS C/A-code receivers to be used primarily for
demonstration and training. These receivers are known as the Small Lightweight GPS Receiver
(SLGR, AN/PSN-10). They are suitable for vehicle mounting or handheld use. In 1990, a large
second purchase was made. Although originally intended for nontactical use, these receivers were
used extensively in support of Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm.
In November 1990, a contract was awarded to develop a 5-channel 3/8 ATR (Air Transport
Rack) size Miniature Airborne GPS Receiver (MAGR) for use in aircraft where space is severely
limited. The contract to deliver operational models was awarded in April 1993 with the first
delivery occurring in July 1994. Two versions of the MAGR have been produced. One version
uses an RF interface directly from the antenna (R-2512/U) the other (R-2514/U) uses an IF
(intermediate frequency) interface from an antenna electronics unit.
In February 1993, a contract was awarded to produce a hand-held PPS GPS receiver. Designated
the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR, AN/PSN-11), it weighs less than 4 pounds, is
self-contained as a handheld unit, and can be adapted for vehicle mounting. Delivery of the PLGR
began in September 1993.
In the 1990s, the GPS JPO has continued to sponsor activities to improve the functions and
performance of military GPS receivers. Activities are continuing that will improve anti-jamming
performance of GPS antennas, antenna electronics units, and receiver signal processing. In
1994, procurement efforts were begun for a new Controlled Reception Pattern Antenna (CRPA).
The new CRPA will be compatible with the form, fit, and function of the existing CRPA
system procured by the JPO. Efforts are also underway that will allow Receiver Autonomous
Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) to be implemented where enhanced GPS integrity or compatibility
with civil aviation is desired. Other efforts are underway to add differential GPS (DGPS) to
future military PPS receivers, to support new applications, such as precise positioning and aircraft
precision approach. Additional programs that are underway or under consideration include a
space-based GPS PPS receiver, a miniaturized PLGR, and a Survey GPS Receiver (SGR). Since
1993, the GPS JPO has been developing standards for a next generation PPS receiver module that
can be embedded in other military systems. The JPO will not procure embedded GPS receivers
(EGRs), but will provide technical support so that other military programs can procure the EGR
as part of another system.
1-22
The JPO has released an EGR Guidelines document which contains EGR interface, design, and
performance requirements, as well as general guidance material regarding the EGR and host
system. The document also includes specific guidance for integrating GPS with inertial or
Doppler navigation systems.
The JPO EGR effort is evolving into a standard for a GPS Receiver Applications Module
(GRAM). The GRAM will consist of a family of standard EGR modules suitable for a variety of
embedded applications. The GRAM standard will define several EGR physical configurations
conforming to standard modular architectures, such as the Standard Electronic Module (SEM)
and Versa Module Europa (VME). The standard will include specifications for advanced
functions, such as local- and wide-area DGPS corrections and receiver-based integrity
enhancements (RAIM). The standard will also accommodate the next-generation GPS receiver
security module known as the Selective Availability/Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM).
1.6.4.3.2 International Military UE and Commercial UE
Phase III of the GPS program has seen a tremendous expansion in the development and
production of international military UE and commercial UE. Military UE is being produced by
participating NATO nations including Canada, France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom.
In addition, a wide variety of commercial SPS UE has been developed by manufacturers around
the world for many different applications. Some of these receivers have been acquired by Military
and Government authorities for nontactical applications such as surveying, test support, and
training.
1.6.4.3.3 User Equipment Testing
Development Test and Evaluation (DT&E) and OT&E have included test and evaluation of:
a. Integrated GPS/host vehicle navigation system performance

b. Phase II and (early) Phase III deficiency correction
s
c. Reliability and maintainability of the GPS UE
d. Operational effectiveness of the GPS UE against jamming and spoofing
e. The SA and A-S features
In addition to U.S.-sponsored test efforts, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, the

Netherlands, Norway, and the United Kingdom conducted an extensive Phase III International
Test Program in cooperation with the JPO. These countries were joined by France, Greece,
Portugal, Spain, and Turkey for a subsequent International Test Program that focused exclusively
on the PLGR.
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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
CHAPTER 2: TYPES OF GPS RECEIVERS
AND THEIR INTENDED APPLICATIONS
2.1 GPS RECEIVER ARCHITECTURES
Modern military GPS receivers use predominantly a continuous satellite tracking

architecture. However, some receivers use alternative architectures, either
sequential or multiplex tracking to reduce hardware complexity.
2.1.1 Continuous Receivers
A continuous tracking receiver has five or more hardware channels to track four
satellites simultaneously plus other channels to acquire new satellites. Due to their
greater complexity, these receivers were traditionally the most expensive but offer
the best performance and versatility. The multi-channel receiver uses the fifth
channel to read the NAVigation (NAV) message of the next satellite to be used
when the receiver changes the satel lite selections. It also uses the fifth channel in
conjunction with each of the other four channels to perform dual frequency
measurements as well as differential channel delay measurements. Individual,
dedicated tracking channels enable the receivers to maintain accuracy under high
dynamics, provide the best anti-jamming (A-J) performance, and have the lowest
TTFF. This type of receiver is best suited for high-dynamic vehicles such as fighter
aircraft, vehicles requiring low TTFF such as submarines, plus any user requiring
good A-J performance.
2.1.2 Sequential Receivers
A sequential GPS receiver tracks the necessary satellites by typically using one or
two hardware channels. The set will track one satellite at a time, time tag the
measurements and combine them when all four satellite pseudoranges have been
measured. These receivers are among the least expensive available, but they
cannot operate under high dynamics and have the slowest time-to-first-fix (TTFF)
performance.
2.1.2.1 One-Channel Sequential Receivers

A 1-channel sequential receiver makes four pseudorange measurements on both
the L1 and L2 frequencies in order to determine a position and compensate for
ionospheric delay. The NAV message from each of the satellites must also be read
to obtain ephemeris data. To determine an initial position, the receiver must
perform the following operations, 1) C/A- code search for a SV, 2) C/A-code/carrier
center, 3) data bit synchronization, 4) frame synchronization and Z-count, 5) HOW,
6) P-code carrier center, 7) data demodula tion and 8) ionospheric measurements.
Once these operations are complete for one SV, the receiver must perform them
again for three other SVs. The four pseudorange measurements must
be propagated to the same reference time before a navigation solution is
generated. Any movement of the Host Vehicle (HV) during the time the receiver
collects the four pseudoranges will reduce the accuracy of the position, velocity,
and time
2-1
calculations in the receiver. One-channel sequential receivers are limited to low-
dynamic or stationary applications.
2.1.2.2 Two-Channel Sequential Receivers
Two-channel sequential receivers have been developed for use on medium-dynamic

vehicles such as helicopters. During initial power-up each channel operates like a 1-
channel sequential receiver. After four SVs have been acquired, one channel is
dedicated to navigation (pseudo range measurements, carrier tracking, etc.) while the
other channel reads the NAV message from each satellite. Both channels are also
used to perform dual frequency measurements to compensate for ionospheric delay
and to measure differential channel delay. Two-channel sequential receivers decrease
the time it takes to start navigating by better than one minute when compared to 1-
channel sequential receivers.
2.1.3 Multiplex (MUX) Receivers
A MUX receiver switches at a fast rate (typically 50 Hz) between the satellites being
tracked, continuously collecting sampled data to maintain two to eight signal
processing algorithms in software. In addition, the 50 Hz NAV message data is read
continuously from all the satellites. In single channel MUX receivers the hardware
channel is time shared and only one code generator and one carrier synthesizer is
required to track the satellites. However, a multiplex receiver's measured carrier to
noise ratio (C/N) for any satellite signal will be 10 log (n) (where n is the number of
satellites being tracked) decibels (dB) below that of a continuous tracking receiver.
Consequently, for military receivers, the MUX technique has the disadvantage of lower
resistance to jamming and interference when compared to continuous tracking
receivers. The MUX technique is more commonly found in commercial receivers where
the reduced hardware cost can result in a less expensive product and where
interference may be less of a concern.
2.2 "ALL-IN-VIEW" RECEIVERS
Traditionally, GPS receivers choose the four satellites of those available that give the
best geometry to perform a position fix. However, in situations where one or more of
the satellites are temporarily obscured from the antenna's view, the receiver will have
to acquire additional satellite signals to generate a continuous PVT solution. The PVT
solution degrades until the new satellites are acquired. One solution is to have a
receiver which uses all available satellites in view to generate a solution. The inherent
advantage of this receiver is that if it is tracking six or seven SVs and a satellite
becomes obscured, the receiver will continue to provide a PVT solution with little, if
any, degradation. In general, over-determined solutions improve accuracy of the
receivers. If the receiver does not dedicate one hardware channel per satellite, then
the receiver must use some sort of continual re-acquisition strategy (see MUX receivers
paragraph 2.1.3).
2-2
2.3 AUTONOMOUS INTEGRITY MONITORING TECHNIQUES
GPS receivers may track additional satellites for integrity monitoring purposes. This
function is independent of receiver architecture. Integrity monitoring receivers derive
multiple position solutions by excluding one satellite at a time. Inconsistencies in the
results are used to identify and exclude a faulty satellite. In general, at least five
satellites must be tracked to detect an integrity failure, and at least six satellites must
be tracked to exclude an erroneous satellite. Other measurements, such as altitude or
time, may be substituted for satellites in the integrity algorithms, much in the same
manner as these measurements are substituted in the PVT solution. In doing so, the
integrity of the aiding sources is checked as well. The integrity monitoring algorithms
are commonly referred to as Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) algorithms or as
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM or AIM) algorithms. These algorithms
are typically executed on each new set of measurements, thus protecting the integrity
of each PVT data set output by the receiver. For additional discussion of integrity, refer
to Chapter 12.
2.4 TIME TRANSFER RECEIVERS
One of the more common uses of GPS is for precise time dissemination applications.
Several manufacturers offer this type of equipment commercially. These precise time
GPS receivers need only one GPS satellite for precise time dissemination if the
receiver is stationary on a precisely known location and the only "unknown" is its own
clock offset from GPS time and therefore from UTC. To obtain the necessary precise
position, the receiver either receives it as an operator input or uses four satellites to
determine its own position. These receivers typically include an internal oscillator or an
optional external frequency source (rubidium or cesium). Whenever the receiver is
tracking a satellite, it generates 1, 5, or 10 MHz reference frequencies that are
synchronized to UTC time. If no satellites are visible, the reference frequencies are
derived from the internal or external frequency source. The receivers can provide either
stand-alone (uncoordinated) or coordinated time-transfer operations. In SPS receivers,
use of SA will reduce the time and position accuracy available. The manufacturers of
time transfer receivers claim time accuracies in the 20 to 50 nanoseconds range, but
this accuracy requires algorithms that average pseudorange measurements over time
(10 - 60 minutes). A stand-alone PPS time receiver normally provides time accuracy in
the 100 nanoseconds range. The advantage of having an external frequency source
interface designed into the receiver is that the long term error in the frequency source
can be adjusted when the receiver has satellites in view. A stationary PPS GPS
receiver with a precise time and time interval (PTTI) interface should be able to provide
UTC to an accuracy of 50 to 60 nanoseconds.
2.5 DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS) RECEIVERS
DGPS receivers are used in applications where enhanced accuracy of the PVT solution
is required or desired. DGPS is based on the principle that receivers in the same
vicinity will see similar errors on a particular satellite ranging signal. In general, the
DGPS technique
2-3
uses measurements from a reference receiver established at a known location,
along with differencing algorithms, to remove common satellite and signal propaga -
tion errors from the PVT solutions of other (mobile) receivers operating in the
vicinity of the reference station. The residual errors that remain uncorrected are
due to multipath and noise in the receivers. DGPS techniques can be applied to the
real-time PVT solution or to recorded measurement data. Real-time DGPS requires
a data link pass the reference measurements to the mobile receiver(s). DGPS
techniques can be applied to nondifferential receivers if the raw measurement data
and navigation message are accessible. There are two primary variations of the
differential techniques, one-based on ranging-code measurements and the other
based on carrier-phase measurements.
Ranging-code DGPS (RCD) techniques can be applied to receivers with any of the
tracking architectures described in the previous paragraphs. For RCD,
measurements from the reference receiver are used at the receiver site to calculate
corrections, which are then broadcast to the mobile receivers. The mobile
receivers incorporate the corrections into their PVT solution, thereby removing the
common errors and improving accuracy.
The reference receiver can develop corrections for the position solution or
individual satellite ranging signals. If the corrections are provided for the position
solution, the correction is simply the difference between the measured PVT solution
and the "true" solution consisting of the surveyed location, zero velocity, and
precise or smoothed time. However in this case, the reference and user receivers
must either use the same satellites to calculate the same solution, or PVT
corrections for each possible combination of satellites must be broadcast. It is
usually more efficient and flexible to broadcast corrections based on individual
satellite ranging errors, thereby allowing the user receiver to select the corrections
that are applicable to the particular set of satellites that it is tracking. Real-time
RCD is capable of producing accuracies on the order of 1 metre.
Carrier-phase DGPS (CPD) systems essentially calculate the difference between
the reference location and the user location using the difference between the
carrier phases measured at the reference receiver and the user receiver. In real-
time systems, carrier-phase data from the reference receiver is broadcast to the
mobile receivers. The mobile receivers use double-differencing techniques to
remove the satellite and receiver clock biases, then use the phase differences to
determine the position of the mobile receiver with respect to the reference receiver
location.
Determining the initial phase offset (cycles plus fractional phase) between the
reference station and the mobile receiver has traditionally been a process that
required several minutes. Therefore, it is important to maintain phase-lock on the
carrier signals to maintain a continuous flow of position data and avoid
reinitialization. Consequently, CPD systems have traditionally used continuous
tracking receivers. Receivers which gather measurements from more than four
satellites are common since they add robustness in the event of loss-of-lock on one
satellite and since additional satellites can reduce initialization time. The CPD
techniques were originally developed for surveying applications where real-time
data was not essential. However, near-real-time and real-ti me techniques are
under development with the goal of supporting applications such as precision-
approach for
2-4
aircraft, as well as the original survey applications. Near-real-time and real-time
range implementations can achieve centimeter accuracies (fractions of a carrier
wavelength) and post-processing surveying techniques can achieve millimeter
range accuracies. Surveying receivers are described in more detail in paragraph
2.6.
The accuracy of differential corrections developed at a single site will degrade with
distance from the site due to increasing difference between the reference and
mobile receiver ephemeris, ionospheric, and tropo spheric errors. Such systems are
usually called local area differential GPS systems (LADGPS). The accuracy of the
corrections can be extended over a larger area by using a network of reference
receivers to develop the corrections, and by modifying the correction algorithms in
the user receiver. RCD systems which compensate for distance degradations are
usually called wide area differential GPS (WADGPS) systems. CPD systems which
compensate for distance degradations are usually called very long baseline
interferometry (VLBI) systems.
CPD techniques (interferometry) can also be used to determine platform attitude.

In this case, the processing can be contained within one receiver using multiple
antennas. The distinction is lost between which antenna is the "reference" and
which is "mobile," since all are located at fixed positions on the platform and none
are located at surveyed positions with respect to the earth. Since the antennas are
separated by fixed distances, and since their relationship to the center-of-mass of
the platform is known, it is possible to convert the carrier phase differences into
angular differences between the antenna locations and the line of sight to a
satellite. By using measurements from multiple satellites, or the position of the
platform from a GPS position fix, these angular differ ences can then be transformed
to represent the attitude of the platform with respect to the local vertical axis.
There are several standard (and numerous proprietary) broadcast protocols,

receiver interfaces, data formats, data sets, and sets of algorithms that have been
developed for DGPS applications. Consequently DGPS receivers are typically
designed with a particular application in mind and may not be suitable for a
different application. Similarly, proprietary systems may not be compatible for the
same application. Therefore, DGPS requirements should be investigated
thoroughly and candidate DGPS receivers or systems should be evaluated for
suitability and compatibility.
2.6 SURVEYING RECEIVERS
Formal surveys are typically conducted with one surveying receiver located in a
previously surveyed location and a second receiver at the new location to be
surveyed. The receiver at the previously surveyed location acts as a DGPS
reference receiver and the receiver at the new location acts as a DGPS "mobile"
receiver. The "mobile" receiver is usually fixed at the new location for a period of
time to collect redundant measurements and further improve the accuracy of the
survey by post-processing to remove or reduce residual errors such as receiver
measurement noise. The period of time can range from seconds to days depending
on the survey accuracy required. Consequently, surveying
2-5
receivers must include considerable data recording capability. They may also
include the capability to store additional information about the characteristics of the
surveyed site.
Many surveying receivers have the capability to do a "self-survey", that is, develop
a smoothed or averaged position from non-differential GPS measurements. Non-
differential (absolute) surveys require considerably more time than DGPS surveys
to develop the same accuracy. However, the technique can be useful to establish a
reference point for subsequent DGPS (relative) surveys at locations where a formal
reference point is incon venient or unavailable. This capability can be especially
valuable for tactical military survey applications where the relative location of the
surveyed sites is more important than the absolute location or where centimeter
accuracy is unnecessary.
Most surveying receivers can also function in some capacity as navigation

receivers, thereby providing guidance for the surveyor to previously surveyed sites.
Additional software functions may also be provided to support datum
transformations, post-processing, and other related survey functions.
The signal processing techniques of GPS surveying receivers can be divided into
four categories:
a. Non-differential GPS
b. Ranging-Code Differential
c. Carrier-Phase Differential (Interferometry)
d. Codeless Carrier-Phase Differential
As described above, many surveying receivers have a non-differential GPS mode

for navigation and self-surveys. The signal processing techniques and accuracies
obtained are similar to other non-differential receivers as described in Chapter 1.
Surveying receivers may use RCD to determine an initial survey position that aids
the initialization process. The more accurate the initial position, the more quickly
initialization can be completed for real-time applications. Even if the final results
are post-processed to obtain maximum accuracy, real-time outputs can provide
preliminary results that confirm the success of the survey in the field or enable the
surveyor to detect and correct problems that may occur. The primary surveying
mode of most surveying receivers is CPD. The carrier-phase measurements and
algorithms enable centimeter and sub-centimeter accuracies in part due to
significantly lower measurement noise when compared to pseudorange
measurements. As in non-differential GPS, iono spheric errors can contribute
significant errors. However, in surveying applications, dual frequency (P-code)
measurements are almost essential to achieve surveying accuracies. Since the P-
code is normally only available as the Y-code, most surveying receivers use a
"codeless" technique to perform ionospheric delay meas urements. One technique
uses spectral compressors to compress the GPS signals into audio or subaudio
bands. A processor is used to extract the frequency and phase of each satellite in
view. Another technique is to split the received satellite signal and multiply it by
itself to obtain a second harmonic of the carrier phase shift which does not contain
the code modulation. Codeless tech niques can also be used to make CPD
measurements but the C/A-code naviga tion message must also be read to obtain
the satellite ephemeris if real-time outputs are desired.
2-6
2.7 ANALOG/DIGITAL RECEIVERS
The majority of early GPS receiver designs made extensive use of analog signal
processing techniques, however, most modern receivers incorporate digital signal
processing to replace analog receiver functions wherever possible. The following
examples are provided to give a description of the differences between these two
design techniques. Figure 2-1 shows a multi channel GPS receiver in which code
correlation is performed using analog mixing techniques at the intermediate
frequency (IF). Each satellite signal to be tracked requires a separate hardware
processing channel which consists of an analog correlator, code translator, IF
stage, and base band converter. The bandwidth of the IF stage is designed to
accommodate the GPS data rate and maximum carrier doppler-shifted frequency.
ANALOG DIGITAL
PRESELECTOR
GAIN
FINAL DOWN
CORRELATOR A/D
IF CONVERSION
CHANNEL 1
TRANSLATOR SIGNAL
AND
DATA
PROCESSING
CHANNEL 2
OTHER CHANNELS
Figure 2-1. Analog GPS Receiver Architecture
Figure 2-2 illustrates a GPS receiver using a largely digital architecture. Analog
signal processing is limited to preselection and gain applied to the GPS signals
during down conversion with fixed translation frequencies. The down-converted
signals are digitized through sampling and are then ready for further digital
processing. The digital signal processor (DSP) functions shown in Figure 2-2
include correlation, code and carrier acquisition, and data recovery.
2-7
In a digital receiver, analog to digital (A/D) conversion takes place at the receiver
IF. Code correlation and further signal processing occurs digitally. Since the input
signals remain code division multiplexed throughout the front end, this portion of
the receiver can accommodate either a sequential or multiplexed tracking
configuration for any number of satellites. Thus a digital receiver can easily be
structured as an "all in view" receiver, whereas an analog equivalent would require
a dedicated hardware correlation channel for each satellite in view. The digital
architecture illustrated in Figure 2-2 also provides for a great reduction in
complexity of the analog portion of a receiver. This in turn results in lower
production costs for test, calibration, and maintenance.
ANALOG DIGITAL
DIGITAL
SIGNAL
PROCESSOR
CONTROL
PRESELECTOR DOWN
CONVERSION A/D CHANNEL 1 AND
GAIN DATA
PROCESSOR
CHANNEL 2
CHANNEL n
Figure 2-2. Digital GPS Receiver Architecture
2.8 GPS AS A PSEUDORANGE/DELTA RANGE SENSOR
A GPS receiver need not necessarily be used as a PVT sensor in an integrated

navigation system. An integrator may instead wish to use GPS to supply satellite
pseudorange and deltarange measurements to an inte grated positioning solution.
Additional measurements may be provided to the integrated solution by systems or
equipment such as an Inertial Navigation System (INS) (position, velocity,
acceleration, attitude), Doppler Navigation System (position, velocity), Inertial
Aircraft Heading Reference System (velocity, acceleration, attitude), or a Central
Air Data Computer (CADC) (baro-altitude and airspeed). The positioning processor
can combine all the measurement data into one Kalman filter, to generate a system
positioning solution.
Such a solution requires a sophisticated integration scheme. In order to use the

pseudorange and deltarange data, additional information is needed such as
satellite ephemeris and GPS receiver clock biases. Accurate system and
subsystem clocks are needed to correct for differences between the time the
calculations are performed and the
2-8
time that the measurements were taken. Alternatively, measurements can be
deweighted in the integrated solution and latency errors added to the system error
budget. If implemented correctly, a GPS sensor can still contribute to a navigation
solution when less than four satellites are being tracked. Such a system is capable
of incorporating a single satellite measurement into the system Kalman filter, thus
bounding the navigation system solution in one dimension. The disadvantage of
using GPS as a sensor in an integrated positioning solution is the high level of
complexity involved in integrating such a system.
In general, stand-alone GPS receivers do not allow corrected pseudorange and

delta range data out of the receiver since it is classified data. Therefore, some
receivers provide the capability to process the integrated solution within the GPS
receiver. Many GPS sensors are now small enough to be embedded as a card or
module into another system, such as an INS or Flight Management System (FMS).
In such cases, the corrected pseudorange and delta range data may be permitted
off the card or module since the classified data would be contained within a single
unit. However, GPS technology now allows most of the GPS receiver functions to
be performed by a single semiconductor chip or small chip set. Consequently,
future security/processor devices such as the Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing
Module (SAASM) may return to the "stand-alone" architecture, providing the
capability to process the integrated solution aboard the device, while not allowing
the corrected pseudorange and delta range data out of the device. For additional
discussion of GPS integration architectures and related issues, refer to Chapter 8.
For security design guidelines refer to Navstar GPS PPS Host Application
Equipment (HAE) Implementation Guidelines.
2-9
2-10
CHAPTER 3: MINIMUM PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES
OF A GPS RECEIVER
3.1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
There are a set of basic performance parameters that are useful for making
comparisons between different GPS receivers. This set of parameters, together with
others, can be used to determine what type of receiver one should choose for a
particular application. The parameters of interest are:
a. Position accuracy
b. Velocity accuracy
c. Time accuracy
d. TTFF
3.1.1 GPS System Accuracy Characteristics
There are a number of different ways in which to express GPS accuracy. All are
expressed in statistical terms, with a probability assigned to the value given, and the
number of dimensions expressed or implied. The two primary positioning accuracy
requirements imposed on the GPS system by the U.S. DoD are 16 metres SEP for
PPS, and 100 metres 95% horizontal for SPS. SEP represents a 50% probability. Note
that the PPS requirement is a three-dimensional requirement specified at the 50%
probability level and the SPS requirement is a two-dimensional requirement specified at
the 95% probability level. Despite this inconsistency, these are the parameters and
points on the accuracy distributions that the Control Segment has used to determine
system management policies and methods.
GPS system positioning accuracy distributions are not spherical and are not Gaussian
in the tails of the distributions. Consequently, conversions from the system accuracy
requirements to other expressions of GPS accuracy, based on an assumption of a
spherical distribution that is Gaussian in each dimension can be inaccurate, especially
at the 95% probability level which is commonly used by NATO.
"Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS" gives conversions of the PPS

positioning requirement for typical GPS system operating conditions as 37 metres 95%
spherical accuracy and 21 metres 95% horizontal accuracy. Technical Characteristics
of the Navstar GPS also provides 95% accuracy tables to facilitate comparisons of PPS
and SPS spherical, horizontal, and vertical accuracies.
GPS exhibits statistical accuracy distributions because two important parameters

determine the accuracy of the position solution. They are User Equivalent Range
Error (UERE) and Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP). Both of these
parameters are variable with time. UERE is a measure of the error in the range
measurement to each satellite as seen by the receiver. UERE varies because of
random variations in the satellite signal, signal propagation characteristics, and
user measurement processes. Over the long term (days to months) UERE closely
resembles a Gaussian distribution and is equivalent for each satellite. UERE tends
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to be different for each satellite at any instant in time and tends to be at a minimum
following a new navigation message upload.
GDOP is an instantaneous measure of the error contributed by the geometric

relationship of the satellites as seen by the receiver. GDOP is a dimensionless
multiplicative factor. For a given value of UERE, small GDOP values mean more
precise position and/or time. GDOP varies because the satellites are in constant
motion and their geometric relationships are constantly changing. Consequently
GDOP can vary with time and user location. The "average" GDOP tends to induce
a circular error distribution in the horizontal plane with the vertical contribution of
error approximately 1.5 times the horizontal contribution. In real-time, GDOP can
be asymmetrical in the three dimensions and vary significantly from the average or
typical case, however, GDOP can be easily measured by the receiver, and is often
used to select optimum combinations of satellites for the position solution or to
develop real-time accuracy estimates.
GDOP distributions are not Gaussian, particularly in the tails of the distribution.
The global distribution of GDOP can vary significantly at the 95% probability level
due to temporary "vacancies" in the GPS constellation, while remaining relatively
constant at the 50% probability level where the GPS PPS system accuracy
requirement (16 metres SEP) is defined. Therefore, PPS 95% accuracy
specifications derived from this requirement may not be rigorously maintained
through all the possible states of the GPS constellation. However, although small
variations in accuracy performance are likely with each change in the constellation
state, worst-case situations are worst-case for all users and by all measures of
system performance, and will therefore be avoided or quickly corrected by the
Control Segment. (Temporary "vacancies" in the satellite constellation can be
expected over the life of the system due to preventive maintenance, satellite end-
of-life failures and delayed replacements, or random satellite failures that are
correctable by the Control Segment.)
UERE and GDOP are explained in more detail in paragraphs 3.1.2 and 3.1.3. It
should be noted that these errors are constantly present as normal variations in
accuracy, even with a complete GPS constellation and correctly operating
satellites, Control Segment, and receiver.
3.1.2 GPS PPS System Range-Error Budget
The GPS PPS system range-error budget is presented in Table 3-1. The budget is
expressed for the 95% probability level of the system UERE. This is a UERE averaged for
all satellites over a 24-hour period. Therefore, the long-term (greater than 24 hours) one-
sigma UERE for an individual satellite can exceed this value and the system can still meet
the accuracy requirements specified in the previous paragraph. The instantaneous UERE
of all satellites will typically exceed this value at sometime during a 24 hour period. From
the user point of view, the important values in this error budget are those allocated to the
User Segment. These are excellent guidelines for the purchase or development of
receivers because they are independent of the performance of the Space and Control
segments.
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Table 3-1. GPS PPS System Range Error-Budget
UERE Contribution
Segment Error Source (metres, 95%)
P-Code C/A-Code
Space Frequency Standard Stability 6.5 6.5

D-Band Delay Variation 1.0 1.0
Space Vehicle Acceleration Uncertainty 2.0 2.0
Other 1.0 1.0
Ephemeris Prediction and Model 8.2 8.2
Control Implementation
Other 1.8 1.8
User Ionospheric Delay Compensation 4.5 9.8-19.6
Tropospheric Delay Compensation 3.9 3.9
Receiver Noise and Resolution 2.9 2.9
Multipath 2.4 2.4
Other 1.0 1.0
Total (RSS) System UERE (metres, 95%) 13.0 15.7-23.1
3.1.2.1 GPS UE Range-Error Budget
The portion of the UERE allocated to the Space and Control segments is called the
user range error (URE) and is defined at the phase center of the satellite antenna.
The portion of the UERE allocated to the user equipment is called the UE error
(UEE). Specifically, the UERE is the root-sum-square of the URE and UEE. The
UEE includes residual errors after compensation for atmospheric delay, inherent
receiver errors of noise and resolution, and multipath. Modern C/A-code receivers
have demonstrated significant improvements in ionospheric delay compensation
over the budgeted values. The values given for ionospheric delay compensation
error are based on dual-frequency delay measurements for P-code and the single-
frequency ionospheric delay model for C/A-code (as specified in "Technical
Characteristics of the Navstar GPS"). The budgeted values for C/A-code can be
improved by use of a modified single-frequency model or code less dual-frequency
measurements on the L1 and L2 carriers. Modern P-code and C/A-code receivers
have both demonstrated significant improvements over the budgeted values for
receiver noise, resolution, and multipath, using digital phase locking techniques
and variable or narrow code correlation techniques.
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3.1.3 Geometric Dilution of Precision
As described in paragraph 3.1.1, GDOP is a dimensionless multiplicative factor that

is an instantaneous measure of the error in the positioning solution, contributed by
the geometric relationships of the GPS satellites, as seen by the receiver. As an
example, if two lines of position are necessary to establish a user position, the least
amount of error is present when the lines cross at right angles. The greatest error
is present as the lines approach parallel. (See Figure 3-1.) Similarly, for GPS, the
greatest amount of error is present when the lines-of-sight between the user and 2
or more satellites approach parallel, or when all four satellites approach the same
plane.
Figure 3-1. Dilution of Precision
"Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS" contains the mathematical definition

and derivation of GDOP. In short, if the one-sigma pseudorange measurement errors
for all satellites are assumed to be unity, GDOP is defined to be the square root of the
sum of the variances of the position and time error estimates.
GDOP = (sx2 + sy2 + sz2 + c2st 2)1/2
(Where "c" is the speed of light and "t" is the user clock bias.)
GDOP is therefore considered to relate the standard deviation of the satellite range
errors (UERE) to the standard deviation of the position solution errors. GDOP is
normally considered to be unitless; the units (metres) being carried by the range error
and position solution errors. Expressed as a mathematical formula:
sUERE x GDOP = sPOSITION SOLUTION ERROR
3-4
Other dilution of precision factors can be defined which are a subset of GDOP and
have a more specific physical meaning with respect to the x, y, and z axes in a local
coordinate system. They include position dilution of precision (PDOP), horizontal
dilution of precision (HDOP), vertical dilution of precision (VDOP) and time dilution of
precision (TDOP). Mathematically they are defined as follows:
PDOP = (sx2 + sy2 + sz2)1/2
HDOP = (sx2 + sy2)1/2
VDOP = (sz2)1/2
TDOP = (st2)1/2
HDOP can be further resolved into its X and Y components. If the X axis is oriented in
an East-West direction, an "East" DOP (EDOP) and "North" DOP (NDOP) can be
defined as follows:
EDOP = (sx2)1/2
NDOP = (sy2)1/2
Similarly, if the Y axis is oriented along the track of a moving vehicle, a "cross-track"
DOP (XDOP) and an "along-track" DOP (ADOP) can be defined:
XDOP = (sx2)1/2
ADOP = (sy2)1/2
The various elements of GDOP can also be calculated for an over-determined position
solution, that is, where the available satellite or aiding measurements exceed the
required minimum of four, and an "all-in-view" solution is calculated. The mathematical
formulations are similar, and generally result in a lower value of GDOP (hence better
solution accuracy) for each additional measurement that is added to the calculation.
GDOP can also be "weighted" with a vector of UERE values in the matrix
calculations for real-time or short-term error estimates where the satellite (or aiding)
UERE values are not equal. As mentioned previously, this is generally the case for
instantaneous values of UERE, and especially true for SPS where large differences
in instantaneous UERE can be caused by Selective Availability. This is also true
for aiding situations where the equivalent "UERE" of the aid is usually different than
the typical satellite UERE. This "weighted" variation of DOP is an estimate of User
Navigation Error (UNE) and is sometimes termed "KDOP". KGDOP has the same
definition as GDOP except that the statistical satellite range errors are not required
to be equal. Similarly there are analogous subset definitions of KPDOP, KHDOP,
etc.
3-5
Which DOP value may be most relevant to a particular application is dependent on the
mission and associated accuracy requirements of that mission. (K)HDOP may be most
important for land and open ocean navigation where horizontal position location and
rendezvous are primary mission requirements. (K)XDOP and (K)ADOP may be most
important for air navigation where aircraft spacing is a primary safety consideration.
(K)PDOP may be most important for aircraft weapons delivery, and (K)TDOP is
obviously most important for time transfer applications. Note that the DOP values
discussed here are instantaneous estimates of the geometric contribution to error for a
particular location and time. System accuracy requirements often require estimates of
long-term error distributions.
For long-term error estimates, the relationship between range error and position
solution error should be determined by computer simulation. The standard deviation of
the long-term position error distribution can be determined by using the standard
deviation of GDOP and the standard deviation of UERE, but the relationship does not
hold true for other probability levels, because the tails of the GDOP and position
solution distributions are not Gaussian. The most effective method for determining
long-term error distributions, for a particular constellation state or set of states, is by
conducting a computer simulation.
Computer simulations can be performed to determine global, regional, or single

location distributions, but they are often complex and time consuming. If a Monte Carlo
simulation is performed assuming a one-metre standard deviation for UERE, the
resultant normalized position error (NPE) distribution can be scaled by any UERE of
interest, and examined at any probability level of interest. The simulation can iterate
user locations around the globe and satellite orbital locations over time (24 hours) while
simulating GPS receiver calculations to determine the NPE distribution. While NPE is
analogous to GDOP in that it is a measure of the geometric characteristics of error,
GDOP is an instantaneous measure and NPE is a statis tical measure. The 95% PPS
and SPS accuracy values given in paragraph 5.1 of "Technical Characteristics of the
Navstar GPS", were determined by an NPE simulation using an optimized 21 satellite
constellation as a surrogate for the average or typical state of the GPS constellation.
It should be emphasized that it may be perfectly valid to translate user accuracy

requirements between different dimensions and probability levels assuming a spherical
error distribution and Gaussian error characteristics, if that is appropriate for the
particular mission or application. The fact that GPS accuracy performance is
nonspherical and non-Gaussian does not impose a similar condition on user
requirements.
3.2 RECEIVER POSITION ACCURACY
As described in paragraph 3.1.2.1, the UEE is independent of the satellite and

Control Segment errors, URE and receiver position accuracy are not. Therefore,
receiver position accuracy must be specified for conditions of DOP and URE, in
order to isolate the receiver contribution to position accuracy (e.g., UEE, filtering
algorithms, and coordinate trans formations). Dynamic positioning accuracy
requirements must take into account the effect of vehicle motion on the filter
accuracy as well. Laboratory testing must control DOP and URE. Field testing
must record DOP and URE. In general, testing is best performed when the system
3-6
positioning accuracies can be achieved. Assuming the UERE error budget is
maintained, this generally means DOP conditions of PDOP < 6, HDOP < 4, VDOP <
4.5, and TDOP < 2. URE and DOP are best measured during tests by a calibrated
reference receiver. Computer programs which use the broadcast almanac to
predict periods of favorable DOP can assist field test scheduling. The GPS System
Effectiveness Model (SEM) is one such program developed for the GPS JPO and
has been distributed to all NATO nations. Other similar programs are commercially
available.
3.3 RECEIVER VELOCITY ACCURACY
GPS receivers typically calculate velocity by measuring the frequency shift (Doppler
shift) of the GPS D-band carrier(s). Velocity accuracy can be scenario dependent,
but 0.2 m/sec per axis (95%) is achievable for PPS receivers. SPS velocity
accuracy is the same as PPS when SA is off. When SA is on, SPS velocity
accuracy is degraded. The amount of degra dation of the velocity is classified.
However, although not guaranteed, SPS velocity accuracies around 0.4 m/sec 95%
have been observed by civilian users for the typical level of SA associated with
normal peacetime operations and 100 metres 95% horizontal position ing accuracy.
Velocity accuracy can be effectively tested in a laboratory environment, but field

testing can be difficult since a tracking system with 0.05 m/sec or better accuracy is
required. The reader is urged to carefully consider the methods of testing if
velocity accuracy is an important mission requirement.
3.4 RECEIVER TIME ACCURACY
A dedicated PTTI port should normally be used for precise time output from a GPS
receiver. Significant time delays and uncertainties from microseconds to
milliseconds can be introduced if time output is accomplished via a digital data
interface. For a PPS P-code GPS receiver, tracking 4 satellites, an absolute time
accuracy of better than 200 nanoseconds (95%) relative to UTC is possible in a
stationary or low-dynamic situation at an unsurveyed location. Equivalent SPS C/A-
code accuracy is 340 nanoseconds (95%). Higher dynamics will increase time
error. Errors in the PTTI output result from errors in the GPS receiver as well as
the Control and Space segments. The system time transfer error budget is shown
in Table 3-2.
Processing errors in the GPS receiver and unaccounted time delays to propagate
the timing pulses to the PTTI port can add another 60-100 nanoseconds (95%),
depending on receiver design. Therefore, a total (RSS) time error of 209-224
nanoseconds (95%) can be expected.
Typical 95% time accuracies expected for precise time dissemination for different
categories of GPS receivers are shown in Tables 3-3 and 3-4, assuming an RSS of
88 ns for the Control and Space Segment errors, and 78 ns for the PTTI error.
3-7
3.5 TIME-TO-FIRST-FIX
Time-To-First-Fix (TTFF) is a measure of the elapsed time required for a receiver to

acquire the satellite signals and navigation data, and calculate the first position
solution. TTFF begins when initialization of the receiver is complete (including self-
test, loading of PPS keys, and any required operator input) and the receiver is
commanded to begin the positioning function. Some source material (U.S. DoD in
particular) may refer to TTFF1 and TTFF2. TTFF1 is based on C/A-code
acquisition with hand over to P-code tracking. TTFF2 is based on direct P-code
acquisition. REAC (reaction time) is the term typically used to include both the
initialization process and TTFF. Since initialization may necessitate operator
action, REAC specifications or require ments may require assumptions of operator
response times. TTFF is a function of the initial receiver state as well as receiver
design. The following paragraphs describe the satellite acquisition and initial
positioning processes in more detail.
Table 3-2. Time Error Budget
Error Component Error (ns, 95%)
US Naval Observatory Measurement Component 137

Control Segment Measurement Component 59
GPS Time Predictability 92
Navigation Message Quantization 6
Satellite Orbit 22
Satellite Clock 63
Satellite Group Delay 12
Downlink and User Equipment 65
Total (RSS) Time Transfer Error Budget 199
Table 3-3. Precise Time Output Accuracy (95%)

for a Typical PPS P-code Receiver
Receiver Mode Receiver Output S/A On S/A Off
Stand-Alone, Stationary, or Instrumentation Port 2 ms 2 ms

Low Dynamic PTTI Port 127 ns 127 ns
3-8
Table 3-4. Precise Time Output Accuracy (95%)
for a Typical SPS C/A-code Receiver
Receiver Mode and Output S/A On S/A Off
Stand-Alone (4 SVs), Stationary or Low Dynamic, PTTI Port 274 ns 157 ns

Stand-Alone (1 SV), Stationary, Known Position, PTTI Port 255 ns 147 ns
Coordinated Time Transfer, PTTI Port 59 ns 20 ns
Instrumentation Port 2 ms 2 ms
3.5.1 Warm Start, Cold Start, and Hot Start
Three different variations of TTFF are commonly defined and any one or all three
can be specified or required for a particular receiver. A warm or normal start is
based on the assumption that the receiver has an estimate of current time and
position as well as a recent copy of the satellite almanac data. Typically, time
should be known within 20 seconds of GPS time, position should be known within
100 kilometers, velocity within 25 metres per second, and the satellite almanac
should have been collected within the past few weeks. TTFF1 for warm starts is
typically in the 2 to 5.5 minute range.
A cold start occurs whenever there is a problem with these key data elements. This
is typical of a receiver as delivered from a manufacturer, supply depot, or repair
depot. Date and time will not be maintained if the receiver "keep alive" battery has
been removed or drained. If the receiver clock and memory remains active, the last
known position might be at a factory or depot thousands of kilometers from the
present position, and the almanac may be several months old. Under such
conditions, the receiver may have to systematically "search the sky" until it can find
a satellite and retrieve time and a current almanac. A cold start can add at least
12.5 minutes to TTFF1 over that based on a warm start.
A hot start occurs when a receiver is provided with a standby feature to maintain
oscillator temperature, time, position, and individual satellite ephemerides (as well
as the almanac). When the receiver is commanded out of the standby mode, the
time required to achieve the next full position fix is usually Termed Time to
Subsequent Fix (TTSF) rather than TTFF. Typically, TTSF is on the order of 10
seconds for standby periods of a few hours.
3.5.2 Receiver Warm-Up
When a GPS receiver is initially turned on, time must be allowed for the receiver
crystal oscillator to warm up and stabilize at its normal operating temperature. In a
GPS receiver it typically takes up to 6 minutes to complete this process. If the
receiver is provided with a mode that keeps the oscillator warm, this contribution to
TTFF can be avoided.
3-9
3.5.3 Almanac Collection
The first time a receiver is operated, it must perform an iterative search for the first
satellite signal unless it can be loaded with a recent satellite constellation almanac,
the approximate time and the approximate receiver location. The almanac gives the
approximate orbit for each satel lite and is valid for long time periods (up to 180
days). The almanac is used to predict satel lite visibility and estimate the pseudo-
range to a satellite, thereby narrowing the search window for a ranging code. Once
the first satellite signal is acquired, a current almanac can be obtained from the
NAV msg. It takes up to 12 1/2 minutes to collect a complete almanac after initial
acquisition. An almanac can be obtained from any GPS satellite. Most modern
receivers can update the almanac periodically and store the most recent almanac
and receiver position in protected memory. A clock can also be kept operating
when the receiver is off or in standby mode, so as to minimize initial acquisition
time for the next start-up.
3.5.4 Initial Uncertainties
The initial uncertainties associated with a GPS receivers initial position, velocity,
acceleration, jerk and time inputs must be specified when satellite acquisition times
are being tested. Acquisi tion and reacquisition times will vary depending on the
accuracy of the receiver initial ization. Some military TTFF requirements that include
jamming and other sensitive para meters in the start-up scenario may be classified.
3.5.5 Ephemerides Collection
Ephemeris data forms part of the 50 Hz NAV msg transmitted from the GPS
satellites. Unlike almanac data which can be obtained for the whole constellation
from a single satellite, ephemeris must be collected from each satellite being
tracked on acquisition and at least once every hour. Ephemeris information is
normally valid for 4 hours from the time of transmission, and a receiver can
normally store up to 8 sets of ephemeris data in its memory. Acquisition and
reacquisition times for a receiver will vary, depending on whether valid ephemeris
data is already available to the receiver. When testing acquisition time it is
necessary to specify whether a valid set of ephemerides is resident or not within the
receiver. Depending on the NAV msg collection scheme employed in a particular
receiver, it can take between 30 seconds and 3 minutes to collect the ephemeris
information.
3.5.6 Enhanced Acquisition Techniques
A number of enhanced acquisition techniques have been developed for modern

receivers. TTFF performance can be significantly improved by the use of multi-tap
correlators and multi-channel search algorithms. Multi-tap correlators are
essentially multiple correlators in the same package which greatly enlarge each
search window for code correlation. Similarly, using all available receiver channels
in the search for the first satellite can reduce TTFF by maximizing the effective
search window of the receiver.
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3.5.7 Direct P(Y)-Code Acquisition
Direct P(Y)-code acquisition can be effectively achieved using enhanced

acquisition techniques to enlarge the search window and/or by us ing atomic clock
aiding to reduce the initial time uncer tainty. Similarly, aiding from an inertial
reference system can be used to reduce the initial velocity and position uncertainty.
Downloading initialization data from another receiver can be used for direct P(Y)-
code acquisition as well.
3.5.8 TTFF Requirements
Figure 3-2 is a decision chart for determining TTFF requirements for the various
initial conditions described above, as well as the TTFF1 and TTFF2 acquisition
strategies and different receiver designs
3.5.9 Satellite Reacquisition
Satellite reacquisition assumes a temporary loss of a satellite signal due to masking

or similar loss of satellite visibility. A satellite reacquisition time of 10 seconds or
less is typically achievable. As described in paragraph 3.5.3, the accuracy of the
receiver position estimate is a primary factor in determining satellite reacquisition
time. Vehicle dynamics and elapsed time from loss of the signal are therefore
important in determining the accuracy of the receiver position estimate, as is the
presence of GPS aids such as an INS. Laboratory testing is recommended since
these factors are difficult to control and predict in the field.
3-11
START
COLD YES ADD 6 MINS FOR

START CLOCK WARM-UP
NO
ALMANAC YES ADD 15 MINS FOR

CLEARED TO COLLECT
ALMANAC
NO
P.V.T.
NO PVT UNCERTAINTIES
UNCERTAINTIES
LARGE ADD 30 SECS
VERY
ALMANAC
SMALL
YES
∆P <100km
∆V < 75m/s
UNCERTAINTIES
∆A <10m/s
2
YES SMALL ENOUGH TO ALLOW
∆P <10km DIRECT P-CODE ACQUISITION ∆T <20s
∆V ≈ 0 OR ATOMIC AIDING
∆A ≈ 0
∆J ≈ 2m/s
3
∆T <10µs NO
DIRECT ‘P’ CA TO ‘P’

CODE ACQUISITION ACQUISITION
ADD 30 SECS ADD 60 SECS
(TTFF2) (TTFF1)
COLLECT EPHEMERIS ADDS
CURRENT 3 MINS FOR 1 CHAN SET

EPHEMERIS 2 MINS FOR 2 CHAN
IN SET 30 SECS FOR 5 CHAN
1 MIN FOR MULTIPLEX
YES
FINISH
Figure 3-2. Time-To-First-Fix (TTFF)
3-12
CHAPTER 4: GPS RECEIVER INTERFACES
AND ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
GPS receivers often require electrical interfaces with other components of the GPS
receiver system or with other systems in a host vehicle (HV). Virtually all vehicle
integrations will require interfaces with HV power and an external antenna. Many
will require a crypto key interface and control-and-display interfaces between an
equipment compartment and a crew compartment. Some will require interfaces
between a data loader and the GPS receiver. Others may require interfaces
between the GPS receiver and other navigation systems in order to develop an
integrated position solution. In order to accommodate the varied requirements of
different installations, a GPS receiver may be built with a variety of interfaces to aid
integration. This chapter presents some thoughts on the ways of integrating GPS
with other systems using the interfaces specified for many of the U.S. DoD
receivers. These interfaces are also used by other NATO Nations and are provided
by other manufacturers, and therefore give an indication of what type of interfaces
could be available in a military GPS receiver. Examples of U.S. DoD ancillary
equipment are also provided to clarify interface uses.
4.2 GENERAL PURPOSE INTERFACES
Two of the most used interfaces in a vehicle integration are the MIL-STD-1553
multiplex data bus and the ARINC 429 digital information transfer system. Both
interfaces can be used to interconnect a GPS receiver with a wide variety of other
equipment, for example, a control-and-display unit (CDU), data loader, flight
instrument interface unit, or other navigation system such as an INS.
4.2.1 MIL-STD-1553 Multiplex Data Bus
Some GPS receivers are designed to communicate with other equipment via a MIL-
STD-1553 interface. The MIL-STD-1553 data bus is commonly used aboard
military aircraft and can also be found aboard military ground vehicles, ships, and
missiles. It is seldom used for civilian applications. The MIL-STD-1553 bus
operates with one of the interconnected equipment units assigned as a bus
controller. The bus controller controls the data flow on the bus in an asynchronous
command/response mode, and also transmits and receives information. The other
units are connected to the bus function as "slaved" remote terminals that receive
and transmit information, but may also function as back-up bus controllers. The
bus controller software program is specifically designed for each unique
installation.
4-1
4.2.2 ARINC 429 Digital Information Transfer System
The ARINC 429 data link is commonly used in commercial as well as military aircraft. It
is a single-point to multi-point asynchronous half-duplex data link. That is, an
equipment can transmit data to several other pieces of equipment. Each link is
programmed to output specific data formats at specific data rates. The ARINC 429
specification defines standard data formats and rates for data transfer between a wide
variety of commercial avionics equipment. However, the GPS data formats were
designed for a commercial ARINC 743A GPS/ GLONASS receiver.
4.2.3 Uses of the MIL-STD-1553 and ARINC 429 Interfaces
The following paragraphs give several examples of ancillary equipment that might
communicate with a GPS receiver over the MIL-STD-1553 or ARINC 429 data links.
4.2.3.1 Control and Display Unit
A CDU is often required when a GPS receiver in an equipment compartment must be

controlled remotely from a crew compartment. The CDU allows the operator to enter
initialization data and control parameters, display status and position data, and can
provide access to related functions, such as, waypoint navigation functions. Examples
of two types of CDUs procured by the U.S. DoD are discussed below to clarify typical
CDU capabilities.
The U.S. DoD has procured dedicated CDUs as well as multifunction CDUs. A
dedicated CDU (or "dumb" CDU) is essentially a remote control and display panel that
possesses no processing capability, relying on the GPS receiver for all computation
functions. A multifunction CDU (or "smart" CDU) is designed to control a GPS receiver,
perform other navigation or control functions, and may interface with additional
navigation equipment as well. The multifunction CDU includes onboard processing
capability for functions, such as, calculating a composite positioning solution using
GPS and other navigation sensors, or performing the waypoint navigation function.
4.2.3.1.1 Dedicated CDU
A view of the front panel of a dedicated CDU with a sample display is shown in Figure
4-1. The CDU has a four line, 13 character display controlled by two rotary switches,
four line select keys, a display freeze key (Mark), a waypoint mode key, a page slew
key, and an alphanumeric keypad. The MODE switch selects the receiver operating
mode, the DATA switch selects which parameters are to be displayed, and the
keyboard is used to make parameter entries.
In addition to the basic position, velocity, and time displays, the CDU also provides
status information on various display pages. Some of this information is the external
interface configuration, satellite tracking status, estimated position error, age of satellite
almanac, PTTI 1 pulse per second time difference, and the Built-In-Test (BIT) fault log
data. Control functions
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Figure 4-1. Example of a Dedicated CDU
include the selection of the lever arm source, flight instrument interface mode, and
aiding sensor control.
4.2.3.1.2 Multiple Dedicated CDU Operation
Control and display for a GPS receiver may involve more than one dedicated CDU.
The design of a GPS receiver may incorporate two dedicated CDU interfaces and may
also provide a data link interface (e.g., MIL-STD-1553) that can also be utilized for
control and display. However, only one interface should be able to control and
manually initialize a GPS receiver at any given time. A master CDU can be designated
by a software configuration connector strap as either a data bus or one of the dedicated
CDUs. The master CDU is initially the "active" CDU when the receiver is powered up
and may always regain control from another CDU if it has relinquished control to that
unit. A designator indicating the current active CDU should be stored in non-volatile
memory so that it will not change as a result of a accidental power outage. The active
CDU has the sole responsibility for control and manual initialization and thus has sole
responsibility for the following:
· Receiver Mode Commands

· Rendezvous Mode Selection
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· Waypoint Activation
· Destination Selection
· Waypoint Definition
· Mark Definition
· Desired Track/Desired Vertical Angle Selection
· Altitude Hold Activation
· Stationary Mode Activation
· Flight Instrument Scaling
· Map Datum Selection
· Acquisition Uncertainty Selection
4.2.3.1.3 Multifunction CDU
A view of the front panel of a multifunction CDU, with a sample display, is shown in
Figure 4-2. The CDU has an eight line, 22 character display controlled by standard and
special function keys, full alphanumeric keypad, and eight line select keys. The CDU
utilizes a menu driven approach for control, display, and data entry in lieu of the rotary
switches of the dedicated CDU.
Figure 4-2. Example of a Multifunction CDU
The CDU includes enhanced area navigation software and a dual-redundant MIL-STD-
1553 data bus. It is capable of operating as either a bus controller, backup bus
controller, or remote terminal. The CDU can act as the MIL-STD-1553 bus controller
and exchange data with the following equipment:
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· GPS Receiver
· Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS)
· Central Air Data Computer (CADC)
· Mission Data Loader (MDL)
· Two Additional CDU Systems
4.2.3.1.4 Multiple Multifunction CDU Operation
The CDU MIL-STD-1553 bus logic can be designed to support an installation of two or
more CDUs. In multiple CDU operations, one CDU is the bus controller and the
other(s) are remote terminals and backup bus controllers. If the active bus controller
fails, then another CDU becomes the bus controller and no degradation in system
performance occurs. The CDU can be designed such that in multi-CDU installations,
any CDU can become the "active" CDU and all can have independent control of data
display.
4.2.3.2 Data Loader System
A GPS receiver (and/or multifunction CDU) may have the capability to load relevant
data over a data link from a Data Loader System (DLS). The primary func tion of the
interface is to provide the ability to input initialization data from an external nonvolatile
memory device. This is almost essential for GPS avionics systems that must be
compatible with civil aviation and use a large International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) standard waypoint and navaid data base. A data loader may also be useful for
storing navigation, status, or mission data collected during a mission. The DLS may be
used to store and load the following:
· Waypoints and Flight Plans

· GPS Satellite Almanac Data
· GPS Satellite Health/Status Data
· Antenna Lever Arm Data
· Instrumentation Port Parameters
· SA/A-S Data
· Sensor Configuration Data
An example data loader system is shown in Figure 4-3. The system consists of a
memory device and a read/write/interface unit. The example memory device is a
plug-in cartridge that contains solid state memory, memory addressing circuitry,
serial input/output converters, and an alkaline cell to power the memory for data
retention purposes. Other memory devices such as magnetic tape cassettes and
computer diskettes are also common. The read/write/interface unit is installed in
the HV and often resembles a small tape deck in size and appearance. It contains
the appropriate circuitry to read from and write to the memory device, and contains
interface circuitry to send and receive data from the data link (e.g., MIL-STD-1553
or ARINC 429).
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Figure 4-3. Example of a Data Loader System
4.2.3.3 Flight Instrument Interface Unit
Some GPS receiver designs will pass analog signals direct ly to the flight instruments,
but many designs may have a digital-only output via an ARINC 429 interface. The
reason for a digital-only design is the anticipation of all-digital flight instruments in the
future. Aircraft with analog flight instru ments may require a separate digital-to-analog
converter to convert the digital data to the synchro, analog and discrete signals needed
to drive these instruments.
As an example, the Signal Data Converter (SDC) unit, developed for the U.S. DoD,
performs this function. In concept, the SDC process is simple; the SDC takes the
digital ARINC 429 data stream and converts those parameters to analog signals that
can be handled by analog flight instruments. Not all of the parameters can be used
(e.g. waypoint, latitude, and longitude) since the analog flight instruments have no way
of processing or displaying such data. Data which can be used by analog flight
instruments include:
· Distance to Waypoint
· Waypoint Bearing
· Desired Track (or radial)
· Vertical/Horizontal Deviation From Selected Track (2-D or 3-D)
· Data Validity Discretes
· To/From Indication
The use of GPS for navigation in a mili tary aircraft is often seen as a substitute for
the Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) system. Therefore, it may be desirable to use
TACAN procedures with GPS, and it may also be desirable for the GPS displays to
emulate the TACAN displays. The SDC includes the capability to function as a
TACAN digital-to-analog converter by means of a simple discrete switch. This
provides a simplified method
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for GPS access to the analog flight instruments, using the existing TACAN wiring
path (i.e., replace the existing TACAN D-to-A with the SDC).
Since GPS is still a relatively new system, some of the TACAN system characteristics
need to be considered. Identified below are GPS flight instrument display and
procedures comparisons to TACAN and other radio navigation aids.
4.2.3.3.1 Deviation Scale Factor
With TACAN, a 2-dot horizontal deviation displacement represents 10 degrees off the
required radial. An Instrument Landing System (ILS) Localizer has a 2-dot
displacement of approximately 3 degrees (runway dependent). In the case of the U.S.
DoD equipment, the GPS 2-dot displacement represents either 4 nmi, 1 nmi, 0.3 nmi
linear displacement, or 3 degrees depending on the scale factor selected (Enroute,
Terminal, Nonprecision Approach, or Approach respectively).
These GPS horizontal scale factors were generally derived from airway track keeping
requirements for the various phases of flight. The Enroute scale factor was derived
from the typical ±4 nmi U.S. National Air Space (NAS) Airway width. The Terminal
scale factor was selected based on U.S. Air Force Instrument Flight Center flight
testing. The Non-Precision Approach scale factor corresponds with U.S. FAA non-
precision approach tolerance. The Approach scale factor simulates an ILS localizer
display.
If 3-dimensional waypoints are used, then the U.S. DoD GPS receiver can present
vertical deviation information. The vertical 2-dot deflections are 1000 ft, 500 ft and 200
ft linear displacement, and 0.7 degrees corresponding to the En Route, Terminal, Non-
Precision Approach, and Approach scale factors respectively. The linear scale factors
provide the opportunity to someday utilize GPS for vertical navigation in level flight.
The Approach vertical scale factor simulates an ILS glideslope display.
4.2.3.3.2 TACAN and GPS Flight Procedural Differences
In the TO/FROM TACAN Navigation mode, the Omni Bearing Select (OBS) knob on
the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) allows the pilot to select the radial (to or
from the current waypoint) along which he wishes to fly. As the knob is turned and
the radial changes, the horizontal deviation bar swings to show the pilot whether he
is left or right of that radial. In the case of TACAN, the OBS knob feeds back to the
TACAN Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC), where the left/right computation is
carried out (see Figure 4-4). The deviation bar is driven by angular differences.
The U.S. DoD SDC can mimic the TACAN DAC as shown in Figure 4-4.
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Figure 4-4. Flight Instruments and TACAN
In the case of U.S. DoD GPS receivers using GPS TO/FROM Navigation mode, the
receiver is programmed with waypoint information which includes desired track. This
can be analogous to selected TACAN station (waypoint) and OBS radial setting
(desired track). The deviation bar deflection will be a function of linear distance (when
not in approach mode) of the aircraft perpendicular to the desired track which was
programmed in the receiver (see Figure 4-5). The SDC provides a desired track output
synchro signal that can drive the HSI OBS to the appropriate radial setting. The pilot,
however, can not turn the OBS knob to select a new GPS desired track (other similar
products may choose to incorporate the OBS knob setting). The pilot wishing to
change the desired track value must enter it into the CDU. The pilot alternatively can
select the Direct-To navigation function to get a direct course to the waypoint.
Pilots generally steer magnetic headings. GPS is an inher ently "true" system. One
must therefore be careful that the SDC always has a designated magnetic or true
heading source and the GPS receiver has knowledge of local magnetic variation, or
assigned magnetic variation (in the case of Navaids used as waypoints).
4.2.3.4 Inertial Navigation Systems
A GPS receiver integrated with an Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) forms a

particularly effective navigation system. The GPS receiver can compensate for the
long-term drift of an INS and an INS can compensate for the short-term noise and
relatively low data rate of a GPS receiver. (Additional discussion of GPS integration
architectures is provided in Chapter 8).
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Figure 4-5. Flight Instruments and GPS
4.3 PRECISE TIME AND TIME INTERVAL INTERFACE

4.3.1 Introduction
GPS is becoming recognized as the primary time dissemination system for military and
commercial applications. An example of a system which may use time transfer from
GPS is the calibration of atomic clocks.
4.3.2 Precise Time Inputs
A time input is used to reduce the uncertainty of the receivers initial time estimate and
thus reduce TTFF, or it may be used instead of a satellite in the navigation solution.
The precise time input to a GPS receiver is accomplished by using a 1 pulse per
second rate representing UTC one-second-rollover and a Binary Code Decimal (BCD)
time code describing the pulse per second time from an atomic clock. The pulse input
indicates the moment of the time to UTC, and the BCD time code identifies what time it
was at the UTC one-second-rollover.
The MIL-STD-1553 PTTI Input Message time transfer mechanism uses the same time
rollover pulse input. However, instead of labe ling the time with a BCD time input, the
HV supplies a PTTI input message via the MIL-STD-1553 MUX bus to label the time
epoch.
4.3.3 Precise Time Outputs
The primary function of these outputs is to calibrate an atomic clock, or to support

other systems that require precise time. The outputs are 1 pulse per second or 1
pulse per minute to indicate the one second or one minute rollover of UTC, and a
BCD time code that indicates the time at the rollover epoch (Hours, Minutes,
Seconds, Day of Year, Time Figure of Merit (TFOM)).
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Another means of precise time transfer from the GPS receiver is to use the 1 pulse per
second output in conjunction with the PTTI output message available on the MIL-STD-
1553 multiplex bus.
4.4 ROLL/PITCH/HEADING/WATER-SPEED ANALOG INPUT INTERFACE
A shipborne receiver should be able to accept analog inputs of the ship's attitude and
water speed in coarse and fine synchro for mat. The heading input signal can be used
by the receiver to assist in satellite acquisition and tracking, and for relative course
calculations. The roll/pitch input signal can be used by the receiver to compensate for
antenna motion. The water speed input signal can be used by the receiver to aid in
satellite acquisition and tracking, and for relative speed calcu lations.
4.5 INSTRUMENTATION PORT INTERFACE
GPS receivers typically have an interface for testing during development and
manufacturing. If the configuration of this interface is documented and controlled, it
may be useful for integration purposes. Several U.S. DoD GPS receivers have an
instrumentation port interface. This interface can be used for some HV integration
applications and for connection of test equipment used by maintenance and test
activities. The interface is a full duplex RS-422 serial interface that can be con -
nected to a Smart Buffer Box for test instrumentation purposes, or to an
Intermediate Level Test Set for maintenance purposes.
4.6 RS-232 INTERFACE
RS-232 is a common interface typically used to interface between computer equipment.

The PLGR includes a RS-232 2-way serial port. This port provides the capability to
control the PLGR remotely, and to transfer data between PLGRs or between a PLGR
and a computer. This interface can also be used for reprogramming PLGR operational
software.
4.7 BAROMETRIC ALTIMETER INTERFACE
A variety of barometric altimeter devices output digitally-encoded pressure altitude,

referenced to the geoid or Mean Sea Level (MSL), with a pressure reference of 1013.2
hectoPascals (formerly millibars). This is the same encoded altitude as is used in
Mode C altitude reporting via an air traffic control radar beacon (IFF transponder).
Some U.S. DoD GPS receivers have a compatible baro-altimeter input. It is a parallel
interface which consists of ten signal leads and one signal return. The seven most
significant bits are a Gray Code representation of the barometric alti tude in feet, to the
nearest 500 feet. The three least signifi cant bits are a binary code which indicates the
100 foot increment within the 500 foot interval.
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4.8 GPS INTERFACE OPTIONS
4.8.1 Introduction
Choice of interfaces for a GPS receiver are dependent on the system to which a GPS
receiver shall be integrated, and are also dependent on the depth of the integration
required. Alternative approaches to interfaces can be grouped as follows:
· Implement a new interface in an existing GPS receiver

· Redesign of HV systems to accommodate an existing GPS receiver
· Development of an interface box to adapt an existing GPS receiver to an
existing HV system.
4.8.2 Implementing a New Interface in an Existing GPS Receiver
Good design of a GPS receiver allows the partitioning of the receiver portion and
the interface requirements. Often this can be accom plished by using a separate
processor to manage interfaces, thus buffering the performance of the GPS
receiver portion from the individual demands of a platform interface. This gives the
ability to add new interfaces with minimum impact on the majority of receiver
software design. Given the flexibility of the software design, an existing GPS
receiver can have a new interface card inserted into a spare card slot, or if an
existing interface is not used, then the new interface card can be substituted for it.
This choice is constrained by the hardware limitations of wiring, output pin
availability, etc.
4.8.3 Redesign of HV Interfaces to Accommodate an Existing GPS Receiver
Redesign of the HV interfaces to accommodate the GPS receiver with its current
interface is a possibility; however, it may not be considered practical unless major
components of the HV can be changed at the same time. With GPS becoming
available as a sensor (rather than an LRU with interfaces), embedded GPS receiver
alternatives (e.g., embedded in an INS) should also be considered when systems are
being replaced.
4.8.4 Separate Development of an Interface Box
One approach that can have minimal impact on both an existing GPS receiver and
HV systems is the design of a separate "box" that performs the interface functions.
This "box" would accept existing interface inputs and outputs of a GPS receiver and
convert them to the inputs and outputs normally used by the HV systems. This
approach still requires the HV system's software to be changed to accept another
navigation input, and the issues of space, weight, and power for the new "box" must
be addressed. Of importance is the impact on the data senescence caused by the
additional time delay necessary for the "box" to convert the data.
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4-12
CHAPTER 5: ANTENNA SUBSYSTEMS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
GPS users have different requirements for GPS system performance which demand a
variety of antennas and antenna subsystems. There are three basic types of GPS
antennas, a passive Fixed Radiation Pattern Antenna (FRPA), a FRPA with an
integrated preamplifier, and a Controlled Radiation Pattern Antenna (CRPA). The
requirement to drive a long cable run, with its associated signal loss between the
antenna and the GPS receiver has resulted in a FRPA with an integrated amplifier. A
CRPA is required to reduce the effects of RF interference which would otherwise jam
the receiver's operation.
5.2 FRPA
5.2.1 General Characteristics
A FRPA has a fixed antenna radiation pattern which is only affected by the size and
shape of the ground plane on which it is installed. As GPS antennas are typically
narrow band the radiation pattern does not change over either the L1 or L2 bandwidth
although due to the difference between the L1 and L2 wavelength there are significant
differences in the radiation at the L1 and L2 frequencies.
Typical specifications for FRPAs include parameters for operating frequencies,

impedance, Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), radiation pattern, polarization, axial
ratio and gain. These specifications impact receiver performance. The size, shape and
weight of the FRPAs will vary with the application. A FRPA for an aircraft installation
has a different form than a FRPA for a hand-held receiver. A number of FRPAs are
discussed below. FRPAs are generally non -repairable units which require no
adjustment over their lifetime. Passive FRPAs require no power. All FRPAs can be
fitted with an external low noise amplifier should this be needed to overcome losses
introduced by a long cable length. The amplifier will probably require a low power DC
voltage.
An important parameter when selecting a GPS antenna is the gain. Gain is defined
with respect to an isotropic radiator for circular polarization, expressed as dBic, and
the sector of the sphere surrounding the antenna over which the gain can be
maintained, expressed as the angle from the antenna boresight. (The boresight is the
central axis of the antenna usually the direction of maximum gain).
To receive the signals from GPS satellites, which may be at any angle in the upper
hemisphere, the gain must not drop below -5 dBic. In the case of an aircraft there
is a significant problem of maintaining sufficient gain towards the satellites as the
aircraft maneuvers through high angles of pitch and roll. Typically an aircraft's
GPS antenna gain falls to -15 dBic below the azimuth plane, although a worst case
gain of -20 dBic can be assumed.
5-1
5.2.2 FRPA Types
There are many types of GPS FRPA antenna. The simplest is a resonant monopole
approximately 5 cms in length. However, as the monopole has a toroidal radiation
pattern and is vertically polarized, it is not optimum for use with the circularly polarized
GPS transmissions. Gain is very low, -40 dBic on boresight and peaking to
approximately 0 dBic at 70° from boresight depending on the conductivity of the ground
plane.
Spiral Helix antennas are useful for several receiver applications where a small
antenna is required that is generally unaffected by the presence or absence of a
ground plane. The antenna can be configured to be low profile, but is not conformal
and is therefore not suitable for fast aircraft. The antenna is less sensitive to the
influence of the ground plane than some other FRPAs and is capable of being mounted
on non-conducting surfaces, making it suitable for a variety of applications from
vehicles to handheld receivers. Typically the gain is better than -4 dBic from boresight
to 80°. The antenna's mechanical layout and typical dimensions are shown in Figure 5-
1.
The FRPA Bifilar Helix is designed for hand-held applications and is capable of being
integrated into a broad category of ground vehicles in addition to its main application
on the Precise Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR). The antenna is insensitive to
ground plane and installation location. Streamlined outer shell can be added to enable
the device to be used in medium dynamic, for instance helicopter applications. It
provides a gain of not less than - 3 dBic over 80° angle from boresight. The antenna 's
mechanical layout and typical dimensions are shown in Figure 5-2.
To produce a conformal design for aircraft applications where minimal drag is required,
a crossed slot or patch antenna can be used. The crossed slot is effectively four
monopoles laid out at right angles with a suitable separation above the ground plane.
Patches can take many formats. These antennas rely on the aircraft skin acting as a
ground plane to achieve the required antenna performance. Gains of +2 dBic are
typically achieved on boresight and, although the gain to circularly polarized radiation
falls to -5 dBic at 90° (from boresight), the gain is sufficient to allow satellites to be
tracked through medium dynamic aircraft maneuvers. Antennas can be made that are
sensitive to L1 and L2 GPS frequencies. The mechanical layout and the dimensions of
an example antenna are shown in Figure 5-3.
A special derivative of a FRPA crossed monopoles antenna is the FRPA Ground

Plane. This special FRPA assembly (see Figure 5-4) is intended for shipborne mast
applications where there is no ground plane. The assembly consists of a ground
plane/mounting surface for the FRPA plus an environmentally sealed enclosure
containing an integrated preamplifier. A derivation of the FRPA Ground Plane is
employed for GPS Reference Stations in a differential system. In these
applications a special choke ring is added to the antenna to reduce the gain in the
direction of likely sources of multipath.
5-2
Figure 5-1. FRPA Spiral Helix
Figure 5-2. FRPA Bifilar Helix
Figure 5-3. FRPA Crossed Monopoles
5-3
Figure 5-4. FRPA Ground Plane
5.3 CRPA Equipment
CRPAs have been shown to be the only effective means of protecting GPS receivers
against multiple wideband jammers. A CRPA has two components: an Antenna Control
Unit (ACU) and an antenna array. Current aircraft CRPA's typically have seven
antenna elements in the array with seven associated processing channels. CRPAs
under development for missile may use only four or five elements.
The antenna array is composed of antenna elements which may be of any of the above
FRPA types. However the vehicle environment significantly limits the choice. In the
case of aircraft the array has to be conformal and is therefore usually made up of
patch or crossed dipole antennas. The antenna elements are spaced at approximately
half wavelength separation, at the shortest operational wavelength. It is essential for
optimum operation of the CRPA that all the antenna elements in the array have
omnidirectional performance with constant gain characteristics over as large a sector
as possible.
The ACU controls the array's radiation pattern by adjusting the gains and phase from
each antenna. First generation ACU employed analogue electronics with some digital
control. Newer equipment digitizes the receiver signal in a similar manner to that used
in a GPS receiver. The ACU contains a series of amplifiers and gain control systems
for each channel, a set of weights that make up a beam former and a microprocessor
and associated electronics that contains the control algorithm and drive the weights in
the beamformer. Each weight is a phase shifter with gain control. The phase shift was
initially performed by analogue components but it is now cost effective to employ digital
multiplier circuits. The receiver signal is downconverted to near baseband and
sampled into inphase and quadrature components. By adjusting the gain and sign of
each component a 360 degree range is achieved.
As the GPS signal is below the thermal noise in the transmission bandwidth, any
signal detected above the thermal noise level can be considered to be harmful to
GPS operation. Initially the array's radiation pattern is set to omnidirectional, by
5-4
adjusting the gain and phase in the ACU. Whenever a jamming signal is detected,
the gain and phase of the beamformer is adjusted to form a null in the radiation
pattern in the direction of the jammer with the result to cancel the effect of the
jammer.
A CRPA has one less degree of freedom than the number of elements (N), allowing N-1
independent jamming sources to be cancelled.
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CHAPTER 6: SERVICE COVERAGE, SERVICE AVAILABILITY,
AND SERVICE RELIABILITY; SATELLITE SELECTION
CRITERIA AND FIGURE OF MERIT DESCRIPTION
6.1 SERVICE COVERAGE, SERVICE AVAILABILITY, AND SERVICE RELIABILITY
This section describes the minimum performance an authorized user can expect to
obtain from PPS receiver which is designed and operated in accordance with
"Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS". Performance is specified in terms of
minimum performance standards for each performance parameter. Each standard
includes a definition of applicable conditions and constraints. The information provided
in this section is derived and extracted from "The Global Positioning System (GPS)
SPS Performance Specification", dated November 5, 1993, published by the U.S. DoD.
Although the GPS SPS Performance Specification is directed toward SPS users of
GPS, the specified performance of the system with respect to service coverage, service
availability, and service reliability is the same for PPS users.
The data and associated statements provided in this chapter represent conservative
performance expectations, based upon extensive observations of the system. The
performance standards are limited to GPS Control Segment and Satellite contributions
to the PPS signal-in-space characteristics and their effects on the position solution.
The standards do not include enhancements or degradations to this service that might
be provided by the UE or local environment. Examples of possible enhancements
include altitude aiding, clock aiding, differential corrections, or integrity algorithms.
Examples of possible local degradations include multipath, jamming, terrain masking,
or receiver errors.
6.1.1 Parameter Definitions
The three parameters defined below are service coverage, service availability, and
service reliability. These definitions and the relationships between them are different
from traditional definitions of similar parameters. A dependent relationship is defined to
exist between these performance parameters. Each successive layer of performance
definitions are conditioned on the preceding layers. That is, coverage must be
provided before the service may be considered available and it must be available
before it can support service reliability requirements.
Service coverage is defined as the percentage of time over a specified interval that a
sufficient number of satellites are above a specified mask angle and provide an
acceptable position solution geometry at any point on or near the earth.
GPS coverage is viewed somewhat differently than coverage for existing terrestrial
positioning systems. Traditionally coverage has been viewed as the surface area or
volume in which a system may be operated. Since a terrestrial system's beacons are
fixed, coverage does not change as a function of time. Since the GPS concept relies
upon the dynamics of a satellite constellation, coverage must take into consideration a
time dependency. GPS coverage is by definition intended to be global. GPS coverage is
viewed alternatively as the percentage of time over a time interval that a user, anywhere in
6-1
the world and at any time, can see a sufficient number of satellites to generate a position
solution. Constraints are placed upon satellite visibility in terms of mask a ngle and
geometry, to minimize the possibility of a GPS receiver generating a marginal position
solution. Coverage characteristics over any given region vary slightly over time, due
primarily to small shifts in satellite orbits.
Since GPS is a space-based system, coverage is defined as a function of each

satellite's antenna beamwidth. The GPS satellite antenna's nominal beamwidth is
approximately 28 degrees. If a user on the Earth's surface were to view a satellite
which is just above the local horizon, the user could elevate from that location to an
altitude of approximately 200 kilometers above the Earth's surface before effectively
losing that satellite's signal. This condition defines the maximum altitude associated
with the term "on or near the Earth."
Service availability is defined as the percentage of time over a specified time interval
that a sufficient number of satellites are transmitting a usable ranging signal within view
of any point on or near the earth, given that coverage is provided.
Just because a satellite is operational does not mean that it is currently transmitting a
usable GPS ranging signal. Satellites will, on occasion, be removed temporarily from
service for routine maintenance. As a result, the number of satellites actually
transmitting usable ranging signals will vary over time. Service availability is the
measure of how GPS coverage deviates from nominal conditions due to the temporary
removal of satellites from service. This measurement represents the percentage of
time that coverage is provided by those satellites which are transmit ting usable ranging
signals to generate a position solution. Variations in service availability are a function
of which satellites are removed from service, the length of the service outage, and
where on the globe a user is located in relation to any resulting outage patterns.
Service reliability is defined as the percentage of time over a specified time interval that
the instantaneous predictable horizontal error is maintained within the normal accuracy
distribution at any point on or near the earth, given that coverage is provided and the
service is available.
GPS can be used anywhere in the world. A failure in a system with such global
coverage may affect a large percentage of the globe. A natural concern about using
GPS is whether or not it provides a satisfactory level of service reliability. Service
reliability as it is used in a GPS context is somewhat more restrictive than the classical
definition, which includes times that the service is available as well as when it is
performing within specified tolerances. GPS service reliability is viewed as a measure
only of how well GPS maintains horizontal errors within the normal predictable PPS
horizontal accuracy distribution. 100% service reliability is provided when the
horizontal error remains within the normal accuracy distribution within the conditions
specified for coverage and service availability. Periods where the service does not
provide a sufficient number of satellites or adequate geometry to support position
solution generation are assessed against the coverage service availability performance
standard.
6.1.2 Service Coverage Characteristics
6-2
This section defines the GPS coverage standards, GPS constellation design objectives,
and the characteristics of GPS coverage which are expected with a 24 satellite
operational constellation. The user is provided with general information concerning how
coverage will vary over time on a global basis, and a worst-case projection of coverage
on a regional basis. The data provided in the discussion is based upon a global
assessment of grid points spaced equally, approximately 111 kilometers apart, every
30 seconds over a 24 hour period.
6.1.2.1 Service Coverage Standards
GPS Service will be provided in accordance with the coverage standards presented in
Table 6-1.
Table 6-1. Service Coverage Standards
Coverage Standard Conditions and Constraints

³99.9% global average · Probability of 4 or more satellites in view over any 24 hour interval,
averaged over the globe
· 4 satellites must provide PDOP of 6 or less
· 5° mask angle with no obscure
· Standard is predicated on 24 operational satellites, as the
constellation is defined in the almanac
³96.9% at worst-case · Probability of 4 or more satellites in view over any 24 hour interval,
point for the worst-case point on the globe
· 4 satellites must provide PDOP of 6 or less
· 5° mask angle with no obscure
· Standard is predicated on 24 operational satellites, as the
constellation is defined in the almanac
6.1.2.2 The GPS 24-Satellite Constellation
The 24 satellite constellation is designed to optimize global coverage over a wide

range of operational conditions. Specific constellation design objectives are listed
below:
· Provide continuous global coverage with specified geometry and mask angle
constraints.
· Minimize coverage sensitivity to expected satellite orbital drift characteristics.
· Mitigate the effects on service availability of removing any one satellite from
service.
Several factors affect GPS coverage. These factors must be taken into consideration
in the constellation design. The factors are:
6-3
· The difference between the planned orbit and the orbit actually achieved during
the launch and orbit insertion process,
· Orbit variation dynamics, and
· Frequency and efficiency of satellite station-keeping maneuvers.
6.1.2.3 Expected Service Coverage Characteristics
Proper support of the first design objective (from above) requires that at least four
satellites are continuously in view with an acceptable geometry and mask angle
anywhere in the world. An impli cation of this requirement is that most of the time
significantly more than four satellites will be visible. As shown in Figure 6-1, eight
satellites will be visible on average for any location in the world, over 24 hours. Very
seldom will a user see only four satellites when all 24 satellites are providing usable
ranging signals. If the 24 satellites in the GPS constellation were all launched with no
deviations into their planned orbits, and no drift were allowed, the constella tion would
provide virtually 100% (0.99999714) four satellite coverage with a PDOP constraint of
six.
Figure 6-1. Satellite Global Visibility Profile
Unfortunately, variations in final orbits based upon launch uncertainties and routine
drift do occur. The second design objective is supported by evaluating how changes in
each satellite's orbital elements affect nominal coverage characteristics. Bounds are
applied to orbital element deviation from the nominal orbit to ensure that constellation
coverage does not degrade beyond allowed limits. Degraded coverage areas drift and
change slightly in shape over time, but their average number and duration will remain
approximately constant for a given constellation. Changes in the number of satellites
or significant shifts in satellite orbits, however, can dramatically change the attributes of
degraded coverage areas.
6-4
Given a 24 satellite constellation, GPS will provide 100% four and five satellite
coverage without a PDOP constraint (but with a mask angle of 5 degrees), and six
satellite coverage greater than 99.9% of the time. However, four satellite coverage with
a PDOP constraint of 6 can drop as low as 99.9%, with a worst-case dispersion of the
24 satellites with respect to their nominal orbits. Even in this event, most users will
experience continuous coverage. A few isolated locations may experience four-
satellite coverage as low as 96.9%, with a PDOP constraint of 6 and a mask angle of 5
degrees.
Satisfaction of the third design objective requires the ability to remove any individual
satellite from the constellation, and still be able to provide as close to continuous global
coverage as is practical. Satisfaction of this objective requires that at least five
satellites be in view almost continuously. As shown in Figure 6-1, this is the case with
the 24 satellite constellation design. Although an explicit requirement is not
established to ensure that multiple combinations of satellites provide adequate solution
geometry at any given time, most of the time at least two and usually more
combinations of four satellites will support a Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP)
constraint of 6 or less.
6.1.3 Service Availability Characteristics
This section defines the GPS availability standards and expected regional and global
service availability characteristics. The user is provided with information concerning
GPS service availability patterns on a global and regional basis. Service availability
varies slightly over time, due to routine satellite maintenance requirements. Note that
the regional service availability values provided below are based upon a global grid
point spacing of approximately 111 x 111 kilometers, with 30 second intervals over 24
hours.
Service availability is described in two basic parts. The first part concerns the variation
in service availability as a function of temporarily removing a number and specific
combination of satellites from service. The second part of the assessment applies
service availability variation characteristics to an operational scenario.
6.1.3.1 Service Availability Standards
GPS service will be provided in accordance with the availability standards specified in
Table 6-2.
6.1.3.2 Satellite Outage Effects on Service Availability
Service availability varies predominantly as a function of the number and distribution of

satellite service outages. With a 24 satellite constellation, the permutations and
combinations of satellite service outages are rather large. Normally, no more than
three satellites will be removed from service over any 24 hour interval. This ground
rule bounds the problem to an analysis of the effects of removing each satellite and all
combinations of two and three satellites from service for no more than 24 hours. The
results of the analysis are summarized in Table 6-3.
6-5
Table 6-2. Service Availability Standards
Service Availability
Standard Conditions and Constraints
³99.85% global average · Conditioned on coverage standard
· Standard based on a typical 24 hour interval, averaged over the
globe
· Typical 24 hour interval defined using averaging period of 30
days
³99.16% single point · Conditioned on coverage standard
average · Standard based on a typical 24 hour interval, for the worst-case
point on the globe
· Typical 24 hour interval defined using averaging period of 30
days
³95.87% global average · Conditioned on coverage standard
on worst-case day · Standard represents a worst-case 24 hour interval,averaged over
the globe
³83.92% at worst-case · Conditioned on coverage standard
point on worst-case day · Standard based on a worst-case 24 hour interval, for the worst-case
point on the globe
6.1.3.3 Expected Service Availability Characteristics
Table 6-3 defines what service availability characteristics will be like for a given
satellite outage condition. Service availability projections over time may be generated
by applying the information in Table 6-3 to expected satellite control operations
scenarios. A satellite control operations scenario is based upon a conservative
estimate of satellite maintenance activity frequency and duration. Satellite
maintenance actions requiring service downtime include periodic cesium frequency
standard maintenance, station keeping maneuvers to maintain orbits within tolerances,
and responses to component failures. Given current routine maintenance requirements
and component failure expectations, generally three, and no more than four satellites
should be removed from service over any 30 day period. Once a satellite is removed
from service, it is assumed that it will be down for no more than 24 hours.
The first service availability scenario to be defined represents a worst-case 30 day

period. A summary of this scenario is provided in Table 6-4. The scenario is
considered to be worst case from two perspectives: it includes a day with three
satellites removed from service, and it includes a total of four satellite-down days. The
three satellite-down scenario is based upon the simultaneous removal of two satellites
for routine maintenance, accompanied with a component failure on a third satellite.
Worst case global service availability on a day with three satellites removed from
service is 95.87%; the associated worst case regional service availability is 83.92%.
The resulting 30-day service availability values range from 99.85% to 99.99%,
depending on which satellites make up the four which
6-6
Table 6-3. Service Availability as a Function of
Specified Satellite Outage Conditions
Global Average Worst Regional Service

Satellite Temporary Outage Condition Service Availability Availability
No Satellites Out: 100.00% 100.00%
ONE SATELLITE OUT FOR MAINTENANCE OR REPAIR
Least Impacting Satellite Out: 99.98% 99.17%
Average Satellite Out: 99.93% 97.79%
Most Impacting Satellite Out: 99.83% 97.63%
TWO SATELLITES OUT FOR MAINTENANCE OR REPAIR
Least Impacting 2 Satellites Out: 99.93% 98.21%
Average 2 Satellites Out: 99.64% 95.71%
Most Impacting 2 Satellites Out: 98.85% 91.08%
THREE SATELLITES OUT FOR MAINTENANCE OR REPAIR
Least Impacting 3 Satellites Out: 99.89% 97.13%
Average 3 Satellites Out: 99.03% 93.38%
Most Impacting 3 Satellites Out: 95.87% 83.92%
Table 6-4. Example of 3-Day Global Service Availability

with Component Failure on Worst Day
Ops Scenario Condition Best Case Average Case Worst Case

1 Day - 3 Satellites Down 99.89% 99.03% 95.87%
1 Day - 1 Satellite Down 99.98% 99.93% 99.83%
28 Days - No Satellites Down 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
Average Daily Availability 99.99% 99.97% 99.85%
experience downtime. The service availability service standard was established based
upon this scenario, to ensure that the system can support standard compliance.
The second service availability scenario is shown in Table 6-5, and represents what
may be considered to be a more common 30 day interval. In this scenario, three
satellites were removed from service for up to 24 hours, each on separate days.
Typical satellite maintenance operations are conducted on one satellite at a time, which
means that the removal of two satellites for maintenance at the same time will be a rare
occurrence.
6-7
Global service availability on a day where the worst case satellite is removed from
service is 99.85%; the associated worst case regional service availability is 97.63%.
The resulting 30-day service availability values do not change much between the best
and worst cases, with the worst case value being 99.98%.
Table 6-5. Example of 30-Day Global Service Availability

without Component Failure
Ops Scenario Condition Best Case Average Case Worst Case

3 Days - 1 Satellite Down 99.98% 99.93% 99.85%
27 Days - No Satellites Down 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
Average Daily Availability 99.99% 99.99% 99.98%
6.1.4 Service Reliability Characteristics
This section defines conservative expectations for GPS service reliability performance.
These expectations are based upon observed accuracy characteristics, the GPS
service failure history to date, long-term failure rate projections, and current system
failure response capabilities. The user is provided with information which indicates
expected failure rates and their effects on a global and regional basis.
6.1.4.1 Service Reliability Standards
GPS service will be provided in accordance with the reliability standards presented in
Table 6-6.
Table 6-6. Service Reliability Standards
Service Reliability Conditions and Constraints

³99.97% global · Conditioned on coverage and service availability standards
average · Standard based on a measurement interval of one year; average of
daily values over the globe
· Standard predicated on a maximum of 18 hours of major service failure
behavior over the sample interval
³99.79% single point · Conditioned on coverage and service availability standards
average · Standard based on a measurement interval of one year; average of
daily values from the worst-case point on the globe
· Standard based on a maximum of 18 hours of major service failure
behavior over the sample interval
6-8
6.1.4.2 GPS Service Failure Characteristics
A GPS service failure is defined as an excursion of unpredictable magnitude of the

horizontal position solution due to a control segment or satellite fault which is unrelated
to the normal predictable long-term PPS horizontal accuracy distribution. A GPS
service failure is characterized by a large single-satellite range error which is unrelated
to the normal long-term PPS range error distribution.
The characteristics of a service failure and the factors which affect service reliability are
listed below. Each is discussed in more detail in the following sections.
· Ranging signal failure frequency

· Failure duration
· Failure magnitude and behavior
· Distribution of user population around the globe
· Probability that the failed satellite is used in the position solution
· Effect that the failure has on the position solution, given the failed satellite's
contribution to solution geometry and the receiver's response to the failure
condition.
6.1.4.3 Failure Frequency Estimate
The GPS satellite positioning service failure history over the past several years
indicates a very low service failure rate (excluding Block I satellites). However, when a
service failure does occur, it can result in extremely large position and/or velocity
errors. This behavior will typically persist until action is taken to remedy the problem.
Based upon an historical assessment of Block II satellite and Control Segment failure
characteristics, GPS should experience no more than three major service failures per
year (excluding Block I satellites). This failure rate estimate is conservative -
expectations are on the order of one per year, based upon projected navigation
payload component reliabilities and the assumption that action will be taken to switch
redundancy configurations if early indications of an imminent failure are detected. An
allocation of three per year allows for a possible increase in service failures as the
Block II satellites reach the end of their operational life expectancy.
6.1.4.4 Failure Duration Estimate
The duration of a failure is a function of the following factors:
· Control Segment monitor station coverage

· Control Segment monitor station, communications and Master Control Station
availability
· Master Control Station failure detection efficiency and timeline
· Timeline for correcting the problem or terminating the failed satellite's service.
6-9
The combination of these factors results in a conservative system operator response
timeline on the order of no more than six hours. In most cases the response to a failure
will be much more prompt, but with any complex system such as the Control Segment,
allowances must be made for varying system resource status and operational
conditions.
6.1.4.5 Failure Magnitude and Behavior
GPS is designed to be fault tolerant - most potential failures are either caught before
they manifest themselves, or their effects are compensated for by the system. The only
failures to which the system seems susceptible are of two types:
· Insidious, long-term (day or more to become evident) performance deviations,

or
· Catastrophic, almost instantaneous failures
Insidious failures do not propagate very quickly - failures of this type experienced to
date have not affected the GPS ability to support accuracy performance standards.
Insidious failures are typically due to a problem in the ephemeris state estimation
process.
Catastrophic failures are due almost exclusively to satellite frequency generation

hardware failures. These failures in general result in very rapid ranging error growth -
range errors can grow to several thousand metres in a very short period of time.
Typically, a failure of this type will begin with a phase jump of indeterminate magnitude,
followed by a large ramp or increased noise consistent with the behavior of a quartz
oscillator.
6.1.4.6 User Global Distribution and Failure Visibility
For the purposes of reliability performance standard definition, the effect of a service
failure is not weighted based upon user distribution - a uniform distribution of users
over the globe is assumed.
Given a maximum failure duration of six hours, approximately 63% of the Earth's
surface will have a failed satellite in view for some portion of the failure. The average
amount of time that the failed satellite will be in view for those locations which can see
it is approximately three hours.
6.1.4.7 Satellite Use in the Position Solution
Given a 24 satellite constellation, an average of eight satellites will be in view of any

user on or near the Earth. The satellite visibility distribution for the nominal 24 satellite
constellation is shown in Figure 6-1. With all satellites weighted equally, the probability
of a failed satellite being in the position solution of any user located within the failure
visibility region is 50%. Equal weighting is considered to be a reasonable assumption
for use in global reliability computations. However, in the worst-case individual site
computation it must be assumed that the receiver is tracking and using the failed
satellite for the duration of the satellite visibility window.
6-10
6.1.4.8 Failure Effect on Position Solution
Given the nature of catastrophic failures, it must be assumed that the inclusion of the
satellite in the position solution will induce a service reliability failure independent of
the satellite's geometric contribution. Some receivers will be capable of detecting and
rejecting large instantaneous changes in a range residual which are indicative of a
major service failure. The minimum receiver represented in the Signal Specification is
not however, required to have this capability. For the purposes of service reliability
standard definition, it must be assumed that if the receiver is capable of tracking the
failed satellite and it supports the nominal position solution geometry, the receiver will
use it in the position solution.
6.1.4.9 Expected Service Reliability Characteristics
When the system is performing nominally and the receiver design meets the minimum
usage conditions established in Section 2.2 of the Signal Specification, predictable
horizontal error will never reach the service reliability threshold. Service reliability on
those days where GPS does not experience a major service failure will be 100%.
The estimated maximum of three major service failures per year, coupled with a
maximum duration of six hours each, yields a maximum of 18 service failure hours per
year. The worst-case site on the globe will be the place where all 18 service failure
hours are observed and the failed satellites are used in the position solution. For this
worst case condition, the daily average service reliability over a one year period will be
no worse than 99.79%. The equivalent global daily average will be no worse than
99.97%.
6.1.5 Additional Commentary
(The following commentary is not derived from the GPS SPS Performance Stan dard.)
It should be noted that several criteria used as conditions and constraints in the
performance standards may not be applicable to many user applications. As examples,
the coverage standard is based upon 24 operational satellites, a four-satellite position
solution, a PDOP of 6 or less, and a 5 degree mask angle; the service availability
standard is based on a "normal" operating scenario; and the service reliability standard
is based on the assumption that the user does not perform integrity checking.
6.1.5.1 24 Operational Satellites and Service Availability
The assumption of 24 operational satellites may be optimistic rather than conservative.

In the long term, the GPS constellation will be in a continuous cycle of satellite end-of-
life failures and corresponding launch of replacements. It is expected that three to four
satellites will reach end-of-life each year, based on experience with the Block I
satellites and considering design improvements to the Block II satellites. This means
that service coverage can change every few months, although end-of-life failures can
be anticipated to some degree and some launches can be made prior to the actual
failure. A number of studies have been conducted to determine the probability of a
specific number of satellites in service at any given time, including some studies
conducted for the U.S. DoD to help determine satellite replenishment strategies. One
6-11
such study gives the long-term probabilities for the number of GPS satellites
operational any given time.
In most cases, a satellite vacancy from the full constellation of 24 satellites will result in
reduced service coverage. For convenience, the lack of a four satellite positioning
solution or a condition where PDOP > 6 will be termed an "outage". In general, the
number of outages, individual durations of outages, and areas affected by outages will
increase with each additional vacancy from the constellation. As long as the U.S. can
maintain 21 or more satellites on orbit, and worst-case situations can be avoided, the
service coverage is likely to remain between 99% and 100%. Table 6-8 below gives
some representative values of service coverage for a 24-Satellite constellation with
"typical" deviations from the nominal orbit positions. During the worst-case three-
satellite-failure condition, the worst location in the world may experience as low as 86%
average positioning availability over a 24 hour period, while the best location may still
experience 100% availability.
Table 6-7. Probability of Operational Satellites
Number of State Cumulative

Satellites Probability Probability
24 0.72 0.72
23 0.17 0.89
22 0.064 0.954
21 0.026 0.980
20 0.0116 0.9916
19 0.0064 0.9980
Table 6-8. Service Coverage of a Typical 24-Satellite Constellation
Number of Best Global Average Global Worst Global

Satellites Service Coverage Service Coverage Service Coverage
23 100.00% 99.99% 99.97%

22 100.00% 99.93% 99.61%
21 99.98% 99.69% 97.69%
20 99.97% 99.05% 94.75%
As suggested above, there are several options the U.S. DoD may employ to minimize
the impact of reduced service coverage. Suc h options include launches in anticipation
of satellite end-of-life failures, planning normal maintenance to minimize service
availability impact, deferring normal maintenance, and even minor rephasing of certain
satellites in the constellation. In this respect, the standards quoted above for service
availability under "normal" operating conditions have some flexibility to compensate for
reduced service coverage and still maintain a high composite availability of a position
solution.
6-12
6.1.5.2 PDOP Less Than Six
PPS users are much less sensitive to large values of DOP than SPS users. Many PPS
users will have sufficient position accuracy using GPS as a stand-alone system even if
PDOP is greater than six. For example, for navigation missions, horizontal position
accuracy is usually a more appropriate measure than PDOP. As a general rule of
thumb, a PDOP of six is typically equivalent to an HDOP of four (although PDOP
obviously contains a vertical component which can vary). This means that an
approximate worst case PPS error for "normal" horizontal variations would be around
160 metres (assuming a three-sigma URE of 20 for all satellites and a maximum
geometric effect of 2 X HDOP = 8). Many PPS users of GPS can navigate safely with a
horizontal position accuracy of a kilometer or more, for example, ships in open ocean
and aircraft enroute at altitude, and can therefore tolerate much higher values of HDOP
(and PDOP). Therefore, "areas of reduced accuracy" is often a more appropriate term
than "outage" for conditions of large PDOP, since the accuracy of the position solution
may be reduced but still adequate for the mission requirements.
This suggests that the user should evaluate the performance standards with respect to
the anticipated mission requirements. If the mission requirements are significantly
different than the constraints used to develop the performance standards, an
independent assessment of service coverage via computer simulations may be
warranted. One method of determining the real-time effect of prevailing range errors
and satellite geometry is calculation of a FOM described in paragraph 6.3 below. The
user can then reduce the uncertainty associated with global averages and long-term
statistics by comparing the current accuracy estimate to the mission accuracy
requirements and thereby significantly improve the probability of success of the
mission.
Most military GPS users will have to contend with the possibility of GPS "outages," due
to hostile local conditions, for example, terrain masking or intentional jamming. One
solution for some applications is an integrated navigation system. For example, if a
GPS receiver is integrated with an inertial navigation unit, an intermittent GPS solution
can be sufficient to maintain continuous high-accuracy positioning. For other
applications, vertical aiding can be used as a pseudo-satellite to enhance availability,
or differential GPS can be used to minimize range errors and correspondingly reduce
sensitivity to DOP.
6.1.5.3 Four-Satellite Solution and Five-Degree Mask Angle
In effect, the performance standards are based on a "model" GPS receiver that
calculates a four-satellite PVT solution and is constrained by a five-degree mask angle.
In evaluating the impacts of these constraints, the user must consider the type of
equipment that he is actually employing. Significant gains in service coverage can be
achieved by the use of aiding, for example, from an altitude source or precision clock.
Similarly, significant gains in service coverage can be expected if the satellite mask
angle actually implemented by the receiver and GPS antenna is lower than five
degrees. Correspondingly, a higher mask angle
6-13
will reduce service coverage. In the event that the actual receiver differs significantly
from the "model" receiver used to develop the standards, an independent assessment
of service coverage may be advisable by means of computer simulations.
6.1.5.4 Integrity Checking
The service reliability concept defined here is closely related to the NATO concept of
integrity. Consequently, user equipment that employs integrity checking algorithms may
be able to detect the majority of "service failures" and continue to maintain a valid
position solution by choosing a set of satellites which excludes the one experiencing
the service failure. Various integrity monitoring algorithms have been developed by the
civil aviation community which are well documented in open technical literature, and
most receiver manufacturers are familiar with them. Most of these algorithms are
based on the principle of a consistency check using additional range measurements
and developing multiple solutions for comparison purposes (aiding measurements can
be included). However, when such algorithms are employed, a minimum of five
measurements are usually required, rather than the four required for a minimum
position solution. Therefore, the overall system availability is likely to be determined by
the availability of the integrity decision, rather than the availability of the navigation
solution. Fortunately, the availability of an integrity decision based on PPS
measurements is extremely high, since PPS is not subject to SA "noise" which can
make SPS integrity decisions more difficult. Table 6-9 gives some results for the
availability of an integrity decision from a recent study of a PPS integrity algorithm for
military aviation which included pressure altimeter aiding. The results are based on a
five-degree mask angle and a 556 metre position error threshold, suitable to protect the
accuracy required for a nonprecision approach. The probability of detecting a service
failure for this algorithm is 0.999, which when multiplied by the probability of occurrence
of a service failure yields an overall level of integrity in excess of 0.99999.
Table 6-9. Availability of the Integrity Decision
Number of Best Global Average Global Worst Global

Satellites Availability Availability Availability
24 N/A 100.000% N/A

23 99.998% 99.985% 99.965%
22 99.993% 99.866% 99.391%
21 99.94 % 99.37 % 97.55 %
Again, an assessment of the mission requirements is warranted to determine the

integrity threshold, probability of residual "service failures", and duration of integrity
"outages" that can be tolerated. For example, an application that involves safety of life
may require that a position solution be declared invalid unless a positive confirmation
of integrity is achieved. In contrast, a weapons delivery system might allow the position
solution to be valid unless a negative assertion of integrity is determined, with the
residual loss of integrity considered
6-14
a minor overall detriment to weapon effectiveness when compared to the alternative
loss of weapon availability.
6.1.5.5 Summary of the Commentary
If there are significant differences from the "model" receiver implied by the performance
standards, different constraints applicable to the application, or different mission
requirements, an independent assessment of the performance standards or similar
parameters is probably warranted via computer simulation. In addition, real-time
integrity checking and calculation of a figure-of-merit can significantly reduce the
uncertainty associated with global averages and long-term statistics, and significantly
improve the probability of success of a given military mission.
6.2 Satellite Selection Criteria
6.2.1 Introduction
The criteria used for satellite selection is a very important factor in GPS receiver
design. Different receivers perform satellite selection using different algorithms. The
important satellite criteria to be considered include:
a. Satellite health
b. Geometric dilution of precision
c. User range accuracy
d. Elevation angle
e. Availability of external aids.
6.2.2 Satellite Health
The NAV msg contains satellite health information for all the satellites in the GPS
satellite constellation. Each satellite broadcasts health summaries for all (up to 32)
GPS satellites, in page 25 of subframes 4 and 5. Each summary consists of 1 bit
indicating the health of the NAV msg and 5 bits indicating the health of the satellite
signals. (Refer to "Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS" or ICD-GPS-200PR
for additional details). A satellite should never be used in a Nav-solution if its Nav-
message is indicated to be unhealthy. If the NAV msg health is good, the five-bit signal
status message should be compared against valid operating modes for the receiver to
determine if the satellite can be used. For example, a P-code receiver could use a
satellite broadcasting L1 only, if an ionospheric model can be used instead of dual
frequency measurements to make the ionospheric corrections.
The NAV msg also contains a health message in subframe 1 which indicates the health
of the broadcasting satellite. Since the data in subframes 4 and 5 are updated less
frequently than subframe 1, subframe 1 may be used to indicate short-term health
problems or may be updated before subframes 4 and 5. Therefore, after a satellite is
acquired, the health data in subframe 1 should also be checked to deter mine if the
satellite can be used.
6-15
6.2.3 Geometric Dilution of Precision
As described previously in Chapters 2 and 3, GDOP is an important factor in

determining the accuracy of the position (or time) solution. The combination of
satellites which gives the lowest DOP value will provide the most accurate solution,
assuming that all satellites have the same pseudorange error. Depending on the user
mission, best PDOP, HDOP, or TDOP can be used as a satellite selection criterion.
6.2.4 User Range Accuracy
Each satellite broadcasts a user range accuracy (URA) value in subframe 1 of the NAV
msg. URA is a prediction of the pseudorange accuracy obtainable from the satellite
signal in space. URA is based on recent historical data and is therefore most accurate
immediately following an upload. It does not include the UEE and therefore does not
include ionospheric compensation error if the ionospheric model is used instead of dual
frequency measurements. These additional errors should be added to URA for the
best estimate of pseudorange accuracy, especially if the receiver is capable of
performing dual frequency measurements on some satellites and must use an
ionospheric model for others. (Refer to "Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS"
or ICD-GPS-200PR for a more detailed explanation of URA.) URA can be used in
conjunction with DOP to choose the best combination of satellites when the satellites
have significantly different pseudorange errors. This is done by using URA as a
weighting factor in the covariance matrix for user position and clock bias errors. Since
URA is a prediction, it is not a guarantee of range accuracy, however, it can be used to
help deselect satellites with known large pseudorange errors.
6.2.5 Satellite Elevation Angle
Selecting satellites by computing a minimum DOP will favor the use of satellites at low
elevation angles. However, signals from satellites at a low elevation angle must travel
a longer distance through the ionosphere and troposphere than signals from higher
angles. They will therefore incur additional pseudorange error due to ionospheric and
tropospheric delay. Many receivers will not use satellites below an arbitrary elevation
angle. Five degrees is a typical lower limit. This also helps to reduce multipath
problems.
6.2.6 External Aids
When an external aid is available to the GPS receiver, it can be incorporated into the
satellite selection algorithm. It can be incorporated as a fixed mode of operation, an
optional mode of operation when only three satellites are visible, or it can be treated as
an additional "satellite" to be selected when the best combination of satellites includes
the aid. Decision logic for the first two cases is relatively simple. If the aid is treated as
an additional satellite, the expected error and geometry must be modelled and included
in the satellite selection algorithm. For example, mean sea level (MSL) aiding can be
considered to be equivalent to a satellite at the center of the earth with a UERE on the
order of a typical satellite (6-7 metres). Other aiding schemes can be more complex,
depending on the complexity of the integration, error model, and equivalent geometry.
Barometric altimeter
6-16
aiding should be treated with extra caution. Barometric altimeters are excellent devices
for measuring pressure altitude, but pressure altitude can vary widely and non-linearly
from geometric altitude. The resulting vertical errors should be modeled carefully since
the errors can depend on meteorological conditions and vehicle dynamics. For
additional discussion of GPS aids, refer to Chapter 7.
6.3 FIGURE OF MERIT (FOM)
A FOM is an indicator of receiver positioning or time accuracy which may be displayed

to the operator or communicated to an integrated system. A FOM may be either a
qualitative or quantitative measure, depending on the accuracy and integrity of the data
used to calculate the FOM. In general, a FOM is not suitable for making integrity
decisions where safety of life is concerned. However, a qualitative FOM may be
perfectly suitable for integrity decisions regarding unmanned missions. (Refer to
Chapter 12 for additional discussion of integrity.)
A FOM is typically calculated as the root-sum-square of the estimated errors

contributing to the solution accuracy. Example criteria include:
a. GPS receiver state (e.g., carrier tracking, code tracking, acquisition)

b. Carrier to noise ratio
c. Satellite geometry (DOP value)
d. Satellite range accuracy (URA value)
e. Ionospheric measurement or modelling error
f. Receiver aiding used
g. Kalman filter error estimates.
The resultant FOM can be presented as a numerical value, for example from 1 to 9,
where 1 indicates the best navigation performance. It can also be presented directly as
an error estimate in metres, at a specified probability level, or even as a simple
pass/fail indication. A time figure of merit (TFOM) can also be calculated to indicate the
quality of the precise time information available from the GPS receiver via the PTTI
interface (see paragraph 4.3.3). Table 6-10 gives the FOM and TFOM numerical
assignments and equivalent estimated errors for the Rockwell-Collins family of
receivers developed for the GPS JPO.
6-17
Table 6-10. FOM/TFOM Numerical Values and Estimated Errors
Estimated Position Error Estimated Time

FOM/TFOM (EPE, metres) Error (ETE, UTC)
0 Not Used (Note 1)

1 EPE < 25 ETE £ 1 ns
2 25 < EPE £ 50 1 ns < ETE £ 10 ns
3 50 < EPE £ 75 10 ns < ETE £ 100 ns
4 75 < EPE £ 100 100 ns < ETE £ 1 µs
5 100 < EPE £ 200 1 µs < ETE £ 10 µs
6 200 < EPE £ 500 10 µs < ETE £ 100 µs
7 500 < EPE £ 1000 100 µs < ETE £ 1 ms
8 1000 < EPE £ 5000 1 ms < ETE £ 10 ms
9 EPE > 5000 10 ms < ETE, or Fault
10 to 14 Not Used Not Used
15 Not Used ETE Not Available
Note 1: External time source indicates proper/normal operation by TFOM = 0.
6-18
CHAPTER 7: AIDING OPTIONS FOR A GPS RECEIVER
7.1 TYPES OF AIDING
Aiding a GPS receiver is done by incorporating inputs from external sources and is
performed to enhance the following operations:
a. Acquisition of initial satellite signals,

b. Translate the navigation solution to a position in the HV other than the GPS
antenna,
c. Replace a satellite measurement in case of limited visibility or bad satellite
geometry,
d. Maintain satellite tracking by increasing the tolerance of the GPS receiver to
interference, jamming or high HV dynamics.
Figure 7-1 illustrates some options. It should be noted that these are options and that not
all GPS receivers presently have the capabilities described.
EXAMPLE DISCRETE INTERFACE MISSION COMPUTER
ARINC 429
CDU HV CDU
DATA LOADER RS-422

HV DATA LOADER
GPS
INS/AHRS ARINC 575 RECEIVER INS
PTTI AHRS
ARINC 572 MEMORY

ALTIMETER DOPPLER
CADC
EXAMPLE MUX BUS

OTHER SYSTEMS
Figure 7-1. Aiding Options for a GPS Receiver
7-1
7.2 AIDING DURING INITIAL ACQUISITION
7.2.1 Position and Velocity Aiding
When a GPS receiver is first initialized for operation, approximate position and velocity of
the receiver are required to minimize satellite acquisition time. The accuracy requirement
of the U.S. DoD program for position is < 100 km of actual receiver location, and for velocity
is < 100 m/s of actual receiver velocity, to ensure that satellite acquisition is within
specification.
7.2.2 Time Aiding
Time aiding can be used during the initialization process, similar to position and velocity
data. The time accuracy requirement is < 20 seconds relative to UTC. This is to ensure
that satellite acquisition time is within specification.
Time aiding, if sufficiently accurate, can also be used to enable a direct P(Y) -code
acquisition without first acquiring the C/A -code. This type of time aiding is relevant to HVs
such as submarines where minimum exposure time of the GPS antenna on the ocean
surface is of prime importance. An atomic time standard is one way to enable direct
P(Y)-code acquisition.
7.2.3 Almanac Data
Normal satellite acquisition requires the availability of a current satellite almanac, stored in
the receiver memory. If there are no significant changes in the satellite constellation, then
the almanac is valid for several weeks.
If no stored or valid satellite almanac data are available, the GPS receiver starts to search
the sky attempting to locate and lock onto any satellite in view. Depending on the receiver
search strategy and on the actual satellite constellation, this process may take 15 -60
minutes. When one satellite is being tracked, the receiver can download and read the
almanac information about all the other satellites in the constellation.
7.2.4 Effect On TTFF
Dependent on the type of integration (position, velocity and time) aiding data to the GPS
receiver during the initialization process are provided as follows:
a. Manually by the operator via the GPS CDU or HV CDU,

b. Automatically from INS/AHRS, PTTI or the HV mission computer (via 1553 -bus),
c. Default by using the shut-down values stored in the receiver memory.
Initial acquisition performance can be expressed by the TTFF. In general terms, the TTFF
is the time from when the receiver attempts to track the satellite signals until a navigation
solution is determined. Knowing the position and velocity of the receiver, current time, and
the positions of the satellites will all help to reduce the TTFF. Conversely, a lack o f
7-2
reasonably accurate knowledge of any of these parameters will increase the TTFF. The
amount of increase is dependent on the particular quantity and level of uncertainty.
7.3 AIDING TO TRANSLATE NAVIGATION SOLUTION
The navigation solution of an unaided GPS receiver is referenced to its antenna position.
An aided GPS receiver can reference its navigation solution to another location. For
example, the GPS navigation state can be resolved at the IMU instrument axes center in
the case of an INS. To perform the calculations, the receiver needs to be aided with
attitude information and a lever arm vector.
The attitude information in the form of roll, pitch and heading is provided in most cases by
an INS or AHRS. A GPS receiver usually does all internal calculations in ECEF before
carrying out any coordinate transformations. Using latitude and longitude in conjunction
with attitude, the transformation between the GPS ECEF navigation frame and the HV body
frame can be determined. Onboard ships, attitude aiding is also used to compensate for
antenna motion and, together with water speed information, to do relative course and
speed calculations.
A lever arm vector is provided to the GPS receiver as a vector between the GPS antenna
and the HV reference point. If attitude aiding is removed from the GPS receiver, the
navigation solution should revert back to the GPS antenna location. Often, more than one
set of lever arm corrections may be stored in the GPS receiver. This is useful for
installations having more than one INS aiding source or, in the case of big ships, where
position and/or velocity information for different locations onboard may be of interest.
However, only one attitude aiding source should be used by the GPS receiver at any one
time. Hence the propagated navigation solution will only incorporate the one set of lever
arm corrections applicable to the particular aiding source that is providing aiding data to the
GPS receiver. Should the aiding source be changed, the lever arm corrections will change
accordingly.
7.4 AIDING TO REPLACE A SATELLITE MEASUREMENT
During normal receiver operations, four satellite measurements are required inputs to solve
the equations for position (Ux, Uy, Uz) and clock offset Dt. In case of limited satellite visibility
or poor satellite geometry, one or more of the four satellite inputs may be replaced by
inputs from an external aiding source.
When the GPS receiver is shipborne, or has barometric altimeter aiding or has a known
height, then only three satellites are needed. Additional aiding by a precise clock can
supplement the measurements in a two-satellite situation.
7-3
7.4.1 Clock Aiding
A GPS receiver uses its own internal clock or may use a more accurate external clock as
time reference. If only three (instead of four) satellites are available, then the GPS receiver
can assume that its time reference is correct ( Dt = known) and treat the three available
satellite range measurements as actual ranges instead of pseudoranges. In this case, the
accuracy of the position derived from the pseudorange measurements will correspond to
the equivalent time reference error.
If the GPS receiver clock or the external clock can be monitored during a previous period in
which the receiver navigates with four satellites, then the clock phase bias and drift can be
calculated. The resulting corrections for clock errors can be used to provide very accurate
GPS time during a satellite outage and an accurate GPS position can be maintained for
several minutes.
The method of using a clock instead of a satellite is not recommended as a permanent

solution, but rather to help the GPS receiver operate during short periods when only a
limited set of satellites is available. A GPS receiver should be capable of receiving (and
providing) precise time via a dedicated PTTI interface or via the 1553 -bus.
7.4.2 Altitude Aiding
Similar to the clock aiding discussed in the previous paragraph, an airborne GPS receiver
can use a barometric altimeter as aiding to replace a satellite measurement. Long-term
altimeter errors are calibrated during periods of four satellite operation. Subsequently,
when less than four satellites are being tracked, the calibrated baro-altimeter data are used
as a known Uz-value in the 4 unknowns of (Ux, Uy, Uz) and Dt. Conceptually, the barometric
altitude added to the earth radius provides a range measurement from a satellite with
position at the center of the earth. An accurate GPS position can be maintained for as long
as the estimated baro altitude errors are valid. Since the barometric altitude errors are
generally slowly varying, both in time and distance, reasonable position accuracy can
usually be maintained for 10-15 minutes, or within a radius of roughly 10 nmi of the position
of the last 4 satellite solution. A gradual loss of position accuracy, especially in the vertical
channel, can be expected. Depending on the algorithm used to compute altitude from
pressure, the loss of accuracy may be hastened by altitude changes in a nonstandard
atmosphere, particularly if no temperature compensation is used.
7.5 AIDING TO MAINTAIN SATELLITE TRACK
In normal receiver operation, the code and carrier tracking loops are both being tracked
in phase lock. There is a symbiosis between the code and carrier tracking loops where
each loop aids the other. In a high jamming environment, the receiver may lose its
ability to track the carrier. Subsequent accelerations will cause the carrier frequency of
the received GPS signal to vary due to a change in the Doppler shift. The Doppler shift
of the frequency of the received carrier signal is proportional to the relative velocity of
the receiver with respect to the satellite along the line-of-sight from the receiver to the
satellite.
7-4
Without some type of information to indicate this change in frequency, the center
frequency of the receiver's replicated code signal will be different from the frequency of
the actual received signal, which may then cause loss of code track as well.
A receiver may be able to maintain code track in this case even while losing carrier
track if it is aided with velocity. The primary function of aiding in this degraded mode of
operation is to maintain code-loop tracking. The velocity data replaces the carrier
tracking loop output as the source for code tracking loop aiding. Possible sources of
velocity include INS, AHRS, and Doppler navigation systems. Requirements on the
accuracy of the velocity will determine the allowable amounts of senescence,
synchronization error, and aiding source absolute error under varying dynamic
conditions. For example, higher dynamics will generally mean tighter restrictions on
data senescence, which in turn can mean higher aiding rates. Typical accuracy
requirements on the aiding velocity in order to maintain code track when the carrier is
lost are on the order of 2-3 m/second.
7-5
CHAPTER 8: POSSIBLE INTEGRATIONS OF GPS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
There are two ways to achieve integration with GPS: aiding which results in a hybrid or
blended solution and aiding which results in a GPS solution. Implementations can range
from a GPS receiver coupled with an external sensors such as an altimeter or a time aiding
source, to integration with a navigation system. Examples of navigation systems include an
INS, an AHRS, or a Doppler Radar Navigation Systems (DRNS).
GPS integrated with a navigation system provides the flexibility to have the navigation
solution determined by the GPS receiver, by the host navigation system, or by a
combination of the two. The GPS receiver can be aided by the host navigation system and
provide the blended solution, or the navigation system may process GPS data to form the
combined navigation solution. Another alternative is to have a central processor separate
from the receiver or host navigation system, receiving data from both the GPS and host
system and producing the blended solution. This last case essentially treats both the GPS
receiver and host navigation system as sensors. The GPS receiver may reside on a card
that is embedded into the host navigation system box so that the receiver physically
becomes part of the host navigation system.
The benefits of integrating GPS with other navigation systems are significant and diverse.
Basically, each system may have important shortcomings when used in a stand-alone
mode, although together they can be integrated to mitigate most of these liabilities. An INS,
AHRS, or DRNS, for example, is subject to an ever growing drift in position accuracy
caused by various instrument error sources that cannot be eliminated in manufacturing,
calibration or alignment. Other INS short comings include somewhat lengthy static
alignment period or, alternatively, continuous operation in a powered alert status.
Furthermore, a high quality INS can be a complex electro -mechanical device with
significant risk of component failure. Additional shortcomings of Doppler systems include
the reliance on an external heading input to form a navigation solution. Mission or flight
critical implementations of these navigation systems require substantial redundancy in
installation to detect, isolate, and recover from such failures for fail -safe operational
performance.
A stand-alone GPS has its shortcomings as well. GPS is somewhat vulnerable to loss of
signals due to RF interference, antenna shadowing, aircraft attitude maneuvers, or other
causes. Receiver solution update rates may be fairly slow; i.e., in the 1 Hz region due to
the complex processing of the radio frequency signals into a position or velocity solution. A
1 Hz update rate may be sufficient for most navigation applications, however, some
avionics systems and weapons require much higher rates.
GPS used in conjunction with an aiding source can solve some or all of these limitations,
depending on the aiding source used. An aiding source such as an altimeter or a precise
time source can be substituted for a temporarily masked satellite. An INS, for example, can
provide dynamic aiding data to the receiver that can be used to propa gate the GPS solution
during satellite outages and to aid in reacquisition of lost satellite signals. B asically, the
marriage is between a short term, precise aiding source and the very long term, stable GPS
reference.
8.2 MISSION REQUIREMENTS
The level of integration will largely depend on the particular mission requirements for
navigation data accuracy and availability. Navigation system designers therefore need to
clearly examine the mission requirements before deciding on the level of GPS integration
necessary to adequately support military operations. Sample considerations that drive an
integration design are listed below.
a. Navigation accuracy - What position, velocity and/or time accuracy are

required from the navigation solution supported by GPS? GPS accuracy can
be improved through the use of DGPS if proper host and support equipment
is in-place (see Chapter 10).
b. Availability of navigation solution - What are the maximum HV dynamics for

which the GPS set must navigate continuously with the highest level of
accuracy? Is the user required to navigate accurately in a high interference or
jamming environment? Sensor aiding data can greatly improve GPS
availability under adverse conditions.
c. Reacquisition of GPS signal - How soon after any satellite signal inter ruption
must GPS regain full navigation accuracy? How long can GPS interruption
be accepted without measurable degradation of system per formance?
Reacquisition can be improved by other sensors as a rough initial ization for
initial GPS signal acquisition as well as for rapid reacquisi tion should signals
temporarily be lost.
d. Sensor calibration - Is calibration of other navigation sensors by GPS

required in order to maintain a high quality navigation during GPS outages?
Does GPS have to provide INS platform misalignment error estimates to a
quality that could support inflight INS alignment? Is management of multiple
sensor output required for fault tolerance? GPS and other navigation
sensors provide dissimilar redundancy for detecting hard and soft failures in
either system.
e. Output rate of navigation solutions - The GPS receiver navigation solution

output rate may be limited. If a higher output rate is required, the
integration may require the GPS receiver to aid the INS, or for the GPS
and navigation system data to be combined in an external navigation
processor instead of GPS being used as the primary navigation source.
f. Modes of operation - Will the GPS receiver be required to operate as a
primary or sole means of navigation and/or as a sensor to an INS, DRNS, or
mission computer? The intended use of GPS greatly affects the integra tion
strategy under signal loss or failure conditions.
8.3 INTEGRATION ARCHITECTURES
When requirements are well understood, the integration design has to address: (1) the
selection of GPS and other equipment, (2) the selection of data transfer and interfaces and
(3) the selection of a software concept.
There are essentially five architectures for integrating GPS in a system navigation solution.
The resulting system architecture for GPS integration will be one of these basic structures
as discussed in the following. There is a clear distinction in the potential performance
available from the stand-alone receiver (see 8.3.1) and the aided/integrated configuration
(see 8.3.2 to 8.3.4). However, the differences between the performance realized in the
aided/integrated configurations may be small unless the mission computer makes
aggressive use of GPS inputs.
8.3.1 GPS Stand-Alone/Baro/Clock Aided
The GPS stand-alone configuration (see Figure 8-1) shows a GPS receiver with inputs from
an antenna set and options for barometric altimeter and clock aiding. The receiver outputs
can drive any CDU or (analog) instrument that may be required.
This configuration would be used primarily for operation in low -dynamics. The user must
be willing to accept reacquisition times of up to two minutes or more if the receiver loses
lock because of jamming or dynamics.
ANTENNA
ARINC 461
ALTIMETER CDU
GPS RECEIVER
ARINC 429
CLOCK INSTRUMENTS
Figure 8-1. GPS Stand-alone Configuration
A barometric altimeter or an external clock are aiding options to coast the receiver
through short periods when visible satellites are less than four. Especially for a
low-dynamic environment, a barometric altimeter, can be very cost effective. The GPS
receiver clock or a typical external clock can have drift rates that vary widely, from 10 -10
s/s to 10-7 s/s. Thus, position error could grow to 100 m (95%) in a few seconds.
An atomic clock with a stability of 10-13 s/s will keep the GPS receiver within a 100 m
(95%) position error for several minutes.
8.3.2 GPS/INS Integrations
The GPS INS-aided configuration (see Figure 8-2) is useful for medium to high dynamics
applications. GPS receives INS sensor data from either a serial (e.g., ARINC 429) or
multiplex (e.g., MIL-STD-1553) data port. Output is provided through the ARINC 461 and
429 databus port to the CDU and instruments. The GPS receiver may also provide
position and velocity data to the INS. For older INS's in particular, there may not be an
existing interface that will take data from a GPS receiver. This situation is often
encountered when retrofitting GPS to vehicles that have been in service for a number of
years. For integrating these systems with GPS, either the INS firmware must be modified to
accommodate GPS data, or the GPS receiver must accept the INS data, or the GPS/INS
integration must occur in a separate processor that accepts data from both the INS and
GPS. In the last two cases, the INS continues to run free inertial, open loop with no
feedback from the navigation processor if one is used.
ANTENNA
ARINC 461
ALTIMETER
CDU
CLOCK GPS ARINC 429

RECEIVER INSTRUMENTS
ARINC 575
INS OR ARINC 429
Figure 8-2. GPS INS-aided Configuration
If the INS solution can be updated by GPS, and is taken as the system navigation solution,
it will have an accuracy similar to GPS whenever GPS is available. If the GPS data is used
to estimate the major error sources that affect INS position, then if GPS becomes
unavailable, the INS accuracy will degrade at a reduced rate when compared to the free
inertial INS position error growth rate. Baro metric altimeter and clock aiding may also be
available but is not necessary in the INS-aided mode.
As discussed in paragraph 9.4.2.1, these are different levels of GPS/INS integration.

The simplest is referred to as "loosely coupled", where the GPS receiver processes
pseudorange and deltarange to produce geodetic position and velocity, which is then
used by the INS. In this case, the INS is unaffected by the satellite geometry implicit in
the GPS solution. However, if the receiver tracks less than four satellites, it may not be
able to produce a geodetic solution, causing the INS to lose aiding by the GPS. A
more complex GPS/INS integration is called "tightly coupled" where the INS uses
pseudorange and/or deltarange
measurements to correct its navigation solution. This implementation is more robust in
that it can continue to correct INS errors to some degree even when there are less than
four satellites being tracked. A major consideration to using tightly coupled integrations
with current systems is that the pseudoranges and deltaranges corrected for SA are
classified.
8.3.3 GPS and Mission Computer/Databus Emulator
The GPS configuration with mission computer/databus emulator (see Figure 8-3) is a
means to provide the equivalent of 1553 bus operation in a vehicle that does not have a
1553-bus. It uses the mission computer (or sometimes a smart CDU) to emulate the ARINC
575 or 429 interface to GPS, as well as to control the interfaces to other navigation
sensors. The main penalty in comparison to a 1553 architecture is the limited data transfer
rate of the ARINC interfaces and the increased complexity of mission computer functions
required to support data formatting and transfer among the different sensors.
CDU OR MISSION
ANTENNA
COMPUTER
INS
ARINC 575
DATABUS
GPS
EMULATOR
OR ARINC 429 RECEIVER
OTHER
SYSTEMS
Figure 8-3. Configuration with Mission Computer/Databus Emulator
Examples of other systems to be integrated with GPS in this configuration are a doppler
radar (velocity) combined with an AHRS. An AHRS is similar to an INS except that only HV
attitude, attitude rates, heading and acceleration are available (no position). The quality of
its output information is lower than that of a conventional INS. However, an integrated
GPS/AHRS may become a direct replacement for a high quality INS. The estimated cost of
an integrated GPS/AHRS is less than one -half that of a stand-alone INS. Additionally,
yearly maintenance costs are expected to be one -third that of an INS.
8.3.4 GPS in a 1553 Databus Configuration
A GPS receiver includes a highly evolved set of interfaces to external systems. One such
interface is the high-speed databus MIL-STD-1553 (see Figur e 8-4). The 1553 databus
may be used by high-dynamic, high-performance HVs to quickly transfer data between an
external system and the GPS receiver.
Although a GPS receiver usually can only receive and transmit a limited number of well
defined 1553 bus data blocks, the number of options is still large. Nevertheless, an
integration cannot change the data blocks input to or output from a given GPS on the 1553
bus to meet its particular need. The only option is to program the 1553 bus controller to
convert message formats as required for GPS and other remote terminals to communicate
successfully.
MISSION ANTENNA
COMPUTER
OTHER DATABUS GPS

INS
SYSTEMS CONTROLLER RECEIVER
MIL-STD-1553
Figure 8-4. GPS in 1553 Databus Configuration
8.3.5 Embedded GPS
The previous sections essentially address integrations of physically separate GPS

receivers and other sensors. GPS may also be integrated into other systems by
embedding the receiver into the host system (eg., within an INS, DRNS, mission computer,
CDU, etc). For these cases, the embedded system has the benefits of tight coupling as
described in paragraph 8.3.2.
8.4 GPS AND TRANSIT/OMEGA/LORAN-C
Some hybrid systems have been developed that use the best data available from each of
GPS, Transit and Omega. Navigation system measure ments from all three systems can be
integrated to generate an optimum system solution. If four GPS satellites are available and
PDOP is within limits, the Transit and Omega measurement data are not required. Some
manufacturers have produced hybrid GPS equipment and offered retrofit GPS kits for
installation in existing Transit/Omega receivers. This hybrid option has become significantly
less attractive since the GPS constellation has reached full capability and Omega has
begun phase-out.
Another hybrid variation is to combine a GPS receiver with a Loran-C receiver. When
a GPS solution is available, the position information can be used to calibrate the Loran-
C receiver for daily and local effects. When a GPS solution is not available, the
calibrated Loran-C receiver can be used as a sta nd-alone system. When GPS satellites
become visible again, the Loran -C can be used to initialize the GPS receiver and
therefore reduce acquisition time. A combination of Loran -C and GPS data can also be
used to produce a position solution or provide an automated cross-check for integrity
purposes.
CHAPTER 9: GPS AND KALMAN FILTERING
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A GPS receiver measures pseudoranges and pseudorange rates to the satellites.

Knowing the position of the satellites from the decoded navigation messages, the
user position and GPS system time can be calculated from four or more satellites.
A GPS receiver, however, can never measure exact range to each satellite. The
measurement process is corrupted by noise which introduces errors into the
calculation. This noise includes errors in the ionospheric corrections and system
dynamics not considered during the measurement process (e.g., user clock drift). A
Kalman filter characterizes the noise sources in order to minimize their effect on the
desired receiver outputs.
When the GPS receiver is aided or integrated with other navigation sensors (e.g.,
INS, clock, altimeter or AHRS), then the Kalman filter can be extended to include
the measurements added by these sensors. In fact, a typical implementation for
integrated systems would be to have a central Kalman filter incorporating
measurements from all available sources.
9.2 KALMAN FILTER PRINCIPLE
The Kalman filter is a linear, recursive estimator that produces the minimum
variance estimate in a least squares sense under the assumption of white,
Gaussian noise processes. Because the filter is a linear estimator by definition, for
navigation systems it generally estimates errors in the total navigation state. The
Kalman filter also produces a measure of the accuracy of its error state vector
estimate. This level of accuracy is the matrix of second central moments of the
errors in the estimate and is defined as the covariance matrix.
There are two basic processes that are modeled by a Kalman filter. The first process is a
model describing how the error state vector changes in time. This model is the system
dynamics model. The second model defines the relationship between the error state vector
and any measurements processed by the filter and is the measurement model.
Intuitively, the Kalman filter sorts out information and weights the relative contributions
of the measurements and of the dynamic behavior of the state vector. The
measurements and state vector are weighted by their respective covariance matrices.
If the measurements are inaccurate (large variances) when compared to the state
vector estimate, then the filter will deweight the measurements. On the other hand, if
the measurements are very accurate (small variances) when compared to the state
estimate, then the filter will tend to weight the measurements heavily with the
consequence that its previously computed state estimate will contribute little to the
latest state estimate.
9-1
9.2.1 Kalman Filter Model
9.2.1.1 The System Dynamics Process
The system dynamics process is the model of how the error state vector transitions over
time. The total navigation state is defined here to mean position, velocity, and perhaps
attitude. The rate of change of the total navigation state will then be a nonlinear function of
the state, and is assumed to be driven by white noise. Let y(t) denote the total navigation
state and y (t) its estimate. The error in the estimated total navigation state is defined to be
x(t) y (t) - y(t). The nonlinear differential equation representing the time rate of change of
the estimated navigation state is expanded in a Taylor's series and differenced with the
equation for the true state. By ignoring higher order terms, a linear differential equation for
the time rate of change of the navigation error state is obtained.
It is natural to consider the behavior of the error state vector at discrete instants of time
since a computer is used to implement the Kalman filter. Let xk = x(tk) denote the error state
vector at time tk. Then the discrete form of the continuous error state differential equation is
x k = Φ k-1 x k-1 + G k-1 w K -1
The matrix Fk-1 is the state transition matrix and describes how the error state vector
changes with time. The sequence { wk} is a white, zero mean Gaussian noise sequence
called the process noise or plant noise. The expected value of the outer product of the
vector wk with itself is a matrix of the second central moments of the components of the
noise vector. This covariance matrix has the variances of the components of wk on the
diagonal and the covariances of the components on the off diagonal, and is defined to be
T
E[wk wk ] = Qk where E[*] is the expectation operator.
9.2.1.2 The Measurement Process
The measurement model defines how the error state vector is related to measurements
provided by sensor(s). Some examples of sensors are doppler velocimeter providing
line-of-sight velocity, radar altimeter used to form terrain based measurements of
position, such as for TERCOM, or GPS considered as a sensor giving position and
velocity or raw pseudorange and deltarange measurements. Similar to the total
navigation state differential equation, the measurement is often a nonlinear function of
the total navigation state. By expanding the measurement equation for the estimated
navigation state in terms of its error state and neglecting higher order terms, a linear
measurement equation is obtained for the error state vector. The measurement
equation is written in discrete form as
z k = H k x k + vk
9-2
where zk is the measurement at time t k, Hk is the measurement matrix, (or
sometimes called the measurement observation, or measurement sensitivity matrix),
and {vk} is a white, zero mean Gaussian sequence with covariance matrix E[ vk vkT] =
R k.
9.2.2 Kalman Filter Algorithm
The Kalman filter algorithm recursively estimates the error state vector. It also
calculates the uncertainty in its estimate as given by its covariance matrix. Define
x k to be the estimate of the error state vector at time t k. The estimation error is the
error in this estimate, or dx x- x . The covariance matrix of the estimation error at
time t k gives a measure of the uncertainty in the estimated error state vector and is
defined as
T T
P k = E[ x ( x ) ] = E[( x k - x k ) ( x k - x k ) ]
The system dynamics model defines the behavior of the error state vector as a
function of time. The measurement model defines the correspondence between the
measurement and the error state. The measurements are assumed to be available
at discrete times. The Kalman filter uses the dynamics model to propagate its
estimated state vector between measurements. It then incorporates the
measurement into the error state estimate. A Kalman filter repetitively performs
propagations and updates of its estimated error state and its associated covariance
matrix. Figure 9-1 is a simplified diagram of the Kalman filter as it processes new
measurements and propagates in time.
9.2.2.1 Propagation
In the following equations, the notation ‘(-)’ is appended to a variable to denote that
variable at a measurement time before the measurement is incorporated. The
symbol ‘(+)’ appended to a variable represents that parameter at a measurement
time immediately after the measurement is incorporated.
COVARIANCE COVARIANCE
UPDATE UPDATE
OCCURS WHEN NEW

MEASUREMENT IS
KALMAN GAIN
INCORPORATED
CALCULATION
CURRENT BEST
NEW MEASUREMENT ESTIMATE OF STATE
STATE
+ - UPDATE
OCCURS WHEN NEW

STATE MEASUREMENT IS
PROPAGATION INCORPORATED
Figure 9-1. Simplified Diagram of Kalman Filter
9-3
The estimated error state vector and its covariance matrix are propagated from one
measurement time to the next. The Kalman filter uses the state transition matrix
and process noise covariance matrix to perform the propagations via
x k (-) = Φk-1 x k-1 (+)
Pk (-) = Φk-1 Pk-1 (+) Φ k-1 + Gk-1 Qk-1 Gk-1T

T
Typically the impact of the propagation on the covariance matrix is to increase the
variances of the non-bias estimated error states, although occasionally some of the
variances may decrease, for example when due to the Schuler effect. The Schuler
effect is a sinusoidal oscillation of inertial navigation errors with an 84 minute
period.
9.2.2.2 Update
The Kalman filter incorporates measurements when they are available. Since the
state carried in the Kalman filter is an error state, the measurement zk is a function
of the error state vector, and is usually referred to as the apriori measurement
residual. The estimated error state vector is updated as
x k (+) = x k (-) + K k (z k - H k x k (-))
The quantity zk - Hk x k(-) is the aposteriori residual, or equivalently the k th element

of the innovations sequence, the sequence of new information from the
measurements. The matrix K k is the Kalman gain and is given by
-1
K K = Pk (-) H k T ( H k Pk (-) H k T + Rk )
The updated covariance matrix can be derived directly from the equation for the
updated state, yielding the symmetric Joseph form
T
Pk (+) = (I - K k H k ) Pk (-) (I - K k H k ) + K k Rk K k T
9-4
Using the definition of the Kalman gain, the equation for the updated covariance
matrix can be reduced to
Pk (+) = (I - K k H k ) Pk (-)
Although much simpler than the Joseph form, caution must be exercised if this
equation is used since it is susceptible to numerical problems. Since P is a
covariance matrix, theoretically it is symmetric and nonnegative definite (all
eigenvalues ³ 0). One approach to insure that P is always nonnegative definite is
to factor the initial P as a product of upper (or lower) unit triangular matrices and a
diagonal matrix as
P = U D UT
Here U is unit triangular and D is diagonal. If the initial P is nonnegative definite,

then all elements of D will be ³ 0. Algorithms exist to propagate and update the
factors U and D instead of P so that P need never explicitly be formed. These
algorithms operate on U and D in a manner that guarantees that the elements of D
are always ³ 0, implying that P is always nonnegative definite. Other algorithms can
also be used to ensure the positive definiteness of P. The matrix P can be factored
into a product of lower triangular and diagonal matrices, exactly equivalent to the
UD factorization, or P may be factored into its square root as P = W W T (square
root formulation).
Although the equation for the Kalman gain seems complex, a simple example will
help develop an intuitive feel for this gain calculation. Note first that the updated
state estimate can be rewritten as
x k (+) = (I - K k H k ) x k (-) + K k zk
Assume that the state and measurement are scalars and that the measurement
matrix H is 1. Then the Kalman gain is
K = P / (P + R)
For large uncertainty in the state model (P » R), as P ® ¥, then K ® 1. As K ® 1, then

x k(+) ® zk. In other words, given the large uncertainty in the state, the new
measurement is assumed to be a much better estimate of the state than is the
propagated estimate. On the contrary, for large uncertainty in the measurement
compared with the estimated state, R » P, then as R ® ¥, K ® 0. As K ® 0, then x k(+)
® x k(-). Thus the new information is essentially ignored since the apriori estimate is
deemed much better than the
9-5
measurement. This is an inherent danger in Kalman filters; once K becomes
sufficiently close to zero, the filter will respond very slowly or not at all to new
information. Most Kalman filters incorporate an artificial lower limit on K to prevent
this from happening.
9.2.2.3 Initial Conditions
The Kalman filter state estimate and covariance matrix need to be established at
the initial time. Then the propagations and updates proceed as noted. The initial
state estimate x 0 is set to the expected value of the state at t 0. Without any prior
knowledge, the initial error state estimate is often set to the zero vector. The initial
covariance matrix P 0 reflects the uncertainty associated with the way in which the
total navigation state is initialized.
9.3 KALMAN FILTERING FOR UNAIDED GPS
9.3.1 The GPS Navigation Process
GPS signals are timed at their arrival at the receiver by the code loop correlation
process. The total slew of the bit edge that achieves maximum correlation with the
incoming code is the time offset from the local reference time. The time of broadcast is
contained in the navigation message, which is decoded in the receiver after correlation.
The difference between the time of broadcast and the time of arrival is the transit time
from the satellite to the receiver. This includes the receiver and satellite clock offsets
from the GPS time.
Multiplication of the calculated time of transit by the speed of transmission (light)

results in a measurement of pseudorange. Corrections may be made to this
pseudorange for the assumed, modeled, or measured tropospheric and/or ionospheric
delays. In stand-alone operation of single frequency receivers, the modeled
corrections are generally applied. Dual frequency receivers will measure the
ionospheric delay directly and apply a smoothed value.
The measurement process is corrupted by noise which introduces errors into the
calculations. Examples of errors are receiver clock drift, errors in the ionospheric
corrections and system dynamics not considered during the measurement process.
With four pseudorange measurements to four different satellites, the absolute position
and user clock offset could be found. Algorithms exist to analytically find the user
position and clock offset from a set of four pseudorange measurements. A solution is
usually implemented with an assumed rough location and iterative updates to that
location, essentially an application of Newton's root finding method as implemented in a
Kalman filter.
The velocity of the GPS receiver is computed by processing the relative velocity along
the line-of-sight between the satellite and the receiver. This relative velocity is usually
obtained by measuring the Doppler offset of the incoming carrier signal. The
measurement is called deltarange which includes the receiver clock frequency drift.
Similar to the position computation, the receiver clock error (drift in the case of
deltarange measurements) is an unknown parameter and should be resolved along
with the absolute velocity.
9-6
Deltarange measurements can be computed by summing up the carrier voltage-
controlled oscillator (VCO) commands in the carrier tracking loop which tracks the
phase of the received signal. The changes in measured phases are fed back to the
VCO to zero out these changes.
As with the pseudorange measurements, four deltarange measurements to four

different satellites allow velocity and user clock drift to be computed analytically,
although an iterative procedure is typically employed.
9.3.2 The GPS Navigation Equation
Figure 9-2 shows the basic relation between the line -of-sight pseudorange
measurement PR i (i=1,..,4 satellites), the satellites positions (S xi, Syi, Szi), and the
(antenna) user position coordinates (U x, Uy, Uz). The equation for the pseudorange
is as follows:
1/2
PRi = [( S xi - U x )2 + ( S yi - U y )2 + ( S zi - U z )2 ] + bu
where
PRi = pseudorange to the i th satellite, measured in the code

correlation process
Sxi, Syi, Szi = position coordinates of the i th satellite, known from the
decoded navigation message
Ux, Uy, Uz = three coordinates of the user position, to be found
bu = contribution to pseudorange caused by the user clock offset

error, to be found
The equations for deltarange are similar:
1/2
dPRi = [(V xi - V x )2 + (V yi - V y )2 + (V zi - V z )2 ] + fu
where
dPRi = deltarange to the i th satellite, measured in the phase lock

loop
Vxi, Vyi, Vzi = velocity coordinates of the i th satellite, derived from the
decoded navigation message
Vx, Vy, Vz = three coordinates of the user velocity, to be found
9-7
fu = contribution to deltarange caused by the frequency bias, to
be found
Figure 9-2. Geometry for GPS Measurement
Note that since the deltarange measurements are found by a scaled sum of VCO
commands from the carrier tracking loops, the average receiver and satellite
velocities over the deltarange dwell time should be used in the above equations
instead of instantaneous velocities. The average velocity can be approximated by
the velocity at the midpoint of the deltarange interval.
With four pseudorange measurements, there are four simultaneous quadratic

equations with four unknowns, the three coordinates of user position and the user's
receiver clock offset. Except in unusual geometric conditions, there exists a
solution. In practice, there are many computations to be made before arriving at
this equation. For example, the satellite positions are broadcast as orbital
parameters (ephemerides) and are a function of current time. In all, 24 variables
must be computed or solved from the available information.
9.3.3 The GPS Kalman Filter Model
To cast the Kalman filter equations in GPS form for the unaided receiver, the state
vector must be defined and the system dynamics and measurement m atrices must
be formulated. As a minimum, typically an eight state error vector is chosen:
position error (dx, dy, dz), receiver clock phase error (b u), velocity error (dv x, dvy,
dvz) and receiver clock frequency error (f u):
9-8
T
x = ( x, y, z, bu , vx , vy , vz , f u)
The state transition matrix for the dynamic model can take various forms. Often,
unaided receivers will model the vehicle motion as a constant velocity with process
noise to account for accelerations. In that case the propagation equations are as
follows:
d( x, y, z) / dt = ( v x , vy , vz )
d(bu) / dt = fu
d( v x , vy , vz ) / dt = (0, 0, 0)
d( f u ) / dt = 0
For a small propagation time interval of Dt the F matrix would be:
I I∆t
Φ=
O I
where I is the 4 x 4 identity matrix. The measurement vector for each (i th) satellite
measurement contains the pseudorange PR i and pseudorange rate dPR i (=
dPRi/dt):
z y = ( PRi , dPRi )T
Define
range vector Ri = (Sxi-Ux, Syi-Uy, Szi-Uz)

range R i = |Ri|
PRi measurement = (Sxi-Ux, Syi-Uy, Szi-Uz).Ri/Ri + bu
dPRi measurement = (Vxi-Vx, Vyi-Vy, Vzi-Vz).Ri/Ri + fu
9-9
and where (S xi, Syi, Szi) and (V xi, Vyi, Vzi) are the components of the computed
satellite position and velocity respectively. The matrix H has two different types of
rows, one type for pseudorange
[-( S xi - U x ) / Ri , -( S yi - U y ) / Ri , - ( Szi - U z ) / Ri , 1, 0, 0, 0, 0]
and a similar row for pseudorange rate
[0, 0, 0, 0, - ( S xi - U x ) / Ri , - ( S yi - U y ) / Ri , - ( Szi - U z ) / Ri , 1]
9.3.4 GPS Augmented Kalman Filter
A modification of this formulation is to include three acceleration states in addition

to the position and velocity states. Although there is no direct measurement of
acceleration in the unaided GPS receiver, these augmented states aid the filter in
sorting out non-zero mean errors. Specifically, if these states are included, and the
vehicle undergoes constant acceleration, the apparent discrepancy in the velocity
data will build up as a bias in the acceleration states, and the resultant filter
accuracy will improve. In essence, these states represent an unknown bias error in
the states related to the velocity terms by their first difference, so the filter assumes
that any such errors belong in these states. Of course, if the acceleration is not
constant, the acceleration states will not perfectly track the error, and in fact the
filter will respond more sluggishly to the velocity changes. But for the case of an
aircraft with constant acceleration turns, the augmented state filter will outperform
the eight-state filter.
9.3.5 GPS Kalman Filter Tuning
It is important to note that the covariance matrix is actually an estimate of the

statistics of the estimation error vector. Mismodeling of the system dynamics or of
the process or measurement noises can cause the true estimation error
uncertainties to be quite different from the covariance matrix computed by the
Kalman filter. Modeling only a subset of the total set of errors (suboptimal Kalman
filter) will also cause an inaccurate covariance matrix. When this occurs, the
accuracy of the navigation system may be substantially degraded. The process
whereby the covariance matrix of the mechanized filter is made to closely
approximate the true covariance matrix is referred to as Kalman filter tuning.
One way in which GPS Kalman filters are often tuned is through the use of adaptive
tuning. Specifically, this refers to dynamically setting the process noise Q as a function
of vehicle motion. This approach is used to account for mismodeling in the state
dynamics model. In this case, the errors are not Gaussian noise, but may be biases in
turns as already shown. Therefore, the correct Q depends on the vehicle profile. For
straight and level flight, a small Q is appropriate. For turns or higher dynamics, Q must
be larger. For filter stability reasons, Q must be set to the highest level of uncertainty
expected. This means that in
9-10
straight and level flight, for example, the Q will be overly pessimistic and will force
processing too much noise from the measurements due to larger Kalman gains than
needed.
The answer is to adapt Q, by setting it as small as possible, then using some other
observation to boost Q when needed. Some schemes tried in GPS receivers
include making Q a function of the ratio of the observed measurement residuals
with the assumed measurement noise. The only danger here is that if Q is allowed
to adapt too quickly, the filter can get into a positive feedback loop and cause
instability. This happens when observed noise opens Q which creates more noise,
etc. The resolution of this problem is to make Q adaptation very slow so that only
longer trend conditions cause a change in Q. In practice, the adaptation may be
implemented directly on the covariance rather than the Q term, but the effect is
similar.
9.4 KALMAN FILTERING FOR AIDED/INTEGRATED GPS
9.4.1 The Integrated Navigation Solution
GPS provides accurate position, velocity and time and is designed to perform in
all-weather, at any time of the day, and under specified conditions of jamming and
HV dynamics. Despite its superb performance, many integrators choose to go one
step further and combine GPS with other navigation sensors and systems available
in the HV into an integrated navigation solution. Similar to the basic GPS
navigation equations, this integrated solution is using a Kalman filter to combine the
individual navigation solutions.
Since GPS is the most accurate positioning system with worldwide coverage
currently available, the integrated system navigation solution will essentially be
based on the GPS solution when GPS is available. The system design will be
driven by the unifying concern for continued high quality navigation when the GPS
solution is unavailable because of jamming, dynamics or satellite failures.
Technical considerations for integrations of GPS with other sensors include the
choice of system architecture, the hosting of the Kalman filter, and the
characterization and modeling of additional measurements added by the other
sensors. The most important integration is the one in which GPS is combined with
an INS. Besides the combination of GPS and INS, the integration can also benefit
from sensors in the HV such as a precise clock, barometric altimeter or an AHRS in
the absence of an INS.
9.4.2 Kalman Filtering and GPS/INS

9.4.2.1 System Architecture
There are basically four different architectures possible in the combined GPS/INS
implementation, depending on the choice of hosting the Kalman filter and the
choice of open or closed-loop technique. Whether the integrated filter uses
position and velocity derived from the GPS Kalman filter or uses pseudoranges and
deltaranges is usually referred as loosely coupled or tightly coupled respectively.
9-11
The simplest way to combine GPS and INS is a reset-only mechanization in which
GPS is used to periodically reset the INS solution (see Figure 9-3). In this loosely
coupled, open-loop strategy the INS is not recalibrated by GPS data, so the
underlying error sources in the INS still drive its navigation errors as soon as GPS
resets are interrupted. However, for short GPS interruptions or for high quality INS,
the error growth may be small enough to meet mission requirements.
INS UNCORRECTED
POSITION, VELOCITY CORRECTED POSITION,
AND ATTITUDE VELOCITY AND ATTITUDE
INS
INS
KALMAN FILTER
GPS POSITION
AND VELOCITY
GPS
GPS RCVR
KALMAN FILTER
Figure 9-3. Open-loop GPS/INS Aided Architecture
The main advantage of GPS aiding the INS in a closed -loop mechanization is that
the inertial system is continuously calibrated by the Kalman filter, using the GPS
observables (see Figure 9-4). When GPS is lost due to jamming, dynamics or
satellite shadowing, the inertial system can continue to derive its navigation
solution, but now with a greater degree of precision by virtue of its recent
calibration. However, this loosely coupled, closed loop technique has serious
potential stability problems in cases where the INS feeds back navigation data to
the GPS receiver.
CORRECTED POSITION,
VELOCITY AND ATTITUDE
INS
CORRECTIONS FOR INS

POSITION, VELOCITY
AND ATTITUDE ERRORS
INS
KALMAN FILTER
GPS POSITION
AND VELOCITY
GPS
GPS RCVR
KALMAN FILTER
Figure 9-4. Closed-Loop GPS/INS Aided Architecture

GPS aiding the INS (loosely coupled) in both open and closed -loop modes results
in the simplest implementation: any GPS receiver and any INS with the necessary
data interfaces can be used and it requires a smaller Kalman mechanization of the
9-12
integrated INS filter since the INS treats the GPS receiver merely as another
sensor. Disadvantages are the use of two separate Kalman filters with the potential
instability of cascaded filters, and that the GPS Kalman filter provides correlated
position and velocity measurements that may not be modeled adequately in the INS
filter.
The next level of integration is the tightly coupled, open -loop integrated GPS/INS
Kalman filter which requires implementation at pseudorange level (see Figure 9-5).
This approach has more complex measurement equations but requires only one
Kalman filter mechaniza tion. The filter can be closer to optimal since effects of
satellite geometry and INS errors are included and INS aiding throughout a GPS
outage can be provided. Only one naviga tion solution is computed and both carrier
and code tracking loop aiding can be done using the velocity and attitude data from
the INS.
INS UNCORRECTED
POSITION, VELOCITY
AND ATTITUDE
INS
CORRECTED POSITION,
GPS PR AND dPR VELOCITY AND ATTITUDE
MEASUREMENTS
GPS/INS
GPS RCVR
KALMAN FILTER
Figure 9-5. Open-loop Integrated GPS/INS Architecture
The highest level of integration is the tightly coupled, closed -loop integrated
GPS/INS Kalman filter (see Figure 9-6). In addition to having only one Kalman filter
and the other benefits of the tightly coupled, open-loop filter, the main advantage
here is that the INS is continuously calibrated and will maintain the most accurate
navigation solution in case of GPS outages.
9-13
CORRECTED POSITION,
VELOCITY AND ATTITUDE
INS
CORRECTIONS FOR INS

POSITION, VELOCITY
AND ATTITUDE ERRORS
GPS/INS
KALMAN FILTER
GPS PR AND dPR

MEASUREMENTS
GPS RCVR
Figure 9-6. Closed-loop Integrated GPS/INS Architecture
9.4.2.2 The INS Navigation Process
The INS Kalman filter will model and estimate some of the INS errors. An INS
consists of, as a minimum, an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and a computer to
perform processing. The inertial sensors are accelerometers and gyroscopes which
measure, loosely speaking, inertial accelerations and rotations.
Most IMU's fall into one of two classes. The first, and oldest type, is a gimballed
platform. In a gimballed IMU, the accelerometer triad is mounted on a platform that
is maintained stable in inertial space by the gyros. A locally level navigation frame
is usually mechanized so that the gyros are "torqued" for transport and earth rates
to force the platform to remain perpendicular to the local gravity vector. Thus the
accelerometers measure accelerations directly in the local level plane. Many
gimballed platforms also include a third accelerometer orthogonal to the two in the
platform plane that measures vertical specific force. The attitude of the IMU case
with respect to the platform is determined through electrical pickoffs of the gimbal
structure.
The second type of IMU is the strapdown system. In a strapdown IMU, the gyros are
rate integrating and are essentially hard mounted to the host vehicle. The gyros
measure incremental angular change. The computer must keep track of the angular
changes so that the attitude of the host vehicle can be determined. The three
accelerometers measure linear accelerations as in the case of a gimballed IMU,
although the accelerations are in the vehicle body frame. The transformation from
the platform to navigation frames is used to convert the accelerations to navigation
coordinates where they are integrated to produce velocity and position.
9-14
To summarize, an INS consists of three major subsystems:
1. Attitude subsystem where the orientation of the IMU with respect to the
navigation frame is maintained
2. Specific force sensing subsystem, usually three single-axis accelerometers,

that measure accelerations
3. Computation subsystem, in which INS navigation equations of motion are

solved.
Depending upon the instrument quality, INS position error rates can range from 0.1
nm/hr to 10.0 nm/hr. Although the INS errors can grow unbounded, their temporal
behavior has a very well defined frequency behavior. Horizontal errors will oscillate at
the Schuler frequency (with an 84-minute period) modulated by earth rate (24 hour
period) and the second order Foucault frequency (period depends on vehicle velocity,
direction, and latitude).
The pure inertial vertical channel of an INS is unstable with a time constant of 9.5
minutes. For this reason many inertial navigation systems incorporate baro -altimeter
stabilization of its vertical channel. Note that for GPS/INS integrated filters, the baro-
altimeter error can be estimated through GPS position measurements. Since direct
GPS measurements of position yield reference ellipsoid altitude, the baro-altimeter
error estimated includes the offset of local mean sea level from the ellipsoid.
An important error source in an INS is an error in knowledge of the orientation or

alignment of the INS sensor package with respect to its navigation frame. These
misalignment errors are usually expressed as three small rotation angles and are
referred to as platform tilts. In a strapdown INS, the three angles are related to pitch,
roll and heading error, while in a gimballed system the angles are identified with
rotations of the platform about the level and vertical axes.
The three accelerometers in an INS are usually mounted in a mutually orthogonal triad,
each one measuring a component of specific force along its sensitive axis. Typical
accelerometer errors include bias, scale factor, and misalignments among others. A
bias error means that the instrument reading is always off by a fixed amount of
acceleration. A scale factor error refers to an error in the accelerometer output by a
constant multiplicative factor. An accelerometer misalignment will cause the
accelerometer to sense components of accelerations that occur along an axis
supposedly orthogonal to its input axis.
An INS usually has gyros mounted with their sensitive axes in a mutually orthogonal
triad. The gyros may be single or dual axis (2 degree-of-freedom) in nature. Two 2
degree-of-freedom gyros provide outputs along 3 orthogonal axes and along 1
redundant axis. The gyro axes have a known, fixed orientation with respect to the
accelerometers. A gyro drift rate or bias is a constant angular rate of change of the
platform tilts. Gyros errors also include scale factor errors, misalignments, and in the
case of spinning mass gyros, g-sensitive drift rates. The gyro bias errors are the
primary cause of increasing horizontal position errors and consequently are the errors
most necessary to minimize for longer missions.
9-15
9.4.2.3 The INS Kalman Filter States
For an INS Kalman filter implementation, 15 states are often used to describe the
INS navigation process and its error sources:
· 3 INS position errors

· 3 INS velocity errors
· 3 platform orientation errors
· 3 accelerometer biases
· 3 gyro drift rates
For some applications, particularly if the mission scenario calls for only short
periods of time without GPS data, it may be possible to model an INS with fewer
states.
There are many other sources of error in an INS in addition to the states given
above as noted previously: gyro and accelerometer scale factor errors, gyro and
accelerometer input axis misalignment angles, gyro g -sensitivity, etc. Usually the
effects of these errors are accounted for in the computation of the process noise
covariance matrix Q. Failure to account for the effects of these errors will almost
always result in optimistic filter performance; that is, the true estimation error
standard deviations will be larger than the standard deviations in the covariance
matrix computed by the Kalman filter. In addition, the INS manufacturer attempts to
minimize their effects by providing calibration coefficients and test data on the INS
themselves.
9.4.3 Kalman Filtering and GPS/Precise Clock
In case an external clock is used for GPS time reference, its phase and frequency
error can be included as states in the Kalman filter. Corrections are calculated and
either maintained in the mission computer (open-loop) or directly applied to the
clock continuously (closed-loop).
When the receiver starts to navigate with only three satellites, the calibrated clock
can then be used to maintain accurate GPS system time. This also applies to a two
satellite situation if receiver altitude is known. What accuracy can be maintained
and for how long depends on the detail of the error models and the disturbance to
the clock during the outage period. Examples of such disturbances are temperature
changes, pressure changes, crystal aging, accelerations and vibrations.
9.4.4 Kalman Filtering and GPS/Barometric Altimeter
A barometric altimeter is typically included in a stand -alone INS for damping of its
otherwise unstable vertical loop. In a GPS/INS integration, inclusion of a
barometric altimeter is recommended both for aiding poor vertical geometry
situations under nominal conditions and for three-satellite situations. If GPS
outages occur for extended periods of time, then some other type of reference
altitude is required to stabilize the vertical channel.
The barometric altimeter can be processed as a measurement to the Kalman filter
since the vertical channel is effectively stabilized through the optimal Kalman filter
9-16
gains. In this case, the barometric altimeter error is modeled in the Kalman filter
state vector. The barometric altimeter measurement will only be processed by the
Kalman filter when GPS satellite coverage is incomplete. If not processed as a
measurement to the Kalman filter, the barometric altitude can be differenced with
inertial altitude to create an error signal that is filtered and fed back to inertial
altitude, giving a blended baro/inertial altitude.
9.4.5 Kalman Filtering and GPS/AHRS
An AHRS is a strapdown system which uses lower quality gyros and accelerometers
than a strapdown INS. Used as a stand -alone system, an AHRS is similar to an
INS, except that no position is available, only attitude (pitch, roll and heading),
attitude rates and acceleration.
GPS can provide three-dimensional bounded position and velocity aiding

information to the AHRS to improve its outputs. An AHRS, in its turn, can be used
for short-term fill-in of velocity information if the receiver outputs are lost.
Potentially, AHRS velocity could also aid the GPS receiver tracking loops during
short periods of jamming or high dynamics. The separate Kalman filter, in case of
an aided GPS/AHRS, does not include the vertical channel. A typical Kalman filter
model has 14 error states: horizontal position (2), hori zontal velocity (2), rotations
(2), gyro drift rates (3), gyro scale factor (1), wander -azimuth angle (1) and
accelerometer bias (3). The combined Kalman filter for a tightly coupled, integrated
GPS/AHRS adds four error states: vertical position, vertical velocity, clock phase
error and clock frequency error.
9-17
CHAPTER 10: DIFFERENTIAL GPS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Differential GPS (DGPS) was developed to meet the needs of positioning and
distance measuring applications that required higher accuracies than stand-alone
GPS could deliver. A typical differential GPS architecture (see Figure 10-1)
consists of a reference receiver located at a surveyed, known location, and one or
more DGPS user receivers. The user receivers are often called "mobile" receivers
because they are not confined to a fixed location like the reference receiver. The
Reference Receiver antenna, differential correction processing system, and data
link equipment (if used) are collectively called the Reference Station. Both sets of
receivers either collect and store the necessary data for later processing, or send
them to the desired location in real time via the data link.
Figure 10-1. Typical Differential System Architecture
This overview outlines some of the fundamental issues of DGPS. These issues should
be considered by any user considering the need for a positioning system that can give
accuracies better than the absolute PPS or SPS performance.
10-1
10.2 DGPS CONCEPT
DGPS is based on the principle that receivers in the same vicinity will simultaneously
experience common errors on a particular satellite ranging signal. In general, the user
(mobile) receivers use measurements from the reference receiver to remove the
common errors. In order to accomplish this, the user (mobile) receivers must
simultaneously use a subset or the same set of satellites as the reference station. The
DGPS positioning equations are formulated so that the common errors cancel. The
common errors include signal path delays through the atmosphere, and satellite clock
and ephemeris errors. For PPS users, the common satellite errors are residual system
errors that are normally present in the PVT solution. For SPS users, the common
satellite errors also include the intentionally added errors from SA. Errors that are
unique to each receiver, such as receiver measurement noise and multipath, cannot be
removed without additional recursive processing (by the reference receiver, user
receiver, or both) to provide an averaged, smoothed, or filtered solution.
Various DGPS techniques are employed depending on the accuracy desired, where the
data processing is to be performed, and whether real-time results are required. If real-
time results are required then a data link is also required. For applications without a
real-time requirement, the data can be collected and processed later. The accuracy
requirements usually dictate which measurements are used and what algorithms are
employed. Under normal conditions, DGPS accuracy is independent of whether SPS
or PPS is being used, although real-time PPS DGPS can have a lower data rate than
SPS DGPS because the rate of change of the nominal system errors is slower than the
rate of change of SA. However, the user and the Reference Station must be using the
same service (either PPS or SPS).
The clock and frequency biases for a particular satellite will appear the same to all
users since these parameters are unaffected by signal propagation or distance from the
satellite. The pseudorange and deltarange (Doppler) measurements will be different
for different users, because they will be at different locations and have different relative
velocities with respect to the satellite, but the satellite clock and frequency bias will be
common error components of those measurements. The signal propagation delay is
truly a common error for receivers in the same location, but as the distance between
receivers increases, this error gradually decorrelates and becomes independent. The
satellite ephemeris has errors in all three dimensions. Therefore, part of the error will
appear as a common range error and part will remain a residual ephemeris error. The
residual portion is normally small and its impact remains small for similar observation
angles to the satellite.
The accepted standard for SPS DGPS was developed by the Radio Technical
Commission for Maritime Services (RTCM) Special Committee-104 (SC-104). The
RTCM developed standards for the use of differential corrections, and defined the data
format to be used between the reference station and the user. The stan dards are
primarily intended for real time operational use and cover a wide range of DGPS
measurement types. Most SPS DGPS receivers are compatible with the RTCM SC-104
differential message formats. DGPS standards have also been developed by the Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) for special Category I precision
approach using ranging-code differential. The standards are contained in RTCA
document DO-217. This document is
10-2
intended only for limited use until an international standard can be developed for
precision approach.
10.3 DGPS IMPLEMENTATION TYPES
There are two primary variations of the differential measurements and equations.
One is based on ranging-code measurements and the other based on carrier-phase
measurements. There are also several ways to implement the data link function.
DGPS systems can be designed to serve a limited area from a single reference
station, or can use a network of reference stations and special algorithms to extend
the validity of the DGPS technique over a wide area. The result is that there is a
large variety of possible DGPS system implementations using combinations of
these design features.
10.3.1 Ranging-Code Differential
The ranging-code differential technique uses the pseudorange measurements of

the reference station to calculate pseudorange or position corrections for the user
receivers. The reference station calculates pseudorange corrections for each
visible satellite by subtracting the "true" range, determined by the surveyed position
and the known orbit parameters, from the measured pseudorange. The user
receiver then selects the appropriate correction for each satellite that it is tracking,
and subtracts the correction from the pseudorange that it has measured. The
mobile receiver must only use those satellites for which corrections have been
received.
If the reference station provides position corrections rather than pseudorange

corrections, the corrections are simply determined by subtracting the measured
position from the surveyed position. The advantage of using position corrections is
obviously the simplicity of the calculations. The disadvantage is that the reference
receiver and the user receiver must use the exact same set of satellites. This can
be accomplished by coordinating the choice of satellites between the reference
receiver and the user receiver, or by having the reference station compute a
position correction for each possible combination of satellites. For these reasons, it
is usually more flexible and efficient to provide pseudorange corrections rather than
position corrections. The RTCM SC-104 and RTCA DO-217 formats are all based
on pseudorange rather than position corrections.
The pseudorange or position corrections are time tagged with the time that the
measurements were taken. In real-time systems, the rate of change of the corrections
is also calculated. This allows the user to propagate the corrections to the time that
they are actually applied to the user position solution. This reduces the impact of data
latency on the accuracy of the system but does not eliminate it entirely. SPS
corrections become fully uncorrelated with the user measurements after about 2
minutes. Corrections used after two minutes may produce solutions which are less
accurate than stand-alone SPS GPS. PPS corrections can remain correlated with the
user measurements for 10 minutes or more under benign (slowly changing) ionospheric
conditions.
10-3
10.3.2 Carrier-Phase Differential
The carrier-phase measurement technique uses the difference between the carrier
phases measured at the reference receiver and user receiver. A double-differencing
technique is used to remove the satellite and receiver clock errors. The first difference
is the difference between the phase measurements at the user receiver and the
reference receiver for a single satellite. This eliminates the satellite clock error which is
common to both measurements. This process is then repeated for a second satellite.
A second difference is then formed by subtracting the first difference for the first
satellite from the first difference for the second satellite. This eliminates both receiver
clock errors which are common to the first difference equations. This process is
repeated for two other pairs of satellites resulting in three double-differenced
measurements that can be solved for the difference between the reference station and
user receiver locations. This is inherently a relative positioning technique, therefore
the user receiver must know the reference station location to determine its absolute
position. Refer to Chapter 11 for a more detailed description of this process.
This same technique can be used to determine the attitude of a vehicle or platform.
In this case the processing can be contained within one receiver using multiple
fixed antennas. One antenna can be arbitrarily chosen as the "reference". Since
the antennas are separated by fixed distances and since their relationship to the
center-of-mass of the platform is known, it is possible to convert the carrier phase
differences into angular differences between the antenna locations and the line-of-
sight to a satellite. By using measurements from multiple satellites, or the position
of the platform from a DGPS position fix, these angular differences can be
transformed to represent the attitude of the platform with respect to the local
vertical axis.
The "raw" phase measurements are essentially a count of the number of carrier
cycles between the satellite and receiver positions. The number of cycles times the
carrier wavelength is a range measurement. The receivers can directly measure
the fractional portion of the phase measurement and can track phase shifts
including whole cycles, but they must calculate the initial whole number of cycles
between the receiver and the satellite. This is referred to as the integer cycle
ambiguity.
For surveying applications, this integer ambiguity can be resolved by starting with
the mobile receiver antenna within a wavelength of the reference receiver antenna.
Both receivers start with the same integer ambiguity, so the difference is zero and
drops out of the double-difference equations. Thereafter, the phase shift that the
mobile receiver observes (whole cycles) is the integer phase difference between
the two receivers. For other applications where it is not practical to bring the
reference and mobile antennas together, the reference and mobile receivers can
solve for the ambiguities independently as part of an initialization process. One
way is to place the mobile receiver at a surveyed location. In this case the initial
difference is not necessarily zero but it is an easily calculated value.
10-4
For some applications (such as aircraft precision approach), it is essential to be
able to solve for the integer ambiguity at an unknown location or while in motion (or
both). In this case, solving for the integer ambiguity usually consists of eliminating
incorrect solutions until the correct solution is found. A good initial estimate of
position (such as from ranging-code differential) helps to keep the initial number of
candidate solutions small. Redundant measurements over time and/or from extra
satellite signals are used to isolate the correct solution. These "search" techniques
can take as little as a few seconds or up to several minutes to perform and can
require significant computer processing power. This version of the carrier-phase
DGPS technique is typically called kinematic differential GPS.
If carrier track or phase lock on a satellite is interrupted and the integer count is
lost, then the initialization process must be repeated for that satellite (known as
cycle clip). Output data flow may also be interrupted if the receiver is not collecting
redundant measurements from extra satellites to maintain the position solution. If a
precise position solution is maintained, reinitialization for the "lost" satellite can be
almost immediate. Developing a robust and rapid method of initialization and
reinitialization is the primary challenge facing designers of real-time systems that
have a safety critical application such as aircraft precision approach.
10.3.3 DGPS Data Link Implementations
DGPS can also be implemented in several different ways depending on the type of
data link used. The simplest data link is no data link at all. For non-real-time
applications, the measurements can be stored in the receiver or on suitable media
and processed at a later time. In most cases to achieve surveying accuracies, the
data must be post-processed using precise ephemeris data that is only available
after the survey data has been collected. Similarly, for some test applications the
cost and effort to maintain a real-time data link may be unnecessary. Nevertheless,
low-precision real-time outputs can be useful to confirm that a survey or test is
progressing properly even if the accuracy of the results will be enhanced later.
Differential corrections or measurements can be uplinked in real-time from the

reference station to the users. This is the most common technique where a large
number of users must be served in real-time. If the user receivers are passive as in
GPS itself, an unlimited number of users can be served. For military purposes and
proprietary commercial services, the uplink can be encrypted to restrict the use of
the DGPS signals to a select group of users.
An uplink can be a separate transmitter/receiver system or the DGPS signals can

be superimposed on a GPS-like D-band ranging signal. The uplink acts as a
pseudo-satellite or "pseudolite" and delivers the ranging signal and DGPS data via
the RF section of the user receiver, much in the same way the GPS navigation
message is transmitted. The advantages are that the additional ranging signal(s)
can increase the availability of the position solution, or decrease carrier-phase
initialization time, and a separate data link system is not required. However, the
reference station and user receivers become more complex and the pseudolite can
become a GPS jammer if it overpowers the GPS satellite signals.
10-5
A downlink option is also possible from the users to the reference station or other
central collection point. In this case the differential solutions are all calculated at a
central location. This is often the case for test range applications where precise
vehicle tracking is desired but the information is not used aboard the vehicle. The
downlinked data can be position data plus the satellites tracked, or pseudorange and
deltarange measurements, or it can be the raw GPS signals translated to an
intermediate frequency. The translator method can often be the least expensive with
respect to user equipment, and therefore is often used in munitions testing where the
user equipment may be expendable.
10.3.4 Local Area and Wide Area Systems
The accuracy of a DGPS solution developed using a single reference station will
degrade with distance from the reference station site. This is due to the increasing
difference between the reference and user receiver ephemeris, ionospheric, and
tropospheric errors. The errors are likely to remain highly correlated within a distance
of 250 km, but such systems are often limited by the data link to an effective range of
around 170 km. Such systems are usually called local area DGPS (LADGPS) systems.
DGPS systems that compensate for accuracy degradations over large areas are
referred to as wide area DGPS (WADGPS) systems. They usually employ a network of
reference receivers that are coordinated to provide DGPS data that is valid over a wide
coverage area. Such systems typically are designed to broadcast the DGPS data via
satellite, although a network of ground transmission sites is also feasible. A user
receiver typically must employ special algorithms to derive the ionospheric and
tropospheric corrections that are appropriate for its location from the observations
taken at the various reference sites. The U.S., Canada, Europe, Japan, and Australia
are planning to deploy WADGPS systems transmitting from geostationary satellites for
use by commercial aviation. The satellites will also provide GPS-like ranging signals.
Other nations may participate by providing clock corrections only from single sites or
small networks, requiring the user to derive ionospheric corrections from an
ionospheric model or dual-frequency measurements. Similar systems limited to military
use have also been discussed.
Some commercial DGPS services broadcast the data from multiple reference stations
via satellite. However, several such systems remain a group of LADGPS rather than
WADGPS systems. This is because the reference stations are not integrated into a
network, therefore the user accuracy degrades with distance from the individual
reference sites.
10.4 SOLUTION ERROR SOURCES
The major sources of range error for nondifferential GPS are:
10-6
1. Selective Availability Errors. Intentional SA degradations are applied to the
GPS navigation signals to create the SPS level of accuracy. Two methods
are used. The first method, called epsilon, alters the ephemeris (location)
parameters of the satellite to give an apparent shift of satellite position. The
second method, called dither, alters the satellite clock frequency, thereby
introducing range errors in the C/A-code, P(Y)-code, and carrier signals.
These errors resemble the naturally occurring ephemeris and clock errors.
2. Ionospheric Delay. Ionospheric signal propagation delay can vary from

40-60 metres 95% by day to 6-12 metres 95% at night. This is a particular
problem with a single frequency user (i.e., a single frequency C/A code
set). Dual frequency receivers can correct for ionospheric delays with a
residual error of some 4.5 metres 95%. The satellite navigation message
contains correction coefficients for the single frequency user to reduce the
ionospheric delay by appropriate algorithm.
3. Tropospheric Delay. This signal propagation delay is caused by

moisture in the lower atmosphere. Tropospheric delay may be up to 6
metres 95% in magnitude. Many receivers employ algorithms to minimize
this tropospheric delay error.
4. Ephemeris Error. This error is the difference between the actual satellite
location and the position predicted by satellite orbital data. Normally,
errors will be less than 8.2 metres 95%.
5. Satellite Clock Error. This error is the difference between actual satellite
GPS time and that predicted by satellite data. This error is normally less
than 6.5 metres 95%.
DGPS can correct for the errors and induced biases listed above in the following
manner:
1. Selective Availability Errors. These errors are only of concern to the

SPS user. They resemble the naturally occurring ephemeris and clock
errors, except that they can be larger in magnitude and can change more
rapidly. The epsilon error can be a three dimensional error. Therefore,
part of the error will appear as a common range error and part will remain
a residual ephemeris error. The residual portion is normally small and its
impact remains small for similar look angles to the satellite. The dither
error can appear as a time and frequency bias. This will be an error
common to all receivers and will not be affected by signal propagation or
distance from the satellite. However, since it is rapidly changing, any
delay between the time of measurement at the reference station and time
of use at the user receiver will result in a residual clock error. SPS DGPS
systems are normally designed with a rate-of-change term in the
corrections and rapid update rates to minimize this effect.
10-7
2. Ionospheric and Tropospheric Delays. For users near the reference
station, the respective signal paths to the satellites are close enough
together that the compensation is almost complete. As the user to
reference station separation is increased, the different ionospheric and
tropospheric paths to the satellites can be far enough apart that the
ionospheric and tropospheric delays are no longer common errors. Thus,
as the distance between the Reference Station and user receiver
increases the effectiveness of the atmospheric delay corrections decrease.
3. Ephemeris Error. This error is effectively compensated unless it has

quite a large out-of-range component (for example, 1000 metres or more
due to an error in a satellite navigation message). Even then, the error
will be small if the distance between the reference receiver and user
receiver is small.
4. Satellite Clock Error. Except in a satellite failure situation, this error is

more slowly changing than the SA dither error. For all practical purposes,
this error is completely compensated, as long as both reference and user
receivers employ the same satellite clock correction data.
The correlation of the errors experienced at the Reference Station and at the user
location is dependent on the distance between them, but they are normally highly
correlated for a user within 350 km of the Reference Station. Table 10-1 shows the
error budget for a PPS DGPS system, i.e., there is no added SA error. The error
budget assumes that the common range error sources due to the Space and
Control Segment are eliminated in a PPS DGPS system.
Table 10-1. PPS DGPS Error Budget
Differential Mode
Segment Normal Near Far
Source Error Mode (m) (m) (m)
Space Clock and Nav Subsystem Stability 6.5 0.0 0.0
Predictability of SV Perturbations 2.0 0.0 0.0
Other 1.0 1.0 1.0
Control Ephemeris Prediction Model 8.2 0.0 0.0
Implementation
Other 1.8 1.8 1.8
User (P(Y)-Code) Iono Delay Compensation 4.5 0 4.5
Tropo Delay Compensation 3.9 0 3.9
Receiver Noise and Resolution 2.9 4.1 4.1
Multipath 2.4 3.4 3.4
Other 1.0 1.0 1.0
UERE (95%) 13.0 5.8 8.3
Atmospheric errors can be eliminated if the user is close to the reference station,
but if they are more than 250 km apart, the user will obtain better results using
correction models for ionospheric and tropospheric delay. 250 km is a reasonable
10-8
division between near and far. Table 10-1 above also shows how the reference
station receiver noise and multipath errors are included in the differential
corrections and become part of the user's error budget (root-sum-squared with the
user receiver noise and multipath errors).
10.5 SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
Figures 10-2 and 10-3 show an example reference station and DGPS user
equipment. Two receivers are shown at the Reference Station to increase the
station reliability and to provide station integrity. Nominally each receiver will track
all satellites in view in order to assure that differential corrections are determined
for all satellites. With the full GPS constellation as many as eight to ten satellites
may be in view. If eight satellites are visible, the reference station would have to
broadcast data for 8 satellites. If SPS equipment is used, the broadcast can be
unencrypted. If PPS equipment is used, the transmission of SA corrected errors
requires the use of an encrypted data link.
From a military standpoint, DGPS no longer remains a passive system. DGPS

transmitters have a limited range application (up to about 800 km). There will also
be increased system cost for communications and processing equipment.
GPS
ANTENNA
GPS REFERENCE PSEUDORANGE
STATION PROCESSOR CORRECTIONS
DIFFERENTIAL GPS
DATA LINK TX
GPS INTEGRITY
MONITOR
DIFFERENTIAL GPS
DATA LINK RX
Figure 10-2. Typical Reference Station
10-9
DIFFERENTIAL GPS
GPS DATA LINK ANTENNA
ES
S
TE
G
N
A
A
IN
O N
R
D
C ITIO
O
R
D
EU
S
O
PO
PS
GPS DIFFERENTIAL
RECEIVER DATA DISPLAY
PROCESSOR
CORRECTIONS
M
EA
ST A
T
R
A
DATA
D
LINK DATA
RECEIVER FORMATTER
Figure 10-3. Typical UE Block Diagram
10.6 DGPS INTEGRITY
DGPS does more than increase positioning accuracy, it also enhances GPS
integrity by compensating for anomalies in the satellite ranging signals and
navigation data message. The range and range rate corrections provided in the
ranging-code DGPS correction message can compensate for ramp and step type
anomalies in the individual satellite signals, until the corrections exceed the
maximum values or rates allowed in the correction format. If these limits are
exceeded, the user can be warned not to use a particular satellite by placing "do-
not-use" bit patterns in the corrections for that satellite (as defined in or RTCM SC-
104 message formats) or by omitting the corrections for that satellite. Step
anomalies will normally cause carrier-phase DGPS receivers to lose lock on the
carrier phase, causing the reference and user receivers to reinitialize. User
receiver noise, user processing anomalies, and multipath at the user GPS antenna
cannot be corrected by a DGPS system. These errors are normally small and
included in the overall DGPS error budget.
Errors in determining or transmitting the satellite corrections may be passed on to

the differential user if integrity checks are not provided within the reference station.
These errors can include inaccuracies in the reference station antenna location(s)
that bias the corrections, systematic multipath due to poor antenna sighting (usually
in low elevation angle satellites), algorithmic errors, receiver interchannel bias
errors, receiver clock errors, and communication errors. For these reasons, DGPS
reference station designs typically include integrity checking provisions to
guarantee the validity of the corrections before and after broadcast.
In a local area DGPS system that provides integrity checks on the corrections at the
reference station, Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) may not be
10-10
required in the user receiver when DGPS corrections are utilized in the position
solution. As described above, the DGPS measurements/corrections ensure the
integrity of the corrected measurements used by the user receiver. If the reference
station validates the measurements/corrections sufficiently to guarantee the
broadcast UERE, the only other place an integrity problem can occur is the user
receiver. The user receiver can perform internal validity checks, other than RAIM,
on its measurements and processing to detect any internal integrity problems. In a
wide area DGPS system, RAIM may be useful to detect extreme ionospheric or
tropospheric errors, if the desired differential accuracy can be degraded by these
effects.
Information provided in a correction message includes the measurement time of

each correction and the "Issue Of Data" (IOD) of the Ephemeris that was used to
determine the corrections. It should also include a UDRE value for each satellite.
The significance of these parameters is explained in the following paragraphs.
Most differential user receivers check the measurement times to automatically stop
using reference station measurements (corrections) that exceed a predetermined
age. DGPS position error increases as the measurement age increases because
the reference station and user errors decorrelate with time. A user receiver
propagates ranging-code corrections to the current time using the range rate
corrections or propagates its own carrier-phase measurements to the reference
station measurement time. This decreases the effect of the measurement age, but
does not eliminate it. The major change in SPS measurements is due to SA.
Consequently, the time for SPS measurements to become completely decorrelated
is around two minutes. The major change in PPS measurements is due to satellite
geometry. Therefore, PPS measurements can remain correlated for 10 minutes or
more.
In order to maintain the integrity of a DGPS position solution, all corrections must
be provided by the same reference station or by time-synchronized reference
stations. This is because the correction values are dependent on the reference
station clock. Mixing corrections from unsynchronized reference stations can
generate unpredictable clock and range errors in the user receiver.
The corrections must also be based on the same IOD values that the user receiver
is using. If the ephemeris data used to develop the corrections is different than the
ephemeris data used in the user receiver, then the magnitude of the corrections will
be invalid.
The UDRE is the differential equivalent of the URE for uncorrected satellites. It is a
statistical measure of the expected residual range error after the corrections are
applied. The correction UDRE values can be used in conjunction with the satellite
geometry to calculate an estimate of the differential position error. The user
receiver contribution to the total User Equivalent Differential Range Error (UEDRE)
must also be considered in the position error calculations. (Different receivers can
have different measurement errors.) If the reference station validates the broadcast
UDRE values, the position error estimates can be used as an integrity check, much
in the same way that RAIM is used by nondifferential receivers. That is, estimates
of the user position accuracy can be periodically compared against the minimum
10-11
mission requirements. The advantage of the differential method is that an
overdetermined position solution (additional range measurements) is not required
as in RAIM to maintain positioning integrity. If the number of available satellite
corrections exceeds the number of tracking channels in the user receiver, these
position error estimates can also be used to select the set of satellites that provide
the most accurate position solution. Normally, the "all-in-view" position solution is
most accurate, and the correction UDRE values are near the same magnitude. If
one or more corrections have a relatively large UDRE, a subset of the satellites
may provide a more accurate solution.
The standard maritime DGPS design, being implemented by several countries

throughout the world, includes a differential user receiver located at a nearby
surveyed site to serve as an integrity monitor. The integrity monitor receives and
applies the corrections and develops a differential position solution in the same
manner as any other user receiver. This position solution is then compared with
the known antenna location. If the difference exceeds the allowed differentially-
corrected position error, the transmission of all corrections is terminated. A
message is also sent to the users warning them to stop using all previously
transmitted corrections. Although this method protects well against large sudden
errors, rigorous integrity is only provided for a user that determines a position using
the same set of satellite corrections as the integrity monitor (typically the full set).
Receivers that use only a subset of the satellites and transmitted corrections will
have a higher DOP value for position determination and may h ave a significantly
greater position error than the integrity monitor.
A more effective integrity method is to check the integrity of each individual

correction in the range domain, rather than the position domain, providing integrity
for users of any correction subset. This method also uses multiple receivers in the
reference station (a minimum of two), but each receiver generates an independent
set of corrections. The receivers also use different antennas, sited a sufficient
distance apart that multipath effects are likely to be independent as well. The two
sets of corrections are directly compared prior to transmission. The difference
between each pair of corrections is a direct measurement of most of the
components of the actual instantaneous differential range error seen by the user
receiver. If a pair of corrections disagree by more than a predetermined amount,
for example, 3 X UDRE (that is, 3-sigma UDRE), correction transmissions are
interrupted for that satellite. In this way, the user does not receive or use any
corrections until the integrity is checked, and the user can have confidence that the
broadcast UDRE is a true measure of the expected range error. The reference
station also has the ability to continue broadcasting the corrections that remain
valid. This technique is particularly useful for applications that must meet short
integrity warning times, must provide a highly confident estimate of UDRE, must
minimize service interruptions, or that have slow correction transmission rates.
Additional enhancements to this technique can include the use of dissimilar
receivers to prevent common-mode errors within the reference station, the use of
more than two receivers to "vote-out" anomalous measurements, or the calculation
of an "average" correction between the reference station receivers.
10-12
Most of these integrity considerations apply equally to DGPS systems that base
their corrections on SPS or PPS data. The primary difference is that the PPS
corrections can be propagated for a longer time since the measurements are not
influenced by SA-induced errors.
10-13
CHAPTER 11: SPECIAL APPLICATIONS FOR NAVSTAR GPS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Navstar GPS is a positioning system that will be a definite force enhancer in military
operations. Since GPS will also be available to civilian users and has the potential to
enhance military operations other than weapon delivery, several special applica tions
for GPS have been developed. This chapter will discuss four special applications
already developed to indicate the variety of GPS uses. The four special applications
discussed are as follows:
1. DGPS Applications
2. GPS used as an attitude reference system
3. Precise time and GPS
4. Orbit determination using GPS
11.2 DGPS APPLICATIONS
11.2.1 Potential Uses of DGPS
DGPS can be used for a variety of applications. Some of these applications will be
discussed in this chapter.
· Instrument approach
· All weather helicopter operations
· Narrow channel maritime operations
· Reference Station for testing/calibration of navigation equipment
· Surveying for mapping and positioning
· Blind take-off
11.2.1.1 Instrument Approach
Most established airfields have sufficient landing instrumentation, however, during

major conflicts, GPS can be used as an approach aid to temporary airfields. The GPS
PPS accuracies are adequate to provide non-precision approach guidance to any
landing location in the world, providing the coordinates of the runway end are
accurately known. The use of DGPS would allow even better accuracy and may allow
lower descent limits to a smaller landing area. The DGPS system can be set up almost
immediately to provide very accurate guidance to any runway threshold.
11.2.1.2 All Weather Helicopter Operations
Helicopters are required to operate almost anywhere under all weather conditions, day
or night. DGPS is used to give helicopters improved position and height information
when maneuvering close to the ground and in close proximity to obstacles.
11-1
11.2.1.3 Narrow Channel Maritime Operations
There are two types of narrow maritime channels - natural confined waters and
channels swept through mine fields. Large ships, both military and civilian, will operate
in both types of narrow channels in wartime and will need all the position accuracy they
can get. Use of DGPS will reduce the requirement for the width of the channel to be
swept.
11.2.1.4 Reference Station for Testing/Calibration of Navigation Equipment
A Reference Station can provide the "ground truth" necessary for testing GPS and
other navigation equipment. It can also be used to calibrate other terrestrial navigation
system transmitters such as Loran-C and Omega.
11.2.1.5 Surveying for Mapping and Positioning
The use of DGPS to collect data for post -processing (not real-time DGPS) is a common
operating method for mapping and geograph ical surveying purposes. The usual
method is to use one mobile GPS receiver, one stationary reference GPS receiver, plus
the necessary data recording and data processing equipment. The mobile receiver is
moved around to those points that will be surveyed. GPS data (pseudoranges and
deltaranges) are collected at both receivers and the actual DGPS process is done
when the data from the two receivers is brought together at a later time. This technique
eliminates the data link; despite this, very accurate DGPS data can be obtained within
minutes of data collection.
11.2.1.6 Blind Take-Off
GPS is inherently most accurate in the horizontal plane. If the horizontal accuracy is
enhanced by DGPS techniques, an aircraft could use the improved accura cy to
navigate down a runway for take-off in zero/zero conditions.
11.2.2 DGPS Data Link
The transfer of data from the reference receiver to the mobile receiver can be done
using any communication system capable of transfer ring digital data. It can be v ia
telephone lines, radio or satellite communications. Military users of a data link may
wish to consider encrypting the link to provide protection from imitation of the signal.
Once the data is received, it can be loaded into the receiver by using existing
interfaces such as the Instrumentation Port (IP), a MIL -STD-1553 data bus, or a special
interface dedicated to DGPS data.
The use of pseudolites transmitting GPS NAV msg "look alike" data on L1 or L2
excludes the need for extra radio equipment on the user vehicle. The range of
operation will also be very limited due to the high frequency of the pseudolite signals.
The problem with pseudolites is that because of their high signal power relative to the
received satellite signals, they can "jam" the user receiver if the receiver comes too
close to the pseudolite. The user will then only receive the Reference Station
(pseudolite) signals and not the satellite signals.
11-2
The solution to this problem is to transmit the pseudolite data in very short pulses so
the user will appear to be "jammed" during short time inter vals.
One proposed differential service is to broadcast GPS like data on L1 from geo -
synchronous satellites. Compatible receivers would interpret these signals as an
additional GPS satellite and read the differential correction data for all other satellites.
The receivers would require a channel dedicated to receiving these corrections. This
data link would provide coverage to wide areas of the earth and have the added benefit
of providing additional satellite ranging methods to improve satellite availability.
11.3 GPS USED AS AN ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM
11.3.1 Introduction
Angular orientation in 3 dimensions is frequently determined using inertial sensors. A

GPS receiver with two or more antennas has the capability to be used for real-time
angular reference.
Simulations and studies indicate that it will be cheaper and more accurate to use GPS
for attitude reference than to use inertial sensors. Also, GPS attitude accuracy will not
degrade with time. Combining GPS and inertial sensors for attitude reference would
give the user the best of both worlds. Firstly, GPS will give very precise angular
measurements under normal conditions and could provide updates to the inertial
sensors, both for the wander in the gyros and the platform tilt error. Secondly, if the
GPS receiver is jammed, the inertial sensors would still provide position, velocity and
attitude. It could also be used to initialize the GPS receiver when the jamming is over.
11.3.2 Concept of Operation
The basic concept of operation for using GPS as an attitude reference system involves
using various types of differencing techniques in conjunction with interferometry.
Single differencing virtually eliminates the sensitivity of the antenna position errors to
ephemeris, satellite clock, ionospheric and tropospheric error since they are common to
both antenna positions. Double differencing eliminates the sensitivity to receiver clock
biases.
A GPS interferometer measures the satellite carrier signal phase difference as it arrives
at two different antenna locations. The two antennas, placed a distance "d" apart will
receive the carrier signal at a different time and therefore with a different phase, see
Figure 11-1.
11-3
Figure 11-1. Interferometry Using GPS
The phase mismatch can be used to determine the relative orientation angle, q. Single
differencing can be defined as taking the instantaneous difference in phase between
the received signals from one satellite as measured at the two different antenna
locations. Double differencing is obtained by differencing the single differ ences for one
satellite with respect to the single differences for a second satellite. One interferometer
can be used to determine the azimuth and elevation of the user. Two inter ferometers
are required for 3-D attitude determination, (roll, pitch, and yaw).
The carrier wavelength ambiguity problem (determination of number of full cycles, n)

can be solved by using the best estimate of position and attitude information for ini -
tialization, use of multiple satellites to provide additional geometric information, use of
P(Y)-code to reduce the possible number of carrier wavelengths, and jointly processing
on L1 and L2 carrier signals by the interferometer, known as widelanning.
11.3.3 3-D Attitude Reference System
3-D orientation requires at least 3 independent antennas to define a geometric plane.

Four non-coplanar antennas could be used to define two planes and provide
redundancy. Orientation solutions of the planes containing the antennas are related to
the vehicle and therefore allow the orientation of the vehicle to be determined. The
preferred method of operation is to get L1 and L2 frequency observations from four
satellites continuously. This would require one 4 -channel P(Y)-code receiver (or the
equivalent) dedicated to each antenna. Optimum hard ware for a 3-D attitude reference
system is as follows:
• antenna subsystems
• 1 GPS 12-channel receiver
·
11-4
• Data processing unit
• Common reference oscillator
Another simpler alternative is to use one 8-channel P(Y) -code receiver and 3 antennas.
Four-channels would operate as a sub -receiver and would be dedicat ed to one master
antenna. The sub-receiver and the master antenna read the NAV msg and provide
position and velocity information for use when processing the signals from the other
two antennas. This method can be used if the baselines between the antennas are
sufficiently short to assume the position and velocity measure ments are nearly the
same for all three antenna locations. The two other antennas would only use 2-
channels each to do carrier phase measurements on two of the four satellites that the
"master" antenna was tracking. Which of the two satellites all three antennas would be
tracking depends on the satellite geometry relative to the antennas. The technique
requires that the measurement data is processed as if all satellite signals were
received at the same time. Under high HV dynamics, the INS -derived angular
information may be better than GPS.
11.3.4 Use of Multiple Receivers and a Reference Oscillator
When multiple receivers are used for interferometry it is recommended that a common
external reference oscillator be used for all the receivers, otherwise the oscillators in
each receiver must be calibrated. A common frequency reference would improve the
accuracy of attitude measurements because all phase measurements would be done
using the same time reference and thereby eliminate "own clock errors".
11.3.5 Error Sources and Degradation of Performance
The most dominant error sources are as follows:
· Absolute position uncertainty

· PDOP
· Antenna location
· Antenna position difference uncertainty in the body frame
· Measurement accuracy
11.3.5.1 Absolute Position Uncertainty
Errors in knowledge of the absolute position of the primary antenna can cause an
angular orientation error in the local -level frame with which attitude is referenced. This
orientation error transforms into an equivalent attitude error. Typical attitude errors of
less than 0.03 minutes of arc can be expected.
11-5
11.3.5.2 PDOP
The attitude determination accuracy is influenced by the satellite geometry the same
way as position accuracy. Poor satellite geometry results in less accurate position and
attitude determination.
11.3.5.3 Antenna Location
Antenna location errors are a minimum when the two position difference vectors are
orthogonal. Simulation results indicate that acceptable performance can be obtained
when the vectors intersect at an angle between 45 degrees and 135 degrees. The
performance deteriorates rapidly outside this domain.
11.3.5.4 Antenna Position Difference Uncertainty in the Body Frame
Uncertainty of the difference vectors in body -coordinates is a function of two primary

factors: body flexure and errors inherit ed from the calibration process. Body flexure
alters the relative position between antennas, hence causing errors.
11.3.5.5 Measurement Accuracy and Error Budget
The most significant factor influencing the feasibility of GPS attitude measurement is
the accuracy of the range difference measurement. The error sources affecting
accuracy are as follows:
1. Atmospheric delays
2. Multipath effects which can be quite significant, but can be largely negated
by proper antenna placement
3. Phase difference measurement accuracy
4. Transmission delay stability
Very little is published about what accuracies can be expected when using GPS for
attitude reference, but one manufacturer claims a heading accuracy of 0.3 degree, roll
and pitch accuracy of 1.0 degree, updated at a 20 Hz rate with no practical speed limit,
a maximum acceleration of 10 G, and a maximum angular velocity of 30 degrees/sec.
The same manufacturer claims a heading accuracy of 0.05 degrees within 5 minutes in
a stationary mode. This performance is with a C/A-code receiver, using 3 antennas
placed in a triangle with 57 cm baseline between the antennas. Generally, the
measurement accuracy depends on baseline length and measurement time. Longer
baselines and longer measurement times will improve the accuracy.
11-6
11.4 PRECISE TIME AND GPS
11.4.1 Introduction
Precise time is important for a growing number of military, civilian, and scientific
applications. Precise time references accurate to a few milliseconds or better have
historically been complicated and costly to obtain, but GPS will afford the means to do
it very simply and economically. Navstar GPS provides precise time, globally, to an
absolute accuracy of approximately 200 nanoseconds (ns) relative to UTC (USNO).
(This figure and others given in 11.3 and its subsections are subject to implemen tation
factors and might be considered usual values; with careful implementations and under
circumstances, much better accuracies are possible.)
11.4.2 Applications of Precise Time
Both scientific and civilian precise -time interests can be served by GPS. Some
examples of civilian/scientific applications are described below:
1. Simultaneous observations of space objects from observatories
2. Use by national standards laboratories
3. Research into the theory of general relativity
4. Development and calibration of frequency standards
5. Use of Time Division Multiplexed (TDM) and other communications

disciplines requiring precise time coordination between sites.
11.4.3 Interrelationship Between Different Definitions of Time
A number of different time definitions will be described here.
11.4.3.1 Time Based on the Rotation of the Earth On Its Axis
There are several definitions of time based on the rotation of the earth, but they are all
interrelated (see Figure 11-2).
1. Universal Time (UT)
UT is mean solar time on the Greenwich meridian. It is used in the

application of astronomical navigation.
2. Universal Time 0 (UT 0)
11-7
UT 0 is determined directly from astronomical observations. It is
non-uniform due to the irregular rotation of the earth on its axis and to
polar motion.
UT 1 is UT 0 corrected for polar motion and is therefore more uniform

than UT 0. UT 1 is the same as Greenwich Mean Time.
UT 2 is UT 1 corrected for mean seasonal variations and is therefore more

uniform than UT 1.
TIME BASE ON ROTATION OF TIME BASE: REVOLUTION OF ATOMIC TIME

EARTH ON ITS AXIS EARTH AROUND THE SUN
TIME BASED ON TRANSITIONS IN THE ATOM
(EPHEMERIS TIME)
USES THE FREQUENCY OF THE CESIUM
BEAM ATOM CLOCK.
TIME BASE ON LONG-TERM
ATOMIC SECOND DEFINED AS 9.192.
OBSERVATIONS OF THE
631,770 CYCLES OF THE CESIUM
ANNUAL REVOLUTION OF THE
VARIOUS FORMS OF SOLAR RESONANCE.
EARTH AROUND THE SUN.
AND SIDEREAL TIME AGREES CLOSELY WITH EPHEMERIS
SECOND.
IT IS THE UNIFORM MEASURE
ATOMIC SECOND IS THE UNIT OF TIME IN THE
OF TIME DEFINED BY THE
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI).
LAW OF DYNAMICS.
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC TIME (TAI)
ATOMIC TIME REFERENCE DERIVED NOTE: OMEGA

FROM AVERAGING THE ATOMIC TIME TRANSITION
STANDARDS OF SEVERAL COUNTRIES. CYCLE IS
MAINTAINED BY
ATOMIC CLOCK
COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC)
ATOMIC TIME MAINTAINED BY THE ROYAL

OBSERVATORY AND THE U.S. NAVAL
OBSERVATORY AND ADJUSTED IN STEPS
(LEAP SECONDS) SO THAT IT IS
SYNCHRONIZED WITH UT1 TO WITHIN
0.9 SECONDS.
UNIVERSAL TIME (UT) UTO UT1 UT2
MEAN SOLAR TIME ON THE DETERMINED DIRECTLY UT1 IS UTO CORRECTED FOR UT2 IS UT1 CORRECTED FOR MEAN
GREENWICH MERIDIAN. FROM ASTRONOMICAL POLAR MOTION HENCE MORE SEASONAL VARIATIONS. HENCE IS
USED IN THE APPLICATION OBSERVATION. IT IS NON- UNIFORM THAN UTO. MORE UNIFORM THAN UT1.
OF ASTRONOMY TO UNIFORM DUE TO UT1 IS THE SAME AS GMT.
NAVIGATION. IRREGULAR ROTATION OF
EARTH, AND TO POLAR
MOTION.
Figure 11-2. The Interrelationship of the Different Methods of

Measuring and Defining Time
11.4.3.2 Atomic Time/UTC Time
Atomic time is based on quantified energy transitions within the atom. The atomic
second is defined as 9192631770 cycles of the cesium resonance and is the unit of
time used in International Systems of Units (SI). Atomic time is obtained practically by
use of cesium beam clocks. However, no practical clock can be considered perfect at
11-8
deriving the defined frequency. UTC is a type of atomic time maintained by the U.S.
Naval Observatory (USNO), and others. UTC is occasionally adjusted in steps (leap
seconds) to maintain agreement with UT -1 to within 0.9 seconds. Leap seconds are
necessary because of the effects on UT -1 of the irregular rotation of th e earth over
time. The International Earth Rotation Service in Paris, France determines when step
adjustments are necessary. A number of observatories/ laboratories maintain atomic
clocks as very precise time references. They usually synchronize these clocks to UTC,
which is the commonly used reference time. UTC repre sents an average of time from
58 different laboratories around the world. Each major country maintains its own
version of UTC and defines national standards of time. Therefore, there is no one
"Coordinated Universal Time". Instead, there is an Inter national Atomic Time (TAI),
kept in Paris by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), and several
versions of UTC. The TAI is a weighted average of the times kept by the 58
laboratories which cooperate with BIPM to form this average. For the past few years,
the majority of time comparisons used to form TAI have been done using GPS. The
difference between TAI and the various national UTC time references are closely
monitored and are therefore well known. National UTC references will therefore be
steered to TAI when necessary and for GPS users, steering of UTC (USNO) will be
experienced once every couple of years. For U.S. agencies, UTC is maintained by the
U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO) in Washington, D.C. GPS time is required by the U.S.
DoD to be referenced to UTC (USNO).
11.4.3.3 GPS Time
The internal reference time used by the three segments (Space -, Control- and User-
Segment) in the GPS system is called GPS time. GPS time is a continuous time count,
with no discontinuities, from the GPS epoch. GPS time is estimated and main tained by
the MCS by estimating the ensemble satellite and monitor station time off sets. To aid
USNO in providing a stable and accurate reference to the system, an ensemble of
cesium-beam clocks is also maintained at the GPS Monitor Station that is collocat ed
with the MCS. As a Precise Time Reference Station, it main tains time and rate very
accurately traceable to UTC (USNO). It normally maintains a UTC (USNO) reference
to an accuracy of a few nanoseconds. GPS time will normally be steered to within 30
nanoseconds of UTC (USNO) after accounting for the leap seconds which have
accumulated in UTC since the GPS epoch of 0 hours 6 January 1980 (UTC). The
remaining difference between GPS time and UTC (USNO) is trans mitted in the NAV
msgs from the satellites. The relationship between GPS time and UTC is:
GPS time = UTC time + DUTC time
where, DUTC time = Number of leap seconds + GPS-to-UTC bias
As of May 1995 the leap second difference between GPS and UTC is 10 seconds. The
GPS receiver uses the NAV msg data to provide UTC (USNO) time outputs.
11.4.4 Precise Time Dissemination from GPS
GPS satellites have highly stable atomic clocks onboard with a known or predictable
offset from GPS time. USNO monitors all the satellites when in view of the USNO in
11-9
Washington DC, U.S.A. and compares the GPS time and UTC (USNO) time trans mitted
by the satellites with the (USNO) Master Clock. Based on this compari son USNO
determines the accuracy of the GPS/UTC time information provided by each GPS
satellite and transfers this information to the MCS (see Figure 11-3). This GPS to UTC
time bias and drift offsets, as well as the number of leap seconds, are uploaded in the
satellite almanac data message. This information is used in the GPS receiver
algorithms to determine UTC (USNO) time from GPS. The result is a world - wide time
reference system for UTC (USNO) available to every user of GPS (see Figure 11-4).
The absolute time accuracy available to the user depends on several factors described
in Table 11-1, but the relative time accuracy between two GPS users can be much
better than the absolute time accuracy. If the stations simultaneously track the same
GPS satellites for time dissemination, then the effects of certain Control Segment
and satellite-induced errors on the relative time accuracy are much reduced, and
relative time accuracy can be as good as 10 -20 ns. Almost all users employ loc al
clocks or oscillators of some kind to satisfy system requirements for long - and
short-term accuracy and stability, or to avoid the need for continuous updates from an
external reference, such as GPS. Slaving the clocks too tightly to GPS time would
impart to them the shorter-term instability associated with reception and interpretation
of GPS signals and with the instabilities previously mentioned. Longer -term
measurements that are required to obtain an accurate rate or frequency would not
enjoy the short-term advantage of simultaneous tracking, since over a period of time,
most of the space and Control Segment functions would effect the stability of the
dissemination function.
Figure 11-3. Determination of GPS-UTC (USNO) Time Difference
11-10
Figure 11-4. Uncoordinated Time Transfer Using GPS
Table 11-1. Uncoordinated Time Transfer Using GPS PPS Receivers
C/A-Code P(Y)-Code
Error Source Raw Smoothed Raw Smoothed
Measurements Measurements Measurements Measurements
(ns, 95%) (ns, 95%) (ns, 95%) (ns, 95%)
S Frequency Standard Stability 22 22 22 22
P D-Band Delay Variation 3 3 3 3
A
Space Vehicle Acceleration 7 7 7 7
C
Uncertainty
E
Other 3 3 3 3
C
O
N Ephemeris Prediction Model
T Implementation 27 27 27 27
R
O
L
Other 6 6 6 6
Ionospheric Delay 33-65 33-65 15 15
U Tropospheric Delay 13 13 13 13
S Receiver Noise 58 10 58 10
E Multipath 8 8 8 8
R Other 3 3 3 3
Position Error 144 144 144 144
T E
O R Position Unknown 163-173 153-163 161 150
T R
A O
L R Position Known 78-96 52-77 72 43
The values in the table are based on Table 3-1 "GPS System Error Budget" and the smoothing of the measurements is
estimated to reduce the receiver noise by a factor of 6.
11-11
To use the GPS time-dissemination service, one must track one GPS satellite (if in a
precisely known location), or four GPS satellites (if in an unknown location). The
absolute UTC accuracies that the user can expect are presented in Table 11-2 and
depend predominately on the following:
· How accurately the receiver antenna p osition is known (if tracking 1

satellite)
· Whether a C/A- or P(Y)-code receiver is used
· Whether the user can "smooth" the measurements or has to use "raw"
data.
Table 11-2. Coordinated Time Transfer Using GPS PPS Receivers
C/A-Code P(Y)-Code
Raw Smoothed Raw Smoothed
Error Source
Measurements Measurements Measurements Measurements
(ns, 95%) (ns, 95%) (ns, 95%) (ns, 95%)
Frequency Standard Stability 0 0 0 0
S
P D-Band Delay Variation 0 0 0 0
A
C Space Vehicle Acceleration
E Uncertainty 0 0 0 0
Other 0 0 0 0
C
O
N Ephemeris Prediction Model
T Implementation
0 0 0 0
R
O
L Other 0 0 0 0
Ionospheric Delay 0-65 0-65 0-15 0-15
Tropospheric Delay 0-13 0-13 0-13 0-13

U
S Receiver Noise 58 10 58 10
E
Multipath 8 8 8 8
R
Other 3 3 3 3
Position Error 144 144 144 144
T E
O R Position Unknown 155-169 145-146 155-157 145-146
T R
A O
L R
Position Known 59-88 13-24 59-62 13-24
The values in the table are based on Table 3-1 "GPS System Error Budget" and the smoothing of the measurements
is estimated to reduce the receiver noise by a factor of 6.
11.4.4.1 Precise Time Dissemination Under Dynamic Conditions
Precise time accuracy degrades under dynamic conditions for two main reasons:
1. Temporary changes in the GPS receiver clock rate due to g-sensitivity
11-12
2. Reduced accuracy of the GPS receiver Kalman filter operation due to
non-linear HV dynamics during each Kalman filter calculation cycle.
All oscillators are sensitive to accelerations. The requirement for a military GPS
receiver's crystal oscillator is in the order of a maximum rate offset of 2 nano -
seconds/second/g on two axes and a maximum of 3 nanoseconds/second/g on the third
axis. If the receiver's measurement cycle is one second, a 4.5 g acceleration will
therefore result in 9 nanoseconds of time error on one of the "better" axes. The
Kalman filter in the receiver will also contribute with a time error due to the less
accurate satellite tracking and therefore PVT dilution under dynamic conditions. This
error is about 2 nanoseconds/second/g. The total time error under dynamic conditions
is assumed to be approximately 20 ns greater than in the static mode.
11.4.4.2 Reduced Time Accuracy Due to SA
When SA is used by GPS, the pseudorange errors and therefore the position, velocity,
and time errors will increase for a SPS receiver. This reduced pseudorange
measurement accuracy will degrade the horizontal position to 100 m (95%).
The relevance for the time accuracy available from a SPS receiver is as follows:
1. 100 m (95%) horizontal position error is equivalent to 31.3 m UERE for

each of the pseudoranges used in the navigation solution in the receiver.
2. A user in a known location using only one satellite for the time transfer will
experience a time error of:
31.3 [m]
= 104 ns (1σ) = 204 ns (95%)
3x108 [m/s]
If the user is at an unknown location and uses 4 satellites, then his total time error due
to geometry, SA and receiver errors will be:
104 ns * TDOP = 104 * 1.7 = 175 ns (Typical TDOP value)
SA will reduce the accuracy for SPS precise time dissemina tion to users of GPS, but
the effect can be reduced by smoothing the time measurements. Also for SPS users,
the relative timekeeping accuracy normally realized by observing the same satellites
would be adversely affected by SA. The timing provided to them would be irregular,
and their clocks would not be able to track it well. An alternative is to perform coordi -
nated time transfer operations with USNO or another laboratory that maintains
adequate traceability to UTC (USNO); because of the time -varying nature of SA, the
coordination may need to be closer than it would under non -SA conditions.
11-13
11.4.5 Time Transfer Using GPS
Time transfers (clock comparisons) may be made in a number of ways using the GPS
satellites. The time dissemination process described in paragraph 11.4.4 is a "passive"
method, in which the user acquires an accurate time reference without having to
transmit timing signals or data. Other ways that can provide more accu rate
comparisons are described in this section.
11.4.5.1 Coordinated Simultaneous

-View Time Transfer
In this method, a pair of stations simultaneously observes the same satellite(s); then
(through some communications medium) they exchange readings of their local clock
time against the time disseminated by GPS. The difference between these readings is
quite accurately the difference between the stations' clocks. The satellite clock is
primarily a transfer clock and does not directly affect the time transfer accuracy. This
method might be used where the user clocks are required to maintain time or frequency
agreement more precisely than UTC can be disseminated through GPS. The method
works particularly well when the participating clocks are located reasonably close
together (within some hundreds of kilometers). The method can also substan tially
reduce the effects of S/A on time transfers made with the C/A-code, because both
ephemeris and ionospheric effects are reduced. Unless the time transfer is made with
USNO or a UTC(USNO)-traceable reference, the result is relative rather than absolute
time accuracy.
11.4.5.2 Coordinated Simultaneous

-View Time Transfer with USNO
USNO uses a coordinated simultaneous -view method as shown in Figure 11-5, to

provide more accurate UTC(USNO) to certain Pre cise Time Stations within
simultaneous-view range. Both USNO and the distant observer track the same GPS
satellite(s), derive UTC (USNO) from the satellite's NAV msg and pseudorange
measurements, and compare this time with the time maintained by t heir local atomic
clocks. USNO compares UTC (USNO) derived from the GPS satellites with the USNO
Master Clock. Thus, USNO can deter mine the Control Segment and Satellite - induced
errors that the observer will have in his GPS -derived UTC(USNO). The distant
observer can then correct his GPS derived UTC (USNO) with correc tions received from
USNO via a data link. Now the distant observer can correct his clock very accurately to
serve as a local reference traceable to UTC (USNO). The time accuracies that can be
obtained by this method are shown in Table 11-1. The Table 11 -1 values are valid for
time transfer using C/A-code only when SA is switched off. Smoothing of the time
measurements brings the error down to what can be expected for a P-code receiver.
The errors due to ephemeris uncertainties and ionospheric delay usually cancel out of
if the two receivers are close to each other. This is because they have nearly the same
line of sight to the satellites, and the signals travel through the same part of the iono -
sphere. In some cases where the two receivers are close to each other, the use of both
L1 and L2 to compensate for iono spheric delay will be less accurate than not correcting
for ionospheric delay at all. This is due to the fact that dual frequency com pensation
for ionospheric delay is not perfect, and use of the ionospheric delay broad cast by the
satellite by both parties produces more accurate results. For most cases where
11-14
characters per second is used for coordinated simultaneous -view time transfer, the
average of the values listed in Table 11-2 can be expected with distances of hundreds
of kilometers between two receivers.
Compared with the uncoordinated simultaneous -view technique described in paragraph

11.4.4, coordinated time transfers with USNO can provide not only more accurate
relative timing in the shorter term, but also better absolute timing and better long -term
stability for setting and rating high -quality clocks.
Figure 11-5. Coordinated Time Transfer using GPS
11.5 SATELLITE ORBIT DETERMINATION USING GPS
Precise satellite orbit determination can be done using GPS receivers on a satellite.
These spaceborne GPS receivers must be specifically qualified for space use, because
of the high temperature extremes and radiation levels. The space applications would
be limited to low earth orbit satellites in order to receive adequate coverage from the
half geosynchronous orbit of the GPS constellation. In addition to orbit determination,
the spaceborne GPS receivers could be used to determine the spacecraft attitude.
Preliminary studies and demonstrations have shown that using GPS for autonomous
spacecraft position and attitude determination can be done cheaper and more
accurately than some of the current methods.
11-15
CHAPTER 12: GPS INTEGRITY AND CIVIL AVIATION
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The civil aviation view of GPS is significantly different than that of most military
users. The primary technical difference is that SPS C/A-code will be the only GPS
signal available to most civil aviation users. Therefore, the civil aviation user must
consider the reduced accuracy and statistical accuracy variations induced by SA.
Consequently, civilian users are planning to use augmentations, for example,
differential GPS, to improve the accuracy and availability of the SPS signals.
The primary difference in use of GPS is that civil aviation will use GPS almost
exclusively for navigation and position reporting where safety-of-life is of
tantamount importance. Therefore, integrity of the position solution is also of
tantamount importance. Military users take a broader view of GPS as a force
enhancement that will include peacetime as well as wartime operations and
manned as well as unmanned missions. Therefore, military integrity requirements
can vary widely depending on the mission, and can range, for example, from the
extreme concern of safety-of-life for manned peacetime operations to lesser
requirements for weapon effectiveness in a war-fighting environment.
Civil aviation also views GPS as a major component of a Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS). The GNSS concept also includes the Russian Global Orbiting
Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), geostationary satellites broadcasting
GPS- and/or GLONASS-like signals, and a possible international civil navigation
satellite system. In this respect, it is likely that the civil aviation community will field
systems that accept signals from more than one component of the GNSS to improve
the overall accuracy, availability, and integrity of the civil positioning solution.
GPS and GNSS equipment for civil aviation will range from minimum-capability
stand-alone receivers for general aviation users, to sophisticated integrated
navigation systems for commercial users.
The primary benefit of GPS and GNSS from a Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) point-
of-view is that GPS/GNSS has the potential to replace many existing ground-based
radio navigation aids or obviate the need to procure new systems, thereby reducing
the cost of maintaining or acquiring these systems. This is especially true for
developing nations that do not have an extensive navaid infrastructure, and who
could instead provide a regional integrity supplement to GPS (or GNSS) at a much
lower cost than a traditional VOR navaid infrastructure.
The primary benefits of GPS and GNSS from a user point-of-view are potential fuel
(cost) savings from more direct routing, improved (global) navigational coverage,
and the potential to replace multiple navigation systems with a multi-use system.
The primary concerns stem from the safety-of-life issue and the fact that GPS
signal failures can affect large areas and consequently large numbers of aircraft
simultaneously.
12-1
12.2 MILITARY USE OF NATIONAL AIRSPACE
Many NATO nations require military aircraft to meet civilian flight certification
requirements and carry the necessary navigation equipments if they operate in
controlled airspace without specific approval from the appropriate authorities.
Military use of national airspace is usually a cooperative effort between the military
services and the CAA of the particular nation. For example in the U.S., equipment,
operational requirements, and flight certification are performed by the individual
services, although some military aircraft maintain civilian flight certification and
meet all civilian requirements. Military aircraft do not necessarily have the same
integrity requirements as civilian aircraft, especially tactical aircraft that do not
normally fly the civilian route structures intermingled with commercial and general
aviation aircraft.
12.3 CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITIES, AGENCIES, AND ORGANIZATIONS
12.3.1 Regulatory Authorities
The responsibility for establishing regulations and certifying the use of GPS in civil
airspace is shared by the regulatory agencies of individual nations as well as
cooperative efforts promoted by several multinational organizations. The primary
regulatory agencies are the CAAs established by individual nations to regulate
aviation within their own sovereign airspace. They have the ultimate authority and
responsibility to manage air traffic and regulate aviation equipment, operations, and
aircrews.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a cooperative multinational

organization that is the primary forum for establishment of Standards and
Recommended Practices (SARPS) regarding international flights. ICAO is also the
primary forum for international agreements to provide common standardized
navigation and communication systems or address similar issues which ensure
interoperability of systems, cooperation between nations, and generally promote
flight safety and efficiency. The multinational agreements are supplemented by
individual agreements between nations which can address such issues as joint use
of both nations' airspace and mutual recognition of aircraft and aircrew
certifications.
The European Organization for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL) is a

multinational organization founded to promote flight safety in Europe. This region
of the world has a particularly high density of international air traffic and close
proximity of international borders, requiring a high level of cooperation between
nations. Beyond air traffic management issues, EUROCONTROL has also become
a focus for technical advancement of aviation systems in general.
12-2
12.3.2 Advisory Groups
There are two primary advisory groups charged with developing and recommending
standards for the use of avionics systems in general and GPS/GNSS in particular.
In the U.S., the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) has
developed (and is continuing to develop) performance standards for airborne
GPS/GNSS equipment. These standards have subsequently been incorporated
into certification requirements by the U.S. CAA (the FAA). In Europe, the European
Organization for Civil Aviation Electronics (EUROCAE) is performing a similar
function for the European CAAs. Close cooperation between these two
organizations has been maintained to ensure the viability of future international
standards. Both organizations are voluntary and composed of representatives from
government, industry, users, user groups, and related private organizations to allow
broad participation in the standardi zation process.
12.3.3 Industry Groups
The Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC) is a cooperative

international organization of airline representatives that are developing common
standards for the purchase of GPS/GNSS equipment and integrated systems. The
standards focus on form, fit, and function of the equipment, rather than
performance, and help minimize acquisition costs and maximize interoperability of
similar systems. Equipment manufacturers and private organizations with an
interest in the commercial aviation marketplace also participate in the committee
activities.
12.3.4 Civil Aviation Coordination With the U.S. and U.S. DoD
Civil aviation activities and concerns are coordinated with the U.S. and U.S. DoD
on several levels. At the international level, the U.S. is an active participant in
ICAO in the development of international standards and policies and has offered
GPS as a major component of the GNSS. Bilateral agreements have also been
established between the U.S. and various nations to promote cooperation between
the U.S. FAA and the various CAAs with respect to a variety of technical and policy
issues. At the U.S. policy level, the U.S. DoT and U.S. DoD have jointly developed
a Federal Radionavigation Plan (FRP) which serves as the planning and policy
statement for all U.S. Government radio navigation systems. The FRP is updated
every two years based on a review by DoT and DoD representatives and direct
input from the public obtained through a series of radio navigation users'
conferences. At the developmental level, the DoT is a direct participant in the GPS
JPO and maintains a Deputy Program Director to represent civilian interests. At the
operational level, the Civil GPS Service Steering Committee and the U.S. Coast
Guard, via the GPS Information Center, distribute GPS operational information and
coordinate civilian user concerns with the U.S. DoD U.S. Space Command and the
GPS Control Segment.
12-3
12.4 PRIMARY CIVIL AVIATION CONCERNS WITH GPS
The primary civil aviation concerns with GPS are availability, accuracy, integrity,
and liability. As mentioned above, a GPS signal loss or severe accuracy
degradation can affect large areas and large numbers of aircraft simultaneously.
For this reason civil aviation organizations have been strong advocates for
maximizing the number of active GPS satellites in order to minimize the effect of
losing any particular satellite signal, supplementing GPS with the other components
of the GNSS, and providing an independent monitoring and warning system.
Integrity is defined in most references as the ability of a system to provide timely

warnings to users when the system should not be used for navigation. From an
operational point of view, the primary purpose of an integrity function is to detect
navaid signal failures that would otherwise result in hazardously misleading
navigation information (HMI) being displayed to a pilot or transmitted to an
autopilot. Existing ground-based radio-navigation aids continuously monitor their
output signals and typically shut down when a significant error is detected.
Although the Control Segment and each satellite monitors GPS signal performance,
the response time and fault monitoring has not been proved sufficient for civil
aviation purposes. In addition, for SPS users, the accuracy degradation due to SA
can occasionally result in position errors that are significant to some aviation uses,
such as nonprecision approach. For these reasons an additional system or
technique is required to assure GPS integrity.
12.4.1 Integrity Requirements
Integrity requirements for aviation are based on the general requirement to maintain
safe navigation and avoid hazardous situations. Consequently, integrity
requirements can be different for equipment with different purposes and can vary
with phase of flight as the proximity to potential hazards changes. The key integrity
parameters are the acceptable probability of a hazardous event, the navigation
accuracy threshold that defines a hazard, and the allowed time delay before a
warning must be issued. Requirements are most stringent when GPS is intended
as the primary means of navigation under instrument flight rules (IFR).
Requirements are correspondingly less stringent when GPS is intended as a
supplementary aid to IFR flight, or a supplementary aid to visual flight rules (VFR)
flight. In all cases, requirements also change based on the phase of flight.
Requirements are most stringent when GPS is used for approach and landing, and
correspondingly less stringent for terminal area and enroute flight, depending
primarily on the dimensions of individual air traffic routes and/or aircraft spacing
requirements. The allocation of integrity requirements to GPS can also vary if GPS
is used in a hybrid system that performs automatic switching and/or cross-checking
between different navigation sources. The following table shows an example of the
ranges of integrity parameters. However, the promulgation of actual figures shall
be given by ICAO.
12-4
Table 12-1. Typical Range of Integrity Parameters
Integrity Parameter Typical Range

Acceptable Risk of HMI 10-5 to 10-7 /hr
Enroute Alarm Threshold 2 to 7 nmi
Terminal Area Threshold 1 to 3.5 nmi
Nonprecision Approach Threshold 0.3 to 1 nmi
Time to Alarm 6-30 sec
Availability of the Integrity Decision 95% to 99.999%
Acceptable False Alarm Rate 0.0003 to 0.00001/hr
Assumed Inherent Integrity of GPS 10-4 to 10-5 /hr
Required Fault Detection Rate 99.9%
It should be noted, that when integrity is a prime consideration, estimates of system

accuracy and availability become dependent on the integrity methodology. The
accuracy of a system becomes dependent on the accuracy estimate developed by
the integrity methodology and used to compare against the accuracy threshold
requirement. If the accuracy estimate is conservative, there will be a consequent
loss of availability, since the system will be given less credit for accuracy than truly
exists, and the comparisons against the accuracy thresholds will fail more often.
Similarly, if additional measurements are required to make an integrity decision, the
availability of the integrity decision can be significantly less than the availability of a
navigation solution. In addition, to maximize availability and minimize prolonged
periods of unavailability, if a faulty measurement is detected that affects integrity, it
should then be excluded from the position solution, so that navigation can continue
whenever possible using the remaining valid measurements.
12.4.2 Required Navigation Performance
As of this writing, there is a significant change beginning in the way navigation

systems will be approved in the future. Historically, approvals to operate in a
particular airspace or on a particular route or approach have been based on
requirements to carry and operate specific types of equipment. The Required
Navigation Performance (RNP) concept is to define navigation performance
requirements for airspace, routes, or approaches and let the user demonstrate that
equipment is provided aboard the aircraft that meets the applicable requirements.
This is sometimes described as a "tunnel" concept, that is, RNP for a route would
be defined in terms of an inner tunnel defined around the route centerline
consisting of a 95% accuracy standard and an outer tunnel consisting of a 99.99%
or higher accuracy standard. The outer tunnel is sometimes described as the
"containment" tunnel, because that is a threshold beyond which a hazard is
assumed to exist, typically described as a collision risk with another aircraft or the
ground.
The parameters being considered to define RNP are accuracy, integrity, continuity,
and availability. Continuity is defined as the probability that the navigation
accuracy within a containment threshold will continue to be provided once an
12-5
operation has begun. It is possible that integrity and continuity may have different
levels of acceptable risk. In general, integrity faults are not obvious to the flight
crew and do not give an opportunity to mitigate the situation. In contrast, loss of
the navigation function is usually obvious to the flight crew, causing a heightened
awareness and an opportunity to resort to alternate procedures. It is likely that the
availability parameter will apply to the signals provided by the navaid infrastructure
rather than the airborne equipment. It is assumed that the aircraft will not be
dispatched unless the proper navigation equipment is available. Once the aircraft
is airborne, the continuity requirement supersedes any availability requirement for
the navigation equipment since the availability concept assumes the possibility of
repair, which is generally not feasible in flight.
12.4.3 Integrity Assurance
The two primary approaches to assuring GPS integrity are autonomous integrity
monitoring (AIM) and broadcast integrity messages (BIM). AIM, as the name
implies, consists of analyses that the receiver or navigation system can perform
autonomously or in conjunction with existing on-board navigation aids. Algorithms
executed by the receiver are often called RAIM (Receiver AIM) and algorithms
executed elsewhere in the aircraft are often called AAIM (Aircraft AIM). In the
general sense, a Kalman filter is a form of AIM since it can detect and neglect
certain types of anomalous measurements, however, it can fail to detect slow drift-
type integrity failures. One common AIM technique relies on the principle that the
receiver can in most cases detect and isolate a satellite signal failure that impacts
integrity, if it has an overdetermined position solution. For example, if five satellite
signals are available, five position solutions can be obtained using combinations of
four satellites. In the event of a large pseudorange error in one satellite, the four
solutions based on the faulty satellite will be similar to each other and significantly
different from the fifth. In this case, the error can be easily detected and isolated.
Much attention has been given to this subject by various researchers to evaluate
and enhance the effectiveness of this technique. Similar techniques can be used to
detect integrity failures using other sources of range or position information. Many
of these techniques have been discussed in open literature, particularly in the
papers of the various technical societies associated with navigation as well as the
RTCA and EUROCAE.
The focus of recent AIM research has been primarily to enhance the availability of
the integrity decision and enhance the probability of continuing with navigation after
a fault has been detected. The primary methods of improving the availability of the
integrity decision are to incorporate measurements from additional navigation
sensors or to reduce the receiver mask angle to obtain more satellite
measurements. The primary methods of improving the probability of navigation
after detection are termed fault "isolation", fault "exclusion", and "partial
identification". Fault isolation requires identifying the satellite which is
broadcasting a faulty signal in order to remove it from the navigation solution. Fault
exclusion is a slightly different technique which requires only that an offending
satellite be excluded from the navigation solution when it is difficult to determine
which of several satellites is faulty. Partial identification is a hybrid of the two
12-6
previous techniques which takes advantage of the strengths of both and appears to
greatly improve the probability of continuing successful navigation.
BIM can take several forms, but is closely related to differential GPS/GNSS. In
general, any system that provides differential GPS or GNSS corrections also
provides BIM if it provides an assessment or guarantee of residual range errors
after the differential corrections are applied to the receiver range measurements.
The receiver can then estimate the residual position error using the observed
satellite geometry and compare it against the current integrity alarm threshold. The
BIM system can also make the integrity decision and issue use/don't-use messages
for individual satellites, but there can be a significant increase in the false alarm
rate for many users since the BIM system must make a conservative assumption
regarding the user's satellite geometry and number of satellites in the user's
position solution. Use/don't-use messages can still be valuable to indicate
satellites that are not monitored or that are exhibiting extremely erroneous or erratic
behavior.
BIM functions can be incorporated in either a local-area or wide-area differential

system. The U.S., European nations, Japan, and Australia are currently planning or
developing terrestrial networks of differential GPS/GNSS receivers with
differential/integrity broadcasts via geo stationary communication satellites. It is
planned that the satellites will broadcast the messages superimposed on a ranging
signal that emulates actual GPS ranging signals. These additional ranging signals
will significantly enhance the availability of the SPS position solution in the
coverage areas of the satellites. It is also likely that differential/integrity data may
be broadcast by terrestrial stations in northern regions where geostationary satellite
signals are intermittent or subject to obscuration. The U.S. and Canada are
planning to have a cooperative wide-area system operating by 1998, and the
European Community and Japan by the year 2000.
AIM and BIM can be supportive of each other, and may be used in combination to
meet the most stringent integrity requirements. In addition, the U.S. DoD is
implementing upgrades to the Control Segment monitoring and failure response
time, to minimize the problem at the signal source. One such solution (nicknamed
"satzap") involves commanding the satellite to change its PRN number to one that
is unused, in the event a specific URE threshold is exceeded. The threshold would
be chosen to protect non-precision approaches, which is the most restrictive
integrity requirement for non-differential GPS. The unused PRN number would be
permanently set unhealthy in the satellite almanacs so a properly operating
receiver would never try to acquire it. Immediately after an upload, the failure
response time would be extremely short since the ground antenna would already be
in contact with the satellite. The technique would also be effective against slowly
increasing errors (e.g., clock drift failures) since the satellite could be contacted
and "zapped" before the error exceeded the URE threshold. Swiftly increasing
errors and large step errors will normally cause a user receiver to lose lock.
Fortunately, these types of errors can be easily detected by AIM, or a Kalman filter,
in cases where a user receiver might acquire or reacquire the satellite before the
control segment can correct or neutralize the problem.
12-7
CHAPTER 13: DIGITAL MAPS
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Maps serve a dual purpose for military use: for navigation and for tactical displays.
Maps have traditionally been made from paper for navigation. Early digital maps
could only show a subset of the data available on paper maps, such as roads. The
maps and display units could not provide topographical, thematic or other
information. Today, digital maps for navigation and tactical displays have been
developed showing all the map information, that only paper maps could show
previously. This chapter discusses digital maps and tactical displays, particularly
with their relevance to GPS. Modern digital mapping and/or geographic information
systems can easily relate data if the data has been geographically coded. Tools
can be provided to locate all data points of a particular type within a particular
region, calculate areas, distances, etc. ZOOM and SCROLL features can be used
to more closely examine areas of interest, or eliminate extraneous information.
Different types of data can be allocated to a unique layer, which can then be added
or removed from the display as desired. Additional tools can be provided which
make it easy to convert distances and measurement units from one format to
another.
13.2 WHAT IS A DIGITAL MAP?
There are basically three types of digital maps today:
a. "Digitized" paper maps

b. Digital database maps
c. Hybrids
These maps are distributed in a variety of logical and physical formats. Physical
formats include cartridges, CD-ROM, tape, and floppy disk. Logical data formats
vary depending on the manufacturer. When selecting a digital map, be certain that
the format is compatible with the software product that will be using the data.
13.2.1 Digitized Paper Maps
Digitized paper maps are not digital maps in the true sense. The digitized paper
map is made by using an optical reader to "read" the infor mation from a paper map,
digitize it and store it in a database and then project the digitized paper map
information on a video screen. There are two basic methods for storage of digitized
paper map information: it can either be stored as vector informa tion, or as raster
information. The vector method is to define every point of a contour that shall be
displayed on the map as a point on the end of a vector. Each vector will originate
from a selected point on a map. The com puter will "fill in" the open areas inside the
contours with different colors depending on whether the contours are land masses,
a navigation buoy, etc. This method requires the least data storage. In the raster
storage method, an optional scanner scans the map and stores every bit of
information from the paper map, including the "fill in" for contours. This method
13-1
requires a much larger memory for map data storage than the vector method.
These maps are no more accurate than the paper map, but are adequate for many
applications.
13.2.2 Digital Database Maps
Digital database maps are maps presenting position data from a data base where all
the position coordinates are collected through survey ing operations. This
information is therefore much more accurate and contains 3 -D position data for
every point on the map. Variations of this type of map are now available from
various sources. Digital maps are often combined as overlays to digitized paper
maps to provide a more accurate location of specific features such as roads,
buildings, etc.
13.2.3 HYBRID Maps
Hybrid maps are combinations of digitized paper maps and digital database maps.
Positioning coordinates that have been collected through surveying operations are
used to 'adjust' the coordinates on the paper map. Distances between these
benchmark points can then extrapolated by the display device. By using this
technique, the digitized paper map can provide more accurate position information
than the map it was prepared from, but it will still not provide the accuracy of a
digital database map. The accuracy of these maps depends on the number and
accuracy of the benchmarks employed, the accuracy with which they are combined
with benchmark features on the digitized paper maps, and the accuracy of the
extrapolation algorithms.
13.3 NAVIGATION MAPS AND TACTICAL MAPS
Maps normally serve two functions on board a military vehicle: they are used for
navigation of the vehicle, and to give a visual display to the vehicle's commander of
where enemy, friendly, and neutral forces are located. It also contains a
geographical presentation of any other information of importance to the vehicle
operators.
13.3.1 Use of Digital Maps for Navigation
Traditionally, navigation sensors (LORAN-C, TRANSIT, TACAN, DECCA, optical

bearing, radar, etc.) have been used to determine position in latitude/longitude or
bearing and distance from an object. The infor mation was then transferred to a
paper map to provide the navigator with infor mation about his actual position
relative to desired position. This information was then used by the navigator to
decide the necessary course of action to get back to his desired track. For many
military vehicles operating at high speed in confined waters/airspace during tactical
engagements (radio communications, weapon delivery, etc.) positioning of the
vehicle is a too time consuming process using traditional methods. Digital database
maps with position and course/speed over the ground provided on the map by GPS
are now being employed to provide the navigator/pilot with much more time to
concentrate on other tasks without jeopardizing the vehicle's safety. GPS -derived
13-2
latitude/longitude information presented on a CDU is too accurate to be utilized for
positioning of the vehicle on a paper map using a pencil. The accura cy of the
pencil mark (1 mm) on the map is only accurate to 50 m on a l:50000 map.
Additionally, most of the navigator's problems are not related to the determination
of the vehicle's absolute position, which is what the GPS CDU presents, but its
position relative to obstacles, other vehicles, desired weapon release points, etc.
Only under en-route navigation is the navigator interested in his absolute position
when navigating to pre-planned waypoints and/or rendezvous positions. The GPS
derived position data must there fore be transferred to some kind of map to tell the
operator where he is and where he wants to go. Position information from GPS
displayed on a digital map can be verified by super imposing a radar picture on the
digital map display or by presenting position information from other navigation
systems on the digital map.
13.3.2 Use of Digital Maps for Tactical Displays
Tactical displays are often video screens or other displays which present a
synthetic picture of target position and target course/speed obtained from external
sources or onboard systems (electro-optical systems, lasers etc.). A radar picture
can also be displayed on the same screen to provide a correlation between the
radar picture and the synthetic picture. There are times when the radar may not be
transmitting, for example, when Emission Control (EMCON) policies are
implemented. During these times, compensation for HV movement is provided by
an onboard navigation system such as an INS or gyro/log. Under
such circumstances a digital map display has two limitations:
a. The synthetic picture "drifts" due to INS drift or inaccuracy in gyro/log

information, if radar updates are not possible.
b. Only limited map information is available on the tactical display. Paper

maps may have to be used to give a complete picture of the tactical
situation.
These limitations can be eliminated by using digital maps updated by GPS. The
tactical display picture then has no drift problem because it is constantly updated
by GPS, where all map information including own position, course and speed are
displayed very accurately. In additional to enhancing the performance of each
individual platform, substantial improvements in multi -platform coordination are
possible due to aligned tactical displays of the units.
13.3.3 Improvement of Common Reference Grids
The continuous availability of precise GPS position and velocity on participating

platforms can provide numerous enhanced force coordina tion capabilities including:
a. Improved gridlock
b. Geodetic gridlock
c. Sensor calibration
d. Over The Horizon Targeting (OTHT) operations
13-3
13.3.3.1 Improved Gridlock
Gridlock alignment is often based on radar, LASER rangefinder or other sensor

observations where bearing and range from a grid reference unit is transformed in
grid coordinates of the force. This inter -platform alignment tech nique can introduce
substantial errors in positioning if sensors are not correctly aligned. By
incorporating a GPS receiver into the sensor, the inter-platform alignment can be
greatly improved.
13.3.3.2 Geodetic Gridlock
Present gridlock algorithms provide a relative grid bringing partici pating units into
relative alignment with respect to a common track, without regard to geodetic
(absolute) position or orientation accuracy of the entire grid. While this serves
current purposes well, advanced tactics and systems will require accurate geodetic
as well as relative alignment of the grid. For instance:
a. Better incorporation of intelligence information (e.g. from other sensors/

subsurface, surface, air and space) using GPS as a common position
reference system
b. Initialization of Long Range Sea/Land attack weapons
c. Maintenance of gridlock under EMCON conditions is a must for modern

anti-air warfare systems where units are coordinated in fully automated
way to respond to incoming threats.
13.3.3.3 Sensor Calibration
Improved alignment of search and fire control radar sensors and anti -submarine
warfare sonar sensors by using GPS results in a more accurate weapon delivery.
13.3.3.4 OTHT Operations
In the OTHT arena, extended OTHT threat ranges have increased the necessity to
hand off target track data to participating combatants at longer ranges which may
not be gridlocked with the local tactical grid. Furthermore, many of the current
OTHT exercises are conducted during radar EMCON where grid lock updates
cannot be performed. Experience with Harpoon missile OTHT exercises has shown
that significant relative navigation errors can occur under these circumstances and
can lead to false target acquisitions and engage ments between friendly forces.
With GPS- equipped combatants, such problems can be eliminated and OTHT
tactics can fully exploit the long -range intercept capability of modern
surface-to-surface missiles. Use of digital maps, GPS and synthetic information on
the tactical display gives the operator a complete picture of:
a. Own position/course/speed over ground (from GPS)

b. Accurate target position/course/speed
13-4
c. Friendly forces' position/course/speed
d. Geographical obstacles in possible weapon trajectories
e. Other information vital to the operator (safety zones, waypoints, weapon
engagement zones, etc.).
13.4 OTHER ISSUES CONCERNING DIGITAL MAPS AND GPS
The use of digital maps and GPS raises at least three questions/prob lems to be
aware of:
a. Electrical interfaces between GPS receiver and digital map systems

b. Digital map accuracy
c. Map datums
13.4.1 Electrical Interface Between the Digital Map Display and the GPS
Receiver
Most of the available GPS receivers provide an external interface capability that
can be used to integrate the receiver with a digital map system. These interfaces
generally conform to the NMEA 0183 format. Differential receivers will also provide
an RTCM SC-104 message. These inter faces may be usable to transfer GPS
position, speed over ground, heading, etc. to the digital map. If you wish to
integrate GPS with a digital map system, make sure that one or more of the GPS
receiver interfaces are compatible with an interface on the digital map system in
terms of:
a. Electrical characteristics
b. Functional characteristics
c. Data format
d. Data update rates
13.4.2 Digital Maps Accuracy
Digital maps that are produced by the raster-scan process from ordinary paper
maps cannot be more accurate than the source documents from which they are
prepared. Some of the paper maps used for navigation today are based on
surveying data that is 80 to 100 years old. The quality of these maps leaves much
to be desired when used for today's navigational needs. Additionally, inaccuracies
in the optical reader system and operator -induced inaccuracies can produce errors
which when combined are less accurate than the original paper map. It is therefore,
very important to display the "age of the mapping data" on the digital map display to
alert the navigator to the mapping inaccuracy.
13.4.3 Map Datums
The GPS receiver employs ECEF coordinates which are based on the WGS-84 map
datum. Most receivers and digital mapping systems have the capability to convert
from the WGS-84 datum to any one of a number of user-selected datums. When a
13-5
GPS receiver is integrated with a digital map it is important to ensure that the GPS
receiver and the digital mapping system are configured for the same datum. If not,
the navigation accuracy of the total system will be severely degraded.
13-6
ANNEX A: GLONASS: RUSSIAN'S
EQUIVALENT NAVIGATION SYSTEM
This complete article was provided by

Mr. John Owen in 1995
and reflects the GLONASS situation at that date
A.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Similarly to the US TRANSIT, Russia operates CICADA, since the 1970's, the system
consists of dual frequency VHF signals (150 MHz and 400 MHz) from satellites in near
polar, low earth orbit. As the US has built up the Navstar GPS to replace TRANSIT, the
Russians have developed an equivalent system, the Global Navigation Satellite
Service, GLONASS. GLONASS uses a similar architecture to GPS for most
components of its system users navigate with GLONASS in the same manner as GPS.
The system saw its origins in the mid 1970s at the Scientific Production Association of
Applied Mechanics (NPO PM) a developer of military satellite in Kransnoyarsk-26.
Since 1982 a range of GLONASS satellites have been launched three at a time, from
the Tyuratam space centre. Although there was some doubt concerning the Russians
intentions in the early 1990's, however several statements concerning the systems
future particularly to ICAO, and launches during 1994 and 1995 have confirmed
GLONASS will reach full operation by late 1995.
GLONASS is owned and operated by Military Space Forces of the Russian Ministry of
Defence. The Russian Institute of Radio Navigation and Time in St Petersburg
designed and supports the synchronization of master clock systems, maintains satellite
and Earth based time and frequency standards and develops receivers.
A.2 PURPOSE OF GLOBAL SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
GLONASS as Navstar GPS provides precision position fixing and time reference
systems for world wide continuous use. An observer makes time-of-arrival
measurements simultaneously to four satellites and by using the received data to
compute the position of the satellites solves the four range equations for his three
unknown position coordinates and time.
It is presumed the primary purpose of GLONASS is similarly to GPS for weapon system
navigation and guidance. However as with GPS the wide interest in the use of satellite
navigation systems has resulted in parts of the system being offered for international
civil use.
A-1
A.3 SYSTEM ACCURACY
GLONASS produces both high accuracy signals specified as being for Russian military
use only and a lesser accuracy signal for civilian use. The high accuracy channel is
provide with an anti-spoofing capability Ref 1, that is controlled by the Russian Ministry
of Defence. However, there is no equivalent of the selective availability deployed on
GPS and currently the anti spoofing mode is not active, Ref 2.
Tests, Ref 2 of the GLONASS civil system have demonstrated accuracies of 30 m

horizontally and 20 m in altitude and 0.05 m/s in velocity. However the specifications
provided to the ITU, Ref 3 for GLONASS state a position accuracy of 100 m and a
velocity accuracy of 0.15 m/s. Ref 1 refers to a horizontal accuracy of 100 m and a
vertical accuracy of 150 m. A full GLONASS constellation provides a 94.7% probability
of achieving the above accuracies worldwide. User derived time is within 1 ms of
system reference time. Ephemeris accuracy to UTC is designed to be 5 ms. The
Russians have classified the military accuracy of the system.
Recently a GLONASS Information Centre has been announced. The address is:
Mr V Gorev
Scientific-Information
Coordinate Centre
Military Space Forces
Kazakova ul.,23
Moscow 103064
Russian Federation
Fax: 7095 333-8133
Email: [email protected] or [email protected]#
A.4 MONITOR AND CONTROL SUBSYSTEM
As for GPS, GLONASS is controlled and monitored by a complex ground system. Data
defining satellite position, system time and navigation message is uploaded to the
satellites every 24 hrs with the satellite timing synchronized on every orbit, Ref 3 .
The GLONASS monitor and control segment consists of:
- Ground control centre (GCC) Moscow

- Central synchronizer (CS) Moscow
- TT&C stations Saint Petersburg, Yeniseisk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur
- navigation signal phase control system (PCS) Moscow
- quantum-optical station (QOS), Komsomolsk-on-Amur
- navigation field control equipment (NFCE) Moscow,Komsomolsk-on-Amur
The monitoring and control subsystem operate autonomously and receives the data of
Earth rotation parameters, corrections to the system time relative to Russian Time &
Frequency Standard (UTC SU) externally.
A-2
Satellite ephemeris is generated by observation of the ranging signals by the NFCE.
However, GLONASS satellite also have a laser reflector that enables an independent
measurement of range and orbit parameters.
A.5 SPACE SEGMENT
Satellite orbital position and the overall numbers in orbit are driven by the requirements
for accuracy and availability. The constellation is made up of 24 satellites located in
three orbit planes of eight satellites. The planes are spaced at 120 degree intervals
around the equator and inclined at 64.8 degrees. (The longitude of the point where the
satellite crosses the equation in a northerly directions is known as the Right Ascension
of the Ascending Node, RAAN). The satellites are equally spaced in the orbit plane in
circular orbits, maximum eccentricity 0.01, with a period around 11 hrs 15 mins at a
height of 19100 kms. (These parameters are very near that planed originally for GPS
before the 6 plane constellation was introduced).
It is reported Ref 1, that the constellation will be populated by filling pre-defined orbital
"slots". Thus while the GLONASS system is being completed and when older satellites
reach the end of their life, gaps will appear in the constellation. Based on the
performance of all 24 satellite GLONASS controllers will determine the 'best' 21 to
activate. The remaining three will be held back in reserve. Periodically the mix will be
evaluated and if necessary a new best set of 21 defined. When necessary to maintain
system accuracy three new satellite will be launched.
Taking plane 1 with an RAAN of 128 degrees on day 240, 1995 as reference, planes 2
and 3 have RAAN's of +120 and +240 degrees respectively as illustrated in Figure A-1.
Separation in the argument of latitude or orbital phase in the plane is a multiple of 45
degrees. There is a displacement of +30 degrees and -30 degrees for satellites in
planes 2 and 3 respectively with reference to plane 1. Phase angle is measured
clockwise with the satellite direction of travel being anti-clockwise. Relative positions of
satellites appear to remain stable over long periods. The rate of change of RAAN is
approximately -0.03 degrees/day, resulting in the RAAN of plane 1 changing from 167
degrees in 1989 to 128 degrees in 1995.
All satellites have the same nominal orbital period of 11 hrs 25 mins. The orbit period
is equivalent to a movement of 675.73 degrees of longitude, a change of 169.41
degrees W each orbit. The orbit produces a ground-track repeat every 17 orbits that is
8 days less 32.56 minutes. This diurnal offset of DT = 4.07 minutes from a full 24-hour
day coincides with that of Navstar GPS and is very nearly the difference between a
solar and sidereal day (3.93 minutes). This implies that each complete day less DT
minutes a satellite performs 17/8 orbits or 2 whole revolutions plus an additional 1/8
revolution, equivalent to 45 degrees. Therefore two satellites in the same plane but
separated by 45 degrees in orbital phase, appear at precisely the same position on
successive days less DT minutes. Over a ground track repeat interval of 8 days, all
satellites in the same plane with separation of 45 degrees appear in turn at the same
position at intervals of 1 day less DT minutes. After 8 days, the whole cycle naturally
repeats.
A-3
Figure A-1. GLONASS Orbit Planes and Slots
A-4
By examining the phases of satellites in the other planes 2 and 3, it becomes apparent
that these satellites will also appear at the same position as the reference satellite in
plane 1 within the same 8-day period. This arises because the time taken by the earth
to rotate through the angle 120 degrees separating planes 1 and 2 is the same time
taken by a satellite in that plane with phase +255 degrees to travel round to the same
position as the reference satellite. The earth rotates through 120 degrees in 478.69
minutes, very nearly 8 hours, which corresponds almost exactly to 17/24 of a
GLONASS orbit or +255 degrees. The same argument holds for plane 3 at 240 degree
separation for a satellite at phase +150 degrees (or twice +255 less 360 degrees). The
angular separation of 45 degrees within the plane together with the angular phase
differences of +/- 30 degrees between planes assures that in an 8 day period, all 24
satellites will pass through the position with the reference sub-satellite location.
The above argument holds for any valid pointing angle. Once an antenna is pointed at
any satellite in the system, all others will in time pass through the main beam. For any
location, the azimuth and elevation for a particular track have to be computed over an
8-day period, following which suitable pointing angles and time may be chosen by the
observer for the reference orbit and satellite. The entire subsequent orbital behavior is
synchronous as explained. This argument has assumed a near-perfect circular orbit
and precise orbital spacing and timing.
A.6 MANOEUVERING IN ORBIT
During recent years the Russians have moved several satellites within the orbital plane
to a new position. This operation has occurred following a satellite failure or to position
a particular satellites in antipodal positions to allow broadcast using common
frequency. Manoeuvres to change the phase of a satellite in orbit begin by firing of the
on-board thrusters at apogee where the velocity vector is at right angles to the radius
vector. This action takes the spacecraft into an orbit with altered period (slightly
eccentric) in such a way that the space-craft gradually falls behind or moves forward
(depending on the direction of thruster firing) from its initial position. After an integer
number of orbits, the required position in phase is reached and a reverse firing of
thrusters of exactly the same magnitude as the first ensures a new stable and circular
orbit. Taking the semi-major axis of the near-circular orbit as 'a' and the elliptical orbit
as 'a-Da', then the eccentricity of the new orbit is 'e = Da/(a-Da)'. The change in orbital
period DT, referred to the period of the circular orbit, is found from Kepler's third law :
ΛT 3 Λa m
= * =
T 2 a 360n
A-5
where
"n" integer number of orbits required to bring the satellite to the

position in the circular
"m" degrees from its starting point.
An example of such a manoeuvre is provide by Daly, Ref 2. Cosmos 1885 was given a
velocity change on 21 September 1987 such as to decrease its period by almost 8
minutes and then to carry out 21 orbits along the elliptical path, allowing the space-craft
to accomplish the 90-degree phase movement in 10 days. It is clearly demonstrated
that the GLONASS satellites are capable of rapid manoeuvering within the orbit.
GLONASS spacecraft have enough fuel on-board to accomplish manoeuvres several
times: Cosmos 1779 traversed 45-degrees of arc on three separate occasions. Clearly
spacecraft in the orbital arc which fail can quickly be replaced by another spacecraft.
This flexibility would give GLONASS an advantage during the operational phase where
one would expect in-orbit spares to be in place and ready to cover for any
malfunctioning units.
A different control philosophy appears to be used by the Russians to control GLONASS

satellite to the US control of GPS. Whereas GPS satellites are precisely controlled to
follow the same ground track each day, GLONASS does not repeat unlit 17 days. The
result is that GPS appears to have a large number of control manoeuvres than
GLONASS and must therefore carry more fuel and have a more complex control
network.
A.7 SPACECRAFT DESCRIPTION
GLONASS spacecraft similarly to Cicada, have significantly shorter lifetime than US

equivalents. Lifetimes have increased over the programmes life, see below, from under
two years to currently approaching 5 years.
The Russians have announced that from 1995 a modified upgraded satellite will be
deployed. There are several stages planned in the programme, Ref 1. The current
GLONASS satellite has a mass of 1300 kg which will rise in 1995-8 to 1480 kg mostly
due to increased fuel load. Minor modifications will be made to the Proton launch
system with a reduction to two satellites per launch. Improvements will be made to the
attitude control systems, clocks and ground systems. The result is an increase in
navigation accuracy and time. In addition differential corrections with respect to
Universal time and system time scales of GPS and GLONASS are planned to be
transmitted.
The second stage of system development GLONASS-M is scheduled for deployment

after 2000. (It is confusing that some Russian writers refer to the stage one upgrade as
GLONASS-M). The upgrade will include autonomous satellite using inter satellite
measurements to solve the ephemeris problem and improved lifetime for the solar
arrays. Inter satellite measurements will be made in the optical and radio bands and
communications provided for navigation data exchanges.Autonomous operation for 60
days without degradation is specified. The main error is caused by the extrapolation of
A-6
the earth's rotation which are approximately 30 m/s RMS deviation in 60 days. The
system is designed to produce users accuracies of 10 m, 0.01 m/s and 20 ns. The
additional systems will increase the satellite weight to 2000 kgs.
The onboard clock is the most critical element of the satellite. GLONASS clocks of
have seen a steady improvement in frequency and temperature stability from initially
5.10-11, to better than 1.10 -13 with operational lifetimes extending from 5000 to 18000
hrs. Future plans for GLONASS-M may include a Hydrogen Maser with a stability of
5.10-14. Use of the H-maser is predicted to increase the operational accuracy of the
system by an order of magnitude. An experiment is being conducted with Germany and
Switzerland scheduled for a launch in 1995. Further development are planned before
the H-maser are installed on GLONASS-M satellites in the 2000 + timeframe.
A.8 SATELLITE LAUNCH PROGRAM
The first GLONASS launch was announced in October 1982, although none of the
three satellites became operational. GLONASS satellites are launched three at a time
into the same orbit plane by the Proton launch vehicle. Initially successful launches
were announcement within a day or two in Pravda, but recently the Russians have
provided advanced notice of launches which have proved accurate to within a week.
By June 1995 there had been 59 satellite launched with currently 19 operational.
Table A-1 presents the international identifiers, Cosmos numbers launch dates, end of
operational life dates, orbit position and frequency. Initially all triple launches were into
orbital planes 1 and 3, but in August 1994 the first launch was made into plane 2.
Russia has now stated that the complete 24 satellite system will be operational by he
end of 1996.
Many of the early launches produced only two or in some cases one operational
satellite. The third satellite being a passive laser ranging target used to "... produce
information for the increase in accuracy in the determination and prediction of motion of
cosmic apparatus (satellites) ..." (Pravda, 2 June 1989). In this particular edition of
Pravda also, the word GLONASS appears for the first time.
It was also a normal feature of the system in the early stages for a launch to occur only
when the number of functioning satellites has fallen or was about to fall below the
number required for adequate testing of the system. This number cannot be stated
with absolute precision since it depends on the orbital planes of the remaining
satellites. However a reduction of available units to any number less than four was
likely to act as a precursor to a new launch.
A-7
Table A-1. GLONASS Satellite Launches
COSMOS SCC Launch End Orbit Ch L1 (MHz) L2 (MHz)

No Date Date Slot No
1413 ** 13603 Oct 82 Jan 84 - - - -
1490 ** 14258 Aug 83 Aug 84 03 3 1603.6875 1247.3125
1491 14259 Aug 83 Oct 83 02 1 1602.5625 1246.4375
1519 ** 14590 Dec 83 Sep 84 - 18 1612.1250 1253.8750
1520 14591 Dec 83 Jan 86 18 2 1603.1250 1246.8750
1554 ** 14977 May 84 Aug 85 19 9 1607.0625 1249.9375
1555 14978 May 84 Oct 85 18 24 1615.5000 1256.5000
1593 ** 15259 Sep 84 Nov 85 - 10 1607.6250 1250.3750
1594 15260 Sep 84 Sep 86 - - - -
1650 ** 15697 May 85 Jun 86 01 7 1605.9375 1249.0625
1651 15698 May 85 Jun 86 - 10 1607.6250 1250.3750
1710 ** 16396 Dec 85 Feb 87 18 4 1604.2500 1247.7500
1711 16397 Dec 85 May 87 17 19 1612.8675 1254.3125
1778 16961 Sep 86 Feb 87 02 11 1608.1875 1250.8125
1779 16962 Sep 86 Jul 88 01 20 1613.2500 1254.7500
1780 16963 Sep 87 Jun 88 08 22 1614.3750 1255.6250
1838-9-40 17902 Failed Launch - - - -
1883 18355 Sep 87 Jun 89 17 14 1609.8750 1252.1250
1884 18356 Sep 87 Aug 88 17 21 1613.8125 1255.1875
1885 18357 Sep 87 Jan 89 24 5 1604.8125 1248.1875
1917-8-9 18857 Failed Launch
1946 19163 May 88 May 90 08 12 1608.7500 1251.2500
1947 19164 May 88 Mar 91 07 23 1614.9375 1256.0625
1948 19165 May 88 Jun 90 01 24 1615.5000 1256.5000
1970 19501 Sep 88 May 90 17 18 1612.1250 1253.8750
1971 19502 Sep 88 Aug 89 20 7 1605.9375 1249.0625
1972 19503 Sep 88 Nov 91 18 10 1607.6250 1250.3750
1987 19749 Jan 89 Mar 93 02 9 1607.0625 1249.9375
1988 19750 Jan 89 Jan 92 03 6 1605.3750 1248.6250
2022 20024 May 89 Jan 90 19 16 1611.0000 1253.0000
2023 20025 May 89 Nov 89 24 17 1611.5625 1253.4375
** Three satellite launch only two reached operation
A-8
Table A-1. (Cont) GLONASS Satellite Launches
COSMOS SCC Launch End Orbit Ch L1 (MHz) L2 (MHz)

No Date Date Slot No
2079 20619 May 90 May 94 17 24 1615.5000 1256.5000
2080 20620 May 90 Aug 94 19 3 1603.6875 1247.3125
2081 20621 May 90 Aug 92 20 15 1610.4375 1252.5625
2109 21006 Dec 90 May 93 04 4 1604.2500 1247.7500
2110 21007 Dec 90 Mar 94 07 13 1609.3125 1251.6875
2111 21008 Dec 90 op 05 23 1614.9375 1256.0625
2139 21216 Apr 91 Aug 92 21 20 1613.2500 1254.7500
2140 21217 Apr 91 Nov 94 22 11 1608.1875 1250.8125
2141 21218 Apr 91 Feb 92 24 14 1609.8750 1252.1250
2177 21853 Jan 92 Mar 93 3 22 1614.3750 1255.6250
2178 21854 Jan 92 op 08 2 1603.1250 1246.8750
2179 21855 Jan 92 op 01 23 1614.9375 1256.0625
2204 22056 Jul 92 op 24 1 1602.5625 1246.4375
2205 22057 Jul 92 op 21 24 1615.5000 1256.5000
2206 22058 Jul 92 Jun 94 20 8 1606.5000 1249.5000
2234 22512 Feb 93 Mar 94 03 12 1608.7500 1251.2500
2235 22513 Feb 93 op 02 5 1604.8125 1248.1875
2236 22514 Feb 93 op 06 21 1613.8125 1255.1875
2275 23043 Apr 94 op 17 24 1615.5000 1256.5000
2276 23044 Apr 94 op 23 3 1603.6875 1247.3125
2277 23045 Apr 94 op 18 10 1607.6250 1250.3750
2287 23203 Aug 94 op 12 22 1614.3750 1255.6250
2288 23204 Aug 94 op 16 22 1614.3750 1255.6250
2289 23205 Aug 94 op 14 9 1607.0625 1249.9375
2294 23396 Nov 94 op 3 21 1613.8125 1255.1875
2295 23397 Nov 94 op 6 13 1609.3125 1251.6875
2296 23398 Nov 94 op 4 12 1608.7500 1251.2500
2308 23511 Mar 95 op 22 10 1607.6250 1250.3750
2309 23512 Mar 95 op 19 3 1603.6875 1247.3125
2307 23513 Mar 95 op 20 1 1602.5625 1246.4375
Op: Operational June 1995.
A-9
A.9 TRANSMISSION FREQUENCIES
The carrier frequency chosen to transmit the L1 navigation signal are in the ITU
assigned aeronautical satellite navigation band from 1559 MHz to 1620 MHz. A dual
frequency system is used for the precise military signal with a second L2 transmission
in the 1250 MHz band. Dual frequency navigation messages at L1 and L2 allow the
user to correct for ionospheric propagation effects and are incorporated into both
NAVSTAR and GLONASS.
Unlike GPS GLONASS uses a different frequency for each satellite. Radio frequency
carriers used by GLONASS are channelized within the bands 1240-1260 MHz and
1597-1617 MHz, the channel spacing being 7/16 or 0.4375 MHz at L2 and 9/16 or
0.5625 MHz at L1. The carrier frequencies are multiples of channel spacing. Currently
the number of planned channels is 24 but the Russians have given notice, Ref 4, that
this is scheduled to change in the late 1990's to 12 with anti podal satellites
transmitting at the same frequency, see Fig A-1.
The frequency is defined from the following expressions.
L1(f) = 1602.2+0.5625KMHz
L2(f) = 1246.0+0.4375KMHz
where:
K = ± 0,1,2.......24 the carrier number
K = 0 is reserved for test purposes and is not used operationally.
All frequencies in each of the L1 and L2 bands are coherent and formed by the same
frequency standard. The ratio of frequencies (K2/K1) emitted by a satellite in L1 and
L2 is 7/9. The frequency used by particular satellites is transmitted in the almanac
transmitted by each satellite in the constellation. Initially all GLONASS satellites used
a separate frequency. However, since 1992 the Russians have begun to use common
frequencies for anti-podal satellites.
Following the World Administrative Radio Conference in 1992 the Russians have
announced their intention to move the GLONASS frequency Band. At WARC-92
coprimary allocations were given for Radioastronomy, 1610 to 1613 MHz and for
Mobile Satellite Systems (ground to satellite) 1610 to 1620 MHz. From 1998 to 2005
the Russians have stated GLONASS will use the frequency band 1598.0625 MHz (K=-
7) to 1609.3125 MHz (K=13) for L1 and the equivalent frequencies 1242.9375 MHz to
1251.6875 MHz for L2. After 2005 GLONASS will use frequency channels K= -7 to K=
+4 with channels 5 and 6 used for technical operations (K (6) = 1605.3750 MHz L1 and
1248.6250 L2).
A-10
A.10 TRANSMISSION POWERS AND PROTECTION RATIO
The power radiated by each satellite is defined in Table B-2 for various angles from the
boresight of the transmitting antenna. The power flux density at the earth's surface for
satellites at greater than 5 degrees elevation submitted to the ITU, Ref 4 are as follows:
-152 dBW/m2 per 4 KHz - for C/A-code signals in L1 band
-162 dBW/m2 per 4 KHz - for P-code signals in L1 band
-168 dBW/m2 per 4 KHz - for P-code signals in L2 band
The power output from a 0 dBic antenna is specified as :
-160 dBW for C/A and P-code L1.
-166 dBW for P-code L2.
However, measurements of the signal strength suggest that the L1 GLONASS C/A
code is 2 to 3 dB stronger than GPS. The Russians have defined a protection ratio
(wanted signal power to maximum tolerable interference) for the GLONASS signals as:
-15 dB for C/A code in L1 band
-25 dB for P-code L1 and L2 bands.
GLONASS specify that a satellite in an adjacent frequency allocation shall not create
interference above -48 dB if visible.
Table A-2. GLONASS Transmitted Power

e, degrees 0 15 19 Notes
EIRP, dBW 25 27 23 For narrow and wide
band signals in L1
band
EIRP, dBW 19 21 18 For wide band signals
in L2 band
A.11 INFORMATION TRANSMISSION, BANDWIDTH AND CODE RATES
Each satellite transmits a navigation signal in the L1 band that includes two pseudo
noise signals, modulated by Biphase Shift Keying onto the carrier separated by a 90
deg phase shift. The chip rate of the pseudo random sequences are 0.511 MHz (C/A-
code) and 5.11 MHz P-code. Each satellite also transmits the P-code at 5.11 MHz on
the L2 frequency. The Russians have stated the P-code is not included in the civil
system offered for general use.
A-11
The BPSK modulation produces the classical sinc 2x (sinc x = sin x over x) spectrum
centred on the carrier frequency with nulls at multiples of the bit rate. The signal
appears to be filtered before transmission to limit the transmission bandwidth to only
the first two nulls. A typical spectrum is illustrated in Fig A-2. Some GLONASS
satellites, but not all have been observed, Ref 2, to contain additional spectral lines
precisely at the spectral nulls of +/- the code rate.
Two theories have been put forward to explain the appearance of spectral lines at code
nulls. The first postulates that the lines are present by accident as a result of poor
implementation of the carrier modulation circuitry. An alternative theory that the lines
were deliberate in order to provide instantaneous satellite velocity information has not
been substantiated. The occurrence of the phenomena has been intermittent,
GLONASS 19 and 20 had very pronounced lines. No lines have been observed on any
of the satellites launched during 1986-1988 but they have reappeared on satellites
launched in 1989 (GLONASS 42).
A.12 RANGING CODES
GLONASS employs ranging codes similar to GPS, but with the same code transmitted
by all satellites at different frequencies. The equivalent of the GPS C/A code uses a
maximum length sequence with a period of 1 ms and a bit rate of 0.511 Mchips/s, a
length of 511 bits as compared to the GPS C/A code of 1023 bits, Ref 5. The code is
generated by a feedback 9 element shift register, (2 9 -1 = 511bits) with feedback from
the 5th and 9th taps. The output is taken from the 7th tap.
The P code appears to be a truncated maximum length sequence generated by a 25 -bit

shift register with feedback from the 3rd and 25 taps. A maximum length code from
such a generator has a length of 2 25 -1 = 33554431 bits. At a clock rate of 5.11 MHz
the code would be 6.5664 seconds, but the sequence is short cycled at the second
boundary and the register reset to all ones.
A.13 NAVIGATION DATA
Navigation data is transmitted at 50 baud, Ref 6. In common with GPS, the data is
formatted into frames, sub-frames and words. A frame has a duration of 150 seconds
and is sub-divided into five sub-frames. Each sub-frame is divided into 15 lines, of 2
seconds duration. The first part of each line 1.7 seconds duration contains a preamble
(always 0), line number (4 bits), data parameters (72), parity bits (8). The C/A code
navigation data includes a 'meanda' code at double chip frequency 100 Hz, 0101010....
is modulo 2 added to the data, resulting in a 'Manchester' modulation. The remaining
0.3 seconds is composed of a time mark at 100 Hz,
111110001101110101000010010110, the last bit is aligned with even integer seconds
from the beginning of the day Moscow time UT(SU). P-code navigation data is a non
return to zero 50 baud data message with several differences from the C/A code Ref 7.
A-12
Figure A-2. GLONASS L1 C/A and P(Y) Code Spectrum
The data in each subframe is divided into two sections; the first containing the
coordinates and clock parameters of the transmitting satellite and the second almanac
parameters for all other satellites currently in the system. Various flags occur in the
message relating to validity of specific data, status and health of particular satellites.
Several data message have not been published or are only partially understood, for
example, the luni-solar correction term in the almanacs.
GLONASS ephemerides are similar to the format used by Cicada satellites. Both systems
encode the satellite's instantaneous position and velocity at fixed time intervals in an earth-
centred earth-fixed (ECEF) rectangular coordinate system. Positions and velocities at
intermediate times are calculated by the user using interpolation. In addition to positional
data at reference times, GLONASS also transmits in the ephemeris two parameters relating
to the on board-clocks. The first is a time correction for the instantaneous time difference
between space vehicle time and GLONASS system time. The second parameter a
frequency correction gives the rate of change of space vehicle time offset. An age-of-
ephemeris-data (AODE) parameter is included to allow the user to calculate the satellites
time and frequency offset at the time the transmission occurred.
There is greater similarity between Navstar and GLONASS in the transmission of

almanacs. Both systems transmit the basic elements of a osculating Kepler ellipse, as
illustrated in Table A-3. In terms of using almanacs to predict satellite position from the
reduced Kepler orbit, the two sets of data are similar. Where differences occur
(parameter 8), the terms are seen to be
A-13
Table A-3. Almanacs
Parameter NAVSTAR GLONASS

1 week of validity day of validity
2 identifier channel number
3 eccentricity -
4 inclination -
5 time of almanac equator crossing time
6 health validity of almanac
7 right ascension ascending node (RAAN) equator crossing longitude
8 rate of change of RAAN -
9 root of semi-major axis orbital period
10 argument of perigee argument of perigee
11 mean anomaly -
12 - luni-solar term
13 time offset time offset
14 frequency offset -
equivalent. The primary purpose of almanac data is to allow the user to predict in
approximate terms the visible satellites and their geometry.
Almanac data provides a position of each satellite to within 100-200 m similar to GPS
almanacs. However, the inclusion in the GLONASS almanac of a luni-solar correction
term implies a position error perhaps an order of magnitude better than a Navstar
almanac over an extended time period. The luni-solar term remains substantially
constant for satellites with the same Right Ascension. Although the almanac is valid for
several days they are usually but not always changed every day in GLONASS at local
midnight.
It is interesting to observe that the GLONASS almanacs differ from the earlier Cicada
almanacs in one major respect. The earlier almanacs were based on an equitial-tial
Kepler set where eccentricity and argument of the perigee are transmitted as h = e x
sinw and 1 = e x cosw. The equinoctial set of elements is suitable for orbits with small
eccentricity since it leads to equations with no singularities when e tends to zero.
A.14 NAVIGATION REFERENCE FRAME
GLONASS employs a geocentric cartesian system designated SGS85. The difference

from the GPS WGS84 frame is not large. Misra, Ref 8 reported differences of less than
20 m RMS. The two coordinate frames may be brought together by a small rotation
0.6" (3.10 -6 rad) of the z-axis and a 4 m displacement of the origin along the z-axis.
Recently there has been a suggestion that the GLONASS coordinate frame has been
updated to a SGS90 designation.
A-14
A.15 USER EQUIPMENT
A major problem with the use of GLONASS has been the lack of user equipment. Due
to the initial secrecy of the system and the lack of information concerning its
development few western manufactures have mature products. Receivers are made by
3S Navigation and Leeds University. By comparison with GPS equipments the costs
are extremely high. A number f companies, Canadian Marconi, Trimble etc that were
developing equipments in the late 1980's are apparently in abeyance. This decision
was probably made at the time when a GLONASS launch had not occurred for
approximately a year and the future of the system was in doubt. had not There has
been some Russian equipment available vis a German sources but supplies were
limited. New equipment is under development and is due to be released in late 1995.
A.16 REFERENCES
1. S Fairheller, USAF, The Russian GLONASS System: A US AirForce /Russian

Study, US ION Sept 94
2. P Daly, GLONASS: The USSR Navigation Equivalent, Dept of Electrical Eng,

University of Leeds. (First appeared ANP-2 version 1 Feb 1991)
3. V N Kazantsev, M F Reshetnev, A G Kozlov, V F Cheremisin Overview and

Design of the GLONASS system NPO PM Krasnoyarsk-26
4. Russian Federation Technical Description and Characteristics of the Global Space

Navigation System GLONASS-M, International Telecommunication Union,
Radiocommunication Study Group, Nov 1994
5. G Lennon, Universtity of Leeds, The USSR's GLONASS P-code - Determination

and Initial Results, ION GPS 1990.
6. J Besser, J Danaher. The 3S Navigation R-100 Family of GPS receivers, ION

National Technical Meeting 1993.
7. Research and Production Association of Applied Mechanics, Institute of Space

Device Engineering, Global Satellite Navigation System GLONASS: Interface
Control Document, ICAO DOC. FANS/4-WP/75, May 1988.
8. P N Misra R I Abbot SGS85 - WG84 Transformations, Lincoln Laboratory, MIT,

Lexington Mass, Manuscropta Geodaetica Spring 1994
A-15
ANNEX B: WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984:
A MODERN AND GLOBAL REFERENCE FRAME
This article has been provided by

Dr. Muneendra Kumar
who is the Defence Mapping Agency Action Officer
for the implementation of the World Geodetic System 1984.
B.1 INTRODUCTION
In this complex world where numerous Mapping, Charting, and Geodetic (MC&G), and
digital products are defined in various local and/or regional geodetic datums, it
becomes a straight forward requirement to simplify MC&G complexity by referencing all
the products to a common reference frame globally. With this need in mind, the
Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) has been actively involved since 1960 in the devel op-
ment of World Geodetic System (WGS). To date, four such systems, viz., WGS 60,
WGS 66, WGS 72, and WGS 84, each successively more accurate, have been
developed.
The latest WGS 84 represents DMA's state-of-the-art modeling of the earth from a
geometric, geodetic, and gravitational standpoint using data, techniques, and technology
available through early 1984.
B.2 THE REFERENCE FRAME
The origin of the WGS 84 reference frame is the earth's center of mass and the Z- and
X-axes are identical to the Conventional Terrestrial System (CTS) as defined by the
Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) for the epoch 1984.0 (Figure B-1). This frame
constitutes a mean or standard earth rotating at a constant rate (w) around an average
astronomic pole fixed in time.
In turn, the WGS 84 reference frame is related to an Instantaneous Terrestrial System

(ITS) and a Conventional Inertial System (CIS):
WGS 84 (CTS) = [A] [B] [C] [D] CIS (1)
where the rotation matrices for polar motion [A],sidereal [B], notation [C], and precession
[D] are from the FK 5 System referenced to Epoch J2000.0.
For practical realization, the WGS 84 reference frame or coordinate system was defined by
suitable modifying the NSWC9Z-2 coordinate system of the Navy Naviga tion Satellite
System (NNSS). This modification consisted of the removal of biases in the origin, scale,
and longitude definition of the Doppler system and is defined as:
B-1
Figure B-1. World Geodetic System 1984 Reference Frame
Z(WGS 84) = Z(NSWC 9Z-2) + 4.5 meters (2)
S(WGS 84) = S(NSWC 9Z-2) - 0.6 ppm (3)
l(WGS 84) = l(NSWC 9Z-2) + 0.814" (4)
In the above relationships, Equations 2-4 refer to the Z-axis bias, scale correction, and
longitudinal bias in the definition of the prime meridian, respectively, and the WGS 84, thus
achieved, is coincident with the BIH-defined CTS 1.
Origin = Earth's center of mass.
Z-Axis = Parallel to the direction of the Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP) for
polar motion, as defined by the Bureau International de L'Heure (BIH) on the basis
of the coordinates adopted for the BIH stations.
X-Axis = Intersection of the WGS 84 Reference Meridian Plane and the plane of
the CTP's Equator, the Reference Meridian being parallel to the Zero Meridian
defined by the BIH on the basis of the coordinates adopted for the BIH stations.
Y-Axis = Completes a right-handed, ECEF orthogonal coordinate system, measured

in the plane of the CTP Equator, 90 degrees East of the X-Axis.
B-2
B.3 THE DEFINING PARAMETERS AND ASSOCIATED CONSTANTS
In geodetic considerations, three different surfaces or earth figures are normally

involved and used. In addition to the earth's actual physical surface, the other two
include a geometric (or mathematical) reference surface, the ellipsoid, and an equi -
potential surface, the geoid.
In determining the WGS 84 Ellipsoid and its associated defining parameters, the WGS 84
Development Committee decided to adopt the International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics (IUGG) defined Geodetic Reference System (GRS) 1980 as its reference.
The WGS 84 Ellipsoid, as an integral component of the system for the earth's
geometric figure and theoretical gravity definition, is a geocentric, equipotential,
ellipsoid of revolution; Table B-1 lists the four defining parameters adopted from the
GRS 802, except for one minor exception. The WGS 84 defines C 2 instead of J 2 of
GRS 80.
Table B-1. WGS 84 Ellipsoid Four Defining Parameters
Parameters Notation Magnitude Accuracy (1s)

Semimajor Axis a 6378137 m ±2 m
Normalized Second Degree Zonal C2,0 -484.16685 x 10-6 ±1.30 x 10-9

Harmonic Coefficient of the
Gravitational Potential
Angular Velocity of the Earth w 7292115 x 10-11 rad/s ±0.1500 x 10-11 rad/s
The Earth's Gravitational Constant GM 39860065 x 108 m3/s2 ±0.6 x 108 m3/s2
(Mass of Earth's Atmosphere
Included)
Parameter Values for Special Applications
8 3 2 8 3 2
The Earth's Gravitational CM’ 3986001.5 x 10 m /s ±0.6 x 10 m /s
Constant (Mass of Earth's
Atmosphere Not Included)
* -11 -11
Angular Velocity of the Earth w (7292115.8553 x 10 ±0.1500 x 10 rad/s
(In a Processing Reference Frame) + 4.3 x 10-15 TU) rad/s
TU = Julian Centuries From Epoch J2000.0
Other associated constants adopted and used in WGS 84 are given in Table B-2.
B-3
Table B-2. Relevant Miscellaneous Constants and Conversion Factors
Constant Symbol Numerical Value

Velocity of Light c 299792458 m/s
(in a vacuum)
Dynamical Ellipticity H 1/305.4413
*
Earth's Angular Velocity [for Satellite Applications; see w (7292115.8553 x 1011 + 4.3
Equation (3-14), reference 3] x 10-15 Tu) rad/s
Universal Constant of Gravitation G 6.673 x 10-11m3/s2kg
GM of the Earth's Atmosphere GMA 3.5 x 108m3/s2
Earth's Gravitational Constant (excluding the Mass of the GM’ 3986001.5 x 108m3/s2
Earth's Atmosphere)
Earth's Principal A 8.0091029 x 1037 kg m2
Moments of Inertia B 8.0092559 x 1037 kg m2
Dynamic Solution C 8.0354872 x 1037 kg m2
Conversion Factors
1 Metre = 3.28083333333 U.S. Survey Feet
1 Metre = 3.28083989501 International Feet
1 International Foot = 0.3048 Metre (Exact)
1 U.S. Survey Foot = 1200/3937 Metre (Exact)
1 U.S. Survey Foot = 0.30480060960 Metre
= 1852 Meters (Exact)
1 Nautical Mile
= 6076.10333333 U.S. Survey Feet
= 6076.11548556 International Feet
= 1609.344 Meters (Exact)
1 Statute Mile
= 5280 International Feet (Exact)
B.4 THE GRAVITY FORMULA
In many applications, such as the computation of gravity anomalies, theoretical (or normal)
gravity (g) is required as a reference value. Values of gf in the WGS 84 (for any latitude
F) can be computed using the closed formula:
(1 + k sin 2 )
= e
(1 - e2 sin 2 )1/2
Tu = Julian Centuries from Epoch J2000.0
B-4
Where,
ge = Normal gravity at the equator
= 978032.67714 mgal
k = 0.00193185138639
e2 = 0.00669437999013.
B.5 THE EARTH GRAVITATIONAL MODEL
The Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) of the WGS 84 is a spherical harmonic expan -
sion of the earth's gravitational potential and is defined complete through degree (n)
and order (m) 180, comprising 32.755 coefficients. However, only the coefficients
through n = m = 18 are unclassified 3.
Accuracy values are not available for all the WGS 84 EGM coefficients; however, an error
covariance matrix is available only for coefficients through n = m = 41, which were
determined from the weighted least squares solution.
B.6 THE GEOID
In addition to the earth's geometric surface or figure, the WGS 84 geoid, as the equi-
potential figure of the earth (also approximately by mean sea level over the oceans), is
defined as so many meters above (+N) or below (-N) the WGS 84 ellipsoid, where "N"
is known as geoidal height or undulation.
The worldwide geoidal heights were calculated using the WGS 84 EGM through n = m
= 180, and they can also be depicted as a contour chart (showing deviations from the
WGS 84 ellipsoid) or as a grid of desire density. Figure B-2 shows a worldwide WGS
84 geoid chart developed from a worldwide 1 degree x 1 degree grid using the
unclassified EGM coefficients through n = m = 18.
The Root Mean Square (RMS) geoidal height for WGS 84, taken worldwide, is 30.5
meters and the error ranges from +2 to +6 meters (1s). The accuracy of the WGS 84
geoid is better than +4 meters over approximately 93% of the globe.
B.7 RELATIONSHIP WITH LOCAL GEODETIC DATUMS
Counting islands and/or other "astro" datums, the number of local geodetic datums
available for MC&G requirements and applications exceeds several hundred. If the
inherent technical difficulties of dealing with these numerous local datums, e ach
defined with its own specifications and basic limitations, are considered in daily usage,
the picture is just too complex and almost chaotic.
B-5
B-6
Under this bleak scenario, one of the principal purposes of a WGS is to provide the
means whereby these numerous local geodetic datums can be referenced to a common
system (or to each other indirectly through extrapolation) and then, WGS can facilitate
simplification of the global MC&G problem.
To achieve the referencing of a local datum to WGS 84, one major requirement is to have
well-distributed control points common to both the systems. DMA maintains a world wide
database of NNSS Doppler station. A search of this database produced 1591 good quality
Doppler-stations, which also had coordinates defined in the local datum of the area.
These 1591 Doppler stations cover 83 local geodetic datums spread out over all the six
continents-[3]. From a high of 405 Doppler stations common with the North American
Datum-(NAD) 1927 in the contiguous U.S., there are 29 datums with only one common
station. This limitation of not having any check station thus affects about 35% (29 of 83)
of the datums.
As the local geodetic datums are generally defined only horizontally and provide mean
sea level (MSL) heights from separately defined vertical datums, the geodetic heights
in the local datum (HLD), required to compute datum transformation parameters, were
generated using the following equation:
HLD » hmsl + NLD (6)
In the above equation, the local datum geoidal heights (N LD) were obtained by appropriate
transformation from the WGS 84 geoidal heights. These local geoids are absolute
(contrary to the relative astro-geodetic that are available for a few of the local datums) and
consistent in definition with each other and also with the WGS 84 geoid worldwide.
Table B-3 provides a sample listing of the transformation parameters between the 83 local
datums and the WGS 84; a full listing is available elsewhere. 4
In addition to the 83 local datums related to the WGS 84 through Doppler ties to the local
control, transformation parameters (based on non-Doppler information) are also available
for seven additional local datums. 4
B.8 ACCURACY
The accuracy of the WGS 84 coordinates of a site significantly influenced by the method
used to determine the coordinates. Table B-4 lists the four methods generally available to
establish the coordinate of a WGS 84 site and the associated accuracies achievable
through each of the methods.
B-7
From Table B-4, it is noticed that Method 1 (where a WGS 84 site is established through
direct satellite observational data) gives the most accurate positional fix of 1-2 meters.
Method 4 (the least accurate) is entirely dependent on the local/regional distortion of the
local geodetic datum.
Table B-3. Transformation Parameters Local Geodetic Systems to WGS 84

(For Complete Table - See Reference 4.)
Number of Doppler
Reference Ellipsoids and Stations Used to
Local Geodetic Parameter Differences** Determine Transformation
Systems* Transformation Parameters**
Parameters
Name Da(m) Df x 104 DX(m) DY(m) DZ(m)
PROVISIONAL SOUTH International -251 -0.14192702 63 -288 175 -376
AMERICAN 1956
Mean Value
(Bolivia, Chile,
Colombia, Ecuador,
Guyana, Peru, and
Venezuela)
PUERTO RICO Clarke 1866 -69.4 -0.3726439 11 11 72 -101
Puerto Rico and
Virgin Islands
QATAR NATIONAL International -251 -0.14192702 3 -12 -283 22
Qatar
QORNOQ International -251 -0.14192702
South Greenland 2 164 138 189
REUNION International -251 -0.14192702
Mascarene Island 1 94 -948 -1262
ROME 1940 International -251 -0.14192702
Sardinia Island 1 -255 -65 9
*Geoid heights computer using spherical harmonic expansion and WGS 894 EGM coefficient set
(n=m=180), then referenced to the ellipsoid and orientation associated with each of the local
geodetic systems
**WGS 84 minus local geodetic system
B-8
Table B-4. Methods of Determining and Accuracy of WGS 84 Coordinates
Method of Determining Achievable

WGS 84 Coordinates Accuracies (1s)
1. Directly Established in WGS 84 Coordinate F and + 1 m
System via a Satellite Point Positioning H + 1 to 2m
Solution
2. By Transformation from Doppler (NSWC 9Z-2) F and + 2 m
Coordinates by Bias Removal H + 2 to 3m
3. By Transformation of WGS 72 Coordinates: Same as 2., Above Dependent on
(a) At Doppler Sites the Originating Local Datum
(b) At non-Doppler Sites where WGS 72 Coordinates and Transformation
coordinates were Obtained Indirectly from Local Errors*
Datums
4. By Transformation of Local Datum Coordinates Same as 3.(b) Above
*See DMA TR 8350.2-A, 1 December 1987
B.9 SUMMARY
WGS 84 is a state-of-the-art global geodetic reference system based on the use of

data, techniques, and technology available within DMA through early 1984 and
replaces its predecessor WGS 72. The WGS 84 reference frame, EGM, geoid, and
datum transformation parameters (with local datums) are more accurate and relate
more datums (83 compared to 27 for WGS 72).
These improvements can be translated into more accurate maps and charts, geodetic
positioning, geoidal heights, improved satellite orbits, and the capability to relate more
local datums worldwide to a unified system.
B.10 REFERENCES
1. B.I.H., "Bureau International de l'Heure Annual Report for 1984, "Paris, France,
1984.
2. Moritz, H., "Geodetic Reference System 1980," Bulletin Geodesique, 54(3):00-

00,
1980.
3. Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984, It s Definition and

Relation-ships with Local Geodetic Systems; DMA TR 8350.2 Washington, DC
30 September 1987.
B-9
4. Supplement to Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984 Technical
Report; Part II-Parameters, Formulas, and Graphic for Practical Application of
WGS 84; DMA TR 8350.2-B, Washington, DC 1 December 1987.
B-10
ANNEX C: BBS INFORMATION
C.1 INTRODUCTION
There are several organizations which provide computer bulletin board services for GPS
and/or GLONASS users. Information available include constellation status, scheduled
outages, almanacs, and other GPS related data.
The following section contains a list of BBSs listed alphabetically by country. Within each
country listing, military and official services are listed first.
C.2 BBS LISTING
AUSTRALIA
AUSLIC Geodesy Electronic BBS
This bulletin board is operated by the Australian Surveying and Land Information
Group of the Australian government, Canberra, ACT. It offers GPS information
including recent and historical constellation status, almanac data, availability of
differential GPS services and downloadable files. It also includes related
geodetic information, such as solar/iono spheric data, datum transformations, and
availability of coordinate and geoid/ellipsoid separations for Australia.
Dial in: 300-600 baud

+61 (6) 201 4375 or
+61 (6) 201 4378
Connect parameters: N-8-1
For further information: Jim Steed +61 (6) 201 4347

FAX +61 (6) 201 4366
CANADA
Canadian Space Geodesy Forum
This bulletin board is maintained by the University of New Bruns wick. It offers
daily GPS constellation status reports and ionospheric disturbance warnings.
Access to e-mail is necessary to subscribe.
To subscribe: Send the one-line message
C-1
[sub CANSPACE your_name]
to listserv @UNB.CA
For further information: Terry Arsenault (506) 453-4698

FAX (506) 453-4943
e-mail ([email protected])
DENMARK
Electronic BBS
This bulletin board is operated by the Kort-og Matrikelstyrelsen, Copenhagen.

GPS status advisory notices, broadcast almanacs, historical data and other
information is available.
Dial in: Up to 9600 baud and MNP 10

+45 31 85 3541
For further information: Soren Ellegaard

Kort-og Matrikelstyrelsen
Rentemestervej 8, D-2400
København, NV, Denmark
+45 35 87 5050
FAX +45 35 87 5052
FRANCE
French MOD GPS Service
The French Ministry of Defense GPS Service has two main components: a BBS
and a Minitel access. It offers broadcast almanac data, ephemeris data and GPS
status advisory notices information in the SEM format. It also offers weekly GPS
constellation status synthesis, pseudo-ranges, precise ephemeris, integrity
information and a prediction software.
Dial in: 300-14,400 baud

+33 1 48 58 37 55
Minitel Access: 3614 GPSINF
C-2
For further information: SYSOP (Christophe Picco)
+33 1 48 58 22 22
FAX +33 1 48 58 88 78
GERMANY
FAFGO GIBSBw
The Federal Armed Forces Geographic Office (FAFGO) is operating the GPS
Information and Observation Center (GIBSBw) for use by the German Armed
Forces. Topical and after the fact GPS signal status and positioning quality
analysis is provided together with additional GPS-related information.
Dial in: password and user ID on request
For further information: GIBSBw

Amt für Militärisches Geowesen
Frauenberger Str. 250
53879 Euskirchen
+49 2251 7092218
FAX +49 2251 3092311
Electronic BBS
The Institute for Applied Geodesy, Frankfurt, operates this bulletin board. GPS
status advisory notices, broadcast almanacs, historical data, geoid model data,
real time integrity, datum transformations, availability of differential GPS services,
and coverage of reference stations are available.
Dial in: Modem 1: +49 341 56 34 387

Modem 2: +49 341 56 34 388
Internet: 193.174.165.130 (no5.leipzig.ifag.de)
e-mail: [email protected]
For further information: Georg Weber

Institute für Angewandte Geodäsie
Richard Strauss Allee 11
D-6000 Frankfurt/M70
Germany
+49 341 56 34 380
FAX +49 696 33 3425
C-3
NETHERLANDS
Electronic BBS
This bulletin board is operated by the survey department of Rijkswaterstaat, the

Dutch Ministry of Transport and Public Works. It offers GPS status advisory
notices, broadcast almanacs, historical data, receiver concepts and features,
equipment prices and options. GPS policy statements and other information is
available upon request.
Dial in: Password and user ID on request (FAX)
For further information: +31 (15) 691400

FAX +31 (15) 618962
UNITED KINGDOM
DRA Farnborough
This bulletin board is sponsored by MOD(E) SES 12. It offers almanacs,

ephemeris and system status messages.

+44 1252 394843
Connect Parameters: N-8-1
For further information: Peter Briggs

+44 1252 393086
UNITED STATES
Navigation Information Center (formerly GPSIC)
The U.S. Coast Guard sponsors this bulletin board, formerly called the GPS
Information Center. It offers constellation status, scheduled outages, almanac
data, electronic mail, downloadable files, user advisories, and DGPS.
Dial in: 300 - 14,400 baud

(703) 313-5910
For further information: (703) 313-5900

FAX (703) 3131-5920
C-4
Holloman GPS BBS (formerly Yuma BBS)
The U.S. Air Force at Holloman Air Force Base, N ew Mexico sponsors this
bulletin board, formerly originating from the military test range at Yuma, Arizona.
It offers constellation status, almanac data, electronic mail, downloadable files,
and user advisories.
Dial in: (505) 679-1525

DSN (autovon) 349-1525
Connect Parameters: Uses "smart" modem and will

automatically adjust for protocols.
For further information: Colin Broughton (505) 679-1784

U.S. Army Electronic Proving Ground
The U.S. Army Electronic Proving Ground operates this bulletin board. It offers
GPS status advisory notices, almanac and ephemeris data, custom satellite
visibility data, electronic mail, and downloadable files.

(602) 538-3818
9600 baud
(602) 538-3856
Connect parameters: Uses "smart" modem and will

automatically adjust for protocols (default
settings are N-8-1)
For further information: Jack Underwood (602) 533-8087

ARINC BBS
This bulletin board is maintained by ARINC Incorporated in San Diego, CA. It

offers broadcast and theoretical almanac data and GPS status advisory data
information in the SEM format.
C-5
(619) 222-8637
For further information: Hana Maquet

(619) 222-7447
FAX (619) 225-1750
Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center (SOPAC)
This bulletin board is maintained by Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Univer -

sity of California, San Diego, which is a nonprofit educational institution. Precise
GPS orbits are available in National Geodetic Survey format (sp1 and sp3) with a
one week delay based on tracking data collected by the Interna tional GPS
Geodynamics Service (IGS). There is a small fee for access to data.
Dial in: 1200-14,400 baud (619) 587-2563
For further information: Order information is available on line or

by contacting:
SOPAC
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
UCSD, IGPP 0255
9500 Gilman Dr
La Jolla, CA 92093-0225, USA
(619) 534-0229 or 534-7692
FAX (619) 534-5332
IGS
The International GPS Service for Geodynamics is a service established by

the International Association of Geodesy (IAG). IGS is based on about 50
globally distributed permanent GPS tracking sites and routinely provides high
quality orbits for all GPS satellites, Earth rotation parameters, contributions to
the determination of the tracking site coordinates in the International
Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), and phase and pseudorange
observations in daily RINEX files for each IGS tracking site.
C-6
For further information: Gerhard Beutler, Chairman
Ruth Neilan
Central Bureau (U.S.)
(818) 354-8330
FAX (818) 393-6686
e-mail: [email protected]
C-7
ANNEX D: IMPACT OF MULTIPATH
Like any other types of electromagnetic waves, GPS satellite broadcasting signals are also
subject to reflection and diffraction. GPS multipath is the antenna reception of signals not
directly from satellites but rather bounced off or diffracted from local objects. Since the
multipath takes a longer path than the direct signal, it results in an error in pseudorange
measurements and thus affects the positioning accuracy.
If the path length of the indirect signal is more than a chip length longer than the direct
signal, the code correlator will not be able to correlate on the indirect signal. This is the
reason why the multipath code tracking error rarely exceeds one half of the correlator chip
length, which is 150 m for the conventional C/A-code correlator. For stationary or slowly
moving users, the multipath error is on the order of a few meters or so for a period from a
few minutes to an hour. The impact of multipath to high dynamic vehicles is even less. The
multipath caused by man-made objects such as towers or electrical poles does not usually
last long. However, the multipath over a vast calm water surface may continue for a while
because the water surface acts like a perfect mirror.
The effect of multipath to carrier phase measurements is less severe, typically less than a
quarter of the wavelength of the carrier. For L1, it is approximately 5 cm.
In general, the C/A-code is more susceptible to the multipath problem than the P(Y)-code
due to the relatively narrower bandwidth, that is 2 MHz for the C/A-code versus 20 MHz for
the P(Y)-code. With recent advances in narrow correlation technology, the C/A-code
multipath susceptibility can match the conventional P(Y)-code per formance. The same
technology can also be applied to the P(Y)-code to enhance its multi path susceptibility by
increasing the bandwidth from 20 MHz to 80 MHz with 0.2 chip spacing.
Since multipath is not easily predictable and not spatially correlated between two antennas
except for a very short baseline, it causes a major problem for differential operation.
Therefore it is important to understand the nature of multipath and hopefully eliminate its
impact to GPS receiver performance.
How to Identify Multipath:
For a stationary antenna, such as the one used in a ground reference station for
differential GPS operation, the multipath can be identified by monitor ing the GPS
signal with a second antenna separated by sufficient distance so that the multipath
observed in one antenna will not be seen in the other. A significant difference in
pseudorange measurements between two antennas, after proper compensation for
their locations, is a strong indication of multipath. The observed discrepancies
should repeat after 23 hours and 56 minutes due to the GPS constellation
periodicity, providing further proof of the existence of multipath. To illustrate the
repeatability of this phenomenon, Figure E-1 shows the multipath induced north
position error over four consecutive days in San Diego, CA. As shown, the
multipath error occurs near the same time of the day except that it advances 4
minute every day.
D-1
For a moving vehicle, the multipath can theoretically be isolated by comparing the code-
tracking pseudorange measurements and the carrier tracking integrated Doppler
measurements. Because the integrated Doppler multipath is only on the order of a few
centimeters, the differences between the two are primarily due to the multipath in the
pseudorange measurements. In order to make this technique work, the mean value of
differences over a fixed period of time has to be removed in order to eliminate integer
ambiguity in the integrated Doppler measurements. In an environment free of multipath,
differences after removal of the mean are primarily due to receiver noise which should be
less than a meter. Anything larger is an indication of possible multipath.
Another technique to identify multipath is to examine the carrier signal-to-noise ratio. When
multipath occurs, the coherency of the composite signal (direct plus reflected) makes the
magnitude oscillate with time depending upon the relative phase. There fore, another
indication of multipath is that the carrier signal-to-noise ratio appears to vary periodically.
Since the multipath is highly geometry-dependent, when it appears, it only affects one or
two satellites. For differential GPS operation, it is possible to use RAIM based algorithms
to identify the existence of multipath of a specific satellite and then exclude the erroneous
measurement from the position computation. There are two impor tant factors that are
critical to the success of this technique. One is that six or more satellites are needed to
exclude the measurement with multipath using a RAIM based algorithm. The other is that
the receiver must operate in differential mode so that the multipath, instead of SA, becomes
the dominant error source.
How to Reduce Multipath:
The most straightforward method to reduce multipath is to move the antenna to a multipath-
free location. This is usually done by placing the antenna as low as possible and away
from huge buildings. Sometimes, this is not possible due to physical restrictions. Another
approach is to increase the masking angle as long as enough high elevation satellites are
in view. This is because multipath often appears in the low elevation satellites for two
reasons: (1) direct signal strength is weaker for low elevation satellites and (2) the increase
in propagation path is smaller. Other more advanced candidate solutions to reduce
multipath are discussed in the following:
1. An effective approach is to monitor the pseudorange measurements using a

receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) algorithm or carrier phase
integrated Doppler. When a pseudorange measurement is suspected to be
contaminated with multipath, either significantly reduce the weight or remove
it completely from the position computation.
2. Because most of the reflected signal comes from below the Earth's
surface, another effective approach to reduce the impact of this kind of
multipath is to place the antenna directly on a large ground plane in
order to shape the antenna pattern, so that is has no sidelobe under
the horizon. If a large ground plane is not practical, another method is
to use a choke ring, which is much smaller in size and works equally
well. The choke ring consists of
D-2
several rings with their diameters tuned to the GPS frequencies. When
the reflected signal enters the antenna via edge diffraction, it will be
"choked" in these rings, thus attenuating the multipath. For example, as
shown in Figure D-1, the results on June 14 and 16 were obtained with an
antenna mounted on a choke ring while on June 15 and 17 without a
choke ring. As can be seen, the choke ring attenuated the multipath error
by nearly 50%.
3. A new technique to reduce the multipath is to narrow the receiver's early-

late correlator spacing in the implementation of delay lock loops,
especially in C/A-code tracking applications. It was reported in the
Journal of the Institute of Navigation, "Theory and Performance of Narrow
Correlator Spacing in a GPS -Receiver", that 3 to 4 times improvement is
achievable. Further research is -still needed to explore the full benefits of
this technique.
(a) June 14, 1993 (c) June 16, 1993
(b) June 15, 1993 (d) June 17, 1993
Figure D-1. Multipath Induced North Position Error
D-3
ANNEX E: DOCUMENTATION
E.1 INTRODUCTION
This annex lists documents that may be useful for those wishing to study GPS UE in more
detail. The categories of documents are as follows:
a. Interface Control Documents (ICDs)

b. Other Documents
It should be noted that the below listed documents may not be releasable to all nations
and/or agencies. Requests for these documents should be placed via diplomatic channels.
E.2 ICDs
ICD-GPS-200PR NAVSTAR GPS Space Segment/Navigation User Interfaces Public

Release
E.3 OTHER DOCUMENTATION
E.3.1 JPO Documents
YEE-82-009D Users Overview, March 1991
E.3.2 ION Documents
"Papers Published in Journal of Navigation" Volume I, II, and III, IV
Available from: The Institute of Navigation

Suite 832
815 Fifteenth Street N.W.
Washington DC 20005
U.S.A.
E.3.3 RTCM Document
"Recommendations of Special Committee 104 Differential NAVSTAR GPS Service"
Available from: Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services

Suite 300
615 Fifteenth Street N.W.
Washington DC 20005
U.S.A.
E-1
E.3.4 RTCA Document
DO-208 "Minimum Operational Performance Standards for Airborne Supplemental

Navigation Equipment Using Global Positioning Service (GPS), July 1991
DO-217 "Minimum Aviation System Performance Standards DGNSS Instrument

Approach System: Special Category I (SCAT-I), August, 1993
Available from: RTCA

1140 Connecticut Ave, N.W., Suite 1020
Washington, D.C. 20036 U.S.A
(202) 833-9339
FAX (202) 833-9434
E.3.5 DoT Documents
Federal Radio Navigation Plan (FRP)
Available from: The National Technical Information Service

Springfield, VA 22161
Document DOT-VNTSC-RSPA-92-2/DOD-4650.5
FAA-EM-82-15 Evaluation of Various Navigation System Co ncepts, March

1982
E.3.6 Miscellaneous
"The Global Positioning System (GPS) SPS Performance Specification", November 5,

1993.
"National Marine Electronics Association NMEA 0183 Standard for Interfacing Marine
Electronic Devices", January 1, 1992
Available from: Robert Sassaman

NMEA Executive Director
P.O. Box 50040
Mobile, AL 36605
U.S.A.
(205) 473-1791
FAX (205) 473-1669
"Technical Characteristics of the Navstar GPS", June 1991.
E-2
ANNEX F: ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AAIM Aircraft Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

A/D Analog-to-Digital
A-J Anti-Jamming
A-S Anti-Spoofing
ACU Antenna Control Unit
ADOP Along-track Dilution of Precision
AE Antenna Electronics
AEEC Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
AEU Antenna Electronic Unit
AFB Air Force Base
AFMC Air Force Materiel Command
AFSCN Air Force Satellite Control Network
AFSPC Air Force Space Command
AGPS Augmented GPS
AHRS Attitude and Heading Reference System
AIM Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
AIMS Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System Identification of
Friend or Foe
AOC Auxiliary Output Chip
AOED Age-of-Ephemeris-Data
ATR Air Transport Racking
AUTONAV Autonomously Navigate
BBC Backup Bus Controller

BC Bus Controller
BCD Binary Code Decimal
BIH Bureau International de L'Heure
BIM Broadcast Integrity Message
BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
BIT Built-In-Test
BPS Bits per second
BPSK Bi Phase Shift Keyed
C/N Carrier to Noise Ratio

C/A Coarse Acquisition-code
CAA Civil Aviation Authorities
CADC Central Air Data Computer
CAS Cost Accounting Standard
CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station
CDNU Control Display Navigation Unit
CDU Control Display Unit
CEP Circular Error Probable (50%)
CHN Channel
CIS Conventional Inertial System
F-1
CLRP Continuing Low-Rate Production
COMSEC Communications Security
CRPA Controlled Radiation Pattern Antenna
CTP Conventional Terrestrial Pole
CTS Conventional Terrestrial System
dB Decibel
dBHz Decibels with respect to one Hertz
dBic Decibel with respect to isentropic circularly polarized radiation
dBW Decibels with respect to one Watt
DGPS Differential GPS
DLM Data Loader Module
DLR Data Loader Receptacle
DLS Data Loader System
DMA Defense Mapping Agency
DoD Department of Defense
DOP Dilution of Precision
DoT Department of Transportation
drms Distance Root-Mean-Square
DRNS Doppler Radar Navigation System
DSP Digital Signal Processor
DT&E Development Test and Evaluation
ECEF Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed
EDM Electronic Business Measurement
EDOP East Dilution of Precision
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument Systems
EGM Earth Gravitational Model
EGR Embedded GPS Receiver
EMI Electro-Magnetic Interference
EMCON Emission Control
EMP Electro-Magnetic Pulse
ESGN Electrically Suspended Gyro Navigator
EUROCAE European Organization for Civil Aviation Electronics
EUROCONTROL European Organization for the Safety of Air Navigation
FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FAFB Falcon Air Force Base
FDE Fault Detection and Exclusion
FOC Full Operational Capability
FOM Figure of Merit
FOUO For Official Use Only
FRP Federal Radionavigation Plan
FRPA Fixed Radiation Pattern Antenna
GA Ground Antennas
GDOP Geometric Dilution of Precision
F-2
GLONASS Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
GRAM GPS Receiver Applications Module
GUV Group Unit Variable
HAE Host Application Equipment

HD High-Dynamic
HDOP Horizontal Dilution of Precision
HMI Hazardously Misleading Information
HOW Handover Word
HQ Headquarters
HR Hour
HSI Horizontal Situation Indicator
HV Host Vehicle
Hz Hertz
IAW In Accordance With

IBM International Business Machines
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICAR International Agreement Competitive Restriction
ICD Interface Control Document
IF Intermediate Frequency
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
ILS Instrument Landing System
INS Inertial Navigation System
IOC Initial Operational Capability
ION Institute of Navigation
IP Instrumentation Port
IPT Integrated Product Team
IRS Inertial Reference System
ITS Intermediate Test Set
ITS Instantaneous Terrestrial System
IUGG International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
IWSM Integrated Weapon System Management
J/S Jamming-to-Signal
JPO Joint Program Office
KDOP Weighted Variation of Dilution of Prec ision

Kg Kilograms
KIR Keyed Information Receivers
km Kilometers
F-3
L1 Link 1
L2 Link 2
LAAFB Los Angeles Air Force Base
LADGPS Local Area Differential GPS
LD Low-Dynamic
LNA Low Noise Amplifier
LO Local Oscillator
LRIP Low Rate Initial Production
LRU Line Replaceable Unit
LV Launch Vehicle
m Meters
MAGR Miniaturized Airborne GPS Receiver
MAP Military Assistance Program
MCM Multi-Chip Module
MCS Master Control Station
MDL Mission Data Loader
MHz Megahertz
MIL-STD Military-Standard
MILDEP Military Department
min Minute
mm Millimeters
MMD Mean Mission Duration
MoD Ministry of Defense
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
ms Millisecond
MS Monitor Stations
MSL Mean-Sea-Level
MTBF Mean Time Between Failure
MUX Multiplex
NAD North American Datum

NAS National Air Space
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NAV-MSG Navigation-Message
NDI Non-Developmental Item
NDOP North Dilution of Precision
NMEA National Marine Electronics Association
NNSS Navy Navigation Satellite System
NPE Normalized Position Error
NRL Naval Research Laboratory
ns Nanosecond
NSA National Security Agency
NTE Not-to-Exceed
NTS-1 Navigation Technology Satellite-1
NTS-2 Navigation Technology Satellite-2
F-4
OASD Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense
OBS Omni Bearing Select
OCS Operational Control System
OFP Operational Flight Program
OR Operational Release
OT&E Operational Test and Evaluation
OTHT Over the Horizon Targeting
P-code Precision Code

PAFB Patterson Air Force Base
PC Personal Computer
PCS Prelaunch Compatibility Station
PDOP Position Dilution of Precision
PLGR Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver
PM Phase Modulate
PMD Program Management Directive
PMR Program Management Reviews
POS/NAV Positioning and Navigation
PPM Pulse Per Minute
PPS Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
PPS-SM PPS Security Module
PRN Pseudorandom Noise
PRN# Pseudo-random Noise Number
PSK Phase Shift Keying
PTTI Precise Time and Time Interval
PVA Position, Velocity, and Acceleration
PVT Position, Velocity, and Time
R-C Rockwell-Collins
R&D Research and Development
RAAN Right Ascension of the Ascending Node
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
REAC Reaction Time
RF Radio Frequency
RFP Request for Proposal
rms Root Mean Square
RNP Required Navigation Performance
ROD Report of Discrepancy
RT Remote Terminal
RTCA Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics
RTCM Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Service
SA Selective Availability
SAASM Selective Availability/Anti-Spoofing Module
SAHRS Standard Attitude Heading Reference System
SBB Smart Buffer Box
SC Special Committee
F-5
SCADC Standard Central Air Data Computer
SDC Signal Data Converter
SEM Systems Effectiveness Model
SEP Spherical Error Probable
SGR Survey GPS Receiver
SINCGARS Single-Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System
SINS Shipborne Inertial Navigation System
SIS Signal-In-Space
SLGR Small Lightweight GPS Receiver
SM Security Module
SMC Space and Missile Center
SME Significant Military Equipment
SOC 31 Space Operations Center 31
SOW Statement of Work
SPO System Program Office
SPS Standard Positioning Service
SRU Shop Replaceable Units
SSS Satellite Signal Simulator
STANAG Standardization Agreement
SV Space Vehicle
SVN Space Vehicle No.
TACAN Tactical Air Navigation

TAI International Atomic Time
TCO Technical Coordination Group
TDM Time Division Multiplexed
TDOP Time Dilution of Precision
TFOM Time Figure Of Merit
TGR Timing GPS Receiver
TI Texas Instruments
TIMATION Time Navigation
TTFF Time-To-First-Fix
TTSF Time to Subsequent Fix
U.S. United States

UE User Equipment
UEE UE Error
UERE User Equivalent Range Error
UK United Kingdom
UNE User Navigation Error
URA User Range Accuracy
URE User Range Error
USA United States of America
USAF United States Air Force
USN United States Navy
USSPACECOM United States Space Command
UT Universal Time
F-6
UTC Universal Time Coordinated
VAFB Vandenburg Air Force Base

VDOP Vertical Dilution of Precision
VME Versa Module Europa
VRF Visual Flight Rules
VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
WAAS Wide-Area Augmentation System

WADGPS Wide Area Differential Global Positioning System
WGS World Geodetic System
WGS 84 Would Geodetic System 1984
XDOP Cross-track Dilution of Precision
Y-Code Encrypted P-Code

YPG Yuma Proving Grounds
1 SOPS First Space Operations Squadron

2 SOPS Second Space Operations Squadron
2-D Two-dimensional
3-D Three-dimensional
45 SPW Forty Fifth Space Wing
50 SPW Fiftieth Space Wing
F-7

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PUBLIC RELEASE VERSION

PUBLIC RELEASE VERSION

CHAPTER 1: SYSTEM OVERVIEW..............................................................................................1-1

CHAPTER 2: TYPES OF GPS RECEIVERS AND THEIR INTENDED

CHAPTER 3: MINIMUM PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES OF A

CHAPTER 4: GPS RECEIVER INTERFACE AND ANCILLARY

4.2.3 Uses of the MIL-STD-1553 and ARINC 429 Interfaces ..................................4-2

CHAPTER 5: ANTENNA SUBSYSTEMS......................................................................................5-1

CHAPTER 6: SERVICE COVERAGE, SERVICE AVAILABILITY, AND SERVICE

6.1.4.3 Failure Frequency Estimate...............................................................6-9

CHAPTER 7: AIDING OPTIONS FOR A GPS RECEIVER ..........................................................7-1

CHAPTER 8: POSSIBLE INTEGRATIONS OF GPS.....................................................................8-1

8.3.5 Embedded GPS.................................................................................................8-6

CHAPTER 9: GPS AND KALMAN FILTERING...........................................................................9-1

CHAPTER 10: DIFFERENTIAL GPS............................................................................................10-1

CHAPTER 11: SPECIAL APPLICATIONS FOR NAVSTAR GPS .............................................11-1

11.2 DGPS Applications........................................................................................................11-1

CHAPTER 12: GPS INTEGRITY AND CIVIL AVIATION ........................................................12-1

12.3 Civil Aviation Authorities, Agencies, and Organizations ...............................................12-2

CHAPTER 13: DIGITAL MAPS....................................................................................................13-1

ANNEX A: GLONASS: RUSSIAN'S EQUIVALENT NAVIGATION SYSTEM........................A-1

A.13 Navigation Data............................................................................................................A-12

ANNEX B: WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984: A MODERN AND GLOBAL

ANNEX C: BBS INFORMATION ..................................................................................................C-1

ANNEX D: IMPACT OF MULTIPATH.........................................................................................D-1

ANNEX E: DOCUMENTATION.................................................................................................... E-1

ANNEX F: ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS...................................................................... F-1

1-1 Navstar GPS Major Segments...................................................................................................1-1

1-1 NTS and Block I Satellite Launch Dates and Status................................................................1-19

1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Figure 1-1. Navstar GPS Major Segments

1.2 SYSTEM OVERVIEW

1.2.1 Space Segment

1.2.2 Control Segment

Figure 1-3. GPS Control Segment Locations

1.2.3 User Segment

1.3 GPS SERVICES

1.3.1 Precise Positioning Service

1.3.2 Standard Positioning Service

1.4 GPS THEORY OF OPERATION

1.4.1 GPS Satellite Signals

1.4.1.3 Navigation Message

SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER CLOCK CORRECTION 6 SEC

300 330 360 600

SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER

600 630 660 900

SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER

900 930 960 1200

SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER

1200 1230 1260 1500

SUBFRAME TELEMETRY HANDOVER ALMANAC/HEALTH STATUS

*12.5 MINUTES BEFORE THE ENTIRE MESSAGE REPEATS

Figure 1-5. The Navigation Message

1.4.1.4 Satellite Signal Modulation

1.4.2 GPS Receiver Operation

In order for the GPS receiver to calculate a PVT solution, it must:

Search for a PRN C/A code lock

Take range and range rate measur

Details of the operations are expanded below.

1.4.2.1 Satellite Selection