Relay Testing and Commissioning

21
Relay Testing and Commissioning

Introduction Electrical type tests Electromagnetic compatibility tests Product safety type tests Environmental type tests Software type tests Dynamic validation type testing Production testing Commissioning tests Secondary injection test equipment Secondary injection testing 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 21.10 21.11
Primary injection testing 21.12 Testing of protection scheme logic 21.13 Tripping and alarm annunciation tests 21.14 Periodic maintenance tests 21.15 Protection scheme design for maintenance 21.16 References 21.17
21 Relay Testing and Commissioning
21.1 INTRODUCTION The testing of protection equipment schemes presents a number of problems. This is because the main function of protection equipment is solely concerned with operation under system fault conditions, and cannot readily be tested under normal system operating conditions. This situation is aggravated by the increasing complexity of protection schemes and use of relays containing software. The testing of protection equipment may be divided into four stages: i. type tests ii. routine factory production tests iii. commissioning tests iv. periodic maintenance tests
21.1.1 Type Tests Type tests are required to prove that a relay meets the published specification and complies with all relevant standards. Since the principal function of a protection relay is to operate correctly under abnormal power conditions, it is essential that the performance be assessed under such conditions. Comprehensive type tests simulating the operational conditions are therefore conducted at the manufacturer's works during the development and certification of the equipment. The standards that cover most aspects of relay performance are IEC 60255 and ANSI C37.90. However compliance may also involve consideration of the requirements of IEC 61000, 60068 and 60529, while products intended for use in the EEC also have to comply with the requirements of Directives 89/336/EEC and 73/23/EEC. Since type testing of a digital or numerical relay involves testing of software as well as hardware, the type testing process is very complicated and more involved than a static or electromechanical relay.
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21.1.2 Routine Factory Production Tests These are conducted to prove that relays are free from defects during manufacture. Testing will take place at several stages during manufacture, to ensure problems are discovered at the earliest possible time and hence minimise remedial work. The extent of testing will be determined by the complexity of the relay and past manufacturing experience.
would take 4 years to write the functional type-test specifications, 30 years to perform the tests and several years to write the test reports that result. Automated techniques/ equipment are clearly required, and are covered in Section 21.7.2.
Element I>1 I>2 Directionality RCA Characteristic Definite Time Delay Range 0.08 - 4.00In 0.08 - 32In Forward/Reverse/Non-directional -95 to +95 DT/IDMT 0 - 100s IEC Standard Inverse IEC IDMT Time Delay IEC Very Inverse IEC Extremely Inverse UK Long Time Inverse Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) 0.025 - 1.2 IEEE Moderately Inverse IEEE Very Inverse IEEE Extremely Inverse US-CO8 Inverse US-CO2 Short Time Inverse 0.5 - 15 0 - 100s IDMT/DT 0 - 100s IEEE Moderately Inverse IEEE Very Inverse IEEE Extremely Inverse US-CO8 Inverse US-CO2 Short Time Inverse 0.1 0.01s 0.01s 0.025 0.01s 1 Step Size 0.01In 0.01In
21.1.3 Commissioning Tests These tests are designed to prove that a particular protection scheme has been installed correctly prior to setting to work. All aspects of the scheme are thoroughly checked, from installation of the correct equipment through wiring checks and operation checks of the individual items of equipment, finishing with testing of the complete scheme.
IEEE IDMT Time Delay
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21.1.4 Periodic Maintenance Checks These are required to identify equipment failures and degradation in service, so that corrective action can be taken. Because a protection scheme only operates under fault conditions, defects may not be revealed for a significant period of time, until a fault occurs. Regular testing assists in detecting faults that would otherwise remain undetected until a fault occurs.
Time Dial (TD) IEC Reset Time (DT only) IEEE Reset Time IEEE DT Reset Time
IEEE IDMT Reset Time
Table 21.1: Overcurrent relay element specification
21.2 ELECTRICAL TYPE TESTS Various electrical type tests must be performed, as follows:
Test 1 Three phase non-directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete current setting range for both stages Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the forward direction, current angle sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the reverse direction, current angle sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the forward direction, voltage angle sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the reverse direction, voltage angle sweep Three phase polarising voltage threshold test Accuracy of DT timer over complete setting range Accuracy of IDMT curves over claimed accuracy range Accuracy of IDMT TMS/TD Effect of changing fault current on IDMT operating times Minimum Pick-Up of Starts and Trips for IDMT curves Accuracy of reset timers Effect of any blocking signals, opto inputs, VTS, Autoreclose Voltage polarisation memory
21.2.1 Functional Tests
Test 2
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The functional tests consist of applying the appropriate inputs to the relay under test and measuring the performance to determine if it meets the specification. They are usually carried out under controlled environmental conditions. The testing may be extensive, even where only a simple relay function is being tested., as can be realised by considering the simple overcurrent relay element of Table 21.1. To determine compliance with the specification, the tests listed in Table 21.2 are required to be carried out. This is a time consuming task, involving many engineers and technicians. Hence it is expensive. When a modern numerical relay with many functions is considered, each of which has to be type-tested, the functional type-testing involved is a major issue. In the case of a recent relay development project, it was calculated that if one person had to do all the work, it
Test 3
Test 4
Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9 Test 10 Test 11 Test 12 Test 13 Test 14
Table 21.2: Overcurrent relay element functional type tests
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21.2.2 Rating Tests Rating type tests are conducted to ensure that components are used within their specified ratings and that there are no fire or electric shock hazards under a normal load or fault condition of the power system. This is in addition to checking that the product complies with its technical specification. The following are amongst the rating type tests conducted on protection relays, the specified parameters are normally to IEC 60255-6.
seconds. This is carried out between all circuits and case earth, between all independent circuits and across normally open contacts. The acceptance criterion for a product in new condition is a minimum of 100M. After a damp heat test the pass criterion is a minimum of 10M.
21.2.7 Auxiliary Supplies Digital and numerical protection relays normally require an auxiliary supply to provide power to the on-board microprocessor circuitry and the interfacing optoisolated input circuits and output relays. The auxiliary supply can be either a.c. or d.c., supplied from a number of sources or safe supplies - i.e. batteries, UPS, generators, etc., all of which may be subject to voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations. Relays are designed to ensure that operation is maintained and no damage occurs during a disturbance of the auxiliary supply. Tests are carried out for both a.c. and d.c. auxiliary supplies and include mains variation both above and below the nominal rating, supply interruptions derived by open circuit and short circuit, supply dips as a percentage of the nominal supply, repetitive starts. The duration of the interruptions and supply dips range from 2ms to 60s intervals. A short supply interruption or dip up to 20ms, possibly longer, should not cause any malfunction of the relay. Malfunctions include the operation of output relays and watchdog contacts, the reset of microprocessors, alarm or trip indication, acceptance of corrupted data over the communication link and the corruption of stored data or settings. For a longer supply interruption, or dip in excess of 20ms, the relay self recovers without the loss of any function, data, settings or corruption of data. No operator intervention is required to restore operation after an interruption or dip in the supply. Many relays have a specification that exceeds this requirement, tolerating dips of up to 50ms without operation being affected. In addition to the above, the relay is subjected to a number of repetitive starts or a sequence of supply interruptions. Again the relay is tested to ensure that no damage or data corruption has occurred during the repetitive tests. Specific tests carried out on d.c. auxiliary supplies include reverse polarity, a.c. waveform superimposed on the d.c. supply and the effect of a rising and decaying auxiliary voltage. All tests are carried out at various levels of loading of the relay auxiliary supply.
21.2.3 Thermal Withstand The thermal withstand of VTs, CTs and output contact circuits is determined to ensure compliance with the specified continuous and short-term overload conditions. In addition to functional verification, the pass criterion is that there is no detrimental effect on the relay assembly, or circuit components, when the product is subjected to overload conditions that may be expected in service. Thermal withstand is assessed over a time period of 1s for CTs and 10s for VTs.
21.2.4 Relay Burden The burdens of the auxiliary supply, optically isolated inputs, VTs and CTs are measured to check that the product complies with its specification. The burden of products with a high number of input/output circuits is application specific i.e. it increases according to the number of optically isolated input and output contact ports which are energised under normal power system load conditions. It is usually envisaged that not more than 50% of such ports will be energised in any application.
21.2.5 Relay Inputs Relay inputs are tested over the specified ranges. Inputs include those for auxiliary voltage, VT, CT, frequency, optically isolated digital inputs and communication circuits.
21.2.6 Relay Output Contacts Protection relay output contacts are type tested to ensure that they comply with the product specification. Particular withstand and endurance type tests have to be carried out using d.c., since the normal supply is via a station battery.
21.2.7 Insulation Resistance The insulation resistance test is carried out according to IEC 60255-5, i.e. 500V d.c. 10%, for a minimum of 5
21.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY TESTS There are numerous tests that are carried out to determine the ability of relays to withstand the electrical
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environment in which they are installed. The substation environment is a very severe environment in terms of the electrical and electromagnetic interference that can arise. There are many sources of interference within a substation, some originating internally, others being conducted along the overhead lines or cables into the substation from external disturbances. The most common sources are: a. switching operations b. system faults c. lightning strikes d. conductor flashover e. telecommunication operations e.g. mobile phones A whole suite of tests are performed to simulate these types of interference, and they fall under the broad umbrella of what is known as EMC, or Electromagnetic Compatibility tests.
that the relay can withstand an interruption in the auxiliary supply without de-energising, e.g. switching off, and that when this time is exceeded and it does transiently switch off, that no maloperation occurs. It simulates the effect of a loose fuse in the battery circuit, or a short circuit in the common d.c. supply, interrupted by a fuse. Another source of d.c. interruption is if there is a power system fault and the battery is supplying both the relay and the circuit breaker trip coils. When the battery energises the coils to initiate the circuit breaker trip, the voltage may fall below the required level for operation of the relay and hence a d.c. interrupt occurs. The test is specified in IEC 60255-11 and comprises a interruptions of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200ms. For interruptions lasting up to and including 20ms, the relay must not de-energise of maloperate, while for longer interruptions it must not maloperate. The relay is powered from a battery supply, and both short circuit and open circuit interruptions are carried out. Each interruption is applied 10 times, and for auxiliary power supplies with a large operating range, the tests are performed at minimum, maximum, and other voltages across this range, to ensure compliance over the complete range.
Broadly speaking, EMC can be defined as: The ability of equipment to co-exist in the same electromagnetic environment It is not a new subject and has been tested for by the military ever since the advent of electronic equipment. EMC can cause real and serious problems, and does need to be taken into account when designing electronic equipment. EMC tests determine the impact on the relay under test of high-frequency electrical disturbances of various kinds. Relays manufactured or intended for use in the EEC have to comply with EEC Directive 89/336/EEC in this respect. To achieve this, in addition to designing for statutory compliance to this Directive, the following range of tests are carried out: a. d.c. interrupt test b. a.c. ripple on d.c. supply test
21.3.2 A.C. Ripple on D.C. Supply This test (IEC 60255-11) determines that the relay is able to operate correctly with a superimposed a.c. voltage on the d.c. supply. This is caused by the station battery being charged by the battery charger, and the relevant waveform is shown in Figure 21.1. It consists of a 12% peak-to-peak ripple superimposed on the d.c. supply voltage.
60.00 50.00 40.00
Voltage (V)
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c. d.c. ramp test d. high frequency disturbance test e. fast transient test f. surge immunity test g. power frequency interference test h. electrostatic discharge test i. conducted and radiated emissions tests j. conducted and radiated immunity tests k. power frequency magnetic field tests
30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00

1 88 175 262 349 436 523 610 697 784 871 958 1045 1132 1219 1306 1393
Time (ms) Figure 21.1: A.C. ripple superimposed on d.c. supply test
21.3.1 D.C Interrupt Test This is a test to determine the maximum length of time
For auxiliary power supplies with a large operating range, the tests are performed at minimum, maximum, and other voltages across this range, to ensure compliance for the complete range. The interference is applied using a full wave rectifier network, connected in parallel with the battery supply. The relay must continue to operate without malfunction during the test.
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21.3.3 D.C. Ramp Down/Ramp Up This test simulates a failed station battery charger, which would result in the auxiliary voltage to the relay slowly ramping down. The ramp up part simulates the battery being recharged after discharging. The relay must power up cleanly when the voltage is applied and not maloperate. There is no international standard for this test, so individual manufacturers can decide if they wish to conduct such a test and what the test specification shall be.
V
Burst period, 300 ms Burst duration (1/15 ms)
t V 5 ns rise time, 50 ns pulse width
Repetition period Figure 21.3: Fast Transient Test waveform
21.3.4 High Frequency Disturbance Test The High Frequency Disturbance Test simulates high voltage transients that result from power system faults and plant switching operations. It consists of a 1MHz decaying sinusoidal waveform, as shown in Figure 21.2. The interference is applied across each independent circuit (differential mode) and between each independent circuit and earth (common mode) via an external coupling and switching network. The product is energised in both normal (quiescent) and tripped modes for this test, and must not maloperate when the interference is applied for a 2 second duration. The product is energised in both normal (quiescent) and tripped modes for this test. It must not maloperate when the interference is applied in common mode via the integral coupling network to each circuit in turn, for 60 seconds. Interference is coupled onto communications circuits, if required, using an external capacitive coupling clamp.
21.3.6 Surge Immunity Test The Surge Immunity Test simulates interference caused by major power system disturbances such as capacitor bank switching and lightning strikes on overhead lines within 5km of the substation. The test waveform has an open circuit voltage of 4kV for common mode surges and 2kV for differential mode surges. The test waveshape consists on open circuit of a 1.2/50ms rise/fall time and a short circuit current of 8/20ms rise/fall time. The generator is capable of providing a short circuit test current of up to 2kA, making this test potentially destructive. The surges are applied sequentially under software control via dedicated coupling networks in both differential and common modes with the product energised in its normal (quiescent) state. The product shall not maloperate during the test, shall still operate within specification after the test sequence and shall not incur any permanent damage.
0 Time
Figure 21.2: High Frequency Disturbance Test waveform
21.3.5 Fast Transient Test The Fast Transient Test simulates the HV interference caused by disconnector operations in GIS substations or breakdown of the SF6 insulation between conductors and the earthed enclosure. This interference can either be inductively coupled onto relay circuits or can be directly introduced via the CT or VT inputs. It consists of a series of 15ms duration bursts at 300ms intervals, each burst consisting of a train of 50ns wide pulses with very fast (5ns typical) rise times (Figure 21.3), with a peak voltage magnitude of 4kV.
21.3.7 Power Frequency Interference This test simulates the type of interference that is caused when there is a power system fault and very high levels of fault current flow in the primary conductors or the earth grid. This causes 50 or 60Hz interference to be induced onto control and communications circuits. There is no international standard for this test, but one used by some Utilities is: a. 500V r.m.s., common mode b. 250V r.m.s., differential mode
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Voltage
applied to circuits for which power system inputs are not connected. Tests are carried out on each circuit, with the relay in the following modes of operation: 1. current and voltage applied at 90% of setting, (relay not tripped) 2. current and voltage applied at 110% of setting, (relay tripped) 3. main protection and communications functions are tested to determine the effect of the interference The relay shall not maloperate during the test, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance.
1. current and voltage applied at 90% of setting, (relay not tripped) 2. current and voltage applied at 110% of setting, (relay tripped) 3. main protection and communications functions are tested to determine the effect of the discharge To pass, the relay shall not maloperate, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance.
21.3.9 Conducted and Radiated Emissions Tests These tests arise primarily from the essential protection requirements of the European Community (EU) directive on EMC. These require manufacturers to ensure that any equipment to be sold in the countries comprising the European Union must not interfere with other equipment. To achieve this it is necessary to measure the emissions from the equipment and ensure that they are below the specified limits. Conducted emissions are measured only from the equipments power supply ports and are to ensure that when connected to a mains network, the equipment does not inject interference back into the network which could adversely affect the other equipment connected to the network. Radiated emissions measurements are to ensure that the interference radiated from the equipment is not at a level that could cause interference to other equipment. This test is normally carried out on an Open Area Test Site (OATS) where there are no reflecting structures or sources of radiation, and therefore the measurements obtained are a true indication of the emission spectrum of the relay. An example of a plot obtained during conducted emissions tests is shown in Figure 21.5. The test arrangements for the conducted and radiated emissions tests are shown in Figure 21.6. When performing these two tests, the relay is in a quiescent condition, that is not tripped, with currents and voltages applied at 90% of the setting values. This is because for the majority of its life, the relay will be in the quiescent state and the emission of electromagnetic interference when the relay is tripped is considered to be of no significance. Tests are conducted in accordance with IEC 60255-25 and EN 50081-2, and are detailed in Table 21.3.
Frequency Range 30 - 230MHz Radiated 230 - 1000MHz Specified Limits 30dB(V/m) at 30m 37dB(V/m) at 30m 79dB(V) quasi-peak 66dB(V) average 73dB(V) quasi-peak 60dB(V) average Test Limits 40dB(V/m) at 10m 47dB(V/m) at 10m 79dB(V) quasi-peak 66dB(V) average 73dB(V) quasi-peak 60dB(V) average
21.3.8 Electrostatic Discharge Test This test simulates the type of high voltage interference that occurs when an operator touches the relays front panel after being charged to a high potential. This is exactly the same phenomenon as getting an electric shock when stepping out of a car or after walking on a synthetic fibre carpet. In this case the discharge is only ever applied to the front panel of the relay, with the cover both on and off. Two types of discharges are applied, air discharge and contact discharge. Air discharges are used on surfaces that are normally insulators, and contact discharges are used on surfaces that are normally conducting. IEC 60255-22-2 is the relevant standard this test, for which the test parameters are: a. cover on: Class 4, 8kV contact discharge, 15kV air discharge b. cover off: Class 3, 6kV contact discharge, 8kV air discharge In both cases above, all the lower test levels are also tested. The discharge current waveform is shown in Figure 21.4.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10
Current, % of Peak
Rise Time = 0.7 to 1.0 ns. Current specified for 30 ns and 60 ns
20
30
40 50 Time, ns
60
70
80
90
Figure 21.4: ESD Current Waveform
The test is performed with single discharges repeated on each test point 10 times with positive polarity and 10 times with negative polarity at each test level. The time interval between successive discharges is greater than 1 second. Tests are carried out at each level, with the relay in the following modes of operation:
0.15 - 0.5MHz Conducted 0.5 - 30MHz
Table 21.3: Test criteria for Conducted and Radiated Emissions tests
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100 90 80 70 Quasi-peak limits Average limits Typical trace
Emissions Level, dBuV
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.1 1 Frequency, MHz 10 100
Figure 21.5: Conducted Emissions Test Plot
Screened room
Ante-chamber
E.U.T. Impedance network
Access panel
Support/analysis equipment
(a) Conducted EMC emissions test arrangement
10m
Antenna E.U.T.
Turntable
Earth Plane
(b) Radiated Emissions test arrangement on an OATS E.U.T. - Equipment under test Figure 21.6: EMC test arrangements
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21.3.10 Conducted and Radiated Immunity Tests These tests are designed to ensure that the equipment is immune to levels of interference that it may be subjected to. The two tests, conducted and radiated, arise from the fact that for a conductor to be an efficient antenna, it must have a length of at least 1/4 of the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave it is required to conduct. If a relay were to be subjected to radiated interference at 150kHz, then a conductor length of at least = 300 x106/(150 x 103 x 4) = 500 m would be needed to conduct the interference. Even with all the cabling attached and with the longest PCB track length taken into account, it would be highly unlikely that the relay would be able to conduct radiation of this frequency, and the test therefore, would have no effect. The interference has to be physically introduced by conduction, hence the conducted immunity test. However, at the radiated immunity lower frequency limit of 80MHz, a conductor length of approximately 1.0m is required. At this frequency, radiated immunity tests can be performed with the confidence that the relay will conduct this interference, through a combination of the attached cabling and the PCB tracks. Although the test standards state that all 6 faces of the equipment should be subjected to the interference, in practice this is not carried out. Applying interference to the sides and top and bottom of the relay would have little effect as the circuitry inside is effectively screened by the earthed metal case. However, the front and rear of the relay are not completely enclosed by metal and are therefore not at all well screened, and can be regarded as an EMC hole. Electromagnetic interference when directed at the front and back of the relay can enter freely onto the PCBs inside. When performing these two tests, the relay is in a quiescent condition, that is not tripped, with currents and voltages applied at 90% of the setting values. This is because for the majority of its life, the relay will be in the quiescent state and the coincidence of an electromagnetic disturbance and a fault is considered to be unlikely. However, spot checks are performed at selected frequencies when the main protection and control functions of the relay are exercised, to ensure that it will operate as expected, should it be required to do so. The frequencies for the spot checks are in general selected to coincide with the radio frequency broadcast bands, and in particular, the frequencies of mobile communications equipment used by personnel working in the substation. This is to ensure that when working in the vicinity of a relay, the personnel should be able to
operate their radios/mobile phones without fear of relay maloperation. IEC 60255-22-3 specifies the radiated immunity tests to be conducted (ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2 is used for equipment built to US standards), with signal levels of: 1. IEC: Class III, 10V/m, 80MHz -1000MHz 2. ANSI/IEEE: 35V/m 25MHz - 1000MHz with no modulation, and again with 100% pulse modulation IEC 60255-22-6 is used for the conducted immunity test, with a test level of: Class III, 10V r.m.s., 150kHz - 80MHz.
21.3.11 Power Frequency Magnetic Field Tests These tests are designed to ensure that the equipment is immune to magnetic interference. The three tests, steady state, pulsed and damped oscillatory magnetic field, arise from the fact that for different site conditions the level and waveshape is altered. 23.3.11.1 Steady state magnetic field tests These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be experienced by a device located within close proximity of the power system. Testing is carried out by subjecting the relay to a magnetic field generated by two induction coils. The relay is rotated such that in each axis it is subjected to the full magnetic field strength. IEC 610004-6 is the relevant standard, using a signal level of: Level 5: 300A/m continuous and 1000A/m short duration The test arrangement is shown in Figure 21.7.
Induction coil
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Induction coil
E.U.T.
Ground plane
E.U.T. - Equipment under test Figure 21.7: Power frequency magnetic field set-up
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To pass the steady-state test, the relay shall not maloperate, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance. During the application of the short duration test, the main protection function shall be exercised and verified that the operating characteristics of the relay are unaffected. 21.3.11.2 Pulsed magnetic field These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be experienced by a device located within close proximity of the power system during a transient fault condition. According to IEC 61000-4-9, the generator for the induction coils shall produce a 6.4/16s waveshape with test level 5, 100A/m with the equipment configured as for the steady state magnetic field test. The relay shall not maloperate, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance during the test. 21.3.11.3 Damped oscillatory magnetic field These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be experienced by a device located within close proximity of the power system during a transient fault condition. IEC 61000-4-10 specifies that the generator for the coil shall produce an oscillatory waveshape with a frequency of 0.1MHz and 1MHz, to give a signal level in accordance with Level 5 of 100A/m, and the equipment shall be configured as in Figure 21.7.
open contacts intended for connection to tripping circuits, in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C37.90 3. 1.0kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute across the normally open contacts of watchdog or changeover output relays, in accordance with IEC 60255-5 The routine dielectric voltage withstand test time may be shorter than for the 1 minute type test time, to allow a reasonable production throughput, e.g. for a minimum of 1 second at 110% of the voltage specified for 1 minute.
21.4.2 Insulation Withstand for Overvoltages The purpose of the High Voltage Impulse Withstand type test is to ensure that circuits and their components will withstand overvoltages on the power system caused by lightning. Three positive and three negative high voltage impulses, 5kV peak, are applied between all circuits and the case earth and also between the terminals of independent circuits (but not across normally open contacts). As before, different requirements apply in the case of circuits using D-type connectors. The test generator characteristics are as specified in IEC 60255-5 and are shown in Figure 21.8. No disruptive discharge (i.e. flashover or puncture) is allowed. If it is necessary to repeat either the Dielectric Voltage or High Voltage Impulse Withstand tests these should be carried out at 75% of the specified level, in accordance with IEC 60255-5, to avoid overstressing insulation and components.
21.4 PRODUCT SAFETY TYPE TESTS A number of tests are carried out to demonstrate that the product is safe when used for its intended application. The essential requirements are that the relay is safe and will not cause an electric shock or fire hazard under normal conditions and in the presence of a single fault. A number of specific tests to prove this may be carried out, as follows.
Voltage
21.4.1 Dielectric Voltage Withstand Dielectric Voltage Withstand testing is carried out as a routine test i.e. on every unit prior to despatch. The purpose of this test is to ensure that the product build is as intended by design. This is done by verifying the clearance in air, thus ensuring that the product is safe to operate under normal use conditions. The following tests are conducted unless otherwise specified in the product documentation: 1. 2.0kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute between all terminals and case earth and also between independent circuits, in accordance with IEC 60255-5. Some communication circuits are excluded from this test, or have modified test requirements e.g. those using D-type connectors 2. 1.5kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute across normally
5kV peak Rise time (10 % to 90 %) = 1.2 s Duration (50 %) = 50 s
Time
Figure 21.8: Test generator characteristics for insulation withstand test
21.4.3 Single Fault Condition Assessment An assessment is made of whether a single fault condition such as an overload, or an open or short circuit, applied to the product may cause an electric shock or fire
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hazard. In the case of doubt, type testing is carried out to ensure that the product is safe.
21.5.2 Humidity Test The humidity test is performed to ensure that the product will withstand and operate correctly when subjected to 93% relative humidity at a constant temperature of 40C for 56 days. Tests are performed to ensure that the product functions correctly within specification after 21 and 56 days. After the test, visual inspections are made for any signs of unacceptable corrosion and mould growth.
21.4.4 Earth Bonding Impedance Class 1 products that rely on a protective earth connection for safety are subjected to an earth bonding impedance (EBI) type test. This ensures that the earth path between the protective earth connection and any accessible earthed part is sufficiently low to avoid damage in the event of a single fault occurring. The test is conducted using a test voltage of 12V maximum and a test current of twice the recommended maximum protective fuse rating. After 1 minute with the current flowing in the circuit under test, the EBI shall not exceed 0.1.
21.5.3 Cyclic Temperature/Humidity Test This is a short-term test that stresses the relay by subjecting it to temperature cycling in conjunction with high humidity. The test does not replace the 56 day humidity test, but is used for testing extension to ranges or minor modifications to prove that the design is unaffected. The applicable standard is IEC 60068-2-30 and test conditions of: +25C 3C and 95% relative humidity/+55C 2C and 95% relative humidity are used, over the 24 hour cycle shown in Figure 21.9.
Relative humidity %
21.4.5 CE Marking
A CE mark on the product, or its packaging, shows that compliance is claimed against relevant European Community directives e.g. Low Voltage Directive 73/23/EEC and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Directive 89/336/EEC.
21.5 ENVIRONMENTAL TYPE TESTS Various tests have to be conducted to prove that a relay can withstand the effects of the environment in which it is expected to work. They consist of: the following tests: 1. temperature 2. humidity 3. enclosure protection 4. mechanical
100 90 80 70
96% 95% 90% 15min End of temperature rise 80% temperature Time 95%
+55C
Ambient Temperature C
21
These tests are described in the following sections.
0.5h 3h 12h0.5h 3h 6h 24h
+28C +22C Time
+25C
21.5.1 Temperature Test Temperature tests are performed to ensure that a product can withstand extremes in temperatures, both hot and cold, during transit, storage and operating conditions. Storage and transit conditions are defined as a temperature range of 25C to +70C and operating as 25C to +55C. Dry heat withstand tests are performed at 70C for 96 hours with the relay de-energised. Cold withstand tests are performed at 40C for 96 hours with the relay deenergised. Operating range tests are carried out with the product energised, checking all main functions operate within tolerance over the specified working temperature range 25C to +55C.
Figure 21.9: Cyclic temperature/humidity test profile
For these tests the relay is placed in a humidity cabinet, and energised with normal in-service quantities for the complete duration of the tests. In practical terms this usually means energising the relay with currents and voltages such that it is 10% from the threshold for operation. Throughout the duration of the test the relay is monitored to ensure that no unwanted operations occur. Once the relay is removed from the humidity cabinet, its insulation resistance is measured to ensure that it has not deteriorated to below the claimed level. The relay is then functionally tested again, and finally dismantled to
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check for signs of component corrosion and growth. The acceptance criterion is that no unwanted operations shall occur including transient operation of indicating devices. After the test the relays insulation resistance should not have significantly reduced, and it should perform all of its main protection and communications functions within the claimed tolerance. The relay should also suffer no significant corrosion or growth, and photographs are usually taken of each PCB and the case as a record of this.
21.5.4 Enclosure Protection Test Enclosure protection tests prove that the casing system and connectors on the product protect against the ingress of dust, moisture, water droplets (striking the case at predefined angles) and other pollutants. An acceptable level of dust or water may penetrate the case during testing, but must not impair normal product operation, safety or cause tracking across insulated parts of connectors.
Figure 21.10: Relay undergoing seismic test
1.2A A 0.8A Pulse shape (half sine)
21.5.5 Mechanical Tests Mechanical tests simulate a number of different mechanical conditions that the product may have to endure during its lifetime. These fall into two categories a. response to disturbances while energised b. response to disturbances during transportation (de-energised state) Tests in the first category are concerned with the response to vibration, shock and seismic disturbance. The tests are designed to simulate normal in-service conditions for the product, for example earthquakes. These tests are performed in all three axes, with the product energised in its normal (quiescent) state. During the test, all output contacts are continually monitored for change using contact follower circuits. Vibration levels of 1gn, over a 10Hz-150Hz frequency sweep are used. Seismic tests use excitation in a single axis, using a test frequency of 35Hz and peak displacements of 7.5mm and 3.5mm in the x and y axes respectively below the crossover frequency and peak accelerations of 2.0gn and 1.0gn in these axes above the crossover frequency. The second category consists of vibration endurance, shock withstand and bump tests. They are designed to simulate the longer-term affects of shock and vibration that could occur during transportation. These tests are performed with the product de-energised. After these tests, the product must still operate within its specification and show no signs of permanent mechanical damage. Equipment undergoing a seismic type test is shown in Figure 21.10, while the waveform for the shock/bump test is shown in Figure 21.11
0.4D 2.5D
D 2.5D
2.4D = T1 6D = T2 D - duration of nominal pulse A - peak acceleration of nominal pulse T1- minimum time for monitoring of pulse when conventional shock/bump machine is used T2 - as T1 when a vibration generator is used Figure 21.11: Shock/Bump Impulse waveform
The test levels for shock and bump tests are: Shock response (energised): 3 pulses, each 10g, 11ms duration Shock withstand (de-energised): 3 pulses, 15g, 11ms duration Bump (de-energised): 1000 pulses, 10g, 16ms duration
21.6 SOFTWARE TYPE TESTS Digital and numerical relays contain software to implement the protection and measurement functions of a relay. This software must be thoroughly tested, to ensure that the relay complies with all specifications and that disturbances of various kinds do not result in unexpected results. Software is tested in various stages: a. unit testing b. integration testing c. functional qualification testing
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+0.2A 0 -0.2A
The purpose of unit testing is to determine if an individual function or procedure implemented using software, or small group of closely related functions, is free of data, logic, or standards errors. It is much easier to detect these types of errors in individual units or small groups of units than it is in an integrated software architecture and/or system. Unit testing is typically performed against the software detailed design and by the developer of the unit(s). Integration testing typically focuses on these interfaces and also issues such as performance, timings and synchronisation that are not applicable in unit testing. Integration testing also focuses on stressing the software and related interfaces. Integration testing is black box in nature, i.e. it does not take into account the structure of individual units. It is typically performed against the software architectural and detailed design. The specified software requirements would typically also be used as a source for some of the test cases.
21.6.3 Unit Testing Environment Both Dynamic and Static Unit Testing are performed in the host environment rather than the target environment. Dynamic Unit Testing uses a test harness to execute the unit(s) concerned. The test harness is designed such that it simulates the interfaces of the unit(s) being tested - both software-software interfaces and software-hardware interfaces - using what are known as stubs. The test harness provides the test data to those units being tested and outputs the test results in a form understandable to a developer. There are many commercially available testing tools to automate test harness production and the execution of tests.
21.6.4 Software/Software Integration Testing Software/Software Integration Testing is performed in the host environment. It uses a test harness to simulate inputs and outputs, hardware calls and system calls (e.g. the target environment operating system).
21.6.5 Software/Hardware Integration Testing 21.6.1 Static Unit Testing Static Unit Testing (or static analysis as it is often called) analyses the unit(s) source code for complexity, precision tracking, initialisation checking, value tracking, strong type checking, macro analysis etc. While Static Unit Testing can be performed manually, it is a laborious and error prone process and is best performed using a proprietary automated static unit analysis tool. It is important to ensure that any such tool is configured correctly and used consistently during development. Software/Hardware Integration Testing is performed in the target environment, i.e. it uses the actual target hardware, operating system, drivers etc. It is usually performed after Software/Software Integration Testing. Testing the interfaces to the hardware is an important feature of Software/Hardware Integration Testing. Test cases for Integration Testing are typically based on those defined for Validation Testing. However the emphasis should be on finding errors and problems. Performing a dry run of the validation testing often completes Integration Testing.
21.6.2 Dynamic Testing
21.6.6 Validation Testing The purpose of Validation Testing (also known as Software Acceptance Testing) is to verify that the software meets its specified functional requirements. Validation Testing is performed against the software requirements specification, using the target environment. In ideal circumstances, someone independent of the software development performs the tests. Validation Testing is black box in nature, i.e. it does not take into account the internal structure of the software. For relays, the non-protection functions included in the software are considered to be as important as the protection functions, and hence tested in the same manner. Each validation test should have predefined evaluation criteria, to be used to decide if the test has passed or failed. The evaluation criteria should be explicit with no room for interpretation or ambiguity.
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Dynamic Testing is concerned with the runtime behaviour of the unit(s) being tested and so therefore, the unit(s) must be executed. Dynamic unit testing can be sub-divided into black box testing and white box testing. Black box testing verifies the implementation of the requirement(s) allocated to the unit(s). It takes no account of the internal structure of the unit(s) being tested. It is only concerned with providing known inputs and determining if the outputs from the unit(s) are correct for those inputs. White box testing is concerned with testing the internal structure of the unit(s) and measuring the test coverage, i.e. how much of the code within the unit(s) has been executed during the tests. The objective of the unit testing may, for example, be to achieve 100% statement coverage, in which every line of the code is executed at least once, or to execute every possible path through the unit(s) at least once.
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21.6.7 Traceability of Validation Tests Traceability of validation tests to software requirements is vital. Each software requirement documented in the software requirements specification should have at least one validation test, and it is important to be able to prove this.
Power system simulators can be divided into two types: a. those which use analogue models of a power system b. those which model the power system mathematically using digital simulation techniques
21.6.8 Software Modifications - Regression Testing Regression Testing is not a type test in its own right. It is the overall name given to the testing performed when an existing software product is changed. The purpose of Regression Testing is to show that unintended changes to the functionality (i.e. errors and defects) have not been introduced. Each change to an existing software product must be considered in its own right. It is impossible to specify a standard set of regression tests that can be applied as a catch-all for introduced errors and defects. Each change to the software must be analysed to determine what risk there might be of unintentional changes to the functionality being introduced. Those areas of highest risk will need to be regression tested. The ultimate regression test is to perform the complete Validation Testing programme again, updated to take account of the changes made. Regression Testing is extremely important. If it is not performed, there is a high risk of errors being found in the field. Performing it will not reduce to zero the chance of an error or defect remaining in the software, but it will reduce it. Determining the Regression Testing that is required is made much easier if there is traceability from properly documented software requirements through design (again properly documented and up to date), coding and testing.
21.7.1 Use of Power System Analogue Models For many years, relays have been tested on analogue models of power systems such as artificial transmission lines, or test plant capable of supplying significant amounts of current [21.1]. However, these approaches have significant limitations in the current and voltage waveforms that can be generated, and are not suitable for automated, unattended, testing programmes. While still used on a limited basis for testing electromechanical and static relays, a radically different approach is required for dynamic testing of numerical relays.
21.7.2 Use of Microprocessor Based Simulation Equipment The complexity of numerical relays, reliant on software for implementation of the functions included, dictates some kind of automated test equipment. The functions of even a simple numerical overcurrent relay (including all auxiliary functions) can take several months of automated, 24 hours/day testing to test completely. If such test equipment was able to apply realistic current and voltage waveforms that closely match those found on power systems during fault conditions, the equipment can be used either for type testing of individual relay designs or of a complete protection scheme designed for a specific application. In recognition of this, a new generation of power system simulators has been developed, which is capable of providing a far more accurate simulation of power system conditions than has been possible in the past. The simulator enables relays to be tested under a wide range of system conditions, representing the equivalent of many years of site experience. 21.7.2.1 Simulation hardware Equipment is now available to provide high-speed, highly accurate modelling of a section of a power system. The equipment is based on distributed microprocessor-based hardware containing software models of the various elements of a power system, and is shown in Figure 21.12. The modules have outputs linked to current and voltage sources that have a similar transient capability and have suitable output levels for direct connection to the inputs of relays i.e. 110V for voltage and 1A/5A for current. Inputs are also provided to monitor the response of relays under test (contact closures for tripping, etc.) and these inputs can be used as part of the model of the power
21.7 DYNAMIC VALIDATION TYPE TESTING There are two possible methods of dynamically proving the satisfactory performance of protection relays or schemes; the first method is by actually applying faults on the power system and the second is to carry out comprehensive testing on a power system simulator. The former method is extremely unlikely to be used lead times are lengthy and the risk of damage occurring makes the tests very expensive. It is therefore only used on a very limited basis and the faults applied are restricted in number and type. Because of this, a proving period for new protection equipment under service conditions has usually been required. As faults may occur on the power system at infrequent intervals, it can take a number of years before any possible shortcomings are discovered, during which time further installations may have occurred.
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Figure 21.12: Digital power system simulator for relay/protection scheme testing
system. The software is also capable of modelling the dynamic response of CTs and VTs accurately. Where it is desired to check the response of a relay or protection scheme to an actual power system transient, the transient can be simulated using sophisticated power systems analysis software and the results transferred digitally to the simulator, or the event recorder recording of the transient can be used, in either digital or analogue form as inputs to the simulator model. Output signal conversion involves circuits to eliminate the quantisation steps normally found in conventional D/A conversion. Analogue models of the system transducer characteristics can be interposed between the signal processors and the output amplifiers when required. This equipment shows many advantages over traditional test equipment: a. the power system model is capable of reproducing high frequency transients such as travelling waves b. tests involving very long time constants can be carried out c. it is not affected by the harmonic content, noise and frequency variations in the a.c. supply d. it is capable of representing the variation in the current associated with generator faults and power swings e. saturation effects in CTs and VTs can be modelled f. a set of test routines can be specified in software and then left to run unattended (or with only occasional monitoring) to completion, with a detailed record of
test results being available on completion A block schematic of the equipment is shown in Figure 21.13, is based around a computer which calculates and stores the digital data representing the system voltages and currents. The computer controls conversion of the digital data into analogue signals, and it monitors and controls the relays being tested. 21.7.2.2 Simulation software Unlike most traditional software used for power systems analysis, the software used is suitable for the modelling the fast transients that occur in the first few milliseconds after fault inception. Two very accurate simulation programs are used, one based on time domain and the other on frequency domain techniques. In both programs, single and double circuit transmission lines are represented by fully distributed parameter models. The line parameters are calculated from the physical construction of the line (symmetrical, asymmetrical, transposed or non-transposed), taking into account the effect of conductor geometry, conductor internal impedance and the earth return path. It also includes, where appropriate, the frequency dependence of the line parameters in the frequency domain program. The frequency dependent variable effects are calculated using Fast Fourier Transforms and the results are converted to the time domain. Conventional current transformers and capacitor voltage transformers can be simulated. The fault can be applied at any one point in the system and can be any combination of phase to phase or phase
21
384
IA
IB
D/A conversion
Linear interpolation circuits
CT model
Current amplifier
IC VDU I/O Subsystem VA Computer Equipment under test D/A conversion

Linear interpolation circuits
Keyboard VDU
VB
CVT model
Voltage amplifier
VC Contact status monitor Storage Key : CT - Current transformer CVT - Capacitor voltage transformer VDU - Visual display unit Signalling Channel Simulation To second RTDS
Keyboard
Figure 21.13: Block diagram of microprocessor-based automated relay test system
to earth, resistive, or non-linear phase to earth arcing faults. For series compensated lines, flashover across a series capacitor following a short circuit fault can be simulated. The frequency domain model is not suitable for developing faults and switching sequences, therefore the widely used Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP), working in the time domain, is employed in such cases. In addition to these two programs, a simulation program based on lumped resistance and inductance parameters is used. This simulation is used to represent systems with long time constants and slow system changes due, for example, to power swings. 21.7.2.3 Simulator applications The simulator is used for checking the accuracy of calibration and performing type tests on a wide range of protection relays during their development. It has the following advantages over existing test methods: a. 'state of the art' power system modelling data can be used to test relays b. freedom from frequency variations and noise or harmonic content of the a.c. supply c. the relay under test does not burden the power system simulation d. all tests are accurately repeatable e. wide bandwidth signals can be produced f. a wide range of frequencies can be reproduced g. selected harmonics may be superimposed on the
power frequency h. the use of direct coupled current amplifiers allows time constants of any length i. capable of simulating slow system changes j. reproduces fault currents whose peak amplitude varies with time k. transducer models can be included l. automatic testing removes the likelihood of measurement and setting errors m. two such equipments can be linked together to simulate a system model with two relaying points The simulator is also used for the production testing of relays, in which most of the advantages listed above apply. As the tests and measurements are made automatically, the quality of testing is also greatly enhanced. Further, in cases of suspected malfunction of a relay in the field under known fault conditions, the simulator can be used to replicate the power system and fault conditions, and conduct a detailed investigation into the performance of the relay. Finally, complex protection schemes can be modelled, using both the relays intended for use and software models of them as appropriate, to check the suitability of the proposed scheme under a wide variety of conditions. To illustrate this, Figure 21.14(a) shows a section of a particular power system modelled. The waveforms of Figure 21.14(b) show the three phase voltages and currents at the primaries of VT1 and CT1 for the fault condition indicated in Figure 21.14(a).
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Communications link to second RTDS
(When required)
N 3G L Infinite bus 4G CB3 CT3 F3 Line 2 8G F4 CT4 CB4
9G LR3 LR4
CB1 load 1 load 2 load 3 VT1
CT1
F1 Line 1
F2
CT2
CB2
11G
VT2
LR1 Relay 1
LR2 Relay 2
(a) Example power system

Va Vb Vc Ia Ib
Figure 21.14: Example of application study

Ic 0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56
(b) Voltages and currents at VT1/CT1
21.8 PRODUCTION TESTING Production testing of protection relays is becoming far more demanding as the accuracy and complexity of the products increase. Electronic power amplifiers are used to supply accurate voltages and currents of high stability to the relay under test. The inclusion of a computer in the test system allows more complex testing to be performed at an economical cost, with the advantage of speed and repeatability of tests from one relay to another. Figure 21.15 shows a modern computer-controlled test bench. The hardware is mounted in a special rack. Each unit of the test system is connected to the computer via an interface bus. Individual test programs for each type of relay are required, but the interface used is standard for all relay types. Control of input waveforms and analogue measurements, the monitoring of output signals and the analysis of test data are performed by the computer. A printout of the test results can also be produced if required.
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Figure 21.15: Modern computer-controlled test bench
Because software is extensively tested at the typetesting stage, there is normally no need to check the correct functioning of the software. Checks are limited to determining that the analogue and digital I/O is functioning correctly. This is achieved for inputs by
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applying known voltage and current inputs to the relay under test and checking that the software has captured the correct values. Similarly, digital outputs are exercised by using test software to actuate each output and checking that the correct output is energised. Provided that appropriate procedures are in place to ensure that only type-tested software is downloaded, there is no need to check the correct functioning of the software in the relay. The final step is to download the software appropriate to the relay and store it in the EPROM fitted in the relay.
b. general inspection of the equipment, checking all connections, wires on relays terminals, labels on terminal boards, etc. c. insulation resistance measurement of all circuits d. perform relay self-test procedure and external communications checks on digital/numerical relays e. test main current transformers f. test main voltage transformers g. check that protection relay alarm/trip settings have been entered correctly h. tripping and alarm circuit checks to prove correct functioning In addition, the following checks may be carried out, depending on the factors noted earlier. i. secondary injection test on each relay to prove operation at one or more setting values
21.9 COMMISSIONING TESTS Installation of a protection scheme at site creates a number of possibilities for errors in the implementation of the scheme to occur. Even if the scheme has been thoroughly tested in the factory, wiring to the CTs and VTs on site may be incorrectly carried out, or the CTs/VTs may have been incorrectly installed. The impact of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance (tripping occurs repeatedly on energisation, requiring investigation to locate and correct the error(s)) through to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major equipment damage, disruption to supplies and potential hazards to personnel. The strategies available to remove these risks are many, but all involve some kind of testing at site. Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably performed before protection equipment is set to work. The aims of commissioning tests are: 1. to ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during transit or installation 2. to ensure that the installation work has been carried out correctly 3. to prove the correct functioning of the protection scheme as a whole The tests carried out will normally vary according to the protection scheme involved, the relay technology used, and the policy of the client. In many cases, the tests actually conducted are determined at the time of commissioning by mutual agreement between the clients representative and the commissioning team. Hence, it is not possible to provide a definitive list of tests that are required during commissioning. This section therefore describes the tests commonly carried out during commissioning. The following tests are invariably carried out, since the protection scheme will not function correctly if faults exist. a. wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams showing all the reference numbers of the interconnecting wiring
k. testing of protection scheme logic This section details the tests required to cover items (a)(g) above. Secondary injection test equipment is covered in Section 21.10 and Section 21.11 details the secondary injection that may be carried out. Section 21.12 covers primary injection testing, and Section 21.13 details the checks required on any logic involved in the protection scheme. Finally, Section 21.14 details the tests required on alarm/tripping circuits tripping/alarm circuits.
21.9.1 Insulation Tests All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be tested should first be removed, for example earthing links on current transformers, voltage transformers and d.c. supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses with peak voltages exceeding 5kV. In these instances any electronic equipment should be disconnected while the external wiring insulation is checked. The insulation resistance should be measured to earth and between electrically separate circuits. The readings are recorded and compared with subsequent routine tests to check for any deterioration of the insulation. The insulation resistance measured depends on the amount of wiring involved, its grade, and the site humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one cubicle, a reading of several hundred megohms should be obtained. If long lengths of site wiring are involved, the reading could be only a few megohms.
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j. primary injection tests on each relay to prove stability for external faults and to determine the effective current setting for internal faults (essential for some types of electromechanical relays)
21.9.2 Relay Self-Test Procedure Digital and numerical relays will have a self-test procedure that is detailed in the appropriate relay manual. These tests should be followed to determine if the relay is operating correctly. This will normally involve checking of the relay watchdog circuit, exercising all digital inputs and outputs and checking that the relay analogue inputs are within calibration by applying a test current or voltage. For these tests, the relay outputs are normally disconnected from the remainder of the protection scheme, as it is a test carried out to prove correct relay, rather than scheme, operation. Unit protection schemes involve relays that need to communicate with each other. This leads to additional testing requirements. The communications path between the relays is tested using suitable equipment to ensure that the path is complete and that the received signal strength is within specification. Numerical relays may be fitted with loopback test facilities that enable either part of or the entire communications link to be tested from one end. After completion of these tests, it is usual to enter the relay settings required. This can be done manually via the relay front panel controls, or using a portable PC and suitable software. Whichever method is used, a check by a second person that the correct settings have been used is desirable, and the settings recorded. Programmable scheme logic that is required is also entered at this stage.
robust moving coil, permanent magnet, centre-zero type. A low voltage battery is used, via a single-pole pushbutton switch, to energise the primary winding. On closing the push-button, the d.c. ammeter, A, should give a positive flick and on opening, a negative flick. 21.9.3.2 Magnetisation Curve Several points should be checked on each current transformer magnetisation curve. This can be done by energising the secondary winding from the local mains supply through a variable auto-transformer while the primary circuit remains open; see Figure 21.17. The characteristic is measured at suitable intervals of applied voltage, until the magnetising current is seen to rise very rapidly for a small increase in voltage. This indicates the approximate knee-point or saturation flux level of the current transformer. The magnetising current should then be recorded at similar voltage intervals as it is reduced to zero. Care must be taken that the test equipment is suitably rated. The short-time current rating must be in excess of the CT secondary current rating, to allow for the measurement of the saturation current. This will be in excess of the CT secondary current rating. As the magnetising current will not be sinusoidal, a moving iron or dynamometer type ammeter should be used. It is often found that current transformers with secondary ratings of 1A or less have a knee-point voltage higher than the local mains supply. In these cases, a step-up interposing transformer must be used to obtain the necessary voltage to check the magnetisation curve.
Test plug isolating current transformers from relay coils
21.9.3 Current Transformer Tests The following tests are normally carried out prior to energisation of the main circuits. 21.9.3.1 Polarity check
P2 _ P1 S2 S1 +
Variable transformer 250V 8A
A P1 S 1 To relay coils V 250V a.c. supply
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P2 S2 Main circuit breaker open _ A +
Step-up transformer if required
Figure 21.17: Testing current transformer magnetising curve
21.9.4 Voltage Transformer Tests

Figure 21.16: Current transformer polarity check
Voltage transformers require testing for polarity and phasing. 21.9.4.1 Polarity check The voltage transformer polarity can be checked using the method for CT polarity tests. Care must be taken to connect the battery supply to the primary winding, with
Each current transformer should be individually tested to verify that the primary and secondary polarity markings are correct; see Figure 21.16. The ammeter connected to the secondary of the current transformer should be a
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the polarity ammeter connected to the secondary winding. If the voltage transformer is of the capacitor type, then the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the capacitor stack should be checked. 21.9.4.2 Ratio check This check can be carried out when the main circuit is first made live. The voltage transformer secondary voltage is compared with the secondary voltage shown on the nameplate. 21.9.4.3 Phasing check The secondary connections for a three-phase voltage transformer or a bank of three single-phase voltage transformers must be carefully checked for phasing. With the main circuit alive, the phase rotation is checked using a phase rotation meter connected across the three phases, as shown in Figure 21.18. Provided an existing proven VT is available on the same primary system, and that secondary earthing is employed, all that is now necessary to prove correct phasing is a voltage check between, say, both A phase secondary outputs. There should be nominally little or no voltage if the phasing is correct. However, this test does not detect if the phase sequence is correct, but the phases are displaced by 120 from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the position of phase C or phase B in Figure 21.18. This can be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C (say) and measuring the phase-earth voltages on the secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only phase A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a small residual voltage.
A B C A
Correct phasing should be further substantiated when carrying out on load tests on any phase-angle sensitive relays, at the relay terminals. Load current in a known phase CT secondary should be compared with the associated phase to neutral VT secondary voltage. The phase angle between them should be measured, and should relate to the power factor of the system load. If the three-phase voltage transformer has a brokendelta tertiary winding, then a check should be made of the voltage across the two connections from the broken delta VN and VL, as shown in Figure 21.18. With the rated balanced three-phase supply voltage applied to the voltage transformer primary windings, the broken-delta voltage should be below 5V with the rated burden connected.
21.9.5 Protection Relay Setting Checks At some point during commissioning, the alarm and trip settings of the relay elements involved will require to be entered and/or checked. Where the complete scheme is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the settings may already have been entered prior to despatch from the factory, and hence this need not be repeated. The method of entering settings varies according to the relay technology used. For electromechanical and static relays, manual entry of the settings for each relay element is required. This method can also be used for digital/numerical relays. However, the amount of data to be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to use appropriate software, normally supplied by the manufacturer, for this purpose. The software also makes the essential task of making a record of the data entered much easier. Once the data has been entered, it should be checked for compliance with the recommended settings as calculated from the protection setting study. Where appropriate software is used for data entry, the checks can be considered complete if the data is checked prior to download of the settings to the relay. Otherwise, a check may required subsequent to data entry by inspection and recording of the relay settings, or it may be considered adequate to do this at the time of data entry. The recorded settings form an essential part of the commissioning documentation provided to the client.
V1 C V2 B
VN V VL V2
21.10 SECONDARY INJECTION TEST EQUIPMENT

V1
A B C
Phase rotation meter
Secondary injection tests are always done prior to primary injection tests. The purpose of secondary injection testing is to prove the correct operation of the protection scheme that is downstream from the inputs to the protection relay(s). Secondary injection tests are always done prior to primary injection tests. This is
Figure 21.18: Voltage transformer phasing check

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because the risks during initial testing to the LV side of the equipment under test are minimised. The primary (HV) side of the equipment is disconnected, so that no damage can occur. These tests and the equipment necessary to perform them are generally described in the manufacturer's manuals for the relays, but brief details are given below for the main types of protection relays.
21.10.1 Test Blocks/Plugs for Secondary Injection Equipment It is common practice to provide test blocks or test sockets in the relay circuits so that connections can readily be made to the test equipment without disturbing wiring. Test plugs of either multi-finger or single-finger design (for monitoring the current in one CT secondary circuit) are used to connect test equipment to the relay under test. The top and bottom contact of each test plug finger is separated by an insulating strip, so that the relay circuits can be completely isolated from the switchgear wiring when the test plug is inserted. To avoid open-circuiting CT secondary terminals, it is therefore essential that CT shorting jumper links are fitted across all appropriate live side terminals of the test plug BEFORE it is inserted. With the test plug inserted in position, all the test circuitry can now be connected to the isolated relay side test plug terminals. Some modern test blocks incorporate the live-side jumper links within the block and these can be set to the closed or open position as appropriate, either manually prior to removing the cover and inserting the test plug, or automatically upon removal of the cover. Removal of the cover also exposes the colour-coded face-plate of the block, clearly indicating that the protection scheme is not in service, and may also disconnect any d.c. auxiliary supplies used for powering relay tripping outputs. Withdrawing the test plug immediately restores the connections to the main current transformers and voltage transformers and removes the test connections. Replacement of the test block cover then removes the short circuits that had been applied to the main CT secondary circuits. Where several relays are used in a protection scheme, one or more test blocks may be fitted on the relay panel enabling the whole scheme to be tested, rather than just one relay at a time. Test blocks usually offer facilities for the monitoring and secondary injection testing of any power system protection scheme. The test block may be used either with a multi-fingered test plug to allow isolation and monitoring of all the selected conductor paths, or with a single finger test plug that allows the currents on individual conductors to be monitored. A modern test block and test plugs are illustrated in Figure 21.19.
Figure 21.19: Modern test block/plugs
21.10.2 Secondary Injection Test Sets The type of the relay to be tested determines the type of equipment used to provide the secondary injection currents and voltages. Many electromechanical relays have a non-linear current coil impedance when the relay operates and this can cause the test current waveform to be distorted if the injection supply voltage is fed directly to the coil. The presence of harmonics in the current waveform may affect the torque of electromechanical relays and give unreliable test results, so some injection test sets use an adjustable series reactance to control the current. This keeps the power dissipation small and the equipment light and compact. Many test sets are portable and include precision ammeters and voltmeters and timing equipment. Test sets may have both voltage and current outputs. The former are high-voltage, low current outputs for use with relay elements that require signal inputs from a VT as well as a CT. The current outputs are high-current, low voltage to connect to relay CT inputs. It is important, however, to ensure that the test set current outputs are true current sources, and hence are not affected by the load impedance of a relay element current coil. Use of a test set with a current output that is essentially a voltage source can give rise to serious problems when testing electromechanical relays. Any significant impedance mismatch between the output of the test set and the relay current coil during relay operation will give rise to a variation in current from that desired and possible error in the test results. The relay operation time may be greater than expected (never less than expected) or relay chatter may occur. It is quite common for such errors to only be found much later, after a fault has caused major damage to equipment through failure of the primary protection to operate. Failure investigation then shows that the reason for the primary protection to operate is an incorrectly set relay, due in turn to use of a test set with a current output consisting of a voltage-source when the relay was last tested. Figure 21.20 shows typical waveforms resulting from use of test set current output that is a voltage
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V relay/source
Time
Saturation level of magnetic circuit (current) limited only by D.C. resistance of relay coil
Relay with saturation of CDG magnetic circuit (phase shift from CDG inductive load shown).
a) Relay current coil waveform distorted due to use of voltage source
Sinusoidal CURRENT when changing impedance of relay is swamped out by high source impedance
Time
Typical VOLTAGE waveform appearing across relay current coils with sinusoidal I above the relay setting (10 x shown).
b) Undistorted relay current coil current distorted due to use of current source
Figure 21.20: Relay current coil waveforms
source the distorted relay coil current waveform gives rise to an extended operation time compared to the expected value. Modern test sets are computer based. They comprise a PC (usually a standard laptop PC with suitable software) and a power amplifier that takes the low-level outputs from the PC and amplifies them into voltage and current signals suitable for application to the VT and CT inputs of the relay. The phase angle between voltage and current outputs will be adjustable, as also will the phase angles between the individual voltages or currents making up a
3-phase output set. Much greater precision in the setting of the magnitudes and phase angles is possible, compared to traditional test sets. Digital signals to exercise the internal logic elements of the relays may also be provided. The alarm and trip outputs of the relay are connected to digital inputs on the PC so that correct operation of the relay, including accuracy of the relay tripping characteristic can be monitored and displayed on-screen, saved for inclusion in reports generated later, or printed for an immediate record to present to the client. Optional features may include GPS time synchronising equipment and remote-located amplifiers
391
to facilitate testing of unit protection schemes, and digital I/O for exercising the programmable scheme logic of modern relays. The software for modern test sets is capable of testing the functionality of a wide variety of relays, and conducting a set of tests automatically. Such sets ease the task of the commissioning engineer. The software will normally offer options for testing, ranging from a test carried out at a particular point on the characteristic to complete determination of the tripping characteristic automatically. This feature can be helpful if there is any reason to doubt that the relay is operating correctly with the tripping characteristic specified. Figure 21.21 illustrates a modern PC-based test set. Traditional test sets use an arrangement of adjustable transformers and reactors to provide control of current and voltage without incurring high power dissipation. Some relays require adjustment of the phase between the injected voltages and currents, and so phase shifting transformers may be used. Figure 21.22 shows the circuit diagram of a traditional test set suitable for overcurrent relay resting, while Figure 21.23 shows the circuit diagram for a test set for directional/distance relays. Timers are included so that the response time of the relay can be measured.
Figure 21.21: Modern PC-based secondary injection test set
21.11 SECONDARY INJECTION TESTING The purpose of secondary injection testing is to check that the protection scheme from the relay input terminals onwards is functioning correctly with the settings specified. This is achieved by applying suitable inputs from a test set to the inputs of the relays and checking if the appropriate alarm/trip signals occur at the relay/control room/CB locations. The extent of
testing will be largely determined by the client specification and relay technology used, and may range from a simple check of the relay characteristic at a single point to a complete verification of the tripping characteristics of the scheme, including the response to transient waveforms and harmonics and checking of relay bias characteristics. This may be important when the protection scheme includes transformers and/or generators.
21
Coarse control reactor K2 Fine control variable transformer Start timer Backing transformer 10% control Relay current, I = Ammeter reading (A) K1 x K2 Medium control reactor Injection transformer Stop timer Relay short-circuiting switch A Range adjusting CT
K1 I>
I Relay coil
250V a.c. supply
Figure 21.22: Circuit diagram of traditional test set for overcurrent relays
392
A B C N
Variable transformer control
Supply switch 440V 3 phase p 4 wire supply
Fault A-N X( ) 22.5 20.0 17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 0.0 -2.5 -5.0 -7.5 -10.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 R( )
Choke Relay
adjusting CT
A PA A V PA A
440/110V p phase shifting g transformer
> voltage element Variable transformer for current control V Voltmeter A Ammeter PA Phase angle meter
To other voltage elements of relay y under test (if required)
Figure 21.23: Circuit diagram for traditional test set for directional/distance relays
Figure 21.24: Distance relay zone checking using search technique and tolerance bands
Zn
21.11.1 Schemes using Digital or Numerical Relay Technology The policy for secondary injection testing varies widely. In some cases, manufacturers recommend, and clients accept, that if a digital or numerical relay passes its selftest, it can be relied upon to operate at the settings used and that testing can therefore be confined to those parts of the scheme external to the relay. In such cases, secondary injection testing is not required at all. More often, it is required that one element of each relay (usually the simplest) is exercised, using a secondary injection test set, to check that relay operation occurs at the conditions expected, based on the setting of the relay element concerned. Another alternative is for the complete functionality of each relay to be exercised. This is rarely required with a digital or numerical relay, probably only being carried out in the event of a suspected relay malfunction. To illustrate the results that can be obtained, Figure 21.24 shows the results obtained by a modern test set when determining the reach settings of a distance relay using a search technique. Another example is the testing of the Power Swing blocking element of a distance relay. Figure 21.25 illustrates such a test, based on using discrete impedance points. This kind of test may not be adequate in all cases, and test equipment may have the ability to generate the waveforms simulating a power swing and apply them to the relay (Figure 21.26).
PSB-Zone
Figure 21.25: Testing of power swing blocking element discrete points
Figure 21.26: Simulated power swing waveform
21.11.2 Schemes using Electromechanical/Static Relay Technology Schemes using single function electromechanical or static relays will usually require each relay to be exercised. Thus a scheme with distance and back-up overcurrent elements will require a test on each of these functions, thereby taking up more time than if a digital or numerical relay is used. Similarly, it may be important
393
The testing should include any scheme logic. If the logic is implemented using the programmable scheme logic facilities available with most digital or numerical relays, appropriate digital inputs may need to be applied and outputs monitored (see Section 21.13). It is clear that a modern test set can facilitate such tests, leading to a reduced time required for testing.
to check the relay characteristic over a range of input currents to confirm parameters for an overcurrent relay such as: i. the minimum current that gives operation at each current setting ii. the maximum current at which resetting takes place iii. the operating time at suitable values of current iv. the time/current curve at two or three points with the time multiplier setting TMS at 1 v. the resetting time at zero current with the TMS at 1 Similar considerations apply to distance and unit protection relays of these technologies.
of VTs/CTs may not then be discovered until either spurious tripping occurs in service, or more seriously, failure to trip on a fault. This hazard is much reduced where digital/numerical relays are used, since the current and voltage measurement/display facilities that exist in such relays enable checking of relay input values against those from other proven sources. Many connection/wiring errors can be found in this way, and by isolating temporarily the relay trip outputs, unwanted trips can be avoided. Primary injection testing is, however, the only way to prove correct installation and operation of the whole of a protection scheme. As noted in the previous section, primary injection tests are always carried out after secondary injection tests, to ensure that problems are limited to the VTs and CTs involved, plus associated wiring, all other equipment in the protection scheme having been proven satisfactory from the secondary injection tests.
21.11.3 Test Circuits for Secondary Injection Testing
The test circuits used will depend on the type of relay and test set being used. Unless the test circuits are simple and obvious, the relay commissioning manual will give details of the circuits to be used. Commonly used test circuits can also be found in Chapter 23 of reference [21.1]. When using the circuits in this reference, suitable simplifications can easily be made if digital or numerical relays are being tested, to allow for their built-in measurement capabilities external ammeters and voltmeters may not be required. All results should be carefully noted and filed for record purposes. Departures from the expected results must be thoroughly investigated and the cause determined. After rectification of errors, all tests whose results may have been affected (even those that may have given correct results) should be repeated to ensure that the protection scheme has been implemented according to specification.
21.12.1 Test Facilities An alternator is the most useful source of power for providing the heavy current necessary for primary injection. Unfortunately, it is rarely available, since it requires not only a spare alternator, but also spare busbars capable of being connected to the alternator and circuit under test. Therefore, primary injection is usually carried out by means of a portable injection transformer (Figure 21.27), arranged to operate from the local mains supply and having several low voltage, heavy current windings. These can be connected in series or parallel according to the current required and the resistance of the primary circuit. Outputs of 10V and 1000A can be obtained. Alternatively, modern PC-controlled test sets have power amplifiers capable of injecting currents up to about 200A for a single unit, with higher current ratings being possible by using multiple units in parallel.
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21.12 PRIMARY INJECTION TESTS This type of test involves the entire circuit; current transformer primary and secondary windings, relay coils, trip and alarm circuits, and all intervening wiring are checked. There is no need to disturb wiring, which obviates the hazard of open-circuiting current transformers, and there is generally no need for any switching in the current transformer or relay circuits. The drawback of such tests is that they are time consuming and expensive to organise. Increasingly, reliance is placed on all wiring and installation diagrams being correct and the installation being carried out as per drawings, and secondary injection testing being completed satisfactorily. Under these circumstances, the primary injection tests may be omitted. However, wiring errors between VTs/CTs and relays, or incorrect polarity
394
A 250V a.c. supply
Variable transformer 40A
Injection transformer 250/10 + 10 + 10 + 10V 10kVA
Figure 21.27: Traditional primary injection test set
If the main current transformers are fitted with test windings, these can be used for primary injection instead of the primary winding. The current required for primary injection is then greatly reduced and can usually be obtained using secondary injection test equipment. Unfortunately, test windings are not often provided, because of space limitations in the main current transformer housings or the cost of the windings.
21.12.2 CT Ratio Check Current is passed through the primary conductors and measured on the test set ammeter, A1 in Figure 21.28. The secondary current is measured on the ammeter A2 or relay display, and the ratio of the value on A1 to that on A2 should closely approximate to the ratio marked on the current transformer nameplate.
A B C
the residual circuit, or relay display, will give a reading of a few milliamperes with rated current injected if the current transformers are of correct polarity. A reading proportional to twice the primary current will be obtained if they are of wrong polarity. Because of this, a high-range ammeter should be used initially, for example one giving full-scale deflection for twice the rated secondary current. If an electromechanical earth-fault relay with a low setting is also connected in the residual circuit, it is advisable to temporarily short-circuit its operating coil during the test, to prevent possible overheating. The single-phase injection should be carried out for each pair of phases.
Temporary three-phase short circuit Primary injection test set A B C Relay
250V a.c. supply
Temporary short circuit
A Figure 21.29: Polarity check on main current transformers
P1 S1
Relay
21.12.4 Primary Injection Testing of Relay Elements As with secondary injection testing, the tests to be carried out will be those specified by the client, and/or those detailed in the relay commissioning manual. Digital and numerical relays usually require far fewer tests to prove correct operation, and these may be restricted to observations of current and voltage on the relay display under normal load conditions.
P2
S2 Relay or test block contact fingers
A1
Primary injection test set 250V a.c. supply Figure 21.28: Current transformer ratio check
21.13 TESTING OF PROTECTION SCHEME LOGIC Protection schemes often involve the use of logic to determine the conditions under which designated circuit breakers should be tripped. Simple examples of such logic can be found in Chapters 9-14. Traditionally, this logic was implemented by means of discrete relays, separate from the relays used for protection. Such implementations would occur where electromechanical or static relay technology is used. However, digital and numerical relays normally include programmable logic as part of the software within the relay, together with associated digital I/O. This facility (commonly referred to as Programmable Scheme Logic, or PSL) offers important advantages to the user, by saving space and permitting modifications to the protection scheme logic through software if the protection scheme requirements change with time. Changes to the logic are carried out using
21.12.3 CT Polarity Check If the equipment includes directional, differential or earth fault relays, the polarity of the main current transformers must be checked. It is not necessary to conduct the test if only overcurrent relays are used. The circuit for checking the polarity with a single-phase test set is shown in Figure 21.29. A short circuit is placed across the phases of the primary circuit on one side of the current transformers while single-phase injection is carried out on the other side. The ammeter connected in
395
Test plug insulation u
software hosted on a PC (or similar computer) and downloaded to the relay. Use of languages defined in IEC 61131, such as ladder logic or Boolean algebra is common for such software, and is readily understood by Protection Engineers. Further, there are several commonly encountered protection functions that manufacturers may supply with relays as one or more default logic schemes. Because software is used, it is essential to carefully test the logic during commissioning to ensure correct operation. The only exception to this may be if the relevant default scheme is used. Such logic schemes will have been proven during relay type testing, and so there is no need for proving tests during commissioning. However, where a customer generates the scheme logic, it is necessary to ensure that the commissioning tests conducted are adequate to prove the functionality of the scheme in all respects. A specific test procedure should be prepared, and this procedure should include:
Many designs of withdrawable circuit breaker can be operated while in the maintenance position, so that substation operation can continue unaffected except for the circuit controlled by the circuit breaker involved. In other cases, isolators can be used to avoid the need for busbar de-energisation if the circuit involved is not ready for energisation.
21.15 PERIODIC MAINTENANCE TESTS Periodic testing is necessary to ensure that a protection scheme continues to provide satisfactory performance for many years after installation. All equipment is subject to gradual degradation with time, and regular testing is intended to identify the equipment concerned so that remedial action can be taken before scheme maloperation occurs. However, due care should be taken in this task, otherwise faults may be introduced as a direct result of the remedial work. The clearance of a fault on the system is correct only if the number of circuit breakers opened is the minimum necessary to remove the fault. A small proportion of faults are incorrectly cleared, the main reasons being: a. limitations in protection scheme design b. faulty relays c. defects in the secondary wiring d. incorrect connections e. incorrect settings f. known application shortcomings accepted as improbable occurrences g. pilot wire faults due to previous unrevealed damage to a pilot cable h. various other causes, such as switching errors, testing errors, and relay operation due to mechanical shock The self-checking facilities of numerical relays assist in minimising failures due to faulty relays. Defects in secondary wiring and incorrect connections are virtually eliminated if proper commissioning after scheme installation/alteration is carried out. The possibility of incorrect settings is minimised by regular reviews of relay settings. Network fault levels change over time, and hence setting calculations may need to be revised. Switching and testing errors are minimised by adequate training of personnel, use of proven software, and welldesigned systematic working procedures. All of these can be said to be within the control of the user. The remaining three causes are not controllable, while two of these three are unavoidable engineering is not science and there will always be situations that a protection relay cannot reasonably be expected to cover at an affordable cost.
a. checking of the scheme logic specification and diagrams to ensure that the objectives of the logic are achieved b. testing of the logic to ensure that the functionality of the scheme is proven c. testing of the logic, as required, to ensure that no output occurs for the relevant input signal combinations The degree of testing of the logic will largely depend on the criticality of the application and complexity of the logic. The responsibility for ensuring that a suitable test procedure is produced for logic schemes other than the default one(s) supplied lies with the specifier of the logic. Relay manufacturers cannot be expected to take responsibility for the correct operation of logic schemes that they have not designed and supplied.
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21.14 TRIPPING AND ALARM ANNUNCIATION TESTS If primary and/or secondary injection tests are not carried out, the tripping and alarm circuits will not have been checked. Even where such checks have been carried out, CB trip coils and/or Control Room alarm circuits may have been isolated. In such cases, it is essential that all of the tripping and alarm circuits are checked. This is done by closing the protection relay contacts manually and checking that: 1. the correct circuit breakers are tripped 2. the alarm circuits are energised 3. the correct flag indications are given 4. there is no maloperation of other apparatus that may be connected to the same master trip relay or circuit breaker
396
21.15.1 Frequency of Inspection and Testing Although protection equipment should be in sound condition when first put into service, problems can develop unchecked and unrevealed because of its infrequent operation. With digital and numerical relays, the in-built self-testing routines can be expected to reveal and annunciate most faults, but this does not cover any other components that, together, comprise the protection scheme. Regular inspection and testing of a protection scheme is therefore required. In practice, the frequency of testing may be limited by lack of staff or by the operating conditions on the power system. It is desirable to carry out maintenance on protection equipment at times when the associated power apparatus is out of service. This is facilitated by co-operation between the maintenance staff concerned and the network operations control centre. Maintenance tests may sometimes have to be made when the protected circuit is on load. The particular equipment to be tested should be taken out of commission and adequate back-up protection provided for the duration of the tests. Such back-up protection may not be fully discriminative, but should be sufficient to clear any fault on the apparatus whose main protection is temporarily out of service. Maintenance is assisted by the displays of measured quantities provided on digital and numerical relays. Incorrect display of a quantity is a clear indication that something is wrong, either in the relay itself or the input circuits.
21.16 PROTECTION SCHEME DESIGN FOR MAINTENANCE If the following principles are adhered to as far as possible, the danger of back-feeds is lessened and fault investigation is made easier: i. test blocks should be used, to enable a test plug to be used, and a defective unit to be replaced quickly without interrupting service ii. circuits should be kept as electrically separate as possible, and the use of common wires should be avoided, except where these are essential to the correct functioning of the circuits iii. each group of circuits which is electrically separate from other circuits should be earthed through an independent earth link iv. where a common voltage transformer or d.c. supply is used for feeding several circuits, each circuit should be fed through separate links or fuses. Withdrawal of these should completely isolate the circuit concerned v. power supplies to protection schemes should be segregated from those supplying other equipment and provided with fully discriminative circuit protection vi. a single auxiliary switch should not be used for interrupting or closing more than one circuit vii. terminations in relay panels require good access, as these may have to be altered if extensions are made. Modern panels are provided with special test facilities, so that no connections need be disturbed during routine testing viii. junction boxes should be of adequate size and, if outdoors, must be made waterproof ix. all wiring should be ferruled for identification and phase-coloured x. electromechanical relays should have high operating and restraint torques and high contact pressures; jewel bearings should be shrouded to exclude dust and the use of very thin wire for coils and connections should be avoided. Dust-tight cases with an efficient breather are essential on these types of electromechanical element xi. static, digital and numerical relays should have test facilities accessible from the front to assist in fault finding. The relay manual should clearly detail the expected results at each test point when healthy
21.15.2 Maintenance Tests Primary injection tests are normally only conducted out during initial commissioning. If scheme maloperation has occurred and the protection relays involved are suspect, or alterations have been made involving the wiring to the relays from the VTs/CTs, the primary injection tests may have to be repeated. Secondary injection tests may be carried out at suitable intervals to check relay performance, and, if possible, the relay should be allowed to trip the circuit breakers involved. The interval between tests will depend upon the criticality of the circuit involved, the availability of the circuit for testing and the technology of the relays used. Secondary injection testing is only necessary on the selected relay setting and the results should be checked against those obtained during the initial commissioning of the equipment. It is better not to interfere with relay contacts at all unless they are obviously corroded. The performance of the contacts is fully checked when the relay is actuated. Insulation tests should also be carried out on the relay wiring to earth and between circuits, using a 1000V tester. These tests are necessary to detect any deterioration in the insulation resistance.
21.17 REFERENCES 21.1 Protective Relays Application Guide, 3rd edition. AREVA Transmission and Distribution, Protection and Control, 1987.
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Relay Testing and Commissioning

21 Relay Testing and Commissioning

Network Protection & Automation Guide

IEEE IDMT Time Delay

IEEE IDMT Reset Time

Table 21.1: Overcurrent relay element specification

21.2.1 Functional Tests

Table 21.2: Overcurrent relay element functional type tests

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Network Protection & Automation Guide

30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Burst period, 300 ms Burst duration (1/15 ms)

t V 5 ns rise time, 50 ns pulse width

Repetition period Figure 21.3: Fast Transient Test waveform

Figure 21.2: High Frequency Disturbance Test waveform

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Rise Time = 0.7 to 1.0 ns. Current specified for 30 ns and 60 ns

Figure 21.4: ESD Current Waveform

0.15 - 0.5MHz Conducted 0.5 - 30MHz

Network Protection & Automation Guide

100 90 80 70 Quasi-peak limits Average limits Typical trace

Emissions Level, dBuV

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.1 1 Frequency, MHz 10 100

Figure 21.5: Conducted Emissions Test Plot

E.U.T. Impedance network

(a) Conducted EMC emissions test arrangement

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Network Protection & Automation Guide

5kV peak Rise time (10 % to 90 %) = 1.2 s Duration (50 %) = 50 s

Figure 21.8: Test generator characteristics for insulation withstand test

Network Protection & Automation Guide

These tests are described in the following sections.

0.5h 3h 12h0.5h 3h 6h 24h

+28C +22C Time

Figure 21.9: Cyclic temperature/humidity test profile

1.2A A 0.8A Pulse shape (half sine)

21.6.2 Dynamic Testing

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Linear interpolation circuits

IC VDU I/O Subsystem VA Computer Equipment under test D/A conversion

Figure 21.13: Block diagram of microprocessor-based automated relay test system

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Communications link to second RTDS

N 3G L Infinite bus 4G CB3 CT3 F3 Line 2 8G F4 CT4 CB4

CB1 load 1 load 2 load 3 VT1

(a) Example power system

Figure 21.14: Example of application study

(b) Voltages and currents at VT1/CT1

Figure 21.15: Modern computer-controlled test bench

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Variable transformer 250V 8A

A P1 S 1 To relay coils V 250V a.c. supply

P2 S2 Main circuit breaker open _ A +

Step-up transformer if required

Figure 21.17: Testing current transformer magnetising curve