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Trainer:
Muhammad Zeeshan Mazhar

Level II Machine Lubricant Analyst
ICML is a global non-profit organization dedicated to helping lubrication practitioners succeed in their professional
careers. ICML certification exams are in accordance with ISO 18436 and are available worldwide, in multiple
languages.
ICML offers industry the following three certifications.
Machine Lubricant Analyst (MLA) - These individuals must demonstrate skills in the area of used lubricant analysis for
machine condition monitoring. Level I certification is oriented toward the basics of lubrication and sampling, Level II focuses on
sampling, test selection and fundamental data interpretation. Level III is directed toward advanced diagnostics and troubleshooting,
integration with other technologies and program management.
Machinery Lubrication Technician (MLT) - These individuals must demonstrate skills in the day-today activities associated
with proper lubrication of machinery. Level I is oriented toward lubrication basics and the proper application and storage of lubricant.
Level II is directed toward advanced understanding of lubrication fundamentals, lubricant selection and lubrication schedule and
program management.
Laboratory Lubricant Analyst (LLA) - These individuals must demonstrate skills in the performance of oil analysis activities
typically required of a laboratory technician working in the used lubricant analysis field. Level I is oriented toward the basic aspects
of performing common tests in the lab and assuring data quality. Level II is directed toward advanced diagnostics, troubleshooting
instrument error and managing lab processes, including testing Caonpdyrigshet rAvssiecteReqliaubaililtiytLyL.C
1. Lubricant roles and functions (4%)
2. Oil Analysis Maintenance Strategies (4%)
3. Contamination Control (25%)
4. Oil Sampling (29%)
5. Wear Debris Monitoring and Analysis (17%)
6. Lubricant health monitoring (21%)
“Producing quality products or providing services at competitive prices is
essential for surviving in today’s business climate.”
Current Challenges
• Shareholder Value – pressure to increase profit margins

• Health and Safety – make the plants more safer for humans
• Waste Regulations – Waste management
• Government Pressures
• Environmental Control
• Cost Optimization
• Lack of Skilled Work force
• ROI and NPV
Structures & Machines
Structures & Machines
Drivers
Intermediate
Drives
Driven
Components
Maintenance
Definition
The combination of all technical and administrative actions, including
supervision actions, intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in
which it can perform a required function.
Maintenance is a set of organised activities that are carried out in order to

keep an item in its best operational condition with minimum cost acquired.
Activities
Important for an item to
Repair reach its acceptable
Replacement productivity conditions
Should be carried out

with lowest possible cost
Maintenance Plan
On Failure Condition Based
Fix it when it fails Maintain Based Upon
known Condition
Maintenance Plan
Fixed Time Design Out

Maintain Based Identify & design
upon Out root cause of
Calendar failure
Maintenance Strategies
Reactive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance
Predictive Maintenance
Proactive Maintenance
Reliability Based Maintenance
Maintenance Strategies
If it isn't broke, don’t fix it
No money spent on maintenance until machine or structure stops working
Sounds Interesting .....

BUT
AT THE COST OF HUGE MAINTENANCE BUDGET!
Breakdown Maintenance as Reactive Maintenance ??
Control is lost when breakdown maintenance is employed.

This is why it is often termed“ reactive” maintenance.
The plant reacts or responds to equipment failures rather

than anticipating them, planning for them or avoiding them
altogether.
Time Driven Maintenance
Based On
Elapsed Time Hour of Operations
Bath Tub Curve
Time between maintenance decided on statistical data

Preventative maintenance is defined as regularly scheduled repair of

components and equipment.
It may consist of:

Scheduled inspection
Cleaning, lubrication
Parts replacement
Repair of components
Preventative maintenance is time based intervention according to a

prescribed schedule.
Bath-Tub Curve
Infant Mortality
The unfortunate reality is that there is a high probability of failure

immediately after an overhaul due to:
Incorrect Poor
Poor
parts being alignment and
lubrication
installed balance
Infant Mortality
Risk is Balanced Against Cost
If the maintenance is put off too long, the machine may fail
If the overhaul is performed too early, it becomes too
expensive, in labor, lost production and parts
The concept of Calendar-Based Maintenance

contains flaws
The machines are as likely to fail after two months as they were
in 22 months.
Good Examples of Preventive Maintenance
Regular Machine
Monitoring
Technology Skills
Diagnostic Data
Performance Data
Maintenance
Histories
Operations Data
Design Data
Machines warn about their failure
DISADVANTAGES
:
Extremely Costly if
Implemented Incorrectly!
The drawback of predictive maintenance is that it depends heavily

on information and the correct interpretation of the information.
Proactive Maintenance
GETTING TO THE ROOT OF PROBLEM
Elimination of conditional failures through the identification of

the root cause condition that initiates the failure cycle.
It commissions corrective actions aimed

at the sources of failure.
Designed to extend the life of

mechanical machinery
Condition-Based Maintenance
Condition-Based Maintenance
Proactive Maintenance Strategy Predictive Maintenance
Root Causes It Looks For! Failure Symptoms & Faults
Balancing/Alignment Tools Example Wear Debris Analysis

Viscosity/Contamination Technologies Vibration Analysis
Monitoring Employed Thermography/MCS
Fault Free Machine Benefits Early detection of Faults &

Life Extension Sought Failures
With Maintenance Optimization
With a strategically balanced
approach, Maintenance Optimization
drives the achievement of mission
PdM PaM
critical objectives - such as becoming
RM
the Best Cost Producer PM
PdM
PM
RM
PM
RM = Reactive Maintenance
PM = Preventive Maintenance
PdM = Predictive Maintenance RM
PaM = Proactive Maintenance
Reliability Centred Maintenance
Four components of Reliability
Centred Maintenance Program
Reactive Preventive
Maintenance Maintenance
Reliability
Centred
Maintenance
Proactive Predictive
Maintenance Maintenance
Framework of Reliability Centred Maintenance
Is Asset’s
YES
Reliability
Acceptable?
NO
Is Asset’s YES
Mission
Critical? Will improved maintenance Will redesign cost
NO
NO cost effectively achieve effectively achieve
reliability objective? reliability objective?
Is the Asset
expendable? YES YES NO
NO
YES Deploy
Run the Asset advanced Deploy Deploy
to Failure maintenance redesign redundancy
tactics
Continuous
Improvement
1. Design and Manufacturing errors
2. Installation errors
3. Operation errors
4. Maintenance errors
• What is common factor in the above 4 reasons ?

Human Error is the most common cause of random failures.
There are six distinct failure management (maintenance) strategies
Replace after a given interval – scheduled replacement (discard)
Refurbish after a given interval – scheduled Overhaul (restoration)
Measure its condition and intervene before performance becomes

unacceptable condition based task
Check to see it has not failed (applicable to hidden failures). –

failure finding task (functional checks)
Repair it when it fails – run to failure
Modify it, or the way it operates, so it will not fail in a given way -
redesign
The maintenance task must match the failure mechanism and
consequences; that is essential.RCM task should be applicable (should
address the failure mode) and effective (should reduce the risk of failure
cost effectively)..
1. If the failure has minor or trivial consequences, a run-to-failure strategy is
justified. (Reactive Maintenance)
2. When it is well correlated to age, such as brake-pad wear or gas turbine blade
fatigue (i.e., peaky shape in a probability density curve), age based maintenance
is appropriate. (Preventive Maintenance, Scheduled Replacement or Scheduled
Over haul)
3. When the physical degradation can be measured, and takes a few weeks or
months from onset to functional failure and is reasonably consistent (following
the P-F curve), PdM is appropriate. (Predictive Maintenance)
4. When there are high consequences and no effective task can be found, redesign is
the only option available. (Redesign / Modification)
5. This is RCM logic in one page, and it works every time.
Maintenance and Reliability Strategies
Maintenance programs typically run

at four levels of increasing sophistication
Run-to-failure
Preventative
Predictive
Proactive
You can’t manage what you can’t measure!
Reliability programs typically include

three types of measurements:
Vibration measurement
Thermal test & imaging
Lubrication oil analysis
Oil analysis can play an important part in each program level!
Machine Condition Monitoring Technologies
Oil
Analysis
Vibration
Alignment
Analysis
Condition
Monitoring
Technologies Oil condition monitoring
is part of a
Ultrasound
Infrared comprehensive Predictive
Thermography
Maintenance program.
Motor Circuit
Evaluation
Complementary: vibration and oil analysis
Proactive maintenance -prevents failure
Onset
of failure
Reduce dynamic loads to extend
machinery life & reduce fatique
• Misalignment, imbalance, resonance,
looseness and incorrect assembly cause
Proactive
mechanical damage % life
remaining
~ 90% of component life

in
• Dust and other particles cause abrasion proactive period
• Water and other fluids cause corrosion
• Inadequate lubrication causes adhesion
Operating hours
Eliminate root causes with proactive maintenance. No damage= long component life
Complementary: vibration and oil analysis
Predictive maintenance -failure has begun
onset Detection of incipient/initial damage

Monitor and trend from onset to predict
Predictive
failure
% remaining life
• Identify defects with vibration

~ 10% of component analysis (overall method and advanced
life in analysis techniques such as PeakVue®)
Predictive period`
failure
• Monitor and trend key oil analysis
parameters critical to machinery
Operating hours health to establish alarm levels
Eliminate root causes with proactive maintenance. No damage= long component life
Lubricant roles and functions
Definition of Lubricant
A lubricant is a substance interposed between

two surfaces in relative motion for the
purpose of reducing the friction and wear
between them.
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What is a Lubricant?
• It is a engineered fluid!
• Selection of Base Stock is crucial for
lubricant performance, especially
viscosity
• Mineral Oil
• Napthenic
• Paraffinic
• Aromatic
• Synthetic Oils
• Poly alphaolefins
Classic CASTROL ad :Liquid
engineering for your Car? • Poly alkylglycols
• Organic diesters
• Additives enhance or suppress base
stock properties
Functions of Lubricants
Absorb and transfer heat
Protect surfaces from corrosion
Separate moving surfaces
Transport contaminants to filters
Transmits force and motion
40
Moving Surfaces – Lubrication – Particle Generation
LOW LOAD VERY HIGH LOAD
High Speed
Very Low Speed
Hydrodynamic Boundary
Lubrication Lubrication
Laminar Flow Boundary Films
Film thickness several Viscous oil properties
times greater than surface ineffective
roughness
Formation of Lubricants
Lubricants are prepared with the combination of:
Base Stock Additives
Oil from Different

Refinery Chemicals
99-70% 0.1-30%
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Base Stock
Base Stock:
The fundamental component in the formulation of the a lubricant. Base oil provides most of the
viscosity and Serves as a host for the important chemical and solid additives.
Base Stock
Mineral Synthetic
43
Physical Properties
These Tests Help Describe Key Physical Properties of New Base Oils.
Properties Why it is Important How it is Determined ASTM No
Viscosity Defines the Base oil Grade Gravity flow capillary viscometer D445
Viscosity Defines viscosity- Viscosity variance Between 40 oC & D2270

100 oC
Index Temperature relationship
Specific Defines Density of Oil relative to Hydrometer D1298

Water
Gravity
Flash Point Defines high Temperature Flash Point Tester Temperature at D92/D93
Volatility and Flammability which flash surface flame is
properties achieved
Pour Point Defines low Temperature oil Gravity flow in Test jar, Temperature D97/IP15
Fluidity behavior at which approximately 220 0Cst is
reached
Mineral oils
Most base oils are Mineral oils, meaning they are produced from crude oil
(Petroleum) using a number of different refining processes
Then other refining processes might be applied to enhanced the end result,
including
1. Solvent Extraction-
2. Hydrogen Processing
• Mild Hydro treating
• Severe Hydro treating
3. Acid refining
4. Clay refining
5. Solvent or Catalytic Dewaxing
45
Types Of Mineral Oil
Mineral Oil
Paraffinic Naphthenic Aromatics
46
Physical Properties
Property Method ASTM Paraffinic Oil Naphthenic Oil Aromatic Oil
Viscosity cSt@40 o D445 40 40 36
Viscosity D445 6.2 5 4

cSt@100o C
Viscosity Index D2270 100 0 -185
Specific Gravity D287 0.8628 0.9194 0.9826
Flash Point 0C D92 229 174 160
Pour Point D97 -15 -30 -24

% Paraffinic D3238 66% 45% 23%
%Naphthenic D3238 32% 41% 36%
%Aromatic D3238 2% 14% 41%
47
Mineral vs Synthetic Base Oils
A minority of the lubricants in service are

formulated using synthetic base oils instead of
base oils refined from crude. The molecules of
synthetic base oils are either entirely man made
(by synthesis or polymerization) or are highly
modified by the application of pressure,
temperature and /or catalysis. There are many
different types of synthetic oils with varying
properties
48
Types Of Synthetic Oil
Poly Alpha Olefins
Poly Alkyl Glycols
49
Advantages and Disadvantages of Synthetic Oil
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Increase Oxidation Stability. • High purchase cost
• Improved lubricity. • Seal and material incompatibility
• Fire resistance. • Potential Toxicity (Some Synthetics only)
• Better thermal resistance. • High disposal cost (Some synthetics only)
• Extended drain intervals. • Possible incompatibility with mineral oil
• Better low temperature fluidity. • Poor hydrolytic stability (Chemical degrades in the
• Lower Volatility and higher flash point presence of water).
• Natural detergency • Poor additive solubility (some synthetics are not mixable
• Higher viscosity. with additives).
• Poor Lubricity(some synthetics only).
50
Saturates VS Unsaturates
51
American Petroleum Institute (API) Categories
52
Additives
What they are
Organic and inorganic compounds dissolved or suspended in oil Can
represent from 0.1% to 30% of formulated oil volume Monitoring
additive health is an important goal of oil analysis.
Machine Common additives used Percent of
Important Additives oil volume
Engines Anti oxidant,corrosion 10-30 %
inhibitor,dteregent,anti wear,anti foam
Antioxidant
Steam turbines Anti oxidant,corrosion ,anti faom,anti 0.5-5%
Dispersants and emulsifies
compressors
Corrosion Inhibitor Gears Anti oxidant,anti wear.anti foam, 1-10%
Extreme pressure,sometime corrosion
VI Improvers inhibitor
Anti foam agents Hydraulic Anti oxidant,Anti wear,Anti 2-10%

systems faom,corrosion inhibitor,pour point
depressent,viscosity index improvers
53
Types of Additives
Additives
Surface Protective Performance
• Anti wear and EP Agent • Anti Oxidants

• Corrosion & Rust inhibitor • Viscosity Index Improver
• Detergent • Anti foaming
• Dispersant • Pour Point Depressant
• Friction modifier
54
Additives
An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of
Antioxidant other molecules.
To prevent the formulation of acids, varnish,

Function sludge and high viscosity that normally results
from oxidation
Antioxidants decompose reactive hydro peroxides

Working
and free radicals before they lead to oxidation
Aromatic amines, Zinc Dialkyl dithiophosphate

Common types (ZDDP)
55
Additives
An additive which is used to disperse sludge and soot
Dispersants particles for the purpose of preventing agglomeration,
settling and deposits.
Head: Polar – Water Based
Dispersants envelopes particles and keep them

firmly divided in an homogenies manner.
It does not allow the particles to get

concentrated at one location
Tail: Non-polar – Oil Based
56
Additives
Corrosion inhibitor forms a polar adherent film
Corrosion Inhibitor to steel and cast iron surfaces to repel water
which inhibits rust formation.
Corrosion inhibitor range

Phosphoric acid esters
Fatty acid amides
Carboxylic acid derivatives
Boric acid amine blends
Alkanol amides
57
Additives
Viscosity Index is an arbitrary measure for the
Viscosity Index change of viscosity with temperature.
VI Improvers tries to minimize the effects of

VI Improvers varying temperature on lubricants
It is used to characterize lubricating oil in the

Use: automotive industry.
VI improvers
Ethylene propylene copolymers
Polyisobutylene
58
Additives
An anti-foaming agent is an additive that reduces the
Anti-Foam Agents formation of foam (air bubbles) in industrial process
liquids
Functions
Anti foam use silicone to weaken surface

bubbles allowing them to quickly collapse.
They expands the air bubbles and move them

to the surface to explode.
Compounds used includes methyl silicones

and organic polymers. Blended into base oil
at 5-10ppm.
59
Additives
They are long chain materials that form an adsorbed film on the metal
Anti wear & EP Agent surfaces with the polar ends of the molecules attached to the metal and
the molecules projecting more or less normal to the surface.
Functions
Chemical reaction with metal surface and forms a film.

Prevents metal-to-metal contact
ZDDP, Organic Phosphates, acid or Compounds like phosphates, organic sulfur and chlorine compounds
etc.
60
Additives
Pour Point Depressant Enable lubricant to flow at low temperature
Functions
Modify wax crystal formation to reduce interlocking

Alkylated naphthalene
Phenolic polymers, Ploymethacrylates
Maleate/fumerate copolymer esters
61
Lubrication Regimes
Four different forms of lubrication can be identified for self-pressure generating

lubricated contacts:
Hydrodynamic..
Partial or mixed.
Boundary
Elastohydrodynamic.
62
Lubrication Regimes
During the starting phase the static friction is followed by With increasing speed the sliding surfaces are partially At even higher speeds the sliding surfaces are separated from
boundary friction (high friction / high wear). The friction separated by the lubricant, this phase is called mixed film each other by a hydrodynamic fluid film, in this phase the
and wear is controlled by additives. lubrication (medium friction / medium wear). In this phase lowest value of wear is achieved. In this phase the viscosity
Under extreme load it may remain boundary lubrication. the emergency lubrication film formed by the additives acts to separate the components. Additives may not be
protects the sliding surfaces, in some instances this may required depending on the nature of the machine.
remain as a mixed film.
63
The Stribeck Curve & Lambda Ratio .
Lambda = = h / SR
40
Where,
h = Mean Film Thickness
SR = Surface Roughness
Boundary, < 1.2

EP additive is a boundary layer lubricant Thick Film, > 2.0
additive – Example: Antiwear AW additive
Thick Film – Rolling Contact
Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication – is unique to rolling- friction surfaces

experienced in ball and roller bearings and in combination-friction circumstances such as when two gear
teeth mate in a sliding and rolling action.
•When a ball is rolling in a race and comes under full load, the mating surfaces will momentarily deform,
trapping the lubricant in the deformed area known as the Hertzian contact area. Under deformation
pressure, the lubricant viscosity rapidly rises and the lubricant changes from a liquid to a solid,
providing full protection to the rolling surfaces.
•As the ball moves out of the load zone, the lubricant returns back to its original viscosity. Because rolling
surface contact is in a line and not over the entire surface area, a lot less lubricant is required to achieve
44
full film lubrication.
Discussion – How much is the Film thickness in case of Rolling Contact ?

Fluid Film Lubrication
•Hydrostatic lubrication is when an external

pressure is applied to the lubricant in the bearing, to
maintain the fluid lubricant film where it would
otherwise be squeezed out.
•Hydrodynamic lubrication is where the motion of

the contacting surfaces, and the exact design of the
43
bearing is used to pump lubricant around the bearing

to maintain the lubricating film. This design of bearing
may wear when started, stopped or reversed, as the
lubricant film breaks down. Oil Wedge formation.
Lubrication Regimes
67
Lubrication Methods
68
Lubrication Methods
69
Grease
70
Grease Thickener Types
Thickener type Maximum temperature Effect of Water Resistanc Typical application

for prolonged use - deg C e to
softening
Calcium Soap 55-65 Highly Resistant Fair to Good Chassis grease, General
Purpose Industrial greases
Calcium 80-90 Highly Resistant Excellent Multi Purpose Greases
Hydroxystearate
Calcium Complex 120-150 Highly Resistant Excellent Industrial Grease
Sodium Soap 120-140 Susceptible Fair Ball and Roller bearings,

Electric Motors
Sodium Complex 150-175 Highly Resistant Excellent Multipurpose Industrial grease
Aluminum Complex 110-135 Resistant Good Industrial grease

Lithium Soap 110-130 Resistant Fair Multipurpose Automotive and
Industrial grease
Lithium Complex 150-175 Resistant Excellent Multipurpose Automotive and
Industrial grease
Polyurea 150-175 Highly Resistant Fair to Excellent Multipurpose Automotive and
Industrial grease
Bentone 140-160 Resistant Fair General Purpose grease for
high temperature bearings
where relubrication is
frequent.
Grease Vs Oil
Advantages:
Better Stop/Start Performance
Enhanced Squeeze film lubrication
Seals out contamination
Minimizes Product contamination
Reduces leakage and lubricant starvation risks
Reduces labor in lubricated-for-life applications
Better suspension of solid additives
Disadvantages:
Reduced Heat transfer or cooling capacity
Limitations on bearing speeds
Compatibility risks exist between thickener types
Less resistance to oxidation
Contamination control is more difficult
Difficult to control the correct the correct quantity – Risk of Over greasing
Lubricant analysis is more complex
72
Bearing Lubrication
73
Contamination
Contamination, by definition, is anything in the oil that is foreign to the oil and
machine. It enters from the atmosphere or is generated from within to rob
lubricants and components of precious life.
The four most common and destructive lubricant contaminants are :
Particle Contamination
Moisture Contamination
Fuel Contamination
Soot Contamination
Glycol Contamination
75
Particle Contamination
Particles are responsible for much of the wear that leads to mechanical failure.
The amount of damage inflicted by particles depends largely upon their population,
size, shape, hardness and chemistry. Particles must be controlled in any system
deemed critical to operation or expensive to repair what follows is a concise
summary of the four ways that particles can rob precious productivity and
profits:
Surface Removal.
Restriction of Oil Flow and Part Movement.
Increased Consumption of Lubricants and Filters.
Higher Energy Consumption and Environmental Impact
76
Surface Removal
77
Categories of Particles Ingression
The word “ingression” refers to the introduction of particles into lubricants and hydraulic fluids
regardless of the source (external and internal).For clean-environment indoor equipment, the
primary sources can be form process fluids and internal generation (wear, corrosion, etc.)
For outdoor machinery, climate conditions have a marked influence on particle ingestion. For
instance, rain and damp soil keep particles from becoming airborne. High winds and dry climates
do just the opposite.
78
Categories of Particles Ingression
Figure organizes common ingression sources into three subcategories: built-in, ingested and
generated. Depending on the nature of the machine, the ingression rate and sources can vary
considerably.
79
Contaminant Exclusion
For many machines, the exclusion of contamination is the only practical

way to control contamination. This is because these machines either
have no filter or the filter in use in coarse, providing no real protection in
the particle size range of critical oil films and surfaces.
80
Ingression and Mass Balance
Even hydraulic systems with good filters are often faced with ingression
challenges. To maintain contaminant levels within targets, the filter must
remove particles at a rate equal to the ingression rate (mass balance).
81
Cost of Excluding Dirt
It is often said that the cost of excluding a gram of dirt is only about 10
percent of what it will cost you once you let it enter the oil.
As mentioned, dirt puts stress on additives, the base oil and machine
surfaces. So, too, the cost to filter a gram of dirt form the oil is much
higher than the cost of filtering a gram of dirt form the air
intake/breather.
Controlling Top-End Ingression
82
For many machines, reducing ingression mean reducing top-end

ingression – the particles entering through gill ports, vents, breathers,
hatches, inspection ports and other headspace openings. There are
numerous ways to control top-end ingression, such as:
Purge Methods.
Isolation Methods.
,Filter Breathers.
83
Purge Methods. This involves the introduction of a clean gas or aerosol into
the headspace of the reservoir. A slight positive pressure is maintained to prevent the
entry of ambient air. Examples include instrument air purge, oil mist purge and
nitrogen purge.
Isolation Methods. Expansion chambers, piston/cylinder reservoirs and bladders
have been used to isolate headspace air from ambient air to prevent contamination.
One disadvantage is that moisture (humid air) is often unable to escape from the
headspace. This also locks moisture into the oil.
Filter Breathers. If reservoirs and sumps can be sealed tightly, such that all air
exchanged between the atmosphere and the headspace can be directed through a
single port, then high-quality filter breather can be used to remove dust from incoming
air at that port (vent). The quality of the filter (capture efficiency) should be no less
than that of the oil filter in use.
84
Map Contaminant Ingression Sources
The first step of a contamination control program is to identify a machine’s

target cleanliness level
Next, identify the source and entry points of particles.(For many machines
there is a need to examine particles found in used filters, bottom sediment, oil
drains and live zone oil samples as a means to deter mine their origin. )
Taking necessary action to remove the source
Improving the Cleanliness Targets
85
Roll-off Cleanliness
Roll-off cleanliness is the level of original cleanliness expected to be achieved

when assembling any component or system with clean parts in a controlled
manufacturing environment. The purpose of maintaining a high level of roll-of
cleanliness is to minimize the overall original system contamination and reduce
the premature damage caused to carious system components on startup.
Some of the areas that must be controlled are:
1. Assembly, rebuild, cleaning and repair areas
2. Component, Parts and fluid storage areas
3. Shipping and receiving, purchasing and the supplier areas
86
Filtration and Particle Removal
To achieve modern contamination control objectives, most machines require filtration or

separators. Numerous different filter types and separators are available for removing
particles. The performance of these devices is typically evaluated according to the following
performance criteria:
1. Filter Stability – how stable is the filter’s performance over time unstable filter
performance equates to unreliable contamination control (fluctuating particle counts). Many
factors influence filter stability including temperature variation, cold starts, pressure surges
and mechanical vibration. The filter’s size, design and construction influence its stability.
2. Filter Dirt-Holding Capacity – This describes the amount of test contaminant a filter can
remove, typically in grams.
3. Filter Capture Efficiency – This define how effectively a filter can remove particles greater
than a given size. This is important information in assessing a filter’s ability to meet the
machine’s cleanliness requirements. It is also important to assess the total cost to filter oil.
87
Particle Filter Construction and Separation Options
The following methods are available options for removing particles from oil:
Cellulose Fiber Media Filters

Available in cartridge or spin-on configurations, this common type of filter is equipped with a
pleated media made from cellulose filter paper (wood pulp). These filters are generally effective at
removing larger particles but often lack performance in the removal of silt-sized particles (less
than 5 microns). Cellulose paper media is subject to damage caused by water any high
temperature.
Micro-fiberglass Media Filters
Also available in cartridge or spin-on configurations the performance of micro-glass media filters
is diameter, higher pore density and smaller average pore size. These filters can remove most
large particles and many smaller, silt-sized particles from the oil they offer superior thermal
stability and are generally unaffected by the presence of water.
88
Particle Filter Construction and Separation Options
Centrifugal Separators
By spinning the oil at high rotational velocities, suspended particles and other high-density
contaminants can be efficiently separated. These separators are generally most effective at
removing large particles from low-viscosity oil. Performance is degraded when particles are small
of lower density or when the oil’s viscosity is high.
Electrostatic Separators
These devices capture particles by electrostatic precipitation. By creating a high-voltage potential cell (no
current flow), charged particles are attracted to the separation plate with an opposite charge. Electrostatic
separators offer excellent performance in the removal of silt-sized particles and insoluble suspension
of oxides and carbon polymers that lead to varnish on component surfaces. Their performance
depends upon the dielectric property of the oil and is, therefore, impaired by the presence of
water.
89
Electrostatic Separators
90
Location of Filters
There are three primary options for locating filter on a conventional

circulating system such as a hydraulic system:
1. Pressure line
2. Return line
3. Offline
91
Location of Filters
92
Location of Filters
Pressure-line Filtration
Filters located on the pressure line receive the full flow and pressure delivered by the pump
Designed to handle these often extreme operating conditions.
mitigate the risk of tank contamination from being dispersed into sensitive work-end system components
pumps in failure mode are protected from shelling out a debris field into downstream components
Pumps in failure mode are protected from shelling out a debris field into downstream components
pumps in failure mode are protected from shelling out a debris field into downstream components
Slightly coarser filter elements (say 15 microns) in pressure-line filter housings to gain their protective
attributes,
Rely on finer filters (say 3 microns) elsewhere for dirt removal.
93
Location of Filters
Return-line Filtration.
Proximity to the largest particle ingression sited on most hydraulic system.
Particles can be stripped form the oil before reaching the reservoir.
Off-line Filtration
filters sit off the main operating system as a side-loop from the reservoir a necessary supplemental
component to the off-line filter is a pump and motor.
94
Location of Filters
Off-line Filtration
he following are a few additional benefits and attributes of the off-line filtration option:
Higher initial cost (pump, motor, valves, piping)
Constant flow optimizes dirt-holding capacity and capture efficiency for a give type of filter
Easy to service “on the run” (filter changes, repairs etc.)
Heat exchanges can be built in the loop
Sample ports can be installed for sampling on the run
Lowest cost to remove a gram of dirt (expensive pressure-line and surge-resistant filters are
required)
Can double for an oil transfer system for adding makeup oil
95
Filter Performance Testing and Ratings
Modern filters by reputable manufacturers have been tested to assess

performance attributes across a range of criteria:
Collapse strength
Burst pressures
Structural integrity
The Contaminant-removal characteristics of a filter come from testing

don in accordance to standards such as ISO16889 and ISO 4548/12
96
Filtration Ratio/Beta:
The filtration ratio is a measure of the particle capture performance of a filter at
standardized test conditions (maximum rated flow, constant flow, constant
temperature, constant contaminant injection rate, standardized test dust and
fluid). The simplified schematic of a multi-pass test stand that runs a filter to
ISO16889 is shown in Figure 3-9.
97
The beta ratio is calculated as the number of particle above specific micron size
(per Unit volume of fluid) up stream of the test filter divided by the number of
particles above that same micron size downstream of the filter (see Figure 3-10).
The standard calls for the micron size to be reported for filtration ratios of 2, 20,
75, 100, 200 and 1,000.
98
Particle counting test
Ability to specify target cleanliness levels for Systems, machines, and

incoming lubes.
Ability to implement Contamination Control.
Used to determine filtration specifications and efficiencies.
Trending allows early indication of abnormal wear and increases in

contaminant levels due to outside influences.
Three ways to count and size particles
Using a Microscope (ISO 4407)
Optical Particle Counting(ISO 11500)
Automatic Pore Blockage particle counting (BS 3406)

Optical particle counters
Light blockage particle counter Light scattering particle counter

ISO particle counts
It is important to understand what ISO Particle Counts are

What is it?
Quantitative analysis
Quantitative analysis of oil is used to determine the distribution of
particle sizes in the oil.
Why ?
Try to keep oil at a cleanliness level to prevent wear and failures.
Targeted to remove clearance size particles out of the oil.

ISO Code range
NAS 1638
NAS 1638 Class Number, of Particles per 100ml in

5 to 15 15 to 25 25 to 50 50 to 100 > 100
00 125 22 4 1 0
0 250 44 8 2 0
1 500 88 16 3 1
2 1000 178 32 6 1
3 2000 356 63 11 2
4 4000 712 126 22 4
5 8000 1425 253 45 8
6 16000 2800 506 90 16
7 32000 5700 1012 180 32
8 64000 11400 2000 360 64
9 128000 22800 4100 720 128
10 256000 45600 8100 1440 256
11 512000 91200 16200 2800 511
12 1000000 182000 32400 5800 1024
13 2048000 364800 64800 11520 2048
14 4096000 729600 129600 23040 4096
15 8192000 1459200 259200 46080 8192
16 16384000 2918400 518400 92160 16384
17 32768000 5836800 1036800 184320 32768
18 65536000 11673600 2073600 368640 65536
Particle counting benefits
Verifies filter performance

Verifies pump condition
Verifies stored lubricant cleanliness
Identifies changing atmospheric contamination
Confirms systems flushing
Identifies the need for ferrographic analysis
Determines optimum filter change point
Identifies new filter defects
Verifies centrifuge performance
Particle counting benefits
Detects high corrosive wear
Verifies bearing condition

Confirms target cleanliness levels are achieved
Oil quality n Identifies abnormal gear wear
Identifies use of dirty top-up containers

Verifies shaft seal exclusion performance
Determines new oil cleanliness
Identifies oil film failure problems
Water contamination is the second-most destructive contaminant. As

water coexists with oil in the following states:
1. Dissolved
2. Emulsified
3. Free
10
7
10
8
Where Water Enters
Water enters the machine and oil many different ways, but most commonly it is at
sites where the machine interfaces with its environment. Below is a summary of
water ingression point:
Environment
Condensation
Coolant Leakage
10
9
How Water Affects the Oil
1. Water reacts with some additives to form precipitants and some chemically aggressive by-
products. This reaction is called hydrolysis.
2. Water also acts as a catalyst to promote oxidation, especially in the presence of reactive metals
like iron, copper and lead
3. when free water is allowed to accumulate in sumps and reservoirs, microorganisms can grow.
4. The microbes feed on oil and certain additives and can grow to form thick biomass suspensions.
Microbial contamination also leads to corrosion, plugged filters and surface deposits.
5. Water that is in a free or emulsified state interferes with lubrication by weakening the load-
bearing strength of the lubricant film leading to premature wear and failure of bearings, gears,
pistons and other wear-sensitive parts.
6. Dissolved water also can cause hydrogen-induced wear and failure of rolling element bearings in
a process known as hydrogen embrittlement.
7. Water rusts iron and steel surface and increase the corrosive potential of acids that attack
bearing metals.
11
0
Controlling Water Contamination
Once detected, investigate the root cause of water ingression. If the oil’s
physical and chemical properties are not irreparably damaged, the water
can be removed (dehydration and the oil returned to service.
Oil dehydration methods include:
1. Settling Tanks
2. Centrifugal Separator
3. Vacuum Distillation
11
1
Settling Tanks
This method is limited to free water as it is

unsuccessful in removing dissolved or emulsified
water. 11
2
Centrifugal Separator
Centrifugal separation also fails to remove dissolved water and tightly

held emulsions of water in oil. Very often, centrifuges are used as a
first-pass removal of free water followed by other methods to remove
dissolved and emulsified water.
11
3
Vacuum Distillation
Vacuum Distillation can success full in removing free and

emulsified water, plus most of the dissolved water.
11
4
Polymeric Super-absorbent Filters
The polymer absorbs free and emulsified water and form a gel that is locked
tightly into the filter’s media. Some versions of these filters remove both water
and dirt.
11
5
Fuel Contamination
Fuel enters the crankcase as blow-by with combustion gases and from leak-age. Blow-by refers to
combustion gases from the combustion chamber blowing by the piston rings (usually at the ring gaps)
and then entering the crankcase. Abnormal amounts of blow-by occur due to incomplete or ineffective
combustion cause by one or more of the following:
• Excessive idling
• Lugging
• Defective Fuel Injection spray Pattern or dribbling

• Improper Fuel/air
11
6
It’s Effect on the Oil
Fuel dilution reduces the lubricant’s performance in the following ways:

Premature Oxidation – Fuel oxidizes very easily due to the high concentration or aromatic
molecules. Their oxidation in the lubricant produces reactive by-products that stress the
lubricant’s more stable hydrocarbons (saturated molecules), setting off a chain reaction of
oxidative failure (sludge, varnish, increased viscosity and organic acids).
Loss of Viscosity – Fuel, being Miscible with oil, causes viscosity thinning. As can be seen in
Figure 3-18, 10% diesel fuel in a motor oil (SAE-30) reduces the viscosity more than 36% (from
110 to 70 centistokes).
Additive Dilution – Fuel doesn’t bring any additives to the crankcase therefore, the lubricant’s
additives are proportionally diluted form fuel dilution. In other words, 10% fuel in motor oil
reduces the concentration of all additives by 10%
Sulfur Build-Up – Sulfur form some fuels, like diesel, increases the risk of corrosion
11
7
Fuel Contamination
11
8
It’s Effect on the Machine
Fuel dilution adversely affects the machine in the following ways:
Increase Wear – Viscosity loss and anti-wear additive dilution couple to increase
the rate at which mechanical wear occurs.
Increased Corrosion – Sulfuric acid and oxidation –induced organic acid pair up
to corrode component surfaces.
Fire and Explosion Risk – High levels of fuel dilution can lead to ignition of the
mixture and engine explosion. Likewise, increasing lubricant levels (due to the
addition of fuel) can lead to overflow out of the crankcase, creating a fire risk
Controlling Fuel Dilution

Fuel dilution must be stopped at its source. Once contaminated with excessive fuel,
the oil must be condemned.
11
9
Soot Contamination
Soot is a natural by-product of combustion extended oil drains or poor combustion lead to abnormal soot accumulation that has
harmful effect upon the lubricant and the machine. New environment protection agency (EPA) requirements to control
atmospheric soot and nitrous-oxide (NOX) emissions using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) will lead to increased soot loading in
crankcase oils in the coming years.
Where It Enters
Soot enters the lubricant as blow-by with combustion gases (see Figure 3-19) and is cause by the following:
Low Compression – produces poor combustion increasing the rate at which soot is generated.
High Fuel/Air Ratio – caused by plugged or restricted air filter flow or incorrect mixture settings.
Cold Air Temperatures – Occurs during seasonal operating conditions
Lugging – Pulling an exceedingly high load or operating an engine in too high of a gear.
Excessive Idling – extended periods of at-rest or serve low speeds during operation
12
0
Soot Contamination
It’s Effect on the Oil
Soot has the following effect on the oil:
Dispersancy Loss – By adsorbing dispersant additive molecules, dispersancy performance deteriorates rapidly
when soot ingestion is high, leading to premature oil failure.
Anit-wear Performance Loss – Anti wear additive molecules absorb to soot surfaces, rendering them
unavailable to protect machine components.
Increased Viscosity – Soot suspended in the oil increases the oil’s viscosity. This cause increased temperature
and slows the flow of lubricant to machine components.
It’s Effect on the Machine
Soot affects the machine in the following ways:
Premature filter Plugging
Increased abrasive wear (typically where boundary lubrication occurs such as cam/cam- following wear
zones)
Deposit formation, sludge and oil-way blockage
12
1
Soot Contamination
Controlling Soot Contamination

Soot must be controlled by dealing with the cause of ingestion relating to engine
combustion efficiency and causes of excessive blow-by. Once soot hat
contaminated the oil, little can be done to remove it. Some success in removing
soot using low-flow, bypass filters and centrifuges have been reported.
However, removing soot by these methods can usually only occur after the soot
particles have become agglomerated (loss of disperancy), at which time deposit
on machine surfaces many have already occurred.
12
2
Glycol frequently contaminates crankcase lubricants and other systems that

utilize a glycol and water mixture for cooling. Always present and flowing, glycol is
a constant threat to leak into the lubricant, especially in crankcase applications.
Where it Enters
Typically, glycol leaks into the crankcase due to the following reasons:
Defective seals
Cavitation of the cylinder liner
Corrosion degradation of the cylinder liner
Damaged cooler core
12
3
Its Effect on the Oil

Glycol has the following effects on the oil:
Forms gels and emulsions
increases viscosity
Increase Oxidation
From acids (e.g. formic and glycolic acids)
Reacts with the detergent additives to forms oil balls ( hard, abrasive reaction product)
Its Effect on the Machine
Glycol has the following effects on the machine
Increase wear – this is cause by (1) the general poor lubricating quality of the oil, (2) a change in oil
viscosity, (3) the formation of oil balls, (4) particle-induced abrasion from plugged oil filters, and (4) oil
starvation from restricted oil flow (related to sludge and deposit formation).
Increased Corrosion – Corrosion increase due to the acidic environment glycol creates in the
lubricant.
Filter Failure – Glycol clogs filters prematurely.
12
4
Controlling Glycol Contamination:
Glycol must be controlled at its ingestion point. It can’t be easily removed once
the oil is contaminated except with an oil change. Under sever occurrence of
glycol contamination, flash the crankcase or sump before refilling with lubricant.
12
5
Air Contamination
Why You Should Be Measuring Air Contamination

in Oil
In certain situations, air contamination has the potential

to be very destructive, and its effects on oil and
machinery deserve more attention.
12
6
Air Contamination
Effect on Machines
Air contamination can cause a great deal of harm to hydraulic systems

Insufficient oil film strength
Cavitation
Varnishing
12
7
Air Contamination
Effect on Lubricants:
Oxidation
Thermal failure
Foaming
12
8
Air Contamination
States of coexistence
It may exist as a contaminant in the following states:
Dissolved
The normal level of dissolved air for mineral oils is 10 percent by volume. High levels of dissolved air from
pressurized oil accelerates additive depletion and oxidation.
Entrained
Entrained air can be characterized as unstable, suspended microscopic air bubbles in oil, which results in clouding of
the oil. Entrained air has the potential to impact the oil’s compressibility, heat transfer, film strength, oxidation,
cavitation and varnishing (micro dieseling).
Free and foam.

Free air may be found wherever there are trapped pockets of air in dead zones, high regions and stand pipes. It can
affect hydraulic compressibility, corrosion, vapor lock (retarded oil supply) and loss of system controls.
12
9
Air Contamination
Methods for Assessing Air Contamination
Air release characteristics (ASTM D3427)
The air-release test can be used to determine the tendency of an oil to retain entrained air. It is
based on ASTM D3427. Compressed air is blown into an oil sample using a defined method. The
time required for the air to be reduced to 0.2 percent by volume is then measured. While the
oil’s viscosity will be one of the main factors in the air-release time, other variables related to
the base oil formulation can influence these results as well.
13
0
Air Contamination
Techniques for controlling air contamination

Some of the effective methods to Control Air Pollution are as follows:
(a) Source Correction Methods
1. Substitution of raw materials
2. Process Modification
3. Maintenance of Equipment
(a) Pollution Control equipment
(b) Diffusion of pollutant in air
13
1
Oil Sampling Methods
Objective of Oil Analysis:

Oil sampling is the most critical aspect of oil analysis. Errors in obtaining a representative sample impair all further oil analysis efforts. There are two primary goals
in obtaining a representative oil sample.
Maximize Data Density- Simply stated, samples be taken in such a way that there is the most information per milliliter
of oil possible. This information relates to such criteria as cleanliness and dryness of the oil, depletion of additives, and
the presence of wear particles being generated by the machine. For instance, taking samples downstream of filers
would be contrary to sampling goal since the filter would effectively remove much of the data before it could get the
sample bottle.
Minimize Data Disturbance- Samples should be extracted in such a way that the concentration of information is
uniform, consistent and unaltered by the sampling process. It is important to make sure that the sample does not
become contaminated during the sampling process. This can distort the date, making it difficult to distinguish what was
originally in the oil from what has come into the oil during the sampling process. For example, sampling oil with a dirty
sample bottle can result in data disturbance (a false positive in this case).
To ensure good data density and minimum data disturbance in oil sampling, consider the following factors, each of
which is discussed in detail later in the chapter:
Sampling Location- Not all potential sampling locations in the machine will produce the same data. Some locations are
upstream of data-generation sites (a bearing, for instance) and other are downstream (a more rich sample). Some
machines require multiple sampling locations to answer specific question related to the machine’s condition, location of
a problem and severity. Optional locations (called secondary sample) can be used on exception only for troubleshooting
purposes.
The procedure by which a sample is drawn is critical to the success of oil analysis
13
3
Sampling Procedure — The quality of the procedure by which a sample is
drawn is critical to the success of oil analysis. Sampling procedures should be
documented and followed uniformly by all members of the oil analysis team.
This ensures consistent use of the correct procedure and helps to properly
institutionalize oil analysis within the organization. It also provides a recipe for
success to new members of the team.
Sampling Hardware — The hardware used to extract the sample should not
disturb sample quality but should aid it. It should be easy to use, clean, rugged
and cost-effective.
Sample Bottle — The type, size and cleanliness of the oil sample bottle help
assure that a representative sample is achieved.
13
4
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
System Returns
Turbulence — The best sampling locations are highly turbulent, sometimes referred to as live zones
13
5
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
System Returns
Ingression Points —
Where possible, in circulating systems locate sampling ports downstream of the components
Filtration —
locate primary sampling valves upstream of filters, separators, dehydrators and settling tanks
For filter performance evaluation, both upstream and downstream sampling valves will be
necessary.
13
6
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
System Returns
Drain Lines — In unflooded drain lines where fluids are mixed with air, locate sampling valves where oil will
travel and collect.
On horizontal piping, this will be on the underside of the pipe
Cirulating Oil Systems
13
7
Live Zone Sampling from Circulating Systems
When a sample is taken from a line in a circulating system, it is referred to as a "live zone"
sample. You can take measures during the sampling process to improve the quality and
effectiveness of the live zone sample. What follows is a summary of do's and don'ts.
Do:
Sample from the system's turbulent zones, where the fluid is moving and the oil is well mixed.
Sample downstream of the equipment after it has completed its primary function(s), such as
lubricating a bearing or a gear or has passed through a hydraulic pump or actuator.
Sample systems during typical working conditions, on the run and under normal applications.
Try not to sample after an oil change, filter change or at some time when the fluid wouldn't
represent typical conditions.
Where required, employ secondary sampling locations to localize problems
13
8
Live Zone Sampling from Circulating Systems
Don't:
Sample from dead pipe legs, hose ends and stand pipes where the fluid isn't moving or
circulating.
Sample after filters or separators.
Sample when the machine is cold and hasn't been operating or has been idling.
Sample from laminar flow zones (lack of fluid turbulence). The best way to insure the fluids are
turbulent and mixed during the sampling process is to sample from elbows instead of straight
lengths of pipe
13
9
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Example of a large lubrication system with oil being supplied to a set of bearings.
Drain line provides the primary sampling point. If there is an abnormal reading or an over-limit alarm, take samples from the
individual bearing drains. Also, obtain a sample on the supply fluid. By comparing these samples, you can determine a good estimation
of what the problem is and from where it is being generated.
14
0
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Hydrualic System with Pressurized Lines
14
1
Sampling from Pressurized Lines
When samples need to be taken from pressurized feed lines leading to bearings, gears,
compressors, pistons, etc., the sampling method is somewhat simplified. Figure 4-5 shows
four different configurations.
Portable High-Pressure Tap Sampling — The upper-most configuration on Figure 4-5 is
a high-pressure zone where a ball valve or needle valve is installed and the outlet is fitted
with a piece of stainless steel helical tubing. The purpose of the tubing is to reduce the
pressure of the fluid to a safe level before it enters the sampling bottle.
Minimess Tap Sampling — This alternative requires that a minimess valve (or similar
sampling device) be installed, preferably on an elbow. The sample bottle has a tube fitted
with a probe protruding from its cap. The probe attaches to the minimess port, allowing
the oil to flow into the bottle. There is a vent hole on the cap of the sample bottle so that
when the fluid enters the bottle, the air can expel or exhaust from the vent hole. This
particular sampling method requires lower pressures (less than 500 psi) for safety.
14
2
SAMPLING LOCATIONS

Portable High-Pressure Tap Sampling
Minimess Tap Sampling
Ball Valve Tap Sampling
Portable Minimess Tap Sampling
14
3
Ball Valve Tap Sampling — This configuration requires the installation of a ball valve on
an elbow. When sampling, the valve should be opened and adequately flushed. Extra flushing
is required if the exit extension from the valve is uncapped. Once flushed, the sample
bottle's cap is removed and a sample is collected from the flow stream before closing the
valve. Take care when removing the bottle cap to avoid the entry of contamination. This
technique is not suitable for high-pressure applications.
Portable Minimess Tap Sampling — This option requires installing a minimess onto the
female half of a standard quick-connect coupling.
This assembly is portable. The male half of a quick-connect is permanently fitted to the
pressure line of the machine at the desired sampling location. To sample, the portable female
half of the quick-connect is snapped onto the male piece affixed to the machine. To sample,
the bottle's probe tip is pressed onto the minimess valve to induce fluid flow into the bottle. In
many cases, these male quick-connect couplings are pre-existing on the equipment. Always
use helical coil, previously described, on high-pressure lines.
14
4
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Live Zone Sampling from circulating Systems
When a sample is taken from a line in a circulating system, it

is referred to as a "live zone" sample
14
5
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Sampling From Low-pressure Circulating

Lines
14
6
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Sampling Non-Circulating Systems
14
7
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Sampling Non-Circulating Systems
14
8
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Drop Tube vacuums sampling
One of the most common methods for sampling a bath- or splash-lubricated wet sump is to use the drop-
tube vacuum sample method. With this method, a tube is inserted through a fill port or dipstick port and
lowered into the sump cavity — usually about midway into the oil level
14
9
Here is a summary of the risks and problems associated with drop-tube vacuum sampling:
Tube Location — A tube that is directed into the fill or dipstick port is extremely difficult
to control. The tube's final resting place is hard to predict, resulting in samples being taken
from different locations each time. There is always a risk of the tube actually going all the
way to the bottom of the sump, where debris and sediment is picked up.
Drop-Tube Contamination — There is considerable concern that the tube will scoop up
debris from the sides of the casing as it isbeing inserted. Also, the tube itself may be
contaminated due to poor cleanliness control during handling and storage.
Large Flush Volume — The drop-tube method substantially increases the volume of fluid
that must be flushed in order to obtain a representative sample. For some small sump
systems, this results in nearly an oil change. Likewise, if the removed volume of fluid is not
replaced, the machine might be restarted with inadequate lubricant volume.
15
0
Particle Fallout — For most systems, a shutdown is required to deploy the

drop-tube method. This means that production must be disturbed for the sake
of oil sampling, or sampling frequency must suffer because of operations
priorities. Neither situation is ideal. Likewise, particles begin to settle and
stratify according to size and density immediately upon shutdown,
compromising the quality of oil analysis.
Machine Intrusion — The drop-tube method is intrusive. The machine must be
entered to draw a sample. This intrusion introduces the risk of contamination,
and there is always the concern that the machine might not be properly
restored to run-ready condition before startup.
15
1
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
The following are the best and worst applications for drop-
tube vacuum sampling:
Worst:
Gearbox and bearing sumps
Large reservoirs with poor circulation
Critical applications
Where reliable trends for particle counts, large-particle wear debris and
moisture are routinely required
Best:
Tank and reservoir sampling requirements
Crankcase oils, if a live zone sampling port is not available
Applications where particle counting, large-particle wear debris and moisture
trends are not required
15
2
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
In the case where drop-tube vacuum sampling must be used on circulating

systems, the best location to get the sample is between the return line and the
suction line
15
3
EQUIPMENTS SPACIFIC SAMPLING
Where to Sample – Wet Sump Systems, Comps and Engines etc?
15
4
15
5
15
6
15
7
SAMPLING BOTTLES HARDWARE
A representative sample is to make sure the sampling hardware is completely

flushed prior to obtaining the sample
It is important to flush five to 10 time the dead-space volume before obtaining
the sample.
All hardware that the oil comes into contact with is considered dead space and
must be flushed, including:
System dead-legs
Sampling ports, valves and adapters
Probe-on sampling devices
Adapters for using vacuum sample extraction pumps
Plastic tubing used for vacuum pumps (this tubing should not be reused to avoid cross-
contamination between oils)
15
8
SIZE
A number of different sizes of sample bottles are available. Bottle size varies from 50 milliliters
(or about two ounces of fluid) to 200 ml. The most common bottle size is 100 ml. Where a con-
siderable number of different tests are required, a 200 ml bottle (or two 100 ml bottles) may
be required
A general guideline for filling bottles is as follows:

Low Viscosity (ISO VG 32 or less) — Fill to approximately three-fourths of the total volume.
Medium Viscosity (ISO VG 32 to ISO VG 100) — Fill to approximately two-thirds of the total
volume.
High Viscosity (over ISO VG 100) — Fill to approximately one-half of the total volume.
15
9
SAMPLING BOTTLES /HARDWARE
MATERIAL
Bottles are available in several materials. Here is a review of the most common bottle materials:
Plastic Polyethylene
PET Plastic
Glass Bottles
16
0
Cleanliness
One of the most important considerations in selecting

sample bottle is to make sure it is sufficiently clean.
Determine the bottle's required cleanliness level in
advance. The bottle supplier should provide, with each
bottle order (or upon request), a certificate of
cleanliness that is based upon random testing of the
bottles per ISO 3722
Clean — Fewer than 100 particles greater than 10
microns per ml of fluid.
Super Clean — Fewer than 10 particles greater than
10 microns per ml of fluid
Ultra Clean — Less than 1 particle greater than 10
microns per ml of fluid.
Modern oil analysis programs typically specify bottles to

be 10 times cleaner than the fluid target cleanliness
for the same volume.
16
1
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
16
2
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
16
3
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
16
4
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
16
5
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
16
6
Important Tips for Effective Oil Sampling
To achieve "bull's eye" oil analysis data, where oil sampling and analysis produce the
most representative and trendable information, follow these basic sampling tactics:
Machines should be running in application during sampling. That means sampling
when machines are at normal operating temperatures, loads, pressures and
speeds on a typical day. If that is achieved, the data will be typical and
representative as well, which is exactly what is desired.
Always sample upstream of filters and downstream of machine components such
as bearings, gears, pistons, cams, etc. This will ensure that the data is rich in
information that properly reveals the health of the machine and contaminant
ingression. It also ensures that no data (such as particles) are being removed by
filters or separators.
Create specific "best practice" written procedures for each system sampled. This
ensures that each sample is extracted in a consistent and correct manner. Written
procedures also help new team members quickly learn the program.
16
7
OIL SAMPLING
Ensure that sampling valves and sampling devices are thoroughly flushed prior to taking the sample.
Vacuum samplers and probe-on samplers should be flushed, too, and if there are any questions about the
cleanliness of the bottle itself, it should also be flushed.
. Make sure that samples are taken at proper frequencies and that the frequency is sufficient to identify
common and important problems (more on this is coming). Where possible, especially with crankcase and
drivetrain samples, record the hours on the oil. This can be a meter reading or some other record
identifying the amount of time that the oil has been in the machine. If there has been any makeup fluid
added or any change to the oil such as the addition of additives, a partial drain or anything similar,
communicate this information to the lab.
Forward samples immediately to the oil analysis lab after sampling. The properties of the oil in the bottle
and the oil in the machine begin to drift apart the moment after the sample is drawn. Quickly analyzing the
sample helps insure that quality and timely decisions are made.
16
8
SAMPLING FRQUENCIES
Scheduled sampling intervals are common in oil analysis. The frequency may be keyed to drain intervals or operating
hours. Figure 417 lists commonly recommended intervals based on operating hours for different machine classes.
Proper selection of sampling frequency must be adjusted to consider the following machine and application-specific
criteria:
Penalty of Failure — Consider safety, downtime costs, repair costs and general business interruption costs. This
relates to the consequences of failure.
Fluid Environment Severity — Operation and fluid environment conditions influence the frequency and rate of failure
progress. These include pressures, loads, temperature, speed, contaminant ingression rate and system duty cycle
severity. This relates to the probability of failure.
Machine Age — For most machines, the chances of failure are greatest during break-in and after major repairs and
overhauls. Likewise, the risk increases as a machine approaches the end of its expected life. Increase sampling
frequency during these periods.
Oil Age — Infant oils and old oils are the highest risk. Infant oils are those that have been recently changed and are
less than 10% into remaining useful life (RUL). Occasionally, the wrong oil is put into the machine during a change, or
the new oil's condition is unsatisfactory for service (defective or mixed). Aged in-service oils can show trends that
suggest additive depletion, the onset of oxidation or high levels of contamination. Adjust sampling frequency
accordingly.
16
9
SAMPLING FRQUENCIES
Risk is often defined as the probability of failure multiplied by the consequence of failure. Oil sampling and analysis is a
means of controlling risk. This relates closely to how frequently we need oil analysis information (sampling frequency).
In the just-stated four criteria, A addresses the consequences of failure while B-D address the probability of failure.
They all have to be viewed collectively to make the best sampling frequency decision.
17
0
EQUIPMENT REGISTRATION
For those samples sent to outside oil analysis laboratories, complete and submit the necessary
machine registration information to the laboratory
Machine Identification Name or Number

Unit Type
Manufacturer and Model of Machine or Component
Fluid Manufacturer, Fluid Type (Name) and Grade (ISO or SAE, for instance)
Operating Conditions
Work Environment and Exposures
Lubricant Application Knowledge
Sample Bottle Labels and Identification
17
1
Labeling sample Bottles
Sample Bottle Labels and Identification

Here is a list of common information that needs to be supplied with the oil sample
(either on the label or in accompanying documentation):
Machine identification
Sample point
Date sampled
Hot or cold running conditions
Hour meter (or approximate level of machine usage since the last sample taken)
Last fluid change (hours on oil)
Last addition of makeup fluid and amount
Last major service, repair or overhaul
Last filter change
Reported machine/fluid abnormalities by operator or technician (foam in sightglass, varnish in reservoir, leakage,
bottom sediment, etc.)
Requested test slate, including any required special or exception tests
17
2
Which Oil Analysis strategy to adopt
17
3
WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS
WEAR
Wear is a progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid, brought

about by mechanical causes, i. e., by contact and relative motion of a solid,
fluid or gaseous counter body.
Signs of wear are small detached wear particles, material removal from
one friction body to the other, and material and shape changes of the
tribologicaly loaded material zone of one or both friction partners.
Wear Mechanisms
Wear processes can be classified into different types according to the type of tribological
load and the materials involved, e.g., sliding wear, fretting wear, abrasive wear, and material
cavitation. Wear is caused by a number of mechanisms, the following four being especially
important:
• Surface fatigue
• Abrasion
• Adhesion
• Cavitation
• Corrosion
Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear occurs whenever a solid object is loaded against particles of a material that
have equal or greater hardness.
A common example of this problem is the wear of shovels on earth-moving machinery. The
extent of abrasive wear is far greater than may be realized.
Any material, even if the bulk of it is very soft, may cause abrasive wear if hard particles
are present. For example, an organic material, such as sugar cane, is associated with
abrasive wear of cane cutters and shredders because of the small fraction of silica
present in the plant fibers.
A major difficulty in the prevention and control of abrasive wear is that the term ‘Abrasive
wear’ does not precisely describe the wear mechanisms involved.
Mechanisms of Abrasive Wear
It was originally thought that abrasive wear by grits or hard asperities closely resembled cutting
by a series of machine tools or a file.
Microscopic examination has revealed that the cutting process is only approximated by the
sharpest of grits and many other more indirect mechanisms are involved.
The particles or grits may remove material by micro cutting, micro fracture, pull-out of individual
grains or accelerated fatigue by repeated deformations as illustrated in Figure.
a)Cutting b)Fracture
a) Fatigue b) Grain Pull Out
Modes of Abrasive Wear
The way the grits pass over the worn surface determines the nature of abrasive wear. The
literature denotes two basic modes of abrasive wear:
Two-body abrasive Wear
Three-body abrasive wear.
Two-body abrasive wear is exemplified by the action of sand paper on a surface. Hard asperities
or rigidly held grits pass over the surface like a cutting tool.
In three-body abrasive wear the grits are free to roll as well as slide over the surface, since
they are not held rigidly.
The two and three-body modes of abrasive wear are illustrated schematically in Figure.
Two Body Mode
Three Body Mode

Adhesive Wear.
Engineering surface is never perfectly flat. The surface of a most highly polished engineering
component show irregularities or asperities.
When two such surfaces are brought into contact, the real contact actually occurs only at some high
asperities which is a small fraction, e.g. 1/100 of the apparent contacting area.
As a result, plastic deformation and intermetallic adhesion will occur, forming cold weld junctions
between the contacting asperities.
The strength of junction is determined by the surface structure and by the mutual solubility of two
contact metals.
The tendency of adhesion is the lowest for a pair of metals with almost zero mutual solubility, but this
is limited to very few metals. Most metallic materials show appreciable tendency of adhesion.
Adhesive wear occurs by material transfer
When two contact surfaces undergo relative movement, tearing must take place either at the (cold
weld) junction or inside the original materials depending on which is weaker.
If the strength of the adhesion junction is relatively low, as in the case of a contact pairs with low
mutual solubility, or metallic surfaces separated by oxide film, tearing will take place at the junction
and material loss during wear will be minimal.
If the strength of the adhesion junction is relatively low, as in the case of a contact pairs with low
mutual solubility, or metallic surfaces separated by oxide film, tearing will take place at the
junction and material loss during wear will be minimal.
This process is known as material transfer.
The transferred fragment is plastically deformed during continued action of sliding so that the
transferred materials frequently has a plate-like morphology. Multi-material transfer and plastic
deformation of the transferred material result in a layered surface morphology on the counter face
as shown in Fig.
Transferred layers of titanium alloy on a steel surface

Cavitation
This is a special form of erosion in which vapor bubbles in the fluid form in low-pressure regions
and are then collapsed (imploded) in the higher-pressure regions of the oil system.
The implosion can be powerful enough to create holes or pits, even in hardened metal if the
implosion occurs at the metal surface.
This type of wear is most common in hydraulic pumps, especially those which have restricted
suction inlets or are operating at high elevations.
Restricting the oil from entering the pump suction reduces the pressure on the oil and, thus,
tends to create more vapor bubbles. Cavitation can also occur in journal bearings where the fluid
pressure increases in the load zone of the bearing. No metal-to-metal contact is needed to
create cavitation.
Failure analysis is used to assign a wear mechanism to a specific failure. If the wear mechanism
can be determined, then some corrective action can be applied to prevent the failure from
recurring. Often, it can be useful to use the process of elimination to determine which wear
mechanisms could not have produced the observed wear pattern, thus reducing the number of
possible mechanisms. Unfortunately, combinations of wear mechanisms exist in most situations,
thus complicating the selection of the optimum wear-resistant system.
Corrosion Wear
Moisture corrosion involves material removal or loss by oxidative chemical reaction of the metal
surface in the presence of moisture (water).
It is the dissolution of a metal in an electrically conductive liquid by low amperage and may
involve hydrogen embrittlement. It is accelerated, like all chemical reactions, by increased
temperatures. No metal-to-metal contact is needed. It will occur with a full oil fluid film.
Corrosion is often caused by the contamination or degradation of lubricants in service.
Most lubricants contain corrosion inhibitors that protect against this type of attack.
When the lubricant additives become depleted due to extended service or excessive
contamination by moisture, combustion or other gases or process fluids, the corrosion
inhibitors are no longer capable of protecting against the acidic (or caustic) corrosive fluid and
corrosion-induced pitting can occur. The pits will appear on the metal surface that was exposed
to the corrosive environment.
Frictional corrosion
Is a general form of wear caused by loaded micromovements or vibration between contacting parts
without any water contaminant being present, although humidity may be necessary. It may also be
referred to as fretting wear. It includes both fretting corrosion and false brinelling, which in the past
were often considered to be the same mechanism.
Fretting corrosion
Is the mechanical fretting wear damage of surface asperities accompanied and escalated by
corrosion, mostly oxidation in air with some humidity present.
It occurs due to many oscillating micromovements at contacting interfaces between loaded and
mating parts in which the lubricant has not been replenished (an unlubricated contact).
Fretting corrosion occurs on many mechanical devices such as gear teeth and splines, not just
rolling element bearings, and can occur on surfaces other than the rolling contact.
In bearings, it is also associated with bearing fit on the shaft and in the housing.
Surface-initiated Fatigue
This begins with reduced lubrication regime and a loss of the normal lubricant film.
The oil film is reduced to boundary or a mixed regime. Some metal-to-metal contact and sliding motion
occurs. Surface damage occurs.
The high points of the metal surface asperities are removed, which initially appear as a matted or
frosted surface. This is not smearing, as in adhesion (discussed below). This type of surface damage is
usually visible with a magnification of three to five times.
The surface damage is coupled with the cyclic loading of the rollers rolling over the race. This creates
asperity microcracks and micros palling.
The cracks start at the surface and migrate down into the metal.
The cracks propagate and may intersect within the metal, and a piece of surface material is then
removed. Flaking, mechanical pitting and micropitting are other names used to describe spalling.
Surface fatigue can also occur as a result of plastic deformation (described below).
Contaminant particles in the oil enter the high-load rolling contact area between rollers and the race,
or between gear teeth, and cause some form of surface damage - a dent. Improper handling of
bearings can cause similar surface damage.
These round-bottomed dents often have a raised berm around their edges. The raised berm of
metal acts as a point of increased load or stress, or creates a reduced lubrication regime (mixed
or boundary), and leads to a lower surface fatigue life. Improved filtration reduces plastic
deformation, and therefore indirectly reduces the occurrence of surface fatigue.
Notice that the term "contact fatigue" is not used by ISO.
Mechanical causes of machine failure- oil wetted components
70% of equipment downtime is due to surface degradation - Corrosion and Wear
ROOT CAUSES MECHANISM CAUSES
water or other Water in oil, degraded oil, process

corrosive fluids contamination, coolant,
20% CORROSION chemically attacks and condensation…
weakens metal surfaces
3-Body Cutting damage

ABRASION from abrasive particles
Abrasive particles in oil, dirt,
secondary wear, process
between two moving
contamination…
surfaces
50% Inadequate lubrication- low

wear
ADHESION Damage from metal
viscosity oil or no oil, high
surfaces dragging over
temperature, excess load, slow
each other
machine speed…
Damage from micro- Misalignment, imbalance,

FATIGUE cracks caused by cyclic improper fit or assembly,
loading secondary damage…
ASLE Bearing Workshop, Rabinowicz, 1981

Wear debris analysis
Wear debris analysis (WDA) is an attempt to

WDA determine the condition of machinery through
the examination of the particles generated by
wear process.
Procedure steps
Obtain an oil sample from a machine.
The sample is then diluted with a solvent.
Draw the sample through a membrane filter or use a

magnetic separation technique such as the rotary particle
depositor to separate the solids from the fluid.
In the laboratory take a measured amount of the fluid and

deposit into a clean beaker.
Procedure steps
Wear debris analysis is a relatively simple procedure not requiring a
high skills level to perform.
Repeat the procedure at a decided time interval.
Even so the results give a direct indication as to the level of threat

and damage within industrial drives absent from some of the more
sophisticated techniques.
Microscopic Contaminant and Wear Particle Identification
When abnormal wear metals have been identified by other methods (including particle counting, elemental
spectroscopy and/or ferrous density analysis), a common and important exception test to perform next is
microscopic particle examination and identification. The most common version of the procedure is referred
to as analytical ferrography. Analytical ferrography involves the analysis of debris deposited onto a
ferrogram slide (aided by a magnet) or alternatively a filtergram membrane.
Using an optical microscope (typically with both bottom and top lighting), the particle morphology (shape),
color, size, reflectivity, surface appearance, edge detail, angularity and relative concentration provides the
analyst with clues about the nature, severity and root cause of the contaminant ingression or wear
problem. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) also can be used to examine particles as well as their
elemental composition using an Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) feature. Many ferrograms can be
heated on a hot plate to 330° C to help reveal the composition of particles.
Preparation Of Ferrogram
Heat Treatment
The heat can alter the color of the particle to reveal its composition. The following describes how some
particles change in color from heat exposure according to composition differences.
Copper Alloys: Yellow before and after heat treatment

Aluminum Alloys: Heat treat doesn't affect color
Stainless steel: Slight straw color when heated
Lead/Tin Babbitt: White color, mottled blue, purple when heated
Copper/Lead Babbitt: Yellow color; becomes yellow with blue/purple mottling when heated
Low-alloy steel (exposed to progressive heating):light tan » straw color » blue/violet » pale blue
RCA
It is important to determine the root cause of machine failure and abnormal wear problems so they can be
eliminated and to help you avoid recurrence. By combining information from analytical ferrography with
other lubricant analysis and maintenance technology evaluations.
The analyst attempts to answer the following questions:
Where in the machine does the contaminant or wear debris originate?
What is causing it?
How severe or threatening is it (residual life)?
Can the condition be mitigated or arrested without downtime or loss production?
Applicable standards: None
Wear Particle Progression to Failure
Wear Particle Concentration (WPC)
Catastrophic Failure
Advanced Failure Mode
• Large particles are the most

Onset of Severe Wear Mode indicative of progression to
advanced failure.
• Some failure modes generate
Benign Wear only large wear particles.
0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Wear Particle Size in µm (micrometers)

Wear Particle Size Detection Capability of Various
Techniques
Spectrometer Ferrography
100%
ICP/AAS RDE
Detection Efficiency, %
50%
0 1 10 100 1000
Wear Particle Size µm
203
Typical Elements for Lubricant
Iron
Aluminum
Chrome
Copper
Lead
Tin
Nickel
Silver
Silicon
Titanium
Vanadium
Sodium
Boron
Vanadium Magnesium
Potassium Calcium
Silicon Molybdenum
Boron Barium
Zinc
Phosphous
Elemental Spectroscopy
Elemental spectroscopy quantifies the presence of dissolved and some undissolved inorganic materials
by element in the oil. Nearly all elemental spectrometers used today for oil analysis are the atomic
emission type.
These instruments work by exposing the sample to extreme temperatures generated by an arcing
electrode commonly referred to as a rotating disc electrode (RDE).
Another common method uses an argon plasma torch to vaporize the sample. This is known as an
inductive coupled plasma spectrometer (ICP). Refer to Figure 5-22 for the basic anatomy of these
two common types of spectrometers. The extreme heat excites the atoms in the sample, causing
them to emit energy in the form of light. Each atomic element emits light at a specific frequency.
The spectrometer quantifies the amount of light generated at these frequencies, which is
mathematically translated into concentration of each element (iron, lead, tin, etc.) in parts per million
(ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
Most elemental spectrometers report the concentration of 15 or more elements.
The elements reported can provide an indication of increased generation of wear, ingress of
contamination or depletion of certain additive elements.
Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is particle-size limited. Dissolved metals and suspended particles
up to approximately 2 microns are detected with high accuracy. The accuracy diminishes as particle
size increases up to 5 microns. Elemental concentrations can be greatly understated for particles
larger than 5 microns.
Spectrometer
A less-common alternative method is X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF), which is not particle-
size limited like conventional AES spectrometers. SRF also doesn't require the sample to be in a
liquid form and is often used with grease, sludge, filter debris, magnetic plug debris, etc. However,
these instruments are hampered by the fact that they're lower limit of sensitivity ranges higher than
ICP and RDE technologies.
In other words, they can't measure and report low concentrations of calcium, chromium and copper
when compared to ICP and RDE. This is a non-standardized method in lubrication applications.
Increasing decreasing elemental concentration can signal a change in the generation of wear debris,
the ingress of contaminants and the addition or depletion of additives.
The information in Figure generally categorizes the common elements observed with oil analysis as
wear, contamination or additives.
Figure shows common concentration ranges of wear metals in different types of machines.
Diagnosing non-conforming elemental data:
An increase in the concentration of such elements as iron, copper, chromium, tin, aluminum and leads suggest
that abnormal wear is occurring. Further steps should include analysis of the debris with complementary testing
to determine its severity, nature, origin and root cause (See in fig.)
Increasing concentration of silicon, sodium, boron, calcium and magnesium can signal the ingress of
contamination. A lock-step increase in silicon and aluminum typically suggests dirt ingress, although
silicon also is the primary element found in anti-foaming additives (silicone), which can cause confusing
results. Increasing levels of sodium and boron may signal the ingestion of glycol-based coolant (see
Figure 5-26). Calcium and magnesium are often present when hard water is ingested due to spraydowns
or cooling system leaks, but they also are common elements found in engine oil additives.
Numerous elements are used in a multitude of additives. For instance, zinc and phosphorous are common
in anti-wear additives; sulfur, phosphorous and molybdenum are common components of extreme-pressure
additives; and calcium and magnesium are frequently components of engine oil alkalinity improvers.
Knowledge of the new oil baseline is critical to trending additive depletion with elemental spectroscopy (see
kin fig.)
Applicable standards: ASTM D4951 (ICP, additives), ASTM D5185 (ICP, additives, wear metals and
contaminants), ASTM D6595 (RDE, additives, wear metals and contaminants), and ASTM D730306 (metals
in grease by ICP)
Wear Metals and Possible Sources
Heat
Engine Bearing Gear Transmission Hydraulic Compressor Turbine
Exchanger
System
Cylinder Liners, Rolling element Bull gears, Gears, bearings, Pump, motor, Rotary Screw, lobes, Reduction gear,
Piston Rings, Valve Bearings: rollers pinions, case Brake bands, clutch, vanes, pump vanes, connecting shaft, bearings,
train, Crankshaft, (tungsten alloyed hardened teeth, shift spools, pumps, housing, cylinder rods, rocker arm, piping, case
steel), raceways and
rocker arms, spring locking pins power take off bores and rods, bearings, cylinders,
Iron gears, lock washers,
cages,
(PTO) servo valves, housing, shafts, roller
Journal Bearings:
nuts, pins, connecting Journal shaft, pistons bearings (see above)
rods, Engine Blocks, bearing Shoe backing oil pump, piston rings
Oil pump Locking keys
Valve train bushing, Rolling element Bushings, thrust Clutches, steering Pump thrust Cooler bearings, cylinder Bearings (see
Wrist pin bushing, Bearings: alloyed washers discs, bearings plates, bushings, tubes, guides, wear plates, bearing section)
Cam bushings, Oil element in cages, cylinder gland baffles, thrust washers, piping, coolers
Cooler core, Thrust Journal Bearings: guides, pump plates bearings (see above)
Copper washers, governor, journal bearing pistons, oil oil pump, oil coolers,
connecting rods pads, slinger rings, coolers thermostats,
bearings, valve gear Locking keys separator filters
train thrust buttons
Valve train bushing, Rolling element Bushings Clutches, steering Pump thrust bearings, separator Bearings
Wrist pin bushing, Bearings: alloyed discs, bearings plates, bushings, filters (see bearing
Cam bushings, Oil element in cages, Can be a residue
Cooler core, Thrust Journal Bearings: from catalyst in
section)
Tin washers, governor, journal bearing some oils piping,
connecting rods pads (babbited) (Quinto lubric coolers
bearings, valve gear series)
train thrust buttons
Engine blocks, pistons, Rolling element Bushings, thrust Bushings, clutches Cylinder gland Cooler Housing, bearings, Bearings(see
blowers, Oil pump Bearings: alloyed washers, grease (some) pump, tubes, cylinder guides, wear above) piping,
bushings, bearings element in cages, contamination motor pistons, baffles, plates, thrust washers, coolers
(some) Cam Locking keys oil coolers. plates bearings (see above), EHC Systems:
Aluminum
bushings(some) , Oil Aluminum oil pump, oil coolers Residue from
coolers (some) complex grease synthetic media
contaminant (alumina) filters
Wear Metals and Possible Sources (Cont.)
Engine Bearing Gear Trans- Hydraulic Heat Compressor Turbine
mission System Exchange
r
Rings, Liners, exhaust Rolling element Housing, bearings,
Chromium Bearings(some) Bearings, Cylinder Shaft coating
valves, zinc chromate Bearings: alloyed , shaft coatings, water liners, cylinder guides, (some)
from cooling system /coated element in some special treatment rods, wear plates, thrust bearings
inhibitor rollers, tapers gears are spools washers, bearings
chrome plated (see above), oil
pump, oil coolers
Lead Main Bearings, Rolling element Bearings, can Bearings Bearings Bearings
connecting rod Bearings: alloyed also be red
bearings. element in cages, lead paint
Lead can be present as Journal Bearings: flakes from
a contaminant from Major alloying gear case walls
Gasoline (Leaded gas) element in Babbitt
(Octane improver, bearings, alloying
anti-knock compound) elements
Silicon Engine blocks (alloying Rolling element Bushings, Brake shoes, Elastome Ingested dirt, Ingested dirt,
element with Bearings: alloyed thrust washer, clutch ric seals silicone sealant, silicone sealant,
aluminum parts), element with silicone sealant, plates, (some) bearings, cooler defoamant
ingested dirt from aluminum in cages defoamant ingested dirt pump, (alloyed with additive
breathers, external additive motor aluminum)
sources. Can also be pistons,
from defoamant oil
additive in lubricant coolers
Silver Bearings (alloying Bearings, Baffle &

element) wrist pins, oil tube
turbochargers (EMD coolers solder
railroad engines)
Nickel Valves, Valve guides, Rolling element Alloying Bearings, Bearings Bearings, shaft,
Cylinder liners, Bearings: alloyed element for servo reduction gears
Bearings. Can also be element in rollers, tool steel gears valve
from heavy fuel races plating
contamination pumps,
pistons
In-service Oil Analysis Tied with Maintenance Practices
• Condition Based Maintenance

• Predictive Maintenance
• Contamination Control • Condition Based Oil Change

• Proactive Maintenance • Extend Oil Change Interval
Condition Monitoring = Trend Analysis
Required Action
40 T est Warning Limit

Drain Oil Test
Projected
20 trend
Recom m ended
0 Action be taken
Norm al Result
Equipm ent Use Hours/Miles Variability
• Regular Oil Analysis is needed for an effective maintenance program.

• Oil Analysis results are plotted against operational hours.
• Actions needed based on the trending report
• Alert: Serious problem detected, Inspect ASAP
• Caution: An abnormality is present, Correct problem when possible
• Normal: No corrective action necessary
The objectives of used oil analysis
The objectives of used oil analysis are:
To evaluate the condition or age of oils that are in service,

To detect and measure harmful foreign suspensions (contaminants),
To evaluate the condition of the machine being lubricated.
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9
Reasons for Performing Oil Analysis
The following are examples of questions that may need to be answered:
Lubricant Type/Quality Questions:

Has the appropriate lubricant been specified?
Is the specified lubricant being used?

What is the quality and condition of newly delivered lubricants?
Have two incompatible greases or lubricants been mixed?
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0
Lubricant Health/Condition Questions:

Have any critical additives become depleted or impaired?
Has the base oil been damaged by oxidation, hydrolysis or thermal degradation?
Has there been a change in interfacial tension affecting air release, foaming and demulsibility properties?
Has the oil's viscosity changed due to evaporation, shear, radiation, contamination or various chemical
reactions?
What is the residual life of the lubricant?
Is a lubricant in a storage container fit for service?
Lubricant Contamination Questions:
Has the lubricant been cross-contaminated (mixed) with other fluids or lubricants?
Has the lubricant become contaminated with fuel, soot, dirt, water, process chemicals or coolant?
Has the lubricant been damaged by radiological contamination? Is it a hot sample?
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1
Wear and Fault Detection Questions:

Is there incipient evidence of abnormal wear?
Which component or machine surface is generating the wear?
What is the tribological cause of the wear?
Does the oil contain evidence of abnormal operational or mechanical wear conditions such as misalignment or over-loading?
How severe (advanced) or threatening is the wear?
Miscellaneous Failure Root Cause Questions:
Is the oil prone to laying down surface deposits, varnish and sludge?
Is the oil highly acidic with suspended corrosion agents?
Has there been sabotage or criminal activity associated with the condition of a machine and lubricants?
Does a new machine have manufacturing defects?
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2
Maintenance, Operations and Commissioning Questions:
Does a filter need to be changed or is there need to service a separator?

Is there internal or external leakage?
Has a machine been properly installed (commissioned)?
Is there a need to perform certain internal inspections during a shutdown period?
Has a bearing been over-greased or under-greased?
Is there evidence of abnormal operating temperatures, pressures or duty cycle?
Is it time to decommission a machine?
Has a machine been properly repaired or rebuilt?
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3
Fluid Properties Analysis
This category of oil analysis deals with the assessment of the chemical,
physical and additive properties of the oil. Its primary goals are to
define the remaining useful life (RUL) of the lubricant as well as to
confirm that the correct lubricant is currently being used. It also can
detect mixed lubricants.
22
4
Contamination Analysis — Contaminants are foreign energy or substances that enter a
lubricant and machine from the environment or are generated internally. Contamination
compromises machine reliability and promotes premature lubricant failure. Oil analysis
ensures that goal-driven targets for contamination control are maintained.
Wear Debris Analysis — When components wear, they generate debris in the form of
small particles. The lubricant is usually the first recipient of this wear debris due to its
close proximity to the Frictional surfaces where the debris was formed. Monitoring and
analyzing the generated debris enables technologists to detect and evaluate abnormal
conditions such that effective and timely maintenance decisions can be made and
implemented.
22
5
22
6
Particle Counting.
Particle Counting.
Particle counting is considered to be one of the most valuable test methods in fluid analysis, and its use dates back to the
1960s. The particle count test reports the number of particles above specified size ranges (in microns) per fluid volume
(usually per 1 ml or 100 ml). Also, particle concentration and distribution data may be expressed in terms of ISO 4406:99
Cleanliness Codes (Figure 5-2) or by other less frequently used codification systems such as the revised SAE AS 4059E
(formerly NAS 1638).
22
7
What follows are common causes for non-conforming particle count readings:
Sampling Error — Poor control over sampling procedures will result in false positive or false negative
particle count readings depending on the nature of the sampling process failure. It is always advised to
resample and retest when a high or low particle count is observed to eliminate sampling error from the list of
possible causes.
Instrument Error — A particle counter is subject to calibration-related errors like any instrument. Regularly
verify the calibration of the instrument.
Testing Procedure Error — You must aggressively agitate samples with a paint shaker or other suitable
method before testing commences to evenly disperse the particles in the oil. Likewise, when using an optical
particle counter, completely remove or dissolve entrained air and suspended water prior to testing.
Dirt Ingestion — Dirt entering the system through seals, breathers and new oil will lead to an increased
particle count
22
8
Filter Failure — When a filter is full and in bypass, or fails in some way, the particle count will increase. Diagnose
this according to the flow chart in Figure 5-5.
Generated Wear — When machine components are abraded or fatigued, wear particles are released into the oil,
causing an increase in particle count. Diagnose this according to the flow chart in Figure 5-5.
22
9
Proactive and Predictive uses for Particle Counting
Proactive Maintenance:
1. Routinely verify that in-service oils are within targeted cleanliness levels
2. Check the cleanliness of new oil deliveries
3. Quickly identify failed or defective filters

4. Confirm that seals and breathers are effectively excluding contaminants
5. Confirm that systems are properly cleaned and flushed after repair
6. Confirm that new hydraulic systems are cleaned and flushed before use (roll-off cleanliness)
7. Identify the improper use of dirty top-up containers and poor maintenance practices
8. Identify the need and timing for portable filtration systems
23
0
Predictive Maintenance:
1. Identify early stage abnormal machine wear

2. Identify the location/source of abnormal wear by multi-point isolating methods
3. Verify the effectiveness of corrective maintenance and botched repair jobs

4. Monitor machine break-in progress by wear particle generation
5. Identify abnormal rust and corrosion debris generation
6. Serve as an effective screen for wear debris analysis (e.g., analytical ferrography)
Applicable particle count standards: ISO 11171, ISO 4406, ISO 11500, ASTM D6786, FTM 3012, FTM
3010, ISO 4407, BS 3406 and ISO/DIS 21018
23
1
Viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow under gravitational forces. It is
determined by measuring the time, in seconds, required for a fixed volume of fluid to flow a known distance by
gravity through a capillary within a calibrated viscometer at a closely controlled temperature (ASTM D445 or ISO
3105). This value is converted to standard units such as centistokes (cSt) or square millimeters per second (mm-
'/sec). Viscosity reporting is only valid when the temperature at which the test was conducted also is reported
— e.g., 32 cSt at 40° C (see Figure 5-6).
23
2
Viscosity Grade
The most crucial property of the lubricant!
It affects both wear and energy

consumption!
Viscosity grading-
Any of a number of grading systems which characterize lubricants
according to viscosity for particular application, such as industrial oils,
gear oils, automotive engine oils, automotive gear oils and aircraft piston
engine oils
Examples: ISO VG32, SAE 5W-30
23
3
Temperature and Viscosity Monograde vs Multi-grade
23
4
Kinematic Viscosity Units and Relationships
Kinematic Viscosity (ASTM D445)

A measure of the oil’s resistance to flow and shear with respect to the forces of gravity
1 mm²/s = 10² stoke (st) = 1 centistoke (cSt)
Standard in Oil Industry: Kinematic Viscosity quoted at Primary at 40°C

Secondary at 100°C
Relationship:
Dynamic viscosity = Kinematic Viscosity x Density
Or cP = cSt x SG (Specific Gravity)
23
5
Absolute Viscosity Units and Relationships
Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity

ASTM D2983 (Low temp Viscosity of lubricants measured by rotational Viscometer)
A measure of the oil’s resistance to flow and shear
1 milliPascal second (mPa-s) = 10¯³ Pa-s = 10²(cP)
Relationship
Dynamic Viscosity = Kinematic Viscosity x Density
or cP = cSt x SG (Specific Gravity)
Note: US Viscosity term – Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). Which is the time in seconds for 60 milliliters of oil
to flow through a standard orifice at a given temperature. (ASTM Designation D88-56.)
23
6
Viscosity Index (VI) – Operational Information
A commonly used measure of a fluid’s change of viscosity with

temperature
The higher the viscosity index, the smaller the relative change in viscosity
with temperature
Typical VI ranges
Common Mineral Oils
Hydrotreated/Hydrocracked 120
MO’s Polyalphaolefines PAO
Silicones
VI can be modified with the use of additives called VI Improvers.
Guidelines Values:
Factory 60-100 Outdoors 95-130 Extreme Cold 130-170+
Tables for calculating VI from the measured kinematic viscosity of an oil at 40°C and 100°C are referenced in ASTM D2270
23
8
Viscosity Index (VI) – Operational Information
The ISO Viscosity Grade is

the same, but the VI differs.
The Oil with higher VI would have lesser

Don’t Ignore Viscosity Index When relative change in viscosity for varying
Selecting a Lubricant temperatures as compared to Oil with
lowerVI
Which Oil to Select ? Which Oil is Good?

Comparative Viscosity Grades
Institute of Reliability
Centered Maintenance
SAE Automotive Viscosity Classification
SAE (Society of Automobile Engineers) has allocated classification for specifying the viscosity of Engine Oils.
The SAE grades 0W through 25W, where W stands for winter, have a maximum viscosity specified at low temperature (-5
through -35°C), to ensure easy starting under low temperature conditions and a minimum viscosity requirement at 100°C to
ensure satisfactory lubrication at the final operating temperature . The SAE grades 20 through 60 only have limits set at 100°C
as these grades are not intended for use under low temperature conditions
For marine applications, mono-grade oils of SAE 30 or 40 are used because of the steady operating conditions in a ship’s engine room
On the other hand, automotive oil’s are normally formulated with Viscosity Index Improvers (VI Improvers) to provide multi-grade
performance. VI Improvers are very large molecules, which are chemically made by linking together smaller molecules in a process called
polymerization. The resulting products, called polymers, may have molecular weight 1000 times or more greater than the base stock
molecules. The use of these special polymers makes it possible to meet both the low temperature viscosity requirement of the W grade as
well as the high temperature requirement of the non-W grades. Thus a SAE 20W 40 has the low temperature viscosity value of a SAE 20W
oil at low temperature and the high temperature viscosity of a SAE 40 oil at the higher temperature.
Different tests are completed to establish the viscosities for different operating regimes. Tests are completed for low temperature
·Pumping in engines starting at low temperature
·Lubricating the crankshaft bearing at low temperature
·Lubricating the engine at normal operating temperatures
Viscosity.
Most industrial lubricants are classified according to ISO standardized viscosity grades (ISO 3448). As
shown in Figure 5-7, the midpoint of each viscosity grade is a 50% increment above the previous
grade (with some rounding). For instance, the ISO VG 15 is 50% higher than the previous grade of 10,
and so forth. The viscosity grades are based on kinematic viscosity at 40° C. An oil is said to be "in
grade" if its viscosity is within +1- 10% of the midpoint viscosity at 40° C.
24
2
Viscosity Index (VI) and Multi-Grades – VI Improvers Additives
SAE Engine Oil Viscosity Grades
SAE Gear Oil Viscosity Grades
Viscosity Effects
Viscosity affects equipment operation, friction losses and the oil film thickness in bearings. Its
measurement and trending is, therefore, critical to used oil analysis. Even modest changes in viscosity
may adversely influence the lubricant's performance and stability, possibly causing metal-to-metal
contact and wear. Change in a lubricant's viscosity also is a common symptom of a host of other
problems. As such, a viscosity trend excursion may be the first symptom of a far more serious problem.
The rate of viscosity change from oil degradation depends on the presence of thermal and oxidative
stressing agents that are in the system. These include heat, water contamination, metal particles (metal
catalysts) and air entrainment.
Oil oxidation causes viscosity to increase from synthesis and polymerization of oil molecules.
24
6
A change in viscosity can result from a host of other root causes, such as the following:
Excessive amounts of contamination, such as water, fuel, glycol and solvents

Hydrolysis (from water contamination) of ester-based synthetic lubricants (lowers viscosity)
Volatilization of the light ends of the base stock (increases the viscosity)
Topping up with the incorrect viscosity grade
Severe mechanical shearing of the oil (lowers viscosity)

Water content
Flash point or fuel dilution tests
Elemental spectroscopy (for contaminants like glycol, reactive metals, wrong oil)
Oxidation stability
Neutralization number for chemical degradation

Infrared spectroscopy and other tests for oxidation, volatilization,
chemical contamination, wrong oil and/or mechanical shearing
Applicable standards: ASTM D445, ISO 3105 and ISO 3448 24

7
Investigate the source of viscosity change by analyzing under- or over-limit viscosity according to the flow model described in Figure 58. As
required, refer to the following tests as collateral information to determine the root cause of the problem:
24
8
SAE Engine Oil Viscosity Grades
Viscosity, Viscosity Index – What causes change ?
Target Limits
Engine Oils – New Oil KV100: either -10% or +20% Industrial Oils – New Oil KV40: either -10%
or +10% Tighten these limits for severe operating conditions.
Cause of Viscosity Machine Problems associated with

Drop: wrong Viscosity
•Wrong Oil
•Shearing • Higher Temperatures
•Thermal Cracking • Increased wear rates
•Fuel / Solvents • Cavitation risks
Cause of Viscosity Rise: • Aeration risks
• Wrong Oil
• Thermal Failure • Increased leakage risks
• Oxidation • Oil Whip / Whirl
• Water
• Glycol • Poor Oil flow
• Soot • Increased pressure drops
Summary of the Basic Rules Of Viscosity Selection (Important)
The lower the starting and/or operating temperature, the lighter or thinner the selected oil should be.
The higher the starting or operating temperature, the heavier or thicker the selected oil should be.
The higher the load a component is subjected to, the heavier or thicker oiil should be.
The lighter the load a component is subjected to, the lighter or thinner the oil should be .
The faster the operating speed for a piece of equipment, the lighter or thinner the oil should be. The slower the
operating speed for a piece of equipment , the heavier or thicker the oil should be.
There is no advantage in using heavier oil than is needed. In fact, it can be a disadvantage.
Remember, too low (thin or light) = Metal-to-metal contact(friction and wear), poor sealing and increased oil
consumption·Too high(thick or heavy) = Increased fluid friction , reduced energy efficiency, higher operating
temperatures and equipment starting difficulties particularly at cold temperatures.
Grease Consistency
Grease consistency is its ability to resist deformation by an applied mechanical force

(penetration by a cone).
An important characteristics of grease is its thickness or consistency. Grease

consistency can vary from a solid to a semi-fluid consistency. The National Lubricating
Grease institute (NLGI) has a numbering system to classify greases. A standardized
ASTM test (D217) using a cone of a specific weight (102.5g) that is allowed to sink into
the grease for 5 seconds at 25°C is used to measure consistency
But don’t forget viscosity is still an issue
Grease Viscosity Selection
But don’t forget the viscosity of grease is still an issue….
Grease Selection and Importance of Properties
Type of Component
LubricantProperty Plain Rolling ClosedGears Open Gears, Clock and Hinge, Slides
Journal Bearing Ropes, Chains,etc Instruments , Latches,etc.
Bearing Pivots
1.Boundary lubricating 1 2 3 2 2 1
properties
2.Cooling 2 2 3 _ _ _
3.Friction or torque 1 2 2 _ 2 1
4.Ability to remain in bearing 1 2 _ 1 3 1
5.Ability to seal out _ 2 _ 1 _ 1

contaminants
6.Temperaturerange 1 2 2 1 _ 1
7.Protection against 1 2 _ 2 _ 1
corrosion
8.Volatlity 1 1 _ 2 2 1
Note: The relative importance of each lubricant property in a particular class of component is indicative on a scale of 3 = highly important to - = quite
important. Reference: Neale, M.J. , Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterwiorth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford England
Volatility – Safety/Operational Related Information
Volatility (NOACK)
The NOACK Volatility Test, known as ASTM D-5800, determines the evaporation loss of lubricants in high-temperature
service.
Determines the gravimetric loss of formulated lubricants when exposed to 250°C for one hour.
(ATSM D5800 / DIN 51581, Grease ASTM D2595).
Volatility – the smaller base oil molecules tend to evaporate off at high temperatures
resulting in:
•High oil consumption
•Increased viscosity of the remaining oil
•Increased consistency (thickness) of greases
•Safety and health risks from poor air quality
Volatility is reduced the higher the API Base Stock Group (III>II>I) The test is usually applied to
automotive and gear oils.
The lower the result the better as it shows less oil is lost through vaporization from the sump. A good result is less than
3.5%
Pour Point – Operational Information
The Pour Point is the lowest temperature at which an oil or distillate fuel is observed to flow, when
cooled under conditions prescribed by test method ASTM D 97.
The pour point is 3°C (5°F) above the temperature at which the oil in a test vessel shows no
movement when the container is held horizontally for fiveseconds
Pour Function: How it works: Prevents Typical Formulation:

Point the crystallization of the Alkylated wax napthalene,
Depres Lowers the natural pour points waxes by modifying the polymethacrylates,
sant temperature. interface between the alkylated wax phenol.
Additiv wax and the oil.
es
Role of Additives
Additives Purpose How it works Compounds used
Foam Inhibitors Prevents the formation Weakens the bubbles Methyl silicone and
of foam and aerated and allows them to organic polymers.
oils. break and dissipate
rapidly.
Viscosity Index (VI) Increase the VI allowing The additive expands at Ethylene
Improvers for multi-seasonal higher temperature, propylene
performance. slowing down the copolymers,
thinning rate of the oil. polymethecrylate
s.
Dispersants Disperses sludge Additive envelopes Succinimides and
particles to prevent the particulate and other organic
cluster formation, keeps it finely compounds.
settling and deposits. divided.
Detergents Prevents surface Prevent deposit by Ogano-mettalic soaps

deposits, and are over lifting them from the of barium, calcium
based to neutralize surfaces. and magnesium.
harmful acids from
combustion.
Role of Additives – Anti-Oxidants and Corrosion Inhibitors
Additives Purpose How it works Compound used
Corrosion Inhibitors Reduce rust formation Additives is metallophilic Long chain fatty acids,
on iron surfaces and hydrophobic. Coats Naphtalene sulphorates,
metal surfaces and rejects Phosphoric acid
moisture. derivatives
Anti-Oxidants and Inhibit reaction with oxygen Additives oxidizes in Hindered Phenols,
Oxidation Inhibitors preference to the oil by Zinc
seeking out free radicals dithiophosphates,
and peroxides. Aromatic Amines
R & O oils = Oils with Rust and Oxidation Inhibitors
The Life Cycle of Oil
LUBRICANTS FAILURE MECHANISM
OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION
THERMAL DEGRADATION
ADDITIVE DEPLETION/DEGRADATION
Oxidative Degradation
Oxidation is the primary mechanism of lubricant degradation. It is also
widely known that oxidized oil can’t effectively lubricate machines
Oxidation is the reaction of oil molecules with oxygen molecules. It can

lead to an increase in viscosity and the formation of varnish, sludge and
sediment. Additive depletion and a breakdown in the base oil can also
result. Once an oil starts to oxidize, you may see an increase in the acid
number. In addition, rust and corrosion can form on the equipment due to
oxidation.
Thermal Degradation
The temperature of the lubricant should be a primary concern. Besides

separating the moving parts within a piece of machinery, a lubricant must
also dissipate heat. This means the lubricant can and will be heated above
its recommended stable temperature. The Arrhenius rate rule for
temperature states that for every 18 degrees F (10 degrees C), the chemical
reaction doubles. In other words, for every increase of 18 degrees F for
your oil, the life of the oil is cut in half. Keeping the oil as cool as possible
when in use will extend its life and reduce the reaction of thermal
breakdown.
ADDITIVES DEGRADATION
Additives are essential for modern oils, but have their limitations
•Additives do not all last forever, they are there to do a job.
•Once used, the additives are usually changed irreversibly,

and are of no further use.
•It is important to monitor the strength of additives in bulk quantity oils that are under
condition based replacement strategy.
There are three ways for additives to be removed from a system

•Decomposition
•Separation
•Adsorption
Additive Depletion – Decomposition and Separation
Additives can be separated from the oil by “Decomposition”

resulting in acid formation.
• Neutralization (base/detergents)
• Shear Down (chemical splitting)
• Thermal Degradation
• Hydrolysis (in presence of water and heat)
• Oxidation
Additives can be “separated” or removed from the oil by “Mass

Transfer”
• Conventional Evaporation and form vacuum dehydration units
• Filtration – Solid particles which cannot be dissolved
• Condensation setting – dead spot, large sump, downtime and storage
• Centrifugation – High centrifugal forces can remove dense additives
• Aggregate Adsorption – removes polar additives in absorptive media such a
fuller’s earth
Additive Adsorption
Additives can attach, embed or dissolve out of the oil

• Rubbing Contact – Friction modifier additives form soap like boundary films on
active metal surfaces
• Particle Scrubbing – Additives attach to particles and are lost in the filter or sump
• Water Washing – Water drags additive to sump floor or is removed with the water
• Surface Absorption – Polar additives adhere to fresh machine surfaces
Typical Additive Depletion Causes
Causes Depletion Mechanism Affected Additives
Excessive heat and oxidation reaction – Sacrificial additives decompose in the Anti-oxidants, oxidation inhibitors and some
heat, air, water and weardebris. presence of reactive compounds. anti-wear additives (ZDDP).
Particle scrubbing – high solid and wear Polar particles with surface active additives Anti-oxidants, friction modifier additives, rust
debris levels. are removed by filtration and setting. & corrosion inhibitor, detergent & dispersants.
Water washout & Hydrolysis Polar water attracts additives which are lost Rust & corrosion inhibitor, emulsifiers,
when the water is removed. Also water dispersants, some anti-oxidants and
react with some additives. anti-wear (ZDDP).
Boundary lubrication – abrasion & poor film The higher the AW film removal rate, the Anti-oxidants, AW, EP and rust & corrosion
strength. higher the rate of additive depletion. inhibitor.
Diesel engine combustion by- products – Sulphuric acid contamination form the fuel Alkalinity improvers (detergents,
blow-by, fuel dilution, poor quality fuel. neutralise the over-based dispersants and detergents.
additives. Dispersants suspend soot
partCiocplyerisgh.t
Oxidation of Oils – Oil Aging
•The 4 Catalysts of Oxidation:
Heat, Air, Water & Metal Catalysts
Oxidation = Leads to Varnish formation, Increased viscosity, acids and oils darkening
Oxidation - Lubricating molecules reacting with oxygen (more dominating)
Thermal Decomposition - Molecular cracking at high temperature (less dominating)

What is Oil Varnish?
Varnish – the cholesterol in machinery
• Varnish is the Oxidation degradation by product of mineral based lubricants which exists in Oil in Soluble and
Insoluble form depending on the temperature and saturation level of oil.
•Conventional filtration is often ineffective in removing the Soluble content of varnish.
• Caused by carbonization, oxidation, static discharge, micro-dieseling, chemical incompatibility creating insoluble and
soluble material.
• The technology that can remove both the Soluble + Insoluble content of Varnish is only effective in controlling the
Oil Varnishing problems.
Varnish issues
•Causes sticking of moving parts
•Coating of metal surfaces
•Hydrodynamic bearing failures
•Plugging of small orifices, oil ways and filters
•Thermal efficiency loss in coolers
•Abrasive particles can stick to varnish
Institute of Reliability Centered Maintenance

Common Problems due to Oil Varnishing
• Sticking of Servo Valves and IGVs in the Hydraulic circuit of GTs.

• Increased Bearing temperatures on thrust and Journal Bearings.
• Increased Oil temperature due to poor heat dissipation in the Oil coolers.
• Frequent Oil filter choking
• Increased Wear in the Load Gears
• Trips and Re-start problems in peaking turbines.
• Premature Bearing failures due to Varnish deposits.
• Oil Varnishing directly impacts the availability and reliability of the Turbines and Compressors.
• Reduced clearance zones affecting lubrication regimes. This often means a transition from hydrodynamic
lubrication to mixed or boundary conditions, both of which increase wear rates of pumps, bearings and
gears.
• Increased friction in components. This friction results in higher energy requirements and can cause
valves to stick or seize.
• Higher operating temperatures. Varnish acts as an insulator, lowering the effect of heat exchangers and
reducing the ability of the lubricant to cool.
• Restriction or impedance of oil flow. Varnish can cause valves, strainers, filters and small orifices to clog.
• Increased wear rates. Varnish captures hard contaminants, creating an abrasive surface that accelerates
wear.
Varnished surfaces often appear like sandpaper wChoeynrighetxAassmetiRnleidbiliutnLdLer a microscope.

GE – Technical Information Letter 1528-3 Nov 2005
• In 2005, GE reported that 1/3 large frame gas turbines had experienced varnish
problems with One trip in the last 12 months due to oil varnishing.
• Because this condition affects the availability and reliability of GTs, GE
recommends the use of varnish removal system.
• All users are expected to have varnish issues over time
• GE recommends use of Varnish removal skids to control Varnish problems
Base Oil Types
• Until year 2000 – Group 1 Base Oils (Solvent Refined)

• From 2000 to 2010 – Group 2 Base Oils (Hydrotreated)
• 2010 onwards – Group 3 Base Oils (Hydrocracked)
Note: Most of the present Turbine Oils are made of Group 3 BaseOils
Oxidation Stability and Base Oil Groups

Group 1 Oils + (Higher tendency to hold the contaminations in solution) high aromatic compounds
Group 2 Oils ++ (Lower tendency to hold the contaminations in solution ) lower aromatic compounds
Group 3 Oils +++ (Lowest tendency to hold the contaminations in solution) low aromatic compounds due to highly
refined.
Oil Filtration Technologies - Limitations
Performance Testing – Oxidation stability
Test Purpose How it Works Typical Results

Rotating Pressure Vessel To determine the Oil is subjected to 150 deg The higher the result, the
Oxidation Test ASTM lubricant’s resistance to C, Oxygen at 6.2 bar, better, usually >700
D2272 (Formerly RBOT) oxidation and sludge in copper and water. The minutes.
Turbine, Hydraulic, Gear time taken to absorb the
and Compressor Oils Oxygen is measure in
minutes.
Grease Oxidation To show the Oxidation Grease is subjected to 100 The lower the psi dropthe
Stability test ASTM D942 stability of high deg C and Oxygen better. A good result is 0.2
temperature and long introduced at 7.6 bar. The bar drop.
service life grease used for drop in pressure (or Oxygen
machine parts storage, not take up) is reported after
for in-service use. 100 hours.
Turbine Oil Oxidation Test To report the Oxidation Oil is subjected to 95 deg C, The higher the number of
(TOST) Oil stability of turbine Oils Oxygen at 3 L/hr, Copper hours the better, or the
- ASTM D943 Grease – ASTM and Water. The time taken lower the AN after a set
D2893 to reach an acid number of time the better. Typically
2.0 is measured in hours. low values are 1500 hrs
The AN may also be and a high value 10000 hrs.
reported after a specified
time.
Factor affecting lubricant service life
Factors Affecting • Additive Strength

• Machine metallurgy
Service Life: • Aeration
• Oil Top-up or leakage rates
• Moisture or sediment levels
• Cross-contamination of oils
• Sludge or Sediment level
• Storage Conditions
• Temperature
• Cleanliness
• Wear rates
ASTM Copper Strip Values
Acid Number (AN).
This method is primarily used for non-crankcase industrial lubricants. The acid number (AN) is a measure of the
acid concentration of the oil. It does not measure acid strength (like pH). The AN is a titration test method, and results
are expressed as the volume (milligrams) of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acidic
components in one gram of sample oil. The reported unit is mg KOH/gm of oil. AN can be quantified by either
colorimetric (color change) or potentiometric (electrical voltage change) titration methods (see Figure 5-9). For
dark-colored oils, use the latter method.
28
9
Acid Number (AN).
Some of the oil's additives (i.e., anti-rust and anti-wear additives) are slightly acidic and can produce a
rather high initial AN value. Over time, this value can decrease as additives begin to deplete. As the oil
ages and oxidizes, small amounts of organic acids begin to accumulate in the oil, causing the AN to
increase. The amount of AN increase over and above the new oil's baseline is an indication of the degree
to which the oil has degraded (or became contaminated by acids). A high AN typically indicates the oil's
useful life has expired and it needs to be changed. For mineral oils and many synthetics, an AN above 4.0
is highly corrosive, risking attack of metal surfaces. Strong acids can enter an oil from contamination;
these include sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric and phosphoric. Corrosive damage risk is
increased in the presence of water contamination, which strengthens the corrosive potential of acids.
29
0
Causes
A slow increase in AN over a long period of use is considered normal for certain lubricants.
However, once an upper limit is reached, the oil will need to be changed. In other lubricants, any
significant change in AN is reportable and may be a cause for concern.
Rapid change in AN may be due to one or more of the following events:

Severe oxidation of oil.
Depletion of some additives (anti-wear, EP and rust-preventing).
Large makeup of the incorrect oil such as anti-wear hydraulic oils or gear oils that have high baseline AN
values.
29
1
AN test,
Like the AN test, the BN test is performed by colorimetric or potentiometric titration

(usually potentiometric due to the darkness of engine oil) (see Figure 5-9). But in
the case of the BN, the alkaline oil is neutralized with hydrochloric (preferred for used
oil analysis) or perchloric acid. Results are reported in mg KOH/gram of oil, same as
the AN test, which can be confusing. The result is actually a derived value that
represents the volume of KOH (potassium hydroxide) that is required to neutralize
the volume of BN reagent acid (hydrochloric acid) that is required to neutralize the
reserve alkalinity of the sample being tested. In this way, the units are synchronized
(i.e., one unit of BN neutralizes one unit of AN).
29
2
. Employ the following collateral test as required to determine the problem's root cause:
Elemental spectroscopy
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
Moisture detection or quantification
Viscosity
Rotating pressure vessel oxidation test (RPVOT)
Linear sweep voltametry
Applicable standards: ASTM D664, ASTM D974, ASTM D1534 (transformer oils) and ASTM D3339
29
3
Base Number (BN)
Applied primarily to engine crankcase applications, the BN measures

the reserve alkalinity of an oil. Engine oils are equipped with over-
based additives (high alkalinity) that can neutralize the acids that are
generated during combustion and enter the crankcase oil from blow-
by. Once the reserve alkalinity is depleted through normal
consumption as the oil ages, the oil can become highly corrosive.
29
4
BN numbers trend steadily downward as the oil's reserve alkalinity is depleted by acids from combustion and base oil oxidative.
Rapid change in BN may be caused by one or more of the following:
Burning high-sulfur fuel
Abnormal fuel dilution
Poor combustion
Excessive blow-by
Hot running conditions
Severe oxidation
Overextended drain interval
Wrong oil addition
Glycol contamination
Interpret BN numbers according to the flow model on Figure 5-11. If BN numbers change rapidly, determine the root cause and enact
corrective actions.
Applicable standards: ASTM D974, ASTM D2896, ASTM D4739 and ASTM D5984-96
29
5
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy.
29
6
29
7
29
8
Ferrous Density is used for determining the concentration of large ferrous
debris.
An, increase in the population of large (greater than 5 microns) ferrous
particles usually suggests the presence of an abnormal wear condition and
should serve as a warning of impending failure.
Causes
Contamination, poor lubrication and adverse mechanical conditions are the
usual causes of high ferrous particles
29
9
Ferrous Density
30
0
Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test
(RPVOT).
This test method (also known as the rotating bomb oxidation test) utilizes an
oxygen-pressured vessel (bomb) to evaluate the oxidation stability of the
sample oil at high temperatures in the presence of water and a copper catalyst
coil. The vessel is charged with oxygen to a pressure of 620 kPa (90 psi),
placed in a constant-temperature oil bath at 150° C, and rotated axially at 100
rpm at an angle of 30 degrees. The number of minutes required to reach a
specific drop in gauge pressure for a used oil is compared to the reference
number of minutes required for a new oil.
30
1
(RPVOT).
Applicable standard: ASTM D2272
30
2
(RPVOT).
If the oxidative life is normal or in a safe range, no additional testing or

action is required. If the RUL is abnormal (short), consider the following
corrective actions
•Reduce oxidative stress (heat, air, water and reactive metals)

•Upgrade base oil quality
•Upgrade the oil's antioxidant additive package (confirm effectiveness by
laboratory testing first)
•Change the oil or do a partial drain and fill
Applicable standard: ASTM D2272
30
3
WATER BY KARL FISCHER
The Karl Fischer test is a titration method to measure water in oil. It is

usually performed after the sample is screened with the hot plate "crackle
test" or by FTIR as a cost-saving measure
In the volumetric test (see Figure 5-19), the oil is titrated with a standard
iodine containing Fischer reagent to an electrometric end point. The
accuracy of the test is affected by the presence of sulfur-containing
additives such as detergents, anti-wear agents, rust inhibitors and EP anti-
scuffing agents. Many labs prefer the coulometric method combined with
co-distillation to eliminate the risk of additive interferences.
30
4
WATER BY KARL FISCHER
When water is detected, diagnose the aberrant condition according to the flow model in
and identify and eliminate the source of the water ingress.
If high water content is caused by accidental contamination (with new oil), review the
existing makeup procedure to avoid similar problems in the future.
Ensure that there are no air leaks bypassing the reservoir's cover seals and that the vapor
extraction fans are operating properly. With regard to the Fans, too low of a vacuum can
cause a buildup of humidity, whereas too high of a vacuum can pull in more gland steam
or cause oil carryover.
Check the oil coolers for leaks. To detect cooler leaks, the cooling water discharge at the
coolers also should be checked for traces of the oil. Also, review the inventory control
(i.e., make-up) to determine if the oil use has been higher than normal. If the leak can't
be detected, charge the system with pressure in isolated segments and look for a pressure
drop to indicate the leaking area.
Applicable Karl Fischer standards: ASTM D1744-volumen tric (withdrawn but still in active use) and
ASTM D6304-98-coulometric
30
5
WATER DIAGNOSIS
30
6
Flash Point Test and Fuel Dilution
The flash point, when used to analyze used oils, can identify the
presence of volatile molecules from fuel and other flammable
contaminants. A lubricant's flash point is the lowest temperature
at which an ignition source (small flame) applied to the oil's
surface causes the vapors of the lubricant to ignite under
specified conditions.
Many laboratories simply test up to a specified temperature,
say 20° C below the oil's normal flash point. If the oil flashes
at this lower temperature, it can be reliably assumed that it has
been diluted with fuel or another low-boiling-point flammable
liquid. This pass/fail use of the flash point test reduces the
time to perform the test as well as its cost
30
7
Flash Point Test and Fuel Dilution
30
8
SPECTROSCOPY
30
9
PARTICLE QUANTIFICATION
31
0
PARTICLE QUANTIFICATION
31
1
31
2
31
3
31
4
31
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PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION USING
LASER NET FINES
31
6
FILTER GRAM ANALYSIS
31
7

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Trainer:

Muhammad Zeeshan Mazhar

• Shareholder Value – pressure to increase profit margins

Maintenance is a set of organised activities that are carried out in order to

Should be carried out

Fixed Time Design Out

If it isn't broke, don’t fix it

No money spent on maintenance until machine or structure stops working

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Control is lost when breakdown maintenance is employed.

The plant reacts or responds to equipment failures rather

Time Driven Maintenance

Elapsed Time Hour of Operations

Bath Tub Curve

Time between maintenance decided on statistical data

Preventative maintenance is defined as regularly scheduled repair of

It may consist of:

Preventative maintenance is time based intervention according to a

The unfortunate reality is that there is a high probability of failure

The concept of Calendar-Based Maintenance

The drawback of predictive maintenance is that it depends heavily

GETTING TO THE ROOT OF PROBLEM

Elimination of conditional failures through the identification of

It commissions corrective actions aimed

Designed to extend the life of

Proactive Maintenance Strategy Predictive Maintenance

Root Causes It Looks For! Failure Symptoms & Faults

Balancing/Alignment Tools Example Wear Debris Analysis

Fault Free Machine Benefits Early detection of Faults &

• What is common factor in the above 4 reasons ?

Refurbish after a given interval – scheduled Overhaul (restoration)

Measure its condition and intervene before performance becomes

Check to see it has not failed (applicable to hidden failures). –

Repair it when it fails – run to failure

Maintenance programs typically run

Reliability programs typically include

Proactive maintenance -prevents failure

~ 90% of component life

Predictive maintenance -failure has begun

onset Detection of incipient/initial damage

• Identify defects with vibration

A lubricant is a substance interposed between

Absorb and transfer heat

Protect surfaces from corrosion

Separate moving surfaces

Transport contaminants to filters

Transmits force and motion

Lubricants are prepared with the combination of:

Base Stock Additives

Oil from Different

Viscosity Defines viscosity- Viscosity variance Between 40 oC & D2270

Specific Defines Density of Oil relative to Hydrometer D1298

Paraffinic Naphthenic Aromatics

Property Method ASTM Paraffinic Oil Naphthenic Oil Aromatic Oil

Viscosity cSt@40 o D445 40 40 36

Viscosity D445 6.2 5 4

Specific Gravity D287 0.8628 0.9194 0.9826

Flash Point 0C D92 229 174 160

Pour Point D97 -15 -30 -24

A minority of the lubricants in service are

Screenshot 2024-06-18 at 2.49.17 AM

Screenshot 2024-06-18 at 2.49.17 AM

Screenshot 2024-06-18 at 2.49.17 AM