CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

TOPIC: RADIOACTIVITY

By: T. Kezina Rose & A. Nurul Rizwana

Class&Sec: XI-A
Roll no.: 1107 & 1108
 INDEX
S.No Topics Pg no.
1. Introduction 2
2. Radioactivity 3
3. Unit of Radioactivity 4
4. Laws of Radioactivity 5
5. Types of Radioactivity: 6
Alpha Decay 6
Beta Decay 7
Beta Minus Decay 7
Beta Plus Decay 8
Gamma Decay 9
6. Uses of Radioactivity 10
7. Difference between Radiation and Radioactivity 11
8. Some Famous Radioactive Elements 12
9. What is Unique About Radioactive Elements 13
10. Advantages of Radioactivity 14
11. Disadvantages of Radioactivity 15
12. Facts About Radioactivity 16
13. Conclusion 17
14. Bibliography 18

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Introduction:
➢ Due to nuclear instability, an atom’s nucleus exhibits the phenomenon
of Radioactivity.
➢ Radioactivity, a term used to describe the emission of radiation or
particles through the spontaneous nuclear transformation or
disintegration of the atomic nuclei of radioactive molecules was first
discovered by Becquerel, a French Scientist in 1896, while he was
studying a number of fluorescent and phosphorescent materials to see
if they give off Roentgen’s radiation.
➢ However, he didn’t observe fluorescence or phosphorescence from the
materials he was studying but a different penetrating radiation was
found which do not depend on whether the salt phosphoresced (James
2007).
➢ The radiation emitted by the material was spontaneous, apparently
undiminished and could discharge an electroscope just like X rays. For
his discovery, he received the 1903 noble prize in physics.
➢ Radioactivity can be categorized chiefly according to their nuclear
energetics into; alpha-decay, beta-decay, gamma-ray emission, internal
conversion, electron capture and positron decay.
➢ Other interesting types of radiation in addition to the electromagnetic
and particle radiation are the cosmic radiation and the gravitation
radiation which are categorized mostly by their wave nature.
➢ In general, radiations are viewed in a sphere of either having enough
energy to cause ionization of atoms of not having enough energy to
ionize atoms.
➢ Ionizing radiations are usually harmful to living cells which can result
in a damage of some useful proteins or important tissues in a living
system.
➢ Ionizing radiations typically have an energy of over 10eV which is
enough energy to take out an electron from an atom thereby producing
an ion.

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Radioactivity:
➢ Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of nuclei by the
emission of subatomic particles, sometimes resulting in subsequent
photon emission.
➢ A nucleus undergoing disintegration is a radioisotope or radionuclide
and is experiencing decay. Any nucleus displaying the phenomenon is
called radioactive.
➢ Energy is lost due to radiation that is emitted out of the unstable
nucleus of an atom. Two forces, namely the force of repulsion that is
electrostatic and the powerful forces of attraction of the nucleus, keep
the nucleus together. These two forces are considered extremely strong
in the natural environment.
➢ The chance of encountering instability increases as the size of the
nucleus increases because the mass of the nucleus becomes a lot when
concentrated.
➢ That’s the reason why atoms of Plutonium, Uranium are extremely
unstable and undergo the phenomenon of radioactivity.
➢ Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity by accident. A Uranium
compound was placed in a drawer containing photographic plates,
wrapped in a black paper.
➢ When the plates were examined later, it was found that they were
exposed. This exposure gave rise to the concept of Radioactive decay.
Radioactivity can be seen in such forms
• Alpha Decay (Emission consists of Helium nucleus)
• Beta Decay (Emission consists of Electrons)
• Gamma Decay (Photons having high energy are emitted)

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Unit of Radioactivity:
➢ The SI unit of radioactivity is becquerel (Bq) and this term is named
after Henri Becquerel. Unit of radioactivity is defined as:
The activity of a quantity of radioactive material where one decay takes
place per second.
1 becquerel = 1 radioactive decay per second = 2.703 x 10−11

➢ An older radioactivity unit is the curie (Ci) and the name has been
taken from Pierre and Marie Curie.
➢ It is defined as that quantity of any radioactive substance which gives
3.7 X 1010s-1 disintegration per second (dps).

1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 radioactive decays per second

➢ Another unit is Rutherford (rd) and it is defined as the amount of

radioactive substance which gives 106 disintegrations per second (dps).

1 rutherford = 106 radioactive decays per second

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Laws of Radioactivity:
1.Radioactive decay law and Half-Life: The rate of radioactive decay of a
substance is directly proportional to the number of nuclei in the sample at
any given time. The equation for this law is 𝑁=𝑁0.𝑒−𝜆𝑡, where 𝑁 is the
number of nuclei, 𝜆 is the proportionality constant, and 𝑡 is time. This
results in a characteristic half-life, the time required for half of a sample
to decay.
2. Law of conservation of charge: Charge is never created or destroyed in a
radioactive process.
3. Chemical and physical properties of the daughter nucleus: The
properties of the daughter nucleus depend on the element it's made of, and
are different from the properties of the mother nucleus.
4. Energy emitted from radioactivity: The energy emitted from
radioactivity is always accompanied by alpha, beta, or gamma particles.
5. Szilard–Chalmers effect: A chemical bond can break as a result of
kinetic energy from radioactive decay. This effect can be used to separate
isotopes by chemical means.
6. Geiger-Nuttall Law: The Geiger-Nuttall law relates the decay constant of
alpha-emitting isotopes to the energy of the emitted alpha particles. This law
has been extended to other types of radioactivity, including proton and two-
proton radioactivity, with empirical formulas predicting half-lives based on
the energy and properties of the emitted particles.
7. Universal Decay Law: A universal decay law has been proposed that
generalizes the Geiger-Nuttall law to include charged-particle emissions and
exotic cluster radioactivity. This law relates the half-lives of radioactive
decays to the Q values of the emitted particles and the masses and charges of
the nuclei involved

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Types of Radioactive Decay:

1) Alpha Decay (α):

➢ Alpha decay is the emission of helium nuclei that have two protons
and two neutrons.
➢ Alpha is symbolized by the Greek letter α.
➢ The nuclei have two positive charges. Atoms with radioactive nuclei
that have too many protons and neutrons often emit alpha radiation.
➢ They transform into another chemical element with a lighter nucleus.
➢ For example, uranium-238 is alpha radioactive and transforms into
thorium-234.

8 4

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2) Beta Decay (β):
➢ Beta decay is the process that unstable atoms can use to become more
stable.
➢ Beta is symbolized by the Greek letter β.
➢ There are two types of beta decay – beta minus decay and beta plus
decay.

i) Beta Minus Decay:

➢ Beta minus radiation consists of negatively charged electrons.
➢ Certain atoms with nuclei that have too high a number of neutrons emit
beta minus radiation.
➢ One of the neutrons within the nucleus disintegrates into a proton plus
an electron.
➢ The electron is ejected, so the atom is transformed into a different
chemical element.
➢ For example, thorium-234 is beta minus radioactive and changes into
protactinium-234.

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ii) Beta Plus Decay:
➢ Beta plus radiation consists of positrons (particles with the same mass
as electrons but positively charged).
➢ Some atoms with nuclei too heavily loaded with protons emit beta plus
radiation.
➢ One of the protons within the nucleus disintegrates into a neutron plus
a positron.
➢ The positron is ejected, so the atom is transformed into a different
chemical element.
➢ For example, carbon-10 is beta plus radioactive and transforms into
boron-10.
➢ Note that for both types of beta disintegration, the nucleus
keeps the same number of nucleons (and therefore the same mass
number).
0 0

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3) Gamma Decay(γ):
➢ Gamma radiation is an electromagnetic wave, just like visible light or
x-rays but with more energy.
➢ Gamma is symbolized by the Greek letter γ.
➢ This type of radiation often follows alpha or beta disintegration.
➢ After emission of the alpha or beta particle, the nucleus is still excited
because its protons and neutrons are not yet in equilibrium.
➢ The excess energy is then rapidly released through the emission of
gamma radiation. This is gamma radioactivity.
➢ For example, cobalt-60 transforms by beta disintegration into nickel-
60, which reaches a stable state by emitting gamma radiation.

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Uses of Radioactivity:
➢ Medicine: Radioactivity is used to diagnose illnesses and treat
diseases like cancer. It's also used in medical imaging, such as CT and
MRI scans.
➢ Food: High doses of radiation are used to kill harmful bacteria in food
and extend the shelf life of fresh produce.
➢ Energy: Nuclear power plants use nuclear reactors to generate
electricity.
➢ Research: Radioactivity is used in research into the laws of nature and
the origin of matter.
➢ Archaeology: Carbon-14 dating is a type of radioactivity age method
that's used to date fossils and artifacts.
➢ Security: X-rays are used in security devices.
➢ Exit signs: Some exit signs contain tritium, a radioactive isotope of
hydrogen, that allows them to glow in the dark without batteries.
➢ Oil and gas: Radioactivity is used in seismic imaging to find oil and
gas.
➢ Mining: Radioactivity is used to locate other minerals.
➢ Underground pipes and cables: Radioactivity is used to identify
underground pipes and cables.

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Difference between Radiation and Radioactivity:
➢ The key difference between radioactivity and radiation is
that radioactivity is the process by which certain elements release
radiation whereas radiation is the energy or energetic particles that are
released by radioactive elements.
➢ As another important difference between radioactivity and radiation
we can say the unit of measurement. That is; the unit of measurement
for radioactivity is either Becquerel or Curie whereas, for radiation, we
use units of measurement of energy such as electron volts (eV).

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Some Famous Radioactive Elements:
Radioactive elements are chemicals with unstable atomic nuclei. The
behaviour of radioactive elements in the environment is affected by their
geochemistry and the characteristics of the local environment.
➢Uranium - A naturally occurring radioactive element that can be found in
air, water, soil, rocks, plants, and food.
➢Radium - A naturally occurring radioactive element that is a decay
product of uranium and thorium.
➢Radon - A naturally occurring radioactive element that is a decay product
of uranium and thorium.
➢Polonium - A radioactive element that was discovered by Marie Curie.
➢Thorium - A naturally occurring radioactive element that was discovered
by Marie Curie.
➢Technetium - A radioactive element with the atomic number 43 and the
most stable isotope Tc-97.
➢Protactinium - A radioactive element with the atomic number 91 and the
most stable isotope Pa-231.

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What is Unique About Radioactive Elements ? :
Radioactive elements are unique because they are unstable atoms that
release energy and radiation as they decay:
➢ Unstable nuclei - Radioactive atoms have unstable nuclei, meaning
the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are not bound together tightly.
➢ Decay - Radioactive elements decay by emitting radiation, such as
alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays, to become more stable.
➢ Transmutation - The emission of radiation transforms the radioactive
atom into a new element, which may also be radioactive.
➢ Uses - Radioactive elements have many uses, including medical
imaging, cancer treatment, and radiometric dating.
➢ Potential dangers - Radioactive elements can be dangerous to
humans, animals, and plants. Some radioactive elements, like uranium,
radium, and radon, are carcinogenic.

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Advantages of Radioactivity:
Radioactivity has been harnessed for various applications across multiple
fields, providing significant benefits. Here are the key advantages of
radioactivity as highlighted in the research papers:
➢ High Sensitivity and Minimal Interference: Radioactive isotopes
allow for highly sensitive detection and measurement with minimal
interference in the system being studied. This is particularly useful in
scientific and technical measurements where precision is crucial.
➢ Medical Applications: Radioactivity is extensively used in medicine
for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Techniques such as PET
and SPECT enable non-invasive in vivo detection of radio labelled
compounds at very low concentrations, minimizing physiological
impact. Radioisotopes are crucial in diagnosing and treating diseases,
including cancer, by tracing physiological processes and targeting
specific tissues.
➢ Industrial and Agricultural Applications: In industry, radioactivity
is used for process development, quality control, and automation. It is
also employed in industrial radiography and mineral analysis. In
agriculture, radioactivity aids in food preservation through gamma
sterilization, which helps in destroying microorganisms and insects
without inducing radioactivity in the food.
➢ Environmental and Research Applications: Radioactive tracers are
powerful tools for studying environmental processes and mechanisms.
They help in understanding the rates and impacts of various
environmental phenomena. In research, especially in molecular
biology and emerging biotechnologies, isotopes are indispensable tools
that facilitate numerous scientific advancements

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Disadvantages of Radioactivity:
Radioactivity, both natural and anthropogenic, poses several risks to human
health and the environment. The following key insights from various
research papers highlight the primary disadvantages associated with
radioactivity:
➢ Health Risks from Ionizing Radiation: Ionizing particles from
natural radioactivity can cause numerous toxicological effects on
humans, including cancer induction. Short-term exposure to ambient
particle gamma radioactivity is associated with increased risk for all-
cause non-accidental and cardiovascular mortality.

➢ Genetic and Physiological Effects: Natural levels of radioactivity can

lead to mutations, affect DNA repair mechanisms, and alter genetic
composition, impacting both humans and other organisms. These
effects can vary significantly among different taxa and populations,
indicating varying levels of susceptibility to radiation.

➢ Environmental Impact: Radioactivity in the environment, including

both natural and man-made radionuclides, requires careful monitoring
and management due to its potential health hazards. The presence of
radionuclides in soil, water, and air can lead to long-term
environmental contamination, affecting ecosystems and human health.

➢ Uncertainty and Lack of Data: There is a significant lack of

comprehensive data on the real impact of natural radioactivity on
human health, particularly in regions with high natural
background radiation. More research is needed to fully understand the
extent and mechanisms of radiation's harmful effects on
living organisms.

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Facts About Radioactivity:
➢ Radioactive elements change every time they lose their energy or any
particle out of them. These elements tend to give particles and
radiation out of them until they acquire a stable form. This process of
losing out particles from an atom is called decay.
➢ The time in which any element attains stable configuration through
decaying can vary from a millisecond to millions of years.
➢ The measure of the rate of time that is required to get stable is called
half-life; it is also referred to as the time that is required for one-half of
a group of atoms to decay into a stable form of an atom.
➢ The phenomenon of radioactivity was not known until the late 1800s.
In the year 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered a type of radiation and
named them X-rays. Various scientists started to work on X-rays to see
if there are any other kinds of radiation also.
➢ During this time span scientists like Henry Becquerel and Pierre and
Marie Curie intensely studied the phenomenon and discovered other
forms of radiation also.
➢ Along with radiation they also are credited with the discovery of two
major radioactive elements. Later, all three scientists were awarded
with a Nobel prize.
➢ Radon gas, which is extremely toxic to people, can be constructed when
uranium in the ground deteriorates. It is believed to be the second most
standard reason for lung cancer.
➢ Carbon dating uses the half-life of carbon-14 to estimate the age of
fossils.
➢ The heaviest element that has at most petite one stable isotope is
bismuth. Beyond bismuth, all elements are radioactive.

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Conclusion:
Radioactivity is a natural process by which unstable atomic nuclei release
energy in the form of radiation, transforming into more stable nuclei. This
phenomenon, discovered over a century ago, has had profound implications
for science, medicine, and energy.
Through understanding radioactivity, we've developed life-saving medical
imaging and treatments, advanced our knowledge of atomic structure, and
harnessed nuclear power for electricity generation.
However, radioactivity also poses risks, including potential health hazards
from exposure to radiation and the challenges of managing nuclear waste.
As our knowledge deepens, we continue to improve safety measures,
mitigate environmental impacts, and explore new ways to safely harness
radioactivity's benefits.
In conclusion, radioactivity is both a powerful tool and a profound
responsibility, requiring careful management and respect for its potential
dangers.

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