UNIT 1

COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND

ORGANISATION
(ONE SHOT)

CLASS XI COMPUTER SCIENCE

CODE 083
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UNIT I – COMPUTER SYSTEM AND ORGANISATION

● Basic Computer Organisation: Introduction to computer system,
hardware, software, input device, output device, CPU, memory (primary, cache
and secondary), units of memory (Bit, Byte, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB)
● Types of software: system software (operating systems, system utilities,
device drivers), programming tools and language translators (assembler,
compiler & interpreter), application software
● Operating system (OS): functions of operating system, OS user interface
● Boolean logic: NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, truth table, De Morgan‘s
laws and logic circuits
● Number system: Binary, Octal, Decimal and Hexadecimal number system;
conversion between number systems.
● Encoding schemes: ASCII, ISCII and UNICODE (UTF8, UTF32)
Introduction To Computer System
• A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data
(input), process it and generate result (output). A computer along with
additional hardware and software together is called a computer system.

• A computer system primarily comprises a central processing unit (CPU),

memory, input/output devices and storage devices. All these components
function together as a single unit to deliver the desired output.

• A computer system comes in various forms and sizes. It can vary from a
high-end server to personal desktop, laptop, tablet computer, or a
smartphone.
Components of a computer system
.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• It is the electronic circuitry of a computer that carries out the
actual processing and usually referred as the brain of the
computer.
• It is commonly called processor
• Physically, a CPU can be placed on one or more microchips
called integrated circuits (IC).
• The Ics comprise semiconductor materials.
• The CPU is given instructions and data through programs.
The CPU then fetches the program and data from the
memory and performs arithmetic and logic operations as per
the given instructions and stores the result back to memory.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit(CU).
• The CPU has two main components –
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
• ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations
that need to be done as per the instruction in
aprogram.
• CU controls sequential instruction execution,
interprets instructions and guides data flow through
thecomputer‘s memory, ALU and input or output
devices.
• CPU is also popularly known as microprocessor.
Input Devices
• The devices through which control signals
are sent to a computer are termed as input
devices.
• These devices convert the input data into a
digital form that is acceptable by the
computer system.
• Some examples of input devices include
keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen,
etc., as shown in Figure
Output Devices
• The device that receives data from a
computer system for display, physical
production, etc., is called output device.
• It converts digital information into
human understandable form.
• For example, monitor, projector,
headphone, speaker, printer, etc. as
shown in Figure
HARDWARE
• Hardware refers to the physical and
visible components of the system such
as a monitor, CPU, keyboard and
mouse.
• Hardware is further divided into four
main categories:
▫ Input Devices
▫ Output Devices
▫ Secondary Storage Devices
▫ Internal Components
Computer Memory
• A computer system needs memory to store the data
and instructions for processing.

• Whenever we talk about the ‗memory‘ of a computer

system, we usually talk about the main or primary
memory.

• The secondary memory (also called storage device)

is used to store data, instructions and results
permanently for future use.
Primary Memory
• Primary memory is an essential component of a
computer system. Program and data are loaded into
the primary memory before processing.
• The CPU interacts directly with the primary memory
to perform read or write operation.
• It is of two types viz.

(i) Random Access Memory (RAM)

(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).
RAM (Random Access Memory)
• RAM is volatile, i.e., as long as the power is supplied to the
computer, it retains the data in it. But as soon as the power
supply is turned off, all the contents of RAM are wiped out.
• It is used to store data temporarily while the computer is
working.
• Whenever the computer is started or a software application is
launched, the required program and data are loaded into
RAM for processing.
• RAM is usually referred to as main memory and it is faster
than the secondary memory or storage devices.
ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)
• ROM is non-volatile, which means its contents are
not lost even when the power is turned off.

• It is used as a small but faster permanent storage for

the contents which are rarely changed.

• For example, the startup program (boot loader) that

loads the operating system into primary memory, is
stored in ROM.
 Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a very high speed memory is placed between the
CPU and the primary memory known as cache.

• It stores the copies of the data from frequently accessed primary

memory locations, thus, reducing the average
time required to access data from primary memory.

• When the CPU needs some data, it first examines the cache. In case
the requirement is met, it is read from the cache, otherwise the
primary memory is accessed.
Secondary Memory
• Primary memory has limited storage capacity and
is either volatile (RAM) or read-only (ROM).
Thus, a computer system needs auxiliary or
secondary memory to permanently store the data
or instructions for future use.

• The secondary memory is non-volatile and has

larger storage capacity than primary memory.

• It is slower and cheaper than the main memory.

Units of Memory
• A computer system uses binary numbers to store and process data.
• The binary digits 0 & 1, are the basic units of memory, are called
bits.
• Further, these bits are grouped together to form words. A 4-bit
word is called a Nibble. Examples of nibble are 1001, 1010, 0010,
etc.
• A two nibble word, i.e., 8-bit word is called byte, Example,
01000110, 01111100, 10000001, etc.
• Like any other standard unit, bytes are grouped together to make
bigger chunks or units of memory.
Units of Memory
Data Transfer between Memory and CPU
• Data are transferred between different components
of a computer system using physical wires called bus.
• Bus is of three types —
(i) Data bus to transfer data between different
components,
(ii) Address bus to transfer addresses between CPU
and main memory.
(iii) Control bus to communicate control signals
between different components of a computer.
• All these three buses collectively make the system
bus.
• A data bus is bidirectional. But the control bus and
address bus are unidirectional.
Data Transfer between Memory and CPU
• To write data into memory, the CPU places the data
on the data bus, which is then written to the
specific address provided through the address bus.
• In case of read operation, the CPU specifies the
address, and the data is placed on the data bus by a
dedicated hardware, called memory controller.
• The memory controller manages the flow of data
into and out of the computer's main memory.
Microprocessors
• In earlier days, a computer's CPU used to occupy a large room
or multiple cabinets.
• With advancement in technology, the physical size of CPU
has reduced and it is now possible to place a CPU on a single
microchip only.
• A processor (CPU) which is implemented on a single
microchip is called microprocessor.
• Microprocessor is a small-sized electronic component inside a
computer that carries out various tasks involved in data
processing as well as arithmetic and logical operations.
• These days, a microprocessor is built over an integrated
circuit comprising millions of small components like
resistors, transistors and diodes.
Microprocessors
• Microprocessors have evolved over time in terms of their
increased processing capability, decreasing physical size and
reduced cost. Currently available microprocessors are capable
of processing millions of instructions per millisecond.
Microprocessor Specifications
• Microprocessors are classified on the basis of different
features which include chip type, word size, memory size,
clock speed, etc.
(A) Word Size
• Word size is the maximum number of bits that a
microprocessor can process at a time. Earlier, a word was of 8
bits, as it was the maximum limit at that time. At present, the
minimum word size is 16 bits and maximum word size is 64
bits.
(B) Memory Size
• Depending upon the word size, the size of RAM varies.
Initially, RAM was very small (4MB) due to 4/8 bits word
size. As word size increased to 64 bits, it has become feasible
Microprocessor Specifications
(C) Clock Speed
• Computers have an internal clock that generates pulses
(signals) at regular intervals of time. Clock speed simply
means the number of pulses generated per second by the
clock inside a computer. The clock speed indicates the speed
at which the computer can execute instructions. Earlier, it was
measured in Hertz (Hz) and Kilohertz (kHz). But with
advancement in technology and chip density, it is now
measured in Gigahertz (GHz), i.e., billions of pulses per
second.
Microprocessor Specifications
(D) Cores
• Core is a basic computation unit of the CPU. Earlier
processors had only one computation unit, thereby capable
of performing only one task at a time.
• With the advent of multicore processor, it has become
possible for the computer to execute multiple tasks, thereby
increasing the system’s performance.
• CPU with two, four, and eight cores is called dual-core, quad-
core and octa-core processor, respectively.
Software:
• The software comprises a set of instructions which on
execution deliver the desired outcome.

• Some examples of software include operating systems like

Ubuntu or Windows 7/10, word processing tool like
LibreOffice or Microsoft Word, video player like VLC Player,
photo editors like GIMP and LibreOffice draw.

• A document or image stored on the hard disk or pen drive is

referred to as a soft-copy.

• Once printed, the document or an image is called a hard-copy.

Need of Software
• The sole purpose of a software is to make the
computer hardware useful and operational.
• A software knows how to make different hardware
components of a computer work and communicate
with each other as well as with the end-user.
• We cannot instruct the hardware of a computer
directly. Software acts as an interface between
human users and the hardware.
Types of software:
• Depending on the mode of interaction with hardware and
functions to be performed, the software can be broadly
classified into three categories viz.
(i) System software
(operating systems, system utilities, device drivers)
(ii) Programming tools
(assembler, compiler & interpreter)
(iii) Application software
(General Purpose Software, customised Software)
System Software
• The software that provides the basic functionality to operate a
computer by interacting directly with its constituent hardware is
termed as system software.

• A system software knows how to operate and use different hardware

components of a computer.

• It provides services directly to the end user, or to some other

software.

• Examples of system software include operating systems, system

utilities, device drivers, etc.
A. Operating System
• The operating system is a system software that operates
the computer.
• An operating system is the most basic system software,
without which other software cannot work.
• The operating system manages other application
programs and provides access and security to the users
of the system.
• Some of the popular operating systems are Windows,
Linux, Macintosh, Ubuntu, Fedora, Android, iOS, etc.
B.System Utilities
• Software used for maintenance and configuration of the
computer system is called system utility.

• Some system utilities are shipped with the operating system

for example disk defragmentation tool, formatting utility,
system restore utility, etc.

• Another set of utilities are those which are not shipped with
the operating system but are required to improve the
performance of the system, for example, anti-virus software,
disk cleaner tool, disk compression software, etc.
C. Device Drivers
• The purpose of a device driver is to ensure proper
functioning of a particular device.

• The device driver acts as an interface between the

device and the operating system.

• It provides required services by hiding the details of

operations performed at the hardware level of the
device.
Programming Tools
• We need to give instructions to computer to get the desired
outcome.
• Computer languages are developed for writing these instructions.
• It is important to understand here that computers and humans
understand completely different languages.
• While humans are able to write programs in high-level language,
computers understand machine language.
• There is a continuous need for conversion from high Level to
machine level language, for which translators are needed.
• Also, to write the instruction, code editors (e.g., IDLE in Python)
are needed.
(A) Classification of Programming Languages
Low-level languages :
• Low-level languages are machine dependent languages and
include machine language and assembly language.

• Machine language uses 1s and 0s to write instructions which

are directly understood and executed by the computer.

• writing a code in machine language is difficult as one has to

remember all operation codes and machine addresses. Also
finding errors in the code written in machine language is
difficult.
(A) Classification of Programming Languages
Assembly languages :
• To simplify the writing of code, assembly language
was developed that allowed usage of English-like
words and symbols instead of 1s and 0s.

• One major drawback of writing a code in this

language is that the code is computer specific, i.e.,
the code written for one type of CPU cannot be used
for another type of CPU.
(A) Classification of Programming Languages
High level languages :
• High level languages are machine independent and are simpler to write code
into.

• Instructions are using English like sentences and each high level language
follows a set of rules, similar to natural languages.

• These languages are not directly understood by the computer.

• Translators are needed to translate high-level language codes into machine

language.

• Examples of high level language include C++,Java, Python, etc.

(B) Language Translators
• As the computer can understand only
machine language, a translator is needed
to convert program written in assembly or
high level language to machine language.

• The program code written in assembly or

high-level language is called source code.

• The source code is converted by a

translator into the machine
understandable form called object
(machine) code.
Types of language translator
As we have different types of computer languages,
different translators are needed to convert the source
code to machine code.
The three types of translators used in computing
systems are
• Assembler,
• Compiler
• Interpreter.
Assembler
• The translator used to convert the code written
in assembly language to machine language is
called assembler.

• Each assembler can understand a specific

microprocessor instruction set only and hence,
the machine code is not portable.
Compiler
• Compiler is a translators that convert codes written in
high level language (source code) to machine
understandable form (machine code) for execution by
the computer.
• It takes whole code at once and convert it into machine
code.
Or
• A compiler is system software that converts source code
written in a programming language into another
computer language
Interpreter
• Interpreter is a translators that convert codes
written in high level language (source code) to
machine understandable form (machine code)
for execution by the computer.

• Interpreter interprets program line-by-line,

which means it translates one statement at a
single go.
(C) Program Development Tools
• Editor - An editor is a software that allows us to create a text file
where we type instructions and store the file as the source code.

• Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a software

consisting of text editor, building tools and debugger. A program
can be typed, compiled and debugged from the IDE directly
Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse, Atom, Lazarus are
few other examples of IDEs

• Debugger, as the name implies, is the software to detect and correct

errors in the source code.
Application Software
• Application software is a type of computer program that
performs a specific personal, educational, and business
function.

• Each program is designed to assist the user with a particular

process, which may be related to productivity, creativity,
and/or communication

• There are again two broad categories of application software

1. General purpose
2. customized application software.
(A) General Purpose Software
• The application software developed for generic applications, to
cater to a bigger audience in general are called general purpose
software. Such ready-made application software can be used by
end users as per their requirements.

• For example, spreadsheet tool Calc of LibreOffice can be used

by any computer user to do calculation or to create account
sheet.
• Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Mozilla web browser, iTunes, etc.,
fall in the category of general purpose software.
(B) Customised Software
• These are custom or tailor-made application software, that
are developed to meet the requirements of a specific
organization or an individual.

• They are better suited to the needs of an individual or an

organization, considering that they are designed as per
special requirements.

• Some examples of user-defined software include websites,

school management software, accounting software, etc.
Operating System
• An operating system (OS) can be considered to be a
resource manager which manages all the resources of a
computer, i.e., its hardware including CPU, RAM, Disk,
Network and other input-output devices.

• It also controls various application software and device

drivers, manages system security and handles access by
different users. It is the most important system software.

• Examples of popular OS are Windows, Linux, Android,

Macintosh and so on.
Functions of Operating System
A. Process Management
 While a computer system is operational, different tasks are running
simultaneously.

• A program is intended to carry out various tasks.

• A task in execution is known as process.

• It is the responsibility of operating system to manage these processes and

get multiple tasks completed in minimum time

• Hence process management concerns the management of multiple

processes, allocation of required resources, and exchange of information
among processes.
(B) Memory Management
• Primary or main memory of a computer system is
usually limited. The main task of memory
management is to give (allocate) and take (free)
memory from running processes.

• Hence, memory management concerns with

management of main memory so that maximum
memory is occupied or utilized by large number of
processes while keeping track of each and every
location within the memory as free or occupied
(C) File Management
• Data and programs are stored as files in the
secondary storage of a computer system. File
management involves the creation, updation,
deletion and protection of these files in the
secondary memory.

• File management system manages secondary

memory, while memory management system
handles the main memory of a computer system.
D. Device Management
• A computer system has many I/O devices and
hardware connected to it. Operating system
manages these heterogeneous devices that are
interdependent.
• The operating system interacts with the device
driver and the related software for a particular
device
• Devices also need security measures and their access
to different devices must be restricted by the
operating system to the authorized users, software
and other hardware only
OS User Interface
• There are different types of user
interfaces each of which provides
a different functionality.

• Some commonly used interfaces

are shown in Figure
(A) Command-based Interface
• Command-based interface requires a user to enter the
commands to perform different tasks like creating, opening,
editing or deleting a file, etc.

• The user has to remember the names of all such programs

or specific commands which the operating system supports.

• The primary input device used by the user for command

based interface is the keyboard.

• Examples of operating systems with command-based

interface include MS-DOS and Unix.
(B) Graphical User Interface
• Graphical User Interface (GUI) lets users run
programs or give instructions to the computer in the
form of icons, menus and other visual options.

• The input devices used to interact with the GUI

commonly include the mouse and the keyboard.

• Examples of operating systems with GUI interfaces

include Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora and
Macintosh .
(C) Touch-based Interface
• Today smartphones, tablets and PCs allow users to
interact with the system simply using the touch
input.Using the touchscreen, a user provides inputs to
theoperating system, which are interpreted by the OS as
commands like opening an app, closing an app, dialing a
number, scrolling across apps, etc.

• Examples of popular operating systems with touchbased

interfaces are Android and iOS. Windows 8.1 and 10 also
support touch-based interfaces on touchscreen devices.
(D) Voice-based Interface
• Modern computers have been designed to address the needs of all types of
users including people with special needs and people who want to interact
with computers or smartphones while doing some other task. For users who
cannot use the input devices like the mouse, keyboard, and touchscreens,
modern operating systems provide other means of human-computer
interaction.

• Users today can use voice-based commands to make a computer work in

the desired waY.

• Some operating systems which provide voice-based control to users include

iOS (Siri), Android (Google Now or ―OK Google‖), Microsoft Windows 10
(Cortana) and so on.
(E) Gesture-based Interface
• Some smartphones based on Android and iOS as
well as laptops let users interact with the devices
using gestures like waving, tilting, eye motion
and shaking.

• This technology is evolving faster and it has

promising potential for application in gaming,
medicine and other areas.
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