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Use of coal fly ash to manufacture a corrosion resistant brick

Article in Procedia Engineering · August 2019

DOI: 10.1016/j.promfg.2019.05.072

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Vumani Moyo Nonhlanhla Mguni

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Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 500–512

2nd International Conference on Sustainable Materials Processing and Manufacturing

2nd International Conference on Sustainable Materials Processing and Manufacturing
2nd International Conference on Sustainable Materials Processing and Manufacturing
(SMPM 2019)
(SMPM 2019)
Use of coal fly ash to manufacture(SMPM 2019) a corrosion resistant brick
Use
Use of
of coal
coal fly ash to manufacture aa corrosion resistant brick
V. fly
Moyoash
a
, N.toG manufacture corrosion
Mgunia, N. Hlabangana a resistant
, G. Danha* b brick
V. Moyoa, N. G Mgunia, N. Hlabanganaa, G. Danha*b
a
V. Moyo , N. G Mguni , N. Hlabangana , G. Danha*
a National University of
Department of Chemical Engineering, a Science and Technology, P.Oa Box AC 939 Ascotb Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.
b
Department of Chemical, Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, Botswana International University
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, National University of Science and Technology, P.O Box AC 939 Ascot Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.
Department of Science
of Chemical and Technology,
Engineering, Plot 10071ofBoseja
National University Ward,Technology,
Science Private Bag P.O
16 Palapye, Botswana.
Collegeand Box AC 939 Ascot Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.
a
b
Department of Chemical, Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, of Engineering and Technology, Botswana International University
b
Department of Chemical, Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, Botswana
of Science and Technology, Plot 10071 Boseja Ward, Private Bag 16 Palapye, Botswana. International University
of Science and Technology, Plot 10071 Boseja Ward, Private Bag 16 Palapye, Botswana.

Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
In this article, we investigate the use of an environmental waste (coal fly ash) in the manufacture of an ammonium nitrate
corrosion
In resistant
this article, we brick. Ammonium
investigate the use nitrate
of an (AN) fertilizer waste
environmental spillages andfly
(coal vapors
ash) continuously corrodeofthe
in the manufacture ancivil structures
ammonium in a
nitrate
In this article,
fertilizer
corrosion we brick.
resistant investigate
manufacturing plant the usein
situated
Ammonium ofZimbabwe.
an (AN)
nitrate environmental waste
This situation
fertilizer is(coal
spillages a andfly
safety ash) continuously
hazard
vapors in tothe manufacture
more thancorrode ofthe
a hundred ancivil
ammonium
plant nitrate
personnel
structures anda
in
corrosion
hence a resistant
priority brick.
area for Ammonium
research. Our nitrate (AN)
experimental fertilizer
results spillages
show that and vapors
addition of continuously
sodium corrode
silicate the
improved
fertilizer manufacturing plant situated in Zimbabwe. This situation is a safety hazard to more than a hundred plant personnel and civil
the structures
performance inofa
fertilizer
the brick.manufacturing
Water plant
absorption situated
of bricks in Zimbabwe.
generally This
decreased situation
with an is a safety
increase inhazard
the to
amount more
of than a
sodium hundred
silicate
hence a priority area for research. Our experimental results show that addition of sodium silicate improved the performance of plant personnel
added. Our and
results
hence
the a priority
alsobrick.
show Water area
that the for research.
compressive
absorption Ourgenerally
strength
of bricks experimental
generally resultswith
increased
decreased showan that
with addition
increase
increase ofamount
ininthe sodiumofof
amount silicate
sodium
sodiumimproved
silicate the
silicateaddedperformance
added.and
Ourthat of
the
results
the brick.
corrosion Water absorption
resistance increases of bricks
with the generally
amount ofdecreased
sodium with
silicatean increase
added to thein the
coal amount
ash of
bricks. sodium
also show that the compressive strength generally increased with increase in amount of sodium silicate added and that the silicate added. Our results
also showresistance
corrosion that the compressive
increases with strength generally increased
silicatewith increase in amount of sodium silicate added and that the
© 2019 The
corrosion
Keywords: Authors.
resistance
Corrosion Published
increases
resistance by the
with
bricks; the
amount
Elsevier
coalamount B.V.
fly ash;
of sodium added to the coal ash bricks.
of sodium silicate added to the coal ash bricks.
clay
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.
Keywords: Corrosion resistance bricks; coal fly ash; clay
Keywords: Corrosion resistance bricks; coal fly ash; clay
1. Main text
1. Main text
1. Main
In thistextarticle, we investigate the use of an environmental waste (coal fly ash) in the manufacture of an
ammonium nitrate we
In this article, corrosion resistant
investigate the brick.
use ofAmmonium nitrate (AN)
an environmental wastefertilizer
(coal flyspillages
ash) inand the vapors continuously
manufacture of an
In
corrode this
the article,
civil we investigate
structures in a the
fertilizer use of an environmental
manufacturing plant waste
situated in (coal
Zimbabwe.fly ash)
This
ammonium nitrate corrosion resistant brick. Ammonium nitrate (AN) fertilizer spillages and vapors continuously in the
situationmanufacture
is a safety of an
hazard
ammonium
to more the
corrode nitrate
thancivil corrosion
a hundred
structures in resistant
plant fertilizerbrick.
apersonnel Ammonium
and hence
manufacturing nitrate
a priority
plant area(AN) fertilizer
forinresearch.
situated Zimbabwe. spillages
Our and vapors
experimental
This situation continuously
results
is show
a safety that
hazard
corrode
addition the
of civil
sodiumstructures
silicate in a fertilizer
improved themanufacturing
performance plant
of the situated
brick. in
Water Zimbabwe.
absorption This
of
to more than a hundred plant personnel and hence a priority area for research. Our experimental results show that situation
bricks is a safety
generally hazard
decreased
to more
with an than
addition of a hundred
increase
sodium the plant
insilicateamountpersonnel
improved theand
of sodium hence
silicatea added.
performance priority
of the Ourarea results
brick. for research.
Water also Our experimental
show
absorption that results show
the compressive
of bricks generally that
strength
decreased
addition
generally of sodium
increased silicate
with improved
increase in the
amount performance
of sodium of the
silicate brick.
added Water
and absorption
that the of
corrosion
with an increase in the amount of sodium silicate added. Our results also show that the compressive strength bricks generally
resistance decreased
increases with
with
the an increase
amount
generally inwith
of sodium
increased the amount
silicate added
increase of amount
in tosodium ofsilicate
the coal added.
silicateOur
ash bricks.
sodium results
added and thatalsothe
show that the
corrosion compressive
resistance strength
increases with
generally
the amount increased
of sodium with increase
silicate in amount
addedbytoElsevier of
the coal sodium silicate added and that the corrosion resistance increases with
2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published B.V.ash bricks.
the amount of sodium silicate added to the coal ash bricks.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.
2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
2351-9789
Peer-review©under
2019responsibility
The Authors. of
Published by Elsevier
the organizing B.V. of SMPM 2019.
committee
*Corresponding Author
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.
Email: [email protected]
*Corresponding Author
*Corresponding Author
Email: [email protected]
Email: [email protected]

2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.
10.1016/j.promfg.2019.05.072
2 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000
V. Moyo et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 500–512 501

Fig. 1. Corrosion effects of Ammonium Nitrate on (a) plant floors (b) concrete bases supporting heavy machinery.
502 V. Moyo et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 500–512
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000 3

The combustion of coal gives result to desired products as well as a solid waste material. The solid combustion
waste material consists of fine (fly) ash as well as the coarser ash that falls to the bottom of the furnace. Fly ash is
the lightweight particles in the flue gas that exits the furnace and moves away from the high-temperature
combustion zone. The particles are fine-grained, typically silt-sized, ranging from 1 to 100 microns in diameter, with
median particle diameter of 20 to 25 microns (American Coal Ash Association, 2003). The fly ash that was
employed in this investigation was obtained from particulate collection devices in the boiler that produces steam
which is used in the plant.

Fly ash contains different minerals like Ca, K, Mg, Mn and P which are essential for plant growth (Ahmaruzzaman,
2010) as well as trace elements like As, B, Hg, Pb and Se (Xu et al., 2003) and oxides of silica, aluminum and
ferrites which are raw materials of brick manufacture. The trace elements in coal ash like As, Hg, Se have
detrimental health and environmental effects (Mguni, 2015). Despite the dangers posed on the environment and
health, several studies have found some beneficial industrial uses of the coal ash, hence effective ways of disposing
it. Although fly ash is an environmental pollutant it can be used in the construction industry (Ahmaruzzan, 2010;
Kula et al., 2001; Mguni et al., 2016; Pairsh, 2002; Pan et al., 2014) and in the synthesis of zeolites (Mondragon et
al., 1990). Kayali (2005) manufactured high performance bricks (with high compressive strength, higher modulus of
rapture and lower absorption capacity) from 100% fly ash which were lighter than clay bricks.

Sodium silicate binder can be used as a cement sealant, providing chemical and physical durability to concrete
surfaces. The potential use of silicate as a binder will produce bricks which are resistant to nitric acid and nitrous
derivatives, as silicates can only be destructed by hydrofluoric acid and its derivatives (Merrill, 1945). Panda et al
(2012) observed increased compressive strength with addition of sodium silicate. In this project coal ash which is a
byproduct of the steam producing plant used in this plant was utilized as a supply of raw materials for brick
synthesis; hence providing a safe way of its disposal.

2. The brick making process

All Clay is a major raw material in the brick manufacturing process. Clay is made up of alumina and silica, in
which the latter component acts as a flux that promotes fusion of the particles at lower temperatures and determines
the color of the product brick. The shape and size of the brick can be formed in three ways namely: extrusion,
molding and dry-pressing (Brick Industry Association, 2006).
The brick manufacturing process (Figure 2) is mainly done in five steps which include raw materials preparation,
brick forming, drying, firing and cooling and finished products storage (Brick Industry Association, 2006).
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Fig. 2. The brick manufacturing process

3. Experimental procedure

3.1 Sampling

Fly ash was collected from the boilers used to provide steam within the plant. The coal ash was thoroughly
mixed in order to obtain homogenous and representative samples. Using the standard cone and quartering method,
the ash was poured onto a polythene sheet and made into a conical heap. The heap was flattened down to two thirds
its height and then divided it into quarters. Two opposite quarters were extracted and the remaining two returned
into the original batch. The extracted quarters were remixed and formed into a conical heap. The procedure was
repeated with reduction in size until the required mass of 100 g was obtained for sieve analysis. (1)

3.2 Sample preparation

Sieves were arranged in descending order of the apertures from top (250 µm) to bottom (75 µm) and the stack of
sieves was placed on a pan and then sieve shaker. A standard sieving procedure was then followed in which a timer
was set at 15 minutes to allow all material to be classified. After sieving, the top sieve was removed and the material
retained was transferred into a bowl. The underside of the sieve is gently brushed to remove near size material. The
procedure is repeated with a time of 25 minutes.

3.3 Synthesis of sodium silicate solution from Silica gel and Sodium Hydroxide.

Sodium silicate was synthesized by reacting silica gel with sodium hydroxide, 20 g of NaOH pellets were placed
in a beaker and dissolved in 50 ml distilled water and the solution was heated. Sodium hydroxide reacts with silicon
dioxide according to the equation:

2NaOH + SiO2 = Na2SiO3 + H2O (1)

30g of silica gel was weighed and added into the hot NaOH solution slowly, allowing the solution to boil whilst
stirring until the silica gel dissolved and a sticky solution was observed.
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3.4 Brick manufacturing

Fly ash was mixed manually in a pan with water in varying proportions. A solution of sodium silicate was then
added and mixed thoroughly. Water was then added to the required proportion and mixing done to enable molding.
The mixture was then placed into a brick molder machine, where the bricks were pressed manually and then
released onto wooden pallets with polythene sheet on top for drying. A small molding machine producing prisms of
average size; length= 100 mm, width = 50 mm and height = 35mm was used.
The bricks were dried using heat from the sun whilst spraying/sprinkling water three times a day for 3-5 days to
maintain optimum moisture content and water absorption by cement. The process was repeated varying the amounts
of sodium silicate. The bricks for each set of proportions were then heated at 250°C to achieve high strength and
completely drive out all water from the silicate. Water absorption, compressive strength and corrosion resistance
tests were performed on the synthesized bricks.

3.5 Water absorption capacity

The bricks of different sodium silicate concentrations and different solid proportions were heated at a
temperature of 105°C to 115°C until they attained substantially constant mass. They were then allowed to cool to
room temperature. The bricks were weighed in their dry cool condition to obtain mass M1. All bricks were fully
immersed in 25 litres of fresh water at about 27°C for 24 hours. After 24 hours of immersion the bricks were taken
out from water and wiped out with cloth. In their wet condition, the bricks were weighed to obtain mass M2. The
difference between weights is the water absorbed by brick given by: Water absorbed = M2-M1. The percentage of
water absorption was then calculated. The less water absorbed by brick the greater its quality. Good quality bricks
do not absorb more than 20% water of its own weight (Mohan et al., 2016).

Water absorption, % by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water as shown in equation 2:

3.6 Compression test

Compression tests for the bricks were carried out at Road lab in Bulawayo. These tests (also called the crushing
strength of bricks) were done according to the standard loading rate of concrete testing and cement products- SANS
5863. Figure 3 shows a brick under compression. The strength at which the bricks under compression crushed was
noted and recorded.
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Fig. 3. Brick compression tests

On testing the bricks for compression, the cube sizes (100 mm x 50 mm x 40 mm) were considered together with
their masses in order to make use of the appropriate loading rate (88 kN/min) and appropriate conversion factor (4.8
for the synthesized coal ash bricks) from kilo-Newton to Mega-Pascal. A brick specimen was put on a crushing
machine and pressure applied onto it until it broke. The ultimate pressure/load at which brick was crushed was taken
into account.

3.7 Ammonium nitrate corrosion resistance

All bricks of known concentration of the silicate were weighed and the masses recorded before tests were made.
Ammonium nitrate prills were dissolved in distilled water to make up a 50% solution. The solution was heated until
all the prills dissolved and some of the water was driven off to form a thick solution. The bricks were immersed into
the solution for two hours to allow total exposure to the Ammonium nitrate. The bricks were then taken out after 2
hours and placed in an oven at 80°C for 23 days. They were then removed and washed in water. Mass changes,
physical appearance as well as texture were noted after the test period.

4. Results and discussion

The synthesized bricks with varying amounts of cement, coal ash, sand and sodium silicate are shown in Figure 4.
506 V. Moyo et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 500–512
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Fig. 4. Sodium silicate treated coal ash brick

Table 1 shows the XRF analysis of coal fly ash. The characteristics of fly ash show over 55% of SiO2 and over 28%
Al2O3 which are raw materials for brick manufacture.
Al2O3 BaO CaO Cr2O3 Fe2O3 K2O MgO Na2O P2O5 SiO2 TiO2

1. 28.77 0.11 0.32 0.02 0.53 2.77 0.74 0.72 0.07 64.34 1.53

2. 29.28 0.12 0.31 0.02 1.43 2.92 0.48 0.49 0.06 62.76 1.62

3. 28.03 0.12 4.13 0.03 2.40 0.60 0.14 0.34 0.73 60.16 1.67

4. 30.63 0.13 3.57 0.03 3.23 0.72 0.09 0.34 1.02 57.94 1.87

5. 32.12 0.15 3.81 0.03 2.22 0.72 0.12 0.36 1.12 55.57 2.13

6. 28.39 0.12 3.63 0.03 2.56 0.74 0.18 0.37 0.81 58.15 1.69

7. 33.20 0.14 3.84 0.03 3.31 0.66 0.16 0.42 1.42 58.90 1.98

8. 33.37 0.14 3.97 0.03 2.71 0.72 0.16 0.40 1.14 56.13 2.06

9. 30.62 0.13 3.37 0.03 2.74 0.65 0.15 0.37 1.14 56.04 1.86

4. 1 Water absorption

Figures 5a, b and c show results of the water absorption tests for the bricks. The amount of water absorbed by the
bricks after 24 hours generally decreased with an increase in the amount of sodium silicate added. The percentage
water absorbed by these bricks ranges from 23.05% to 15.87%, with the bricks treated with 25 ml sodium silicate
having the least percentage.
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(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 5. Water absorption capacity test (a) 40% fly ash, 40% sand, and 20% cement (b) 30% fly ash, 50% sand and 20% cement (c) 30% fly ash,
40% sand and 30% cement

A different set of results was obtained for the water absorption test for the bricks with 30% fly ash, 50% sand and
20% cement. From the results, the percentage water absorbed generally decreases with an increase in the volume of
sodium silicate added. The percent water absorbed ranges from 19.13 to 13.68 with the bricks treated with 125 ml
508 V. Moyo et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 500–512
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silicate having the lowest percentage of water absorption. The bricks generally absorbed less water compared to
those described earlier above. Shown in the figure above is a plot graph of water absorption against volume of
sodium silicate added.

4.2 Compression tests

The different amounts of pressures that could be handled by the 5 different bricks under compression are shown
in Figures 6a, b and c. The compressive strength increases with an increase in the amount of sodium silicate. The
255 gram brick containing 25 ml of sodium silicate crushed at a pressure of 2.33 Mega Pascal. The strongest, treated
with 125 ml of sodium silicate crushed at a pressure of 19.46 Mega Pascal.

(c)

(a) (b)
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(c)

Fig. 6. Compression (a) 40% fly ash, 40% sand and 20% cement (b) 30% fly ash, 50% sand and 20% cement (c) 30% fly ash, 40% sand and 30%
cement

The bricks of the highest sand proportion of 50% showed high strength when put under compression (Figure 6b).
The strengths were relatively higher than those of corresponding bricks of the same silicate volume made from 20%
cement. The presence of a higher proportion of the sand solids increased strength due to the ordered packing
arrangement of the sand particles within the structure. Generally, the strength increases with the volume of sodium
silicate binder in contact with the aggregates. The brick treated with 25 ml of sodium silicate had the lowest
compressive strength of 3.04 MPa while those of 125ml Silicate crushed at 25.56 MPa.
For the bricks with the amount of cement from 20% to 30% and sand lowered from 50% to 40%, silicate volumes
were maintained. The bricks also showed an increase in strength with increase in volume of sodium silicate. The
highest compressive strength obtained was 32.29 Mpa for the brick treated with 125 ml sodium silicate (Figure 6c).
The bricks generally showed greatest strength compared to the corresponding bricks of the same silicate volume. At
25ml of sodium silicate binder, a compressive 9.67 Mpa was obtained, which is greater that of all the other bricks of
different aggregate proportions treated with the same silicate volume.

4.3 Ammonium nitrate corrosion

After 23 days of exposure of the bricks to the ammonium nitrate and heating in the oven, the appearance of the
bricks was as shown in Figure 7.
510 V. Moyo et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 500–512
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Fig. 7. Appearance of bricks with low sodium silicate content after exposure to ammonium nitrate

Bricks with low sodium silicate showed a significant increase in mass as shown in Figures 8a, b and c. The low
silicate bricks had a mass change of 9.46% on testing. A yellowish permanent stain caused by the exposure to
ammonium nitrate appeared on the surface. The bricks had weakened and allowed ammonium nitrate to enter into
the spaces within the solid resulting in increase in mass. The interaction resulted in degradation of the bricks and
poor appearance even after rinsing and drying of the bricks. The bricks had a strong pungent smell of ammonia.
High sodium silicate bricks were least affected by ammonium nitrate as indicated in Figures 8a, b and c, showing a
0.29% mass change after the test period.
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(a) (b)

(c)
Fig 8: Corrosion test (a) 40% fly ash, 40% sand and 20% cement (b) 30% fly ash, 50% sand and 20% cement (c) 30% fly ash, 40% sand and
30% cement

The bricks with low sodium silicate were also affected most by ammonium nitrate with % mass increase of 11.35%
for a brick with 50ml (Figure 8). Very low percentage increase (0.03%) was obtained for the brick treated with 100
ml sodium silicate. The bricks with higher sodium silicate still maintained their original texture while those with low
silicate showed clear signs of disintegration. There was no significant increase in mass in the 125 ml sodium silicate
bricks as well as no observable visual corrosion effects shown in Figures 8a, b and c. The bricks with low sodium
silicate showed high mass increase and degradation effects after the tests.
512 V. Moyo et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 500–512
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5. Conclusion

Our experimental results show that addition of sodium silicate improved the performance of the brick. Water
absorption of bricks generally decreased with an increase in the amount of sodium silicate added. Our results also
show that the compressive strength generally increased with increase in amount of sodium silicate added. Sodium
silicate had the desired effect of agglomerating the particles, with the enhanced help of cement resulting in higher
bonding strength with increased volume of the silicate. An increase of sand ratio in the solid aggregates enhances
better packing of the solids within the structure hence increased strength. The fine coal ash particles fill in to the
small spaces between the sand resulting also in a compact structure that enhances strength.
Our experimental results further showed that corrosion resistance increases with the amount of sodium silicate
added to the coal ash bricks. The soluble sodium silicate reacts with other metal ions present in coal ash to form the
corresponding insoluble metal silicates. The sodium silicate brick can then be used to arrest the corrosion effects of
ammonium nitrate fertilizer at the ammonium nitrate fertilizer synthesis plant.

References

[1] Ahmaruzzaman, M. (2010). A review on the utilization of fly ash. Progress in energy and combustion science, 36(3), 327-363.
[2] American Coal Ash Association. (2003). Fly ash facts for highway engineers. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration.
[3] Brick Industry Association. (2006). Technical notes on brick construction. Manufacturing of brick.
[4] Kayali, O. (2005, April). High performance bricks from fly ash. In Proceedings of the World of Coal Ash Conference, Lexinton,
Kentucky.
[5] Kula I., Olgun A., Erdogan Y and Sevinc V. (2001). Effect of colemanite waste, coal bottom ash and fly ash on properties of cement.
Cement and concrete research, 31, 491-494.
[6] Merrill, R. C. (1949). Industrial Applications of the Sodium Silicates-Some Recent Developments. Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry, 41(2), 337-345.
[7] Mguni, N. G. (2015). Determination of hazardous trace elements in select Hwange, Zimbabwe coal samples with a comparison to
select South African coal samples (Masters dissertation).
[8] Mguni, N. G., Nyika, N. R & Mguni, L. L (2016). An Investigation on Incorporation of a Local Thermal Power Station Boiler Ash as
a Raw Material in Clinker Manufacture. International Pittsburg Coal Conference, August 8-12, 2016, Cape Town.
[9] Mohan, C. G., Mathew, J., Kurian, J. N., & Moolayil, J. T. Fabrication of Plastic Brick Manufacturing Machine and Brick Analysis.
[10] Mondragon, F., Rincon, F., Sierra, L., Escobar, J., Ramirez, J., & Fernandez, J. (1990). New perspectives for coal ash utilization:
synthesis of zeolitic materials. Fuel, 69(2), 263-266.
[11] Pairsh, R. (2002). Fly Ash Concrete: Future Foundations? Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Honors Theses. Paper 141.
[12] Panda, R. K., Dhal, J. P., & Mishra, S. C. (2012). Effect of Sodium silicate on strengthening behaviour of Fly ash Compacts.

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