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ISSN: 2157-2526 Biodefense

Review Article Open Access

Emerging Infectious Diseases

Mushtajab K*
Department of Biology and Information Science, University of Iran, Iran

Abstract
A gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria called Streptococcus pneumoniae is capable of inflicting serious
illnesses such pneumonia, meningitis, septicemia, and middle ear infections. It is also one of the main pathogens
causing bacterial conjunctivitis and keratitis. Although there are two pneumococcal vaccines available, they only
partially protect against eye infections and non-ocular illnesses. Numerous virulence factors present in this infection
cause havoc on the conjunctiva, cornea, and intraocular system. Evading the host complement system is made
easier by polysaccharide capsules. A cytolysin that depends on cholesterol and functions as a pore-forming toxin
is called pneumolysin (PLY). Neuraminidases make the pneumococcus visible to cell surface receptors, which aids
in colonisation and adhesion. The severity of the disease and immune system evasion are both influenced by zinc
metalloproteinases. The burden of infectious illnesses on global public health and societal economic stability is
considerable. They have long been among the main causes of death and disability and have posed increasing problems
for both human advancement and health security. The threat posed by infectious diseases is further deepened by the
continued emergence of new, unrecognized, and old infectious disease epidemics of global impact. At least 30 new
infectious diseases that harm people have evolved in the past 35 years; the majority of these diseases are zoonotic,
and research has revealed that the origins of these diseases strongly connect with socioeconomic, environmental, and
ecological factors. There is concern that infectious diseases may spread as a result of these factors continuing to rise
and bringing more people into touch with disease-causing bacteria.

Keywords: Environmental; Pneumococcus Pneumoniae has been identified as a significant virulence factor in a
number of illness models. Three theories have been put out as to how
Introduction LytA contributes to pneumococcal pathogenicity. Any ailment with
Several serious infections in various body sites are brought on distinct indications and symptoms that affects the proper operation
by the gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic pathogen streptococcus of a body organ and system, of the psyche, or of the organism as a
pneumoniae. Healthy adults frequently have pneumoniae populate whole is referred to as a "disease [4]." Impairment of organ or system
their nasopharynx. Despite the fact that many healthy adults carry this function can be caused by intrinsic or external factors. Intrinsic factors
bacteria without showing any symptoms, it is a major contributor to originate from inside the host and may be brought on by the genetic
serious illnesses such meningitis, pneumonia, septicemia, and middle make-up of an organism or by any affliction that prevents an organ or
ear infections [1]. Together with coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, system from functioning normally. One such instance is the genetic
Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, pneumoniae disorder known as sickle cell anaemia, which is characterised by pain
continues to be one of the major causes of infectious disorders of the that progresses to organ damage due to a defect in the red blood cells
ocular surface such as keratitis and conjunctivitis. The review that haemoglobin [5]. This defect results from the change of a single base,
follows will discuss (A) the three pneumococcal infectious illnesses thymine, to adenine in a gene those codes for one of the protein chains
of the eye-conjunctivitis, keratitis, and endophthalmitis-as well as of haemoglobin. When a host contacts an agent from outside, extrinsic
(B) the part that particular pneumococcal virulence factors play in factors can access the host's system. As an illustration, consider the
the pathogenesis of each infection. S. Pneumolysin, neuraminidases, bite of a mosquito of the Anopheles species that spreads the parasite
zinc metalloproteinases, a polysaccharide capsule, and other virulence Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria. An infectious disease
factors all contribute to the severity of ocular infections in pneumoniae is one that develops when a foreign agent invades a host and causes
[2]. By lowering IgG and C-reactive protein binding, the pneumococcal injury to or impairs the normal operation of the host's organs or
capsule helps the infection evade the host complement system. Since systems. Microorganisms typically cause infectious disorders [6].
S. pneumoniae doesn't trigger the complement system, neutrophil The kind and severity of harm their causal agents cause to organs and
systems when they infiltrate a host is what gives them their significance.
phagocytosis is less likely. By focusing on the capsule, both of the
Most entry points into the host are through the nose, mouth, eyes,
pneumococcal vaccines that are currently licenced for use protect
genital openings, and skin. The synthesis and release of toxins or
against the most prevalent pneumococcal serotypes involved in
pneumonia and invasive illnesses, except for nonencapsulated S. Most
cases of conjunctivitis are brought on by pneumoniae. NESp is divided *Corresponding author: Mushtajab K, Department of Biology and Information
into two categories. Group I possesses the capsule polysaccharide Science, University of Iran, Iran, E-mail: [email protected]

biosynthetic (cps) gene, but due to a mutation or deletion, does Received: 09-Sep-2022, Manuscript No: jbtbd-22-74477, Editor assigned: 13-
not synthesise capsule. The putative adhesin pspK and/or novel Sep-2022, PreQC No: jbtbd-22-74477 (PQ), Reviewed: 19-Sep-2022, QC No:
jbtbd-22-74477, Revised: 23-Sep-2022, Manuscript No: jbtbd-22-74477 (R),
oligopeptide binding proteins aliC and aliD are present in Group II in Published: 29-Sep-2022, DOI: 10.4172/2157-2526.1000307
place of the cps genes. It has been determined that conjunctivitis strains
Citation: Mushtajab K (2022) Emerging Infectious Diseases. J Bioterr Biodef, 13:
are part of a subset branch of Group II that lacks pspK but harbours 307.
aliC and aliD [3].
Copyright: © 2022 Mushtajab K. This is an open-access article distributed under
S. was in vitro cultured to stationary phase. Self-lysis occurs the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and
naturally in pneumoniae. The primary autolysin of S is LytA. source are credited.

J Bioterr Biodef, an open access journal Volume 13 • Issue 5 • 1000307

Citation: Mushtajab K (2022) Emerging Infectious Diseases. J Bioterr Biodef, 13: 307.

Page 2 of 4

enzymes that impair the normal operation of organs and/or systems, keratitis. A 5-year review of bacterial keratitis cases in one institution
as well as the intracellular growth and metabolic processes of infectious revealed S. P. pneumoniae caused 38% of infections, followed by P.
organisms, are the main causes of tissue damage [7]. These products aeruginosa at 29% and S. aureus for 4%. Similar pathogen distribution
may be dispersed, harm other organs and/or systems, or perform in is revealed by other assessments of the etiologic factors causing bacterial
a way that allows the pathogen to infiltrate other organs and systems keratitis. Corneal ulcers may result from improper keratitis therapy.
as consequences. Infection-causing pathogens are naturally fought Endophthalmitis can develop as a result of this corneal ulceration,
off and destroyed by the host's complex immune system. When the which may also cause a penetrating wound. Inflammation seen with
immune system fails to eradicate harmful infectious agents, infectious pneumococcal keratitis is largely brought on by the host's response
illness occurs or arises [8]. Consequently, all infectious diseases to PLY. When compared to the parent strain in studies using strains
develop over time in a certain population and within a specific setting lacking PLY, pathogenicity in the rabbit keratitis model was found to
or environment. Methods for battling, preventing, and managing be reduced. During keratitis, pneumolysin appears to play both of its
diseases are established by comprehending their dynamics and how dual roles—cytolytic action and inciting inflammation. Before causing
they are spread [9]. Nevertheless, certain pathogens are able to develop subunit oligomerization and hole development and causing host
the necessary skills to re-infect their original or new hosts, typically in cell lysis, PLY first attaches to lipid rafts in the corneal epithelial cell
progressively dangerous quantities, even after they appear to have been membrane. As shown by the histology of corneas infected with wild
eliminated and have gone into slumber. Pneumococcus must be able type bacteria as opposed to PLY-deficient bacteria, PLY causes an
to colonise the nasopharynx before it can result in systemic illness. S. enhanced infiltration of neutrophils into the cornea.
Three neuraminidases (Nan), NanA, NanB, and NanC are produced
by pneumoniae and aid in colonisation and adhesion. Pneumococcus Emerging Infectious Diseases [12]
is made available to cell surface receptors by the sialidases NanA and Scientists have long had an understanding of the phenomenon
NanB. Without the proper cell surface receptors being exposed by the of illness emergence. In a discussion he gave in 1920 titled "Life and
neuraminidases, adhesion and colonisation are less likely to occur, Death of Infectious Diseases," Charles Nicolle, then the director of the
which makes the establishment of disease states less likely as well. Once Institute Pasteur de Tunis, effectively highlighted this to underline the
an infection has spread throughout the body, S. Hyaluronate lyase has potential threat that infectious diseases represent. The idea of emerging
a role in pneumoniae's ability to spread [10]. diseases developed gradually but gained popularity in the late 1960s to
early 1970s when viral hemorrhagic fevers such the Crimean-Congo
Infectious Diseases [11] hemorrhagic fever, Lassa fever, and Ebola fever suddenly arose. In
Conjunctivitis the 1980s, when exceptionally large epidemics like HIV/AIDS arose,
EID attracted more attention along with the emergence of other
While viruses and allergens are the more frequent culprits, bacteria severe disorders. In 1987, Robert B. Shope, Mary Wilson, and Joshua
only account for about 1.35% of conjunctival infections. The direct Lederberg coined the phrase "emerging and reemerging diseases." The
and indirect expenses of treating bacterial conjunctivitis in the United phrase is used to describe infectious diseases with an increase in human
States are expected to be over $500,000,000 despite the fact that they incidence during the past 20 years or a potential increase in the near
are less frequent. As well as redness, edoema, purulent discharge, and future. The Institute of Medicine's 1992 study on emerging infections,
occasionally light sensitivity, typical infections are also characterised which highlighted the microbiological dangers to American health,
by these symptoms. The staphylococcal species are the most frequent served as the catalyst for the present, widespread focus on emerging
bacterial pathogens isolated from conjunctival infections in adults; and reemerging infectious illnesses. The topic of emerging illnesses
however, Haemophilus influenzae S. is more frequently the culprit in has been elevated on the agenda of national and international health
conjunctivitis in children. Moraxella catarrhalis with Pneumocystis programmes as a result of this formal classification and has become
pneumoniae. Hyperacute bacterial conjunctivitis, which manifests an important component of numerous organisational and institutional
as eyelid swelling, discomfort, and purulent discharge, is frequently structures.
caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Contact lens misuse and tainted
cosmetics can result in pneumococcal conjunctival infections. Despite Important Factors that Influenza Diseases Emerge
not being required, pneumococcal neuraminidase activity increases Infectious diseases periodically emerge and reappear. Infectious
during conjunctivitis when capsule is not present. A capsule-deficient disease pathogens undergo several steps of adaptation before spreading
mutant really displayed noticeably greater neuraminidase activity than to a new host in order to access or acquire harmful features. Infectious
the original strain in a rabbit conjunctivitis model at 3 and 12 hours agents have the potential to evolve, adapt to new hosts in novel
after infection. Additionally, after 6 hours of contact to ocular epithelial ecological niches, and spread rapidly as a result of specific mechanisms
cells that express more mucin, nonencapsulated pneumococcal such gene mutation, genetic recombination, or re assortment as well as
conjunctivitis isolates produce noticeably increased neuraminidase
circumstances that force microbial organisms to change reservoir hosts.
activity.
This adaptability and the subsequent genesis of diseases are the results
Additionally, NESp conjunctivitis strains and encapsulated strains of numerous processes. The intricate relationships that exist between
release a zinc metalloproteinase (ZmpC) that increases bacterial infectious agents, hosts, and the environment are crucial. Deforestation,
internalisation by removing certain mucins from the epithelium. the expansion and modernisation of agricultural methods, and natural
catastrophes like floods are specifically variables that have an impact
Keratitis
on the ecosystem. Increased host-microbe contact facilitates infections
The scarring of the cornea brought on by pneumococcus keratitis in humans due to sociodemographic factors such rising population
may result in a permanent loss of vision. Infections are frequently density, declining living conditions, deteriorating infrastructure,
brought on by incorrect contact lens use, trauma, or prior ocular surgery. human travel, wars, and societal instability. Some pathogens have
S. Along with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus, also emerged as a result of deliberate human activity. These are the
pneumoniae has been identified as one of the main causes of bacterial biological agents used as destructive weapons, making their emergence

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"deliberate." Along with host and environmental factors, exposure to Major Changes have occurred in the Infectious Diseases
chemicals and antimicrobial agents (like antibiotics) can cause changes Disease
or mutations in a pathogen's genome, which can result in gene damage
and the emergence of drug-resistant pathogen variants that may result Environmental studies, epidemiology, immunology, public health,
in the development of new diseases. social and cultural studies, pharmacology, medicine, molecular biology,
chemistry, veterinary science, sociology, and anthropology are just a few
The Impact of Developing Infectious Diseases of the disciplines that have contributed to the advancements made in the
past century in the fight against emerging infectious diseases. Advances
Since they pose such a substantial threat to human survival and
in basic science research and the development of molecular technology
progress, infectious diseases (IDs) have taken centre stage in world
and diagnostics have improved understanding of disease aetiology,
history. They make up a large fraction of all human diseases that are now
pathogenesis, and molecular epidemiology, which provide the basis
understood. According to estimates, infectious diseases are responsible
for appropriate detection, prevention, and control measures as well as
for at least 25% of the 60 million deaths that occur annually over the
the logical design of vaccines, through which some diseases have been
world. More than 500,000 people lose their lives each year as a result
successfully eradicated. The study of infectious diseases, particularly
of neglected IDs, and at least 1 billion individuals are now chronically
their pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment, as well as the provision
infected. Since the beginning of time, people have been aware of the
of the best possible patient care and management, has undergone a
dangers of developing IDs. Another serious infectious disease that has
significant revolution since the development of nucleic acid detection
affected people around the world is influenza. The Spanish Influenza
and genome sequencing technology in the nineteenth century. Several
epidemic of 1918–1919, which killed up to 40 million people globally,
molecular assays have been created to detect, characterise, and quantify
was the deadliest outbreak of an infectious disease ever. The 1918–19
the growing number of infectious diseases more quickly and with
influenza pandemic claimed more lives than World War I did. It killed
higher sensitivity and specificity than using conventional techniques
more people in a single year than the Black Death Bubonic Plague,
[14]. The development of effective vaccines and medications against
which struck Europe in 1347–1351, did in four years, and more people
the majority of infectious disease pathogens has been aided by the
than the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which claimed 35 million lives at the end
accumulation of genomic and protein data. Through genomic and
of 2015. Infectious diseases have a variety of psychological, emotional,
proteomic investigations, a better knowledge of recognised pathogens
and mental side effects that make it harder for people to cope with
and the discovery of new or previously unidentified infectious diseases
their illness. Some contagious illnesses, like leprosy, make persons who
have been made possible. The development of the malaria vaccine was
have them ashamed and subject them to abuse or social exclusion. The
aided by a better understanding of the pathogenesis of the malaria
freedom and value of those who suffer are frequently lost. Additionally,
parasite Plasmodium falciparum and the susceptibility or resistance of
a contagious disease's effect on a person's ability to work increases adult
an individual to the disease. Along with pathogen and human variables,
poverty, which in turn may have an impact on children's schooling.
significant advancements in the field of global sociopolitical response to
Children's cognitive growth is also affected by infectious diseases,
infectious disease issues have been made. In order to combat infectious
which can result in a variety of social vices that ultimately contribute to
diseases, there have been coordinated efforts made on a worldwide
the disease's burden and exacerbate poverty [13].
scale since the turn of the century by international organisations,
Public Health Intervention governments, foundations, other cooperating agencies. The sixth of
the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set by the United
Human, environmental, and ecological variables play a significant Nations, "fight HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other related diseases," has
role in the development of both EIDs and neglected infectious illnesses. helped turn HIV from a fatal disease to a chronic, treatable condition.
However, NTDs are more resilient and thrive in poorer environments. The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (GFATM),
The priorities of public health are frequently low for those affected by the World Health Organization's (WHO) "3 by 5" initiative, and the
neglected tropical illnesses, and they frequently have little political United States President's Emergency Program for AIDS Relief are
clout. Therefore, a sensible public health response to the issue of additional international programmes in the fight against HIV. These
infectious diseases in general focuses on addressing the fundamental organisations are all supported by the United Nations [15].
causes that encourage the development and persistence of these
diseases, while also implementing effective control measures. In order Discussion
to assist the development and implementation of diagnostic tools,
therapeutic medications, and vaccinations as the foundation of public In addition to IgA1, ZmpB, and ZmpD, pneumoniae possesses
health response, WHO supports advocacy, awareness, pathogenesis three other zinc metalloproteinases, but as of the writing of this review,
studies, and all of the aforementioned activities. The WHO uses a none had been investigated in relation to ocular disorders. In the same
variety of public health strategies to control, eliminate, and eradicate way as PLY does, ZmpB causes a TNF-inflammatory response when
NTDs, including veterinary public health services. These strategies S. Mice with pneumoniae have reduced respiratory tract infections.
include disease management, preventive chemotherapy, vector TNF-a not only alters the shape of rabbit corneal cells, but also harms
control, pesticide management, provision of safe drinking water, basic their cytoplasm. Significantly lower levels of cytokines were found in
sanitation and hygiene, and education. Particularly in developing mice infected intranasally with a strain lacking ZmpB than in animals
nations, preventive chemotherapy is primarily administered via mass infected with the wild type strain. ZmpB may therefore contribute
medication administration. By using this method, helminthic illnesses significantly to both keratitis and endophthalmitis by triggering the
such schistosomiasis, ascariasis, lymphatic filariasis, trichuriasis, host inflammatory cascade. The idea that neuraminidase activity and
onchocerciasis, and trachoma can be fought off. To lessen the worm capsule expression are coordinatedly regulated and that deleting one
burden, which in turn lowers morbidity and enhances the quality of or the other will have different pathogenic effects is one explanation for
life for affected populations, preventative anthelmintic treatment is these findings. Increased neuraminidase production is brought on by
periodically administered to all at-risk residents living in endemic capsule deletion in conjunctivitis. The decrease in capsule expression
areas. Although a long-term commitment is required, this is producing that results from the deletion of neuraminidase in endophthalmitis
considerable benefits. may be regulated by a different mechanism and have a different

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Citation: Mushtajab K (2022) Emerging Infectious Diseases. J Bioterr Biodef, 13: 307.

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outcome from the total deletion of the capsule locus. In order to better prepare for pandemics is still a significant issue worldwide. Infectious
understand the unpredictable and devastating nature of IDs, there are illness onset and transmission have been discovered to be influenced
a lot of lessons to be gained from previous epidemics. Pathogens that by a wide range of factors, including human behaviour and activities,
cause infectious diseases have shown they are capable of emerging pathogen evolution, poverty, environmental changes, and dynamic
and spreading quickly across borders via any method available, have human relationships with animals. For the development of diagnostics,
a high potential for pathogenesis, and can develop or mutate to treatments, and vaccines as well as to potentially enable the detection
withstand pharmacological attack. This necessitates always having of pathogens with the potential to cause disease, vigorous study is
effective armament. This can be accomplished through increased required to understand key properties of pathogens.
international cooperation, strong local, regional, and global networks
for strong infectious disease surveillance and research collaboration Acknowledgement
to enable the sharing of biological and study materials to enhance The author would like to acknowledge Department of Biology and
the development of antimicrobial products and vaccine trials, and Information Science, University of Iran, Iran for their support during
collaboration between animal and human health sciences to strengthen this work.
capacity for identifying microbial agents with epidemic potential in
order to prevent their emergence. Additionally, there is a need to pay Conflict of Interest
close attention to circumstances that encourage the spread of disease, The author has no known conflicts of interested associated with
particularly human actions that harm the environment and modify this paper.
ecological processes and enhance animal-human interaction. They are
necessary for effective pandemic preparedness. References
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