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Rough Guide Directions Antigua and Barbuda 2nd
Edition Adam Vaitilingam Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Adam Vaitilingam
ISBN(s): 9781843537557, 1843537559
Edition: 2nd
File Details: PDF, 6.86 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
HEK=>=K?:;I

Hek]^=k_Z[:?H;9J?EDI

6ci^\jV
7VgWjYV
 JH&%#..$86C&)#..
ISBN 1-84353-755-9
51499
9 781843 537557
 Antigua
& Barbuda
DI RE C T IO N S

WRITTEN AND RESEARCHED BY

Adam Vaitilingam
T H I S E D I T I O N U P D AT E D A N D R E S E A R C H E D B Y

Christopher P. Hamilton

NEW YORK • LONDON • DELHI

www.roughguides.com
 Contents
Introduction 4 Falmouth and English Harbour.......... 71

CONTENTS
The west coast .................................90
Barbuda and Redonda ....................101

Ideas 9
The big six........................................10 Essentials 111
Beaches ...........................................12 Arrival.............................................113
Restaurants ......................................14 Island transport ..............................113
Colonial forts ....................................16 Information and maps.....................115
On the water ....................................18 Money and costs ............................116
Antiguan specialities.........................20 Communications and the media ..... 117
Museums and galleries.....................22 Accommodation..............................118
Hikes ................................................24 Food and drink ...............................119
Entertainment and nightlife............... 26 Ocean and beach safety ................. 120
Great views ......................................28 Sport and outdoor activities ............ 121
Barbuda............................................30 Crime and personal safety .............. 127
Travelling with children...................127
Festivals and events .......................128
Places 33 Directory.........................................129
St John’s ..........................................35
The northwest coast .........................51
The Atlantic coast .............................60 Index 137
 4
Introduction to

Antigua
INTRODUCTION

& Barbuda


Little known just a

Breadfruit
generation ago, tiny
Antigua has established
itself as one of the
Caribbean’s more
popular destinations.
The island is dotted
with superb white-
sand beaches, many of which – despite the upswing
in tourism that has given birth to dozens of excellent
restaurants and hotels, and a handful of all-inclusives –
remain relatively uncrowded. If you’re looking to crash
on a stretch of sand for a week or two, you’ll find this
laid-back, welcoming isle hard to beat.
Some of the best beaches are at Dickenson Bay in the northwest,
Half Moon Bay in the east and Rendezvous Bay in the south. Of
these, only Dickenson Bay forms part of a major tourist strip; the
others – as well as several more just like them – are much less
built up than similarly idyllic spots in the Caribbean. The waters
surrounding Antigua are also a prime spot for spray-soaked water-
sports, with excellent scuba diving and snorkelling opportunities in
the fabulous offshore reefs.
Before Europeans began colonizing the West Indies, Antigua was
populated by Arawak-speaking Amerindians. Sighted by Columbus
in 1493, the island was left to its own devices until the early six-
teenth century, when British settlers arrived, bringing with them

When to visit
For many visitors, Antigua’s leading attraction is its tropical climate: hot
and sunny all year round. The weather is at its best from mid-December to
mid-April, with rainfall low and the heat tempered by cooling trade winds.
Things can get noticeably hotter during the summer and, particularly in
September and October, the humidity can become oppressive. September
is also the most threatening month of the annual hurricane season, which
runs officially from June 1 to October 31.

5
African slaves to clear
Church in Liberta

the native vegetation

and plant sugarcane.
For centuries, the
island was little more
than a giant sugar fac-

INTRODUCTION
tory, producing sugar
and rum to send
home to an increas-
ingly sweet-toothed
mother country.
Around Antigua, the
tall brick foundations
of a hundred deserted
and decaying sugar
mills, as well as the
ruins of military forts
and signal stations,
bear witness to that
long colonial era.
These relics make for worthy diversions if you can drag yourself
away from your patch of sand. The superbly restored naval dock-
yard and the crumbling forts around English Harbour and Shirley
Heights are as impressive as any historic site in the West Indies.There

Runaway Bay
INTRODUCTION 6

 Antiguan steel band

are lots of other little


Shirley Heights
nuggets to explore too,
including the capital, St
John’s, with its colourful,
lively quayside, and the
odd old-fashioned set-
tlement like Parham or
Old Road that progress
seems to have bypassed.
And if you’re prepared
to do a bit of walking,
you’ll find some superb
hikes that will take you
out to completely iso-
lated parts of the island.
As for nightlife, things
are generally pretty quiet,
though a good crop of
restaurants – look out
for those serving fresh
West Indian cooking,
especially seafood – do
double duty as bars and
dance clubs.
Meanwhile, Antigua’s sister island Barbuda feels a world apart
from its larger, more developed neighbour, even though it’s less
than 50km away and easily accessible by plane or ferry. With its
spectacular, largely deserted beaches and pristine coral reefs, it
may come as some surprise that tourism here is as low-key as it is
– which is all the more reason to visit.
 Antigua & Barbuda
AT A GLANCE

INTRODUCTION
ST JOHN’S
Tucked into an inlet on the
northwest coast, St John’s most
likely won’t be why you come to
Antigua, but to miss out on the
city’s great restaurants,
entertaining commercial quays
and vibrant daily life would be a
shame. Be sure also to check out
the cathedral, the national
museum, the market and the
 Entrance to St John’s Cathedral
waterfront.

THE NORTHWEST COAST

Just north of St John’s, this coast
holds two well-manicured tourist
areas: quiet Runaway Bay and
more-developed Dickenson Bay.
Both offer lovely beaches,
shelving gently down into
turquoise waters – visit Runaway
for relaxed swimming and stroll-
ing, and Dickenson for
watersports, eating and
drinking.
 Runaway Bay

Sugar mill

THE ATLANTIC COAST

The underdeveloped Atlantic
coast is Antigua at its wild-
est and most natural state:
deserted islands, aban-
doned sugar plantations
and a lengthy stretch of
rough, but incredibly scenic,
coastline are all big draws
for those willing to explore
off the beaten track.
INTRODUCTION 8

 Falmouth and English Harbour

FALMOUTH AND ENGLISH

HARBOUR
Though not the best spot for good
beaches, Falmouth and English
Harbour contain most of the island’s
top sights. The nicely restored Nel-
son’s Dockyard is a clear window
to Antigua’s colonial past, while
several outstanding hikes, colonial
forts, fine restaurants and lively bars
will keep you plenty busy.

 White Bay in Barbuda

BARBUDA
Forty-eight kilometres north of
Antigua, the island of Barbuda is
perfect for those seeking unspoilt
nature and laid-back West Indian
culture. It’s likely you won’t see
 West Coast palm trees another soul lounging with you
on the beaches, scuba diving the
THE WEST COAST coral reefs or viewing the colony of
Antigua’s west coast features frigate birds.
several major tourist developments
along with some relatively deserted REDONDA
beaches. Highlights include Near-impossible to reach, Redonda
Darkwood Beach, great for is a small chunk of volcanic rock
snorkelling and beachcombing; the populated only by goats and sea-
massive Jolly Harbour resort and birds. Still, the story of how it came
entertainment complex; and scenic to be claimed as an independent
Fig Tree Drive with its nearby hikes kingdom is delightfully weird; see
into hillside forests. p.106 for more.
Ideas
10
There are a handful
The big six
of places on
Antigua that will
give you a fully
rounded picture of
the country’s rich
colonial history
– in essence the
best of what’s
worth seeing beyond the
countless beaches. A
comprehensive tour takes
you all around the island,
from the capital city to the
ruins around Falmouth
and English Harbour to
the rolling countryside
 Sailing Week
One of the world’s premier sailing events,
along the island’s Atlantic attracting mariners from across the globe
– but you don’t have to be a yachtie to enjoy
coast. To complete your
the parties.
impression, it’s worth P.77  FALMOUTH AND ENGLISH
HARBOUR
hanging around for either
of the two main festivals  Betty’s Hope
that help define the nation The island’s most prominent sugar plantation
for more than two hundred years and now
in the eyes of the world. the only working sugar mill in the Caribbean.
P.64  THE ATLANTIC COAST
 11
 Nelson’s Dockyard
Nelson called Antigua “this infernal
hole”, but his name has been
borrowed for this beautifully
restored Georgian dockyard.
P.75  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR

 Shirley Heights
A visit to the Heights offers
the chance not only to
explore military history but
also to enjoy wonderful
views and, on Sunday, to
party at The Lookout.
P.79  FALMOUTH
AND ENGLISH
HARBOUR

 Carnival
Beginning in late July, Antigua – St John’s
especially – is consumed by Carnival, which
sees a week and a half of non-stop music
and dance, culminating in a spectacular
costume parade.
P.40  ST JOHN’S

 St John’s
Don’t miss this vibrant West Indian city with
a lovely twin-towered cathedral, old wooden
buildings, a lively market and shopping scene
and a restored waterfront area.
P.35  ST JOHN’S
12
Most visitors to  Dickenson Bay
Beaches
Antigua head A beautiful half-mile stretch of white-powder
sand and calm waters offering a fine choice
straight for the of hotels, restaurants, bars and watersports.
beach and, as P.52  THE NORTHWEST COAST

a result, the
most popular
and developed
ones can get especially
crowded. While the west
and northwest coasts see
calmer seas, the winds
and frequent swells on
the Atlantic coast make
for great bodysurfing,
windsurfing and, for
the really energetic,
kiteboarding. Several strips
also have great options
for lunch on the beach,
notably the superb west-  Green Island
Take a boat trip to this peaceful and unin-
coast stretch that takes habited island where you can stake out your
in Darkwood Beach and very own strip of sand.
P.66  THE ATLANTIC COAST
Turner’s Beach.
 13
 Rendezvous Bay
One of the most difficult
beaches to reach on the island,
but well worth the hike for the
fine sand, the calm waters and
the solitude.
P.72  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH
HARBOUR

 Pigeon Beach
The best beach around
Falmouth and English
Harbour, especially good
for snorkelling and
simply kicking back with
a book.
P.78  FALMOUTH
AND ENGLISH
HARBOUR

 Darkwood Beach
This wonderfully quiet beach on the west
coast features fine swimming and
snorkelling, while nearby OJ’s is probably
Antigua’s best beach bar.
P.93  THE WEST COAST

 Half Moon Bay

This beautiful crescent bay must be a
contender for one of the loveliest beaches in
the Caribbean, if not the world.
w

P.66  THE ATLANTIC COAST

14
Antigua features a
Restaurants
growing selection
of top-quality
restaurants,
showcasing great
chefs and cuisine
from around the
world, as well
as superb local
ingredients,
particularly those freshly
pulled from the ocean.
Most of the classy places
are away from the big
hotels and all-inclusives,
but it’s well worth getting
out to them. You can also
enjoy tasty fare at local
 Home
spots like George and the Chef Carl Thomas’ childhood home on the
Roti King in St John’s, outskirts of St John’s, where he and his
German wife Rita now serve first-rate West
or Caribbean Taste and Indian food.
Grace Before Meals in P.47  ST JOHN’S

English Harbour. For a

true homegrown dining
experience, sample the
appetizing wares of street
food vendors, found
throughout St John’s and
at large construction sites
around lunchtime.

 Coconut Grove
Waterfront open-air thatched restaurant,
known for its sensational seafood, at the
Siboney Beach Club.
P.58  THE NORTHWEST COAST
 15
 Chez Pascal
Outstanding traditional French cuisine served
in a lovely Mediterranean setting in the hills
of Five Islands Peninsula.
P.95  THE WEST COAST

 Sheer
With a magnificent cliff-top location and a
menu of Asian/South American fusion,
this Cocobay Resort restaurant compares
with anything you’ll find in New York or
London.
P.100  THE WEST COAST

 Harmony
Hall
The perfect spot for a
long Italian lunch,
perhaps taking a
couple of hours’
beach break on
nearby
Green Island before
dessert and coffee.
P.69  THE
ATLANTIC COAST

 Papa Zouk
Lively little spot
on the outskirts of
St John’s offering
generous bowls of
delicious Creole
seafood and a superb
selection of rums.
P.47 
ST JOHN’S
16
The British, who
Colonial forts
ruled Antigua
for over three
centuries,
left behind
numerous military
fortifications.
Many were first  Dow’s Hill Fort
These rather limited ruins are in a superb
built when the location high above English Harbour, with a
British and French small multimedia museum nearby that
summarizes the island’s history.
navies were P.81  FALMOUTH AND
contesting the islands ENGLISH HARBOUR

of the Caribbean in the

 Fort James
1660s and several were Just north of St John’s, Fort James is one of
the island’s best-preserved military
enlarged or strengthened
installations. It’s also right near the popular
during the Napoleonic Fort Bay beach.
wars. They must have P.51  THE NORTHWEST COAST

been an effective deterrent

since they never saw
any further action,
instead becoming signal
stations, reporting on the
movement of ships in the
vicinity. The majority are
now pretty dilapidated,
though they all still
command great views.
 17

 Great Fort George  Fort Berkeley

Extensive ruins high in the hills above These small but atmospheric ruins provide a
Falmouth and English Harbour; you’ll only great view of the entrance to English
make it up here on foot or by four-wheel Harbour, and are just a short stroll from
drive. Nelson’s Dockyard.
P.72  FALMOUTH AND P.77  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR ENGLISH HARBOUR

 Fort Barrington
A short hike up to this fairly
well-preserved fort affords
great views of Deep Bay
and St John’s harbour.
P.94  THE WEST
COAST
18
The waters around
On the water
Antigua are
invariably clean,
clear and warm;
besides splashing
around in them,
you’ll find them
well suited for a
wide variety of
watersports. Just
offshore, you can
cruise, sail, kayak, snorkel,
bodysurf, windsurf,
kiteboard, water ski, jet
ski or swim with stingrays.
Further out, you can try
your hand at deep-sea
sport fishing, going after
wahoo, tuna, marlin and
other sailfish. Underwater,
you’ll discover some
spectacular dive sites, with
coral canyons, caves and
shipwrecks, home to all
kinds of tropical fish and
other marine creatures.

 Windsurfing on Dickenson
Bay
One of the busiest strips of beach on the
island, but the wind and waters are perfect
for windsurfers, whether you’re experienced
or just starting out.
P.52  THE NORTHWEST COAST
 19
 Kiteboarding at
Jabberwock Beach
Try this exciting new sport
if you dare: KiteAntigua has
introduced it to a windswept
beach on the island’s Atlantic
coast.
P.62  THE ATLANTIC
COAST

 Kayaking eco-tours
Explore the island’s hidden reefs, inlets and
mangrove swamps by kayak with
“Paddles” Kayak & Snorkel Club.
P.123  ESSENTIALS

 Sailing with Sunsail Club

Colonna
Sunsail has the best equipment and a prime
location for dinghy sailing – particularly good
for getting kids out on the water.
P.68  THE ATLANTIC COAST

 Boating with
Wadadli Cats
Catamaran cruises are a
great way to explore the
island’s coast, snorkel the
offshore reefs or simply
relax with a rum punch.
P.123  ESSENTIALS
20
You can find well-
Antiguan specialities
prepared versions
of most of the
big international
cuisines on
Antigua, but be
sure to also try
some of the local
specialities.
Fresh seafood and
exotic fruit and
vegetables are in
abundance, and
it’s worth tasting
them cooked in
the traditional West
Indian style. Look
out, too, for the national
fruit, the succulently sweet
Antiguan black pineapple,
as well as delicious
regional dishes like
ducana, fungi, souse and
a variety of curries. Wash
it all down with local beer
and rum-based cocktails.

 Wadadli beer
The Carib Indians called the island Wadadli,
now the name of the local brew.
P.119  ESSENTIALS
 21
 Fresh fruit and
vegetables
The public market in St John’s is one of the
best places for sampling the island’s fresh
fruit and vegetables.
P.44  ST JOHN’S

 Rum
Antiguan rums include the English Harbour
and Cavalier brands, served in bars
throughout the island.
P.119  ESSENTIALS
 Pepperpot stew
Made with salt beef, pumpkin and okra,
this is a favourite dish in homes across the
island.
P.47  FALMOUTH AND ENGLISH
HARBOUR

 Market fish
Freshly caught fish is often the best menu
option, with snapper and jack in particularly
plentiful supply.
P.44  ST JOHN’S
22
A handful of
Museums and galleries
small museums
around the
island neatly pull
together Antigua’s
history. You’ll
find fascinating
perspectives on
the pre-Columbian
period, the early
European settlers
and the boom
years of British
colonialism,
dominated here by
the sugar industry
and the slave
trade, and followed
by emancipation  National Museum of
Antigua and Barbuda
and the road to national A lovingly assembled collection of exhibits
independence. There on the island’s past and present, from
Arawak artefacts to a famous cricket bat.
are also several excellent
P.41  ST JOHN’S
galleries, showcasing
the work of artists and  Betty’s Hope
The museum at this restored sugar mill
craftsmen from Antigua
recalls, through various tools and drawings,
and elsewhere in the the time when sugar was King – and is a
sobering reminder of the slave trade that
Caribbean. made this possible.
P.64  THE ATLANTIC COAST
 23
 Harmony Hall
The gallery at this restored plantation
house (and outstanding Italian restaurant)
shows art by top Caribbean artists and
sculptors.
P.65  THE ATLANTIC COAST

 Nelson’s Dockyard
Museum
The world’s only working Georgian dockyard
includes a maritime museum that recounts
the story of English Harbour.
P.75  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR

 Nick
Maley’s
Island Arts
Gallery
Meet the creator
of the Star Wars
character Yoda at his
downtown
St John’s gallery,
close to where
the cruise ships
come in.
P.49 
ST JOHN’S
24
Dragging yourself  Indian Creek
Hikes
away from the Look out over Eric Clapton’s house and
spectacular Willoughby Bay as you scramble
sand and sea may steeply downhill to the creek.
not be easy, but P.82  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR
you’ll find plenty of
outdoor activities waiting
if you do. Hiking is one
of the most enjoyable of
these: there are several
interesting routes, with
varying degrees of
difficulty and the choice
of going with a guide or
solo. Many of the most  Falmouth to Rendezvous
Bay
frequented tracks and
It’s about an hour’s hike from Falmouth to
trails lead to various the idyllic beach at Rendezvous Bay, or you
can take the scenic route through the
hilltops and fortifications, woodlands from Fig Tree Drive.
while others take you to P.72  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR
beautiful beaches with
few if any people around
– the side of Antigua that
most visitors don’t see.
 25
 Wallings
Woodlands
This forest reserve
features some delightful
nature trails – look out
for mangoes, hog plums,
passion fruit and
lemongrass.
P.92  THE WEST
COAST

 Middle Ground
West of Nelson’s Dockyard, you can hike
up onto this unusual peninsula for great
views back across Falmouth and English
Harbour.
P.78  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR

 Boggy Peak
The communication station rather spoils the
view of Boggy Peak, but the view back down
certainly justifies hiking up to the highest
point on the island.
P.92  THE WEST COAST

 Shirley Heights
Follow goat paths along
cliffs and down to tide
pools, and then clamber up
a ridge with dramatic views
of the rugged southern
coast.
P.78  FALMOUTH
AND ENGLISH
HARBOUR
26
You’ll easily
Entertainment and nightlife
find ready-
made evening
entertainment
at the big resort
hotels. But if
you’re a little more
adventurous, the
non-packaged fun
is usually better,
especially around
Falmouth and
English Harbour.
Shoot pool with
sailors, get up and
dance at various
restaurants-cum-
nightclubs or
party with the
locals to the latest
Caribbean sounds.
None of it may be
particularly cutting-edge
but, preceded by a few
cocktails on the beach,
this should be all the
excitement you need.

 Liquid Nightclub and

Grand Princess Casino
At the Jolly Harbour entertainment complex,
this is the newest and largest nightspot
on the island, with facilities for the casino
enthusiast, too.
P.100  THE WEST COAST
 27
 Abracadabra
Tuck into southern Italian
food and once you’ve finished
eating, hit the dance floor for
the latest house music or live
bands.
P.85  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH
HARBOUR

 The Rasta Shack

Relaxed, unassuming bar that livens up
with the after-hours crowd who come for
the cold Red Stripe and reggae music.
P.89  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR

 The Lookout
Sunday is party time up on Shirley Heights
when crowds of locals and visitors gather
to enjoy reggae and steel bands.
P.82  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR

 Life
Perched on a wooden pier
right across the street from
Abracadabra, this place has
just as much action, but with
a Sixties and Seventies
musical bent.
P.87  FALMOUTH
AND ENGLISH
HARBOUR
28
Beyond the  Fig Tree Drive
Great views
sunshine, the This drive through the most lushly forested
part of the island offers some great views
year-round warm but no figs: it’s the Antiguan word for
bananas.
temperatures
P.90  THE WEST COAST
and the fabulous
beaches, Antigua
is blessed with
many other
exquisite natural
phenomena,
including lush tropical
vegetation, dramatic rock
formations and some
choice lookout points with
panoramic views of the
island. Make it a priority
to explore some of these
splendid sights, perhaps
by renting a car for a day
or two, asking a taxi driver
to give you a full tour
or taking an organized
excursion.
 29

 Hawksbill Rock
About half a mile offshore, this huge rock
bears a striking resemblance to the head of
a hawksbill turtle, the most endangered
species of sea turtle.
P.97  THE WEST COAST

 Shirley Heights Lookout

The best place on the island to watch the
sunset, whether or not you get to see the
legendary “green flash”.
P.79  FALMOUTH AND
ENGLISH HARBOUR

 Devil’s
Bridge
Over the centuries,
Atlantic breakers
have carved a natural
limestone arch and
blowholes where surf
crashes up and through.
P.65  THE
ATLANTIC COAST

 Pillars of
Hercules
Rarely seen by non-sailors,
these spectacular natural
columns of rock are so
impressive that they serve
as an aid to navigation for
passing ships.
P.80  FALMOUTH
AND ENGLISH
HARBOUR
30
Just 48 kilometres
Barbuda
north of Antigua
lies Barbuda,
the nation’s other
inhabited island.
Chief among its
attractions are
the stunning and
often deserted white-sand
beaches, but it’s also a
great place for scuba
diving and birdwatching,
notably for a rare colony
of frigate birds. The
island has a colourful
history, particularly during
its two hundred years
 Palm Beach and Palmetto
of ownership by the Point
Dreamy stretches of pink and white sand
Codrington family. But
which, more often than not, you can have
you’ll really want to come to yourself.
here to get away from P.104  BARBUDA

it all: Barbuda is close

to being the ultimate
Caribbean escape.

 Spanish Point
There’s little evidence of things Spanish
on this southeastern tip of the island, but a
spectacular marine reserve – Palaster Reef
– lies just offshore.
P.106  BARBUDA
 31
 Martello tower
Once the heart of the
island’s defences and still
a great lookout spot to
survey the island and
surrounding ocean.
P.106  BARBUDA

 Codrington
The only settlement on
Barbuda has a relaxed vibe
– and is refreshingly
uninflenced by tourism.
P.101  BARBUDA

 Caves
Take a break from the beach to
explore the caves in Barbuda’s
Highlands, several of which are
decorated with ancient carvings.
P.104  BARBUDA

 Frigate bird
sanctuary
The Caribbean’s largest nesting
colony of these fabulous and
unusual birds is a must for
twitchers.
P.103  BARBUDA
Places
 35

Ij@e^dÊi
With a population of around 30,000 – nearly half the
island’s total – bustling St John’s is Antigua’s capital
and only city. While not the prettiest town, it does
have a certain immediate charm and offers a glimpse
into everyday life in a typical West Indian community.
The centre has plenty of attractive old wooden and

P L A C E S St John’s
stone buildings – some of them superbly renovated,
others in a perilous state of near-collapse. An
afternoon should be enough time for sightseeing,
exploring back streets and shopping, but try to spend
at least one evening in the city to sample some of its
charming restaurants.
While in town, don’t miss small but noteworthy
National Museum, the city’s twin-towered cathedral
and Redcliffe Quay, where the waterfront and its
colonial buildings have been attractively restored.
Redcliffe Quay and nearby Heritage Quay are your
best bets for souvenirs although you may want to
avoid these areas if the cruise ships are in, when the
steel drums come out to play Bob Marley standards
for the throngs of shoppers.

Redcliffe Quay of the city. Named in honour of

By the waterside at the western end of the church of St Mary Redcliffe
Redcliffe Street. Redcliffe Quay is in the English port city of
a good place to start your tour Bristol, this is one of the oldest

Practicalities
As all of the main places of interest in St John’s are close together, the easiest way
to see the city is on foot. If you’d rather use your car, be advised that driving
around town is straightforward if not particularly enjoyable; parking space is
limited, the one-way traffic system a little tricky to deal with and potholes and
roadside rain gullies threaten damage to your car at every turn. There are taxi
stands just west of the market at the southern end of town, beside the East Bus
Station and at Heritage Quay.
If you’re arriving in or leaving the city by bus, keep in mind that the East Bus
Station serves the north and the east of the island, while the West Bus Station, next
to the market, serves the west (Dickenson Bay, Five Islands) and south (Jolly
Harbour, Old Road, Falmouth and English Harbour).
For general tourist information visit the small booth at the centre of Heritage
Quay or the Tourism Hospitality Unit on the second floor of the vendors’ mall, #25
Heritage Quay (T 562 6944/5). They both have free road maps and a smattering
of island brochures. To find out about any big events going on while you’re in town,
you’ll need to rely on flyers, the newspaper, radio and word of mouth.
St John’s P L A C E S 36
 P L A C E S St John’s
37
St John’s P L A C E S 38

 ST JOHN’S HARBOUR

parts of St John’s, and white wooden structure with

incorporates many old black trim and a few small
warehouses – now attractively rooms with high pointed
restored as small boutiques, nice ceilings. It serves as an art
restaurants and bars – and a gallery, and if they’re open
wooden boardwalk that runs they’ll let you into the small
alongside the water. There’s not brick walled courtyard out
a whole lot to see, but these back where the slaves were
several acres are a pleasant place once held before they were
to wander and soak up some of sold. It’s overgrown with
the city’s history. creeper vines and bougainvillea
Many of the waterfront and adorned with rusted tools
warehouses here once held and birdcages, beautiful but
supplies for the British navy and eerie, especially considering its
local merchant ships that traded history. The adjacent wooden
between Antigua and the building used to be a
mother country during the bargaining house, where
eighteenth century – barrels of auctions were held and slaves
sugar and rum, lumber for ship sold off to loca estate-owners.
repairs, cotton and sheepskins.
The area behind the quay Heritage Quay
around the western end of By the waterside at the western end of
Nevis Street held a number of St Mary’s Street. This modern
barracoons, compounds where concrete quay is given over to
slaves were held after they cruise-ship arrivals and dozens
arrived on the island and before of duty-free shops designed to
they were sent off to the catch the tourist dollars, along
plantations or shipped on to with local vendors selling T-
other Caribbean islands. shirts and toy steel drums.
Built on the side of one such Unless you’re shopping there’s
barracoon is the recently little reason to stop by except
restored Coates Cottage, a tiny for a quick look at the Westerby
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8. A bisexual free form gives origin to a bisexual parasitic form living
in an animal: example, Leptodera appendiculata in Snails.

9. The eggs develop in the earth, and give rise to embryos which are
transferred whilst still in the egg-cell to the body of an animal. The
embryos hatch out and form bisexual parasites: examples, Oxyuris,
Trichocephalus.

10. The larvae live in insects, the sexual worms in water or in the
earth: example, Mermis.

11. The larva lives encapsuled and is passively transferred to a

second animal: examples, Ollulanus, from Mouse to Cat; Cucullanus
elegans, from Cyclops to Perch; Spiroptera obtusa, from Meal-worm
to Mouse.

12. The sexual form lives for a short time in the intestine of a
Vertebrate, and produces larvae which bore through the intestinal
wall and become encapsuled in the tissues: example, Trichina
spiralis.

13. The sexual animal lives in the trachea of birds; the ova
containing embryos are coughed up and are taken into other birds
with food. They quit the egg-shell and wander into the air-sacs, and
finally into the trachea: example, Syngamus.

14. There are two larval forms; the first lives in water, the second in
the lungs of Amphibia, whence they wander into the intestine and
become sexually mature: example, Nematoxys longicauda in Triton
alpestris.

Parasitism.
1. Effect of Parasitism on the Parasite.—The usual effect of
parasitism on the parasitic organism is that the various organs
necessary for a free life tend to degenerate, whilst there is a
multiplication and development of organs of adhesion, by means of
which the parasite maintains its hold on its host. There is further an
immense increase in the powers of reproduction, which may take the
form of an increase in the number of fertilised eggs produced, or the
parasite may at some time of its life reproduce asexually, by
budding, or fission, or parthenogetically.

Of the various classes of animals which are more or less parasitic,

the Nematodes show less difference between the free-living and
parasitic members of the group than obtains in any other class. With
few exceptions, such as Sphaerularia, Allantonema, and one or two
others, the parasitic forms have undergone but little degeneration. It
is true that they have no eyes such as the free forms often possess,
but in other respects, such as in the nervous, muscular, and
digestive systems, they do not show any marked retrogression;
further, the mouth-armature is developed in many free forms, and is
not confined to the parasites.

The group has developed no methods of asexual reproduction by

budding or fission, such as are found in Platyhelminthes; and the
cases of an alternation of generations in which a sexual form
alternates with a parthenogenetic form, are rare, e.g. Rhabdonema
nigrovenosum; and it seems possible that even when
parthenogenesis has been described, further observation may show
that the parthenogenetic stage is really a protandrous
hermaphrodite, in which case the alternation of generations in
Nematodes, i.e. the hermaphrodite alternating with the dioecious
form, is a case of heterogamy or the alternation of two sexual
generations.

On the other hand, parasitic Nematodes produce enormous numbers

of eggs. Van Beneden states that 60,000,000 have been computed
in a single Nematode, and this multiplication of ova is absolutely
necessary, for the chance of the embryo reaching the right host, in
which alone it can develop, is always a small one.

It is a common thing to find that parasites are either hermaphrodite

or that the male is degenerate, as is the case with many of the
parasitic Crustacea, but with one or two exceptions the Nematoda
are bisexual, and although, as a rule, the males are smaller than the
females, they show no other trace of degeneracy.

In spite of the fact that the class as a whole shows but few special
modifications consequent on a parasitic mode of life, it is clear that
the Nematoda are peculiarly adapted for such a mode of life. Their
elongated thread-like bodies afford little resistance to the passage of
the food, which, as it passes through the intestine of the host, might
tend to carry the parasites out of the body. At the same time their
shape enables them to pierce and wriggle through the various
tissues without making any very serious lesions such as might prove
fatal to their host. Their extraordinary power of resisting desiccation
both in the egg and in the adult state vastly increases their chances
of ultimately hitting on the right host. They are capable of living in a
state of suspended animation for months, and even years when
dried (vide p. 136), and of resuming their activity on being
moistened.

The great faculty this group shows for living parasitically is evinced
by the extraordinary variety of life-history presented by the different
species. There is scarcely a stage which may not be parasitic; the
eggs, the larvae, the adults are all in some cases free, in others
parasitic, and in many cases first the one and then the other.

2. Occurrence and Effect of the Parasite on the Host.—Von

Linstow states that the only law that can be derived inductively from
the study of the life-history of Nematodes is that those that live in
animals never pass through all their stages of development in the
same organ; consequently, in considering the distribution of the
parasites within the body of their host we have a double habitat to
consider. Many forms, such as Trichina spiralis, wander from the
intestine to the muscles; others, such as Filaria medinensis, from the
alimentary canal to the lymphatics or blood vessels or subcutaneous
tissues. Others pass from the body-cavity to the intestine, as the
Mermithidae, which infest Insects, or from the stem and leaves of a
plant to its flower, as in the case of Tylenchus tritici.

With regard to their occurrence in the different classes of the animal

kingdom, they have been most frequently observed in Vertebrates
and in Insects. They are comparatively rare in the other large
divisions. Many genera are confined to certain hosts: thus Ascaris,
Filaria, Trichosoma occur only in Vertebrates; Spiroptera (with one
exception) in Mammals and Birds; Cucullanus in Fishes and
Amphibia; Strongylus and Physaloptera in Mammals, Birds, and
Reptiles; Dochmius, Pseudalius, Trichocephalus in Mammals;
Dispharagus, Hystrichis, Syngamus in Birds; Nematoxys, Hedruris in
Amphibia and Reptiles; Ichthyonema in Fishes; and Isacis and
Mermis in Insects.

Twenty-two species have been described as parasitic in man, of

which perhaps the most dangerous are Filaria medinensis, the three
varieties of F. sanguinis hominis; Dochmius (Ancylostomum)
duodenalis, and Trichina spiralis. The Ascaridae, as Ascaris
lumbricoides and Oxyuris vermicularis, though painful, seldom cause
death.

The enormous number of parasites harboured by one host is shown

by the fact mentioned in Leuckart's Parasites of Man, that
Nathusius[203] took from a single black stork 24 specimens of Filaria
labiata from the lungs, 16 Syngamus trachealis from the trachea,
more than 100 Spiroptera alata from the coats of the stomach,
besides several hundred Trematodes belonging to several different
species (see p. 63). Even this has been surpassed in the case of a
young horse, in whose body Krause found 500 Ascaris
megalocephala, 190 Oxyuris curvula, several millions of Strongylus
tetracanthus, 214 Sclerostomum armatum, 287 Filaria papillosa, 69
Taenia perfoliata, and 6 Cysticercus forms.

It is impossible here to enter into a full description of the destruction

caused to domesticated animals and crops by the presence of these
parasites; full details will be found in books dealing especially with
this question, such as Neumann's Parasites and Parasitic Diseases
of Domesticated Animals. A couple of cases will show how important
this matter is to the farmer. Crisp estimates that Syngamus trachealis
causes the death of half a million pullets in England every year, and
Mégnin states that in a single pheasantry 1200 victims died daily;
again, the loss of one-third the crop of beetroot is by no means
uncommon when it is infested with Heterodera schachtii. These
show the practical importance of what at first sight seem quite
insignificant animals, and the necessity for the minutest observation,
for only when we are fully acquainted with all the details of the life-
history of a parasite are we in a position to successfully combat it.

Sub-Order II. Nematomorpha.

Until the last few years it has been customary to regard the
Gordiidae as a family of Nematodes. Although in external
appearance and life-history they closely resemble the members of
this group, yet recent research has shown so many important
morphological differences between them and the Nematoda, that
most zoologists are now agreed in placing them in a different sub-
Order, the Nematomorpha, a name first suggested by Vejdovsky.[204]

Fig. 82.—A water plant around which a female Gordius is twining and
laying eggs. a, a, Clump and string of eggs. (From von Linstow.
 [205])

The Gordiidae comprise but two genera, Gordius and Nectonema.

The latter has but one species, N. agile Verr., and is marine; the
former, on the other hand, is exclusively fresh-water, and contains a
very large number of species. Gordian worms are frequently to be
found in ditches, ponds, or large puddles, moving with an undulating
motion through the water, or twining and writhing round water-plants;
they are scarcer in running water. In shape they are like a piece of
thin whip-cord, slightly tapering at each end; the male, however, is
easily distinguished from the female by its forked tail (Fig. 89). Not
unfrequently a considerable number are found inextricably tangled
together into a knot, and the name of the genus refers to this fact.
Where numbers have suddenly appeared in water hitherto free from
them, legends have sprung up which attribute their presence to a
rain of worms; in reality they have come out of the bodies of Insects
in which they are parasitic for the greater part of their life.

The genus Gordius passes through three distinct stages, of which

the first two are larval and parasitic; the third is sexually mature and
lives in water. The second larval stage closely resembles the adult,
but the reproductive organs are not developed. The following
account of the structure of this larval form and of the adult is in the
main taken from von Linstow.[206]

The whole body is covered with a well-developed two-layered

cuticle, which in the adult is marked out into areas, and bears
numerous minute sensory bristles, which are especially developed in
the neighbourhood of the cloaca of the male. Beneath this is a
hypodermis which differs markedly from the sub-cuticle of
Nematodes, inasmuch as it consists of a single layer of polygonal
nucleated cells. Within this lies a single layer of longitudinal muscle-
cells, which differ from the corresponding layer of Nematodes in
having that part of their medulla which is not surrounded by the
contractile portion directed outwards towards the hypodermis, and
not inwards towards the body-cavity.
 Fig. 83.—Transverse section through a young male Gordius tolosanus
Duj. (From von Linstow.) Highly magnified. a, Cuticle; b,
hypodermis; c, muscular layer; d, parenchyma; e, alimentary
canal; f, nervous system; g, cells of the testis.

The body is in the younger stages practically solid, the interior being
filled with clearly defined polygonal cells which are arranged in
definite rows; in later life certain splits arise in this tissue which
subserve various functions; between these splits strands of tissue
are left which form mesenteries, and some of the cells remain lining
the muscular layer (Fig. 86). These cells have been described by
Vejdovsky as a definite somatic, peritoneal epithelium, but this was
not found by von Linstow. Besides forming the mesenteries, and
acting as packing between the various organs of the body, these
cells also form the ova and the spermatozoa.

The splits which have appeared when the animal has reached the
second larval stage, are two dorsal and a ventral; the latter contains
the alimentary canal, and may be termed the body-cavity, the former
will develop the generative organs. The mouth is occluded in the
older larvae, and in the adults there is a distinct but solid
oesophagus which passes into a tubular intestine. The intestine
consists of a single layer of cells surrounding a lumen; it runs straight
to the hinder end of the body, where it opens in both sexes with the
ducts of the reproductive organs.

The nervous system consists of a well-defined circumoesophageal

ring with two dorsal swellings, and, arising from this, a median
ventral cord which runs the whole length of the body. The cord
consists of three longitudinal strands with ganglionic cells below
them; the latter, though they lie within the muscle layer, maintain a
connexion with the hypodermis. Behind, the nerve-cord splits in the
male, one half passing into each caudal fork. In the adult a pair of
black eyes can be detected on the head; the only other sense
organs are the tactile bristles mentioned above. Excretory organs
are unknown.

Fig. 84.—Section through a young female Gordius tolosanus. (From

von Linstow.) a, Cuticle; b, hypodermis; c, muscular layer; d,
parenchyma; e, alimentary canal; f, nervous system; g, egg-sac;
h, ovary.

The generative organs only attain maturity in the adult, which is, in
fact, exclusively devoted to reproduction. No trace of testes is found
in the larva, though the two dorsal splits from the walls of which the
spermatozoa will arise are present. They are lined by a definite
epithelium (Fig. 83), and this serves at once to distinguish them from
the body-cavity. Posteriorly the splits narrow and become the two
vasa deferentia which open one on each side into the cloaca. The
cells lining the lumen give rise to secondary cells, and these become
spermatozoa, the process extending from behind forwards. The
external organs—bursa, etc.—described by Vejdovsky were not
found by von Linstow.

Fig. 85.—Section through a mature female Gordius tolosanus. (From

von Linstow.) Lettering as in Fig. 84; g, egg-sac; h, ovary.
 Fig. 86.—Section through a female Gordius tolosanus when the
deposition of ova is almost complete. a, b, c, d, e, and f, as in Fig.
84; g, egg-sac; h, ovary almost empty; i, dorsal canal containing
eggs; j, receptaculum seminis.

In the female larva two similar splits are present; these form the egg-
sacs. Posteriorly they end in two short oviducts which open into a
uterus, in which fertilisation takes place, and in which the secretion
arises which cements the eggs together. In the adult the ovaries and
a receptaculum seminis are found, in addition to the organs present
in the larva. The ovaries are formed from modifications of the
packing tissue; they begin close behind the head, and soon attain
such dimensions as to compress the egg-sacs and body-cavity to
small slits. After a time the wall between the ovary and the egg-sacs
becomes absorbed, and the eggs grow into the latter. In the old
females, where the egg sacs are empty, there is a considerable
space round the exhausted ovary, into which eggs continue to fall
off; there is also a median dorsal canal which contains a few eggs.
By this time the wall between the ovary and the egg-sac has again
appeared.

One of the most interesting points about the female is that, according
to Vejdovsky, the ovary is segmented, the cells which form the ova
being heaped up in segmentally-arranged masses. This observation,
if correct, is almost the only instance of segmentation recorded in the
group Nemathelminthes.
 Fig. 87.—Nectonema agile Verrill. A, The adult. Magnified. (After
Fewkes.) B, Longitudinal section through the head. × about 20.
(From Bürger.) a, Mouth; b, circumoesophageal commissure
(dorsal); c, cell of salivary gland; d, septum cutting off head from
rest of body; e, testis; f, ventral cord; g, oesophageal cells; h,
lumen of oesophagus; i, cerebral ganglion (ventral).

The only other genus which is associated with Gordius in the group
Nematomorpha is Nectonema, of which there is as yet but one
species known, Nectonema agile Verr.[207] Our knowledge of the
anatomy of this worm is due mainly to Bürger[208] and Ward.[209]
Nectonema is a marine worm found swimming near the surface of
the sea with rapid undulatory motion. The males are from 50 to 200
mm. long, the females from 30 to 60 mm. The body is faintly ringed,
and bears two rows of fine bristles on each side. Owing to a curious
torsion of the body through a right angle, the lateral bristles of the
anterior third seem to be placed in the ventral and dorsal middle line.
They are very easily broken off. The body is divided into a small
anterior and a large posterior chamber by a transverse septum
placed a little way behind the head. The anterior chamber contains
the brain and is lined by a definite epithelium, the posterior is not.
The layers of the skin correspond with those of Nematodes or of
Gordius, but the hypodermal cells show no cell outlines; still they are
not so modified as in the former group. The hypodermis is thickened
in the median dorsal and ventral line, and the single nerve-cord lies
in the latter.

The alimentary canal is degenerate, as in Gordius. A mouth exists,

but it is minute, and opens into a very fine tube lined with chitin,
which pierces through the substance of a single elongated cell. This
minute oesophagus, with its coextensive cell, reaches back to the
transverse partition, but behind this a few other cells become
associated with it, and ultimately the lumen of the alimentary canal is
surrounded by four cells; but the number diminishes behind, and
soon only two cells surround the tube at any one level, and the
intestine dwindles away some little distance in front of the tail. There
is no sign of an anus. A circumoesophageal nerve-ring exists, of
which the ventral part is by far the larger (Fig. 87); it gives off a
ventral nerve-cord, which swells posteriorly in the male into a large
anal ganglion, far bigger than the brain, and larger in the male than
in the female.

The testes consist of a dorsally placed sac, continuous behind with a

vas deferens; this opens at the posterior end, which is pointed and
slightly curved ventrally. The ovary is unknown; but females have
been found with their body-cavity crammed with ova; these escape,
like the spermatozoa, from a genital pore at the posterior end of the
body.

Classification.—The separation of the Nematomorpha from the

Nematoda depends mainly on the character of the nervous system,
the absence of the lateral lines and of the dorsal line, the character
of the contents of the body-cavity, and the character of the
reproductive organs. In Gordiidae the latter are always placed dorsal
to the intestine, and ovaries and testes open alike at the hinder end
of the body. The importance of the differences in the organs just
enumerated has been considered sufficient to justify the removal of
the Gordiidae from the Nematoda, and the establishment of the
special sub-Order Nematomorpha for their reception; and although
Nectonema has a dorsal line, and is in some other respects
intermediate between the two groups, there can be little doubt that it
is more closely allied to Gordius than to any member of the
Nematoda, and it must therefore be placed with it in the
Nematomorpha.
On the other hand, it ought to be mentioned that Camerano[210]
found that the chief details of the fertilisation and development of the
egg in Gordius closely conform with what is known of the same
processes in Nematodes, and he is of opinion that these
resemblances are sufficiently important to justify the retention of the
group among the Nematoda.

Life-History.—The life-history of Gordius comprises four stages—

the early development of the egg, the first larval form, the second
larval form, and the sexually mature form. Both larval forms are
parasitic, and during their life they are actively engaged in feeding;
the free form, on the other hand, takes in no nourishment, and is
exclusively engaged in reproduction.

Fig. 88.—Abdomen of Pterostichus niger with the terga removed to

expose the Gordius larva within. Slightly magnified. (From von
Linstow.)

Von Linstow[211] gives the following account of the life-history of G.

tolosanus, a form which has been more fully worked out than any
other. In the month of April numerous specimens of the beetle
Pterostichus niger were found floating on the surface of the ditches
and small ponds in the fields surrounding Göttingen. Some were
found dead or dying; others appeared quite healthy, and these were
swimming actively, endeavouring to reach land. Within the abdomen
of these beetles, in about 20 per cent of those collected, the second
larval form of the G. tolosanus was found. The longest larvae were
122 mm. in length, and very soft, partly snow-white and partly brown
in colour; traces of the boring apparatus of the first larval form were
still to be seen, but in other respects the larva only differed from the
free form in the immaturity of its sexual organs. Besides the parasite
hardly anything was to be found in the abdomen of the beetle, the
larva having eaten up all trace of the fat body and the generative
organs of its host. The larvae bored their way out of the body of the
beetle and became adult animals.

It is rather difficult to say what brings these essentially terrestrial

beetles to the water, but von Linstow suggests that, as they live
partly on snails, and at this time of year there are not many land-
snails about, they may be in search of water-snails such as Limnaea.
They may also be sometimes blown into the water by wind storms,
but, whatever the cause is, their presence in water is essential for
the continuance of the life of their parasites.

Once free in the water the Gordius is soon sexually mature; the
fertilisation takes place in April, and then the female may be seen
twisting and writhing round the stems of water-plants and laying the
long bead-like strands of eggs (Fig. 82). The first deposition
observed by von Linstow took place on 14th April, the last on 2nd
August, and the period of egg-laying for each female extended over
four weeks. At first the eggs are snow-white, but within twenty-four
hours they turn brown in colour.

The development of the first larva within the egg takes about a
month. When it emerges from the egg-shell it is minute, .065 mm.
long, ringed anteriorly, and provided with a protrusible and retractile
boring apparatus consisting of three chitinous rods; round the base
of this piercing proboscis is a double crown of papillae, each bearing
a spine (Fig. 90).

Fig. 89.—The tail ends of a female Gordius (a) and a male (b) in
copula. × 1.5. (From G. Meissner.[212])
This first larval form breaks through the egg-shell and sinks to the
bottom of the water, where it moves about sluggishly and awaits the
arrival of the right host in which to take up its abode. This host is the
larva of the Alder-fly, Sialis lutaria Lin. (vide vol. v. p. 444), and into
this it bores and comes to rest in the muscles or the fat body. It does
not form distinct capsules. It remains in this larva during the following
winter, and in the spring passes over into the imago Sialis. The
complete insect frequents the small plants growing along the water's
edge, and falls an easy prey to the predaceous beetle Pt. niger. The
larva is eaten, and undergoing a change becomes the second larval
form mentioned above. It remains in the body of the beetle during
the second winter, and finally returns to the water as the adult some
eighteen or twenty months after it has been hatched from the egg.

Fig. 90.—Embryo or first larval form of Gordius tolosanus taken from

the egg. Highly magnified. a and b, The bristle-bearing papillae on
the head; c, the boring apparatus. (From von Linstow.)

From the above account of the life-history of Gordius it will be seen

that the chances of an egg reaching maturity are comparatively
small, and to compensate for this a very large number of eggs are
laid. In addition to the risk of the larvae not finding the right host at
the right time, and of the first host not being eaten by the second,
and the second not being drowned, there is the danger that the
ditches and ponds in which the adults live may dry up, and, in fact,
great numbers of worms perish by this taking place.

The sex of the adults may be told from their colour, the males being
of a blackish brown, the females of a light clay brown; the former
average 120 mm. in length, the latter 170 mm. The males are also
more numerous, the proportion being seven to three. Camerano[213]
has drawn attention to the fact that there is a certain polymorphism
in size, form, and colour which is especially common amongst the
males; dwarf forms with mature reproductive organs exist, and he is
of opinion that these differences depend both on the size of the
second host and on the duration of the parasitic life.

In addition to the larva of Sialis lutaria, the first larval stage has also
been found in the larva of Ephemera, Tanypus, Corethra, and
Chironomus; the second in Carabus hortensis Fabr., Procerus
(Carabus) coriaceus Linn., Calathus fuscipes Goeze, Molops elatus
Fabr., several species of Pterostichus, and a number of other
beetles. It is probable that its normal hosts are S. lutaria and Pt.
niger, but it is clear that it often comes to rest in other insects. The
view that the Gordiidae have no special hosts, but may either pass
the whole of their life-history within one and the same animal, or, on
the other hand, may inhabit animals belonging to very different
groups, is held by Villot, who has paid great attention to the subject.
He finds the first larval form encysted in the walls of the alimentary
canal in fishes, such as Leuciscus phoxinus, the minnow, Cobitis
barbatula, the loach, and Petromyzon planeri, the lamprey; in the
larvae of Diptera, Ephemera, and beetles, in Planorbis (a water
snail), in Enchytraeus (an Oligochaet); the second larval form in all
kinds of insects, spiders, Crustacea, fish, frogs, birds (Otis), and in
man, and these various habitats lead him to the conclusion that "Les
Gordiens n'ont pas d'hôtes spéciaux." On the other hand, as von
Linstow points out, it is contrary to our knowledge of parasites that a
single species should develop equally well in the body of warm and
cold-blooded Vertebrates and of Insects, and the explanation of the
presence of the larvae in these various forms may either be that they
belong to different species of Gordius or, more probably, that they
are accidentally present, having passed into their hosts with drinking
water.
 Fig. 91.—Tarsal joint of an Ephemerid larva into which two Gordius
larvae (a, a) have penetrated. Magnified. (From G. Meissner.)

The number of species of Gordius is large; over 100 are enumerated

in the Compendium der Helminthologie,[214] the great majority of
which inhabit insects.

The life-history of Nectonema is practically unknown; the adults have

been found swimming near the surface of the sea at two places only:
Newport, R.I., and Wood's Holl, Mass., on the south coast of New
England. It has been fished close to the shore, from the end of June
to the beginning of October, when the tide is going out at evening
and there is no moon. This seems to indicate that it avoids the light.
When first caught the worms move actively about, coiling themselves
into figures of eight and then uncoiling; at the same time there is a
rhythmical movement caused by waves of muscular contraction
passing down each side of the body alternately; by this kind of
motion they make rapid and definite progress through the water.

It seems probable that the adult Nectonema is preceded by one or

more larval stages, and what appears to be a young form has been
obtained from the thoracic cavity of a prawn, Palaemonetes,[215]
which has thus some claim to be regarded as the host of this
species, but nothing is known about its early life-history.

Sub-Order III. Acanthocephala.

The Acanthocephala, which form the third class of the

Nemathelminthes, consists of but few genera; there are, however,
numerous species of very different size, varying from 10 to 65 cm.
long in the female Gigantorhynchus (Echinorhynchus) gigas, to quite
minute forms a few millimetres in length. The adult stage occurs in
the alimentary canal of Vertebrates, as a rule in those which live in,
or frequent water; the larvae are found in the bodies of certain
Invertebrates, very frequently small Crustacea.

Fig. 92.—Two specimens of Echinorhynchus proteus Westrumb., with

their anterior ends embedded in the wall of the intestine of a Pike.
Magnified with a lens. (From Hamann.)

Anatomy.—The body of the mature forms can usually be divided

into three sections—the proboscis, the neck, and the trunk, but the
middle region is not always discernible. The proboscis is armed with
rings of hooks (Fig. 93) arranged in longitudinal rows; they are
usually of two kinds, but in E. proteus of three. They have a certain
specific value, but not much stress can be laid on the number of
rings, e.g. in E. angustatus the number varies from eight to twenty-
four. The recurved hooks serve to fasten the parasite very firmly to
the tissues of the host. The proboscis is hollow and retractile; it can
be withdrawn into the body by means of muscles attached internally
to its tip. It does not, however, pass straight into the body-cavity, but
is retracted into a special cavity—the proboscis sheath—with a
double muscular wall. The proboscis sheath may perhaps be looked
upon as a septum, such as is found in some of the Nematomorpha,
dividing the body-cavity into two parts. It is inserted into the body-
wall at the junction of the neck and trunk or of the proboscis and
trunk. In addition to the muscles which withdraw the proboscis into
its sheath, there are two retractors running from the outside of the
sheath to the body-wall; these serve to retract the whole sheath and
its contents into the body-cavity of the trunk.
The structure of the skin is essentially like that of Nematodes, but the
details are much more complicated. The whole body is covered by a
thin cuticle secreted by the epidermis, which, as in the other groups,
breaks down and forms a syncytium called the sub-cuticle. The
minute fibrils which penetrate this layer are much more definitely
arranged than in Nematodes; the largest of them run from without
inwards, others run concentrically round the body. Large oval or
spherical nuclei are scattered in the sub-cuticle, which is further
honeycombed by a number of lacunae or spaces which are
described below.

Fig. 93.—A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus acus Rud. attached to

a piece of intestinal wall, × 4; B, the proboscis of one still more
highly magnified.

Within the sub-cuticular layer is found a sheath of circularly-arranged

muscle-fibres, and within this again a sheath of longitudinal muscles
which do not extend into the proboscis; this inner layer lines the
body-cavity, there being no epithelium within it. In their minute
structure the muscle-cells resemble those of Nematodes.

The canals in the sub-cuticle form a very curious system of

anastomosing spaces, in which a clear fluid containing fat globules
circulates. The extent to which the system is developed varies in
different species, but in all there is a pair of longitudinal canals which
are situated laterally, and which give off the subsidiary channels in
their course. The above description applies to the lacunar spaces in
the skin of the trunk; those of the proboscis are quite distinct, and
there is no communication between the two sets of spaces; in fact,
the sub-cuticle in which the lacunae are formed is not continuous
across the line of junction of the proboscis and the neck, or, when
the latter is absent, of the proboscis and the trunk, but it is
interrupted by the ingrowth of a thin ring of cuticle which reaches
down to the muscular layers (Fig. 94).

Fig. 94.—A longitudinal section through the anterior end of

Echinorhynchus haeruca Rud. (From Hamann.) a, The proboscis
not fully expanded; b, proboscis-sheath; c, retractor muscles of
the proboscis; d, cerebral ganglion; e, retinaculum enclosing a
nerve; f, one of the retractors of the sheath; g, a lemniscus; h, one
of the spaces in the sub-cuticular tissue; i, longitudinal muscular
layer; j, circular muscular layer; k, line of division between the
sub-cuticular tissue of the trunk and that of the proboscis with the
lemnisci.

All the spaces in the skin of the proboscis open ultimately into a
circular canal situated round its base; on each side the canal opens
into a sac-like structure which extends through the body-cavity
towards the posterior end of the animal. These two lateral diverticula
are termed the lemnisci. They have always attracted considerable
attention from the workers at the group, and numerous functions
have from time to time been attributed to them. They are more or
less hollow, and their walls consist of sub-cuticular tissue surrounded
with a scanty muscular coat; they contain the same fluid as the
lacunae of the skin of the proboscis, with which they are placed in
communication by means of the circular canal; and it seems most
probable that, as Hamann[216] suggests, they act as reservoirs into
which the lacunar fluid retires when the proboscis is retracted, and
which, by means of the contractions of their muscular coat, force the
fluid into the lacunae when the proboscis is everted, and thus aid in
its protrusion.

The parasitic habits of Echinorhynchus have had a deeper influence

on the structure of the body than is the case with the Nematoda. All
traces of an alimentary canal have disappeared, and the animals live
entirely by the imbibition through the skin of the already elaborated
fluids of their hosts. The power of absorbing fluids is shown by the
fact that they swell up and become tense when placed in fresh water.

Until recently no definite excretory organs had been recognised, and

the function of excreting the nitrogenous matter was by some
assigned to the lemnisci. In 1893 Kaiser[217] described in G. gigas
two organs which he called nephridia, placed dorsally to the ducts of
the male and female reproductive organs. Each nephridium, which
somewhat resembles a cauliflower, consists of a stalk or duct,
opening at one end into the reproductive ducts, and at the other
branching and breaking up into a number of secondary and tertiary
twigs. The end of each twig is closed by a membrane pierced with a
number of most minute pores, by means of which it communicates
with the body-cavity; on the inner side the membrane bears a
number of long cilia, which keep up an active flickering. The
presence of these cilia is interesting, as elsewhere they are unknown
throughout the Nemathelminthes.

Fig. 95.—A, A longitudinal section through the terminal twigs of the

nephridium of Gigantorhynchus gigas. (From J. E. Kaiser.) Highly
magnified. a, Nucleus. B, A terminal twig more highly magnified;
b, the porous membrane.
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