Matrices

Matrices - Introduction

Matrix algebra has at least two advantages:

•Reduces complicated systems of equations to simple
expressions
•Adaptable to systematic method of mathematical treatment
and well suited to computers
Definition:
A matrix is a set or group of numbers arranged in a square or
rectangular array enclosed by two brackets

 4 2 a b 
1  1  3 0 c d 
   
 Matrices - Introduction

Properties:
•A specified number of rows and a specified number of
columns
•Two numbers (rows x columns) describe the dimensions
or size of the matrix.

Examples:
3x3 matrix 1 2 4 
2x4 matrix
4  1 5 1 1
  
3  3
 1  1
1x2 matrix 3 3 3 0 0 3 2 
 Matrices - Introduction

A matrix is denoted by a bold capital letter and the elements

within the matrix are denoted by lower case letters
e.g. matrix [A] with elements aij

Amxn=
 a11 a12 ... aij ain 
a a22 ... aij 
a2 n 
 21
A n
m

     
 
am1 am 2 aij amn 
i goes from 1 to m
j goes from 1 to n
Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES
1. Column matrix or vector:
The number of rows may be any integer but the number of
columns is always 1

1   a11 
4 1  a21 
   3  
2    
am1 
Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES
2. Row matrix or vector
Any number of columns but only one row

1 1 6 0 3 5 2

a11 a12 a13  a1n 

 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES

3. Rectangular matrix
Contains more than one element and number of rows is not
equal to the number of columns

1 1
3 1 1 1 0 0 
7 
  2 0 3 3 0
7  7  
 
7 6
mn
 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES
4. Square matrix
The number of rows is equal to the number of columns
(a square matrix A has an order of m)
mxm

1 1 1 1 1 
9 9 0 
3 0  
  6 6 1
The principal or main diagonal of a square matrix is composed of all
elements aij for which i=j
 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES

5. Diagonal matrix
A square matrix where all the elements are zero except those on
the main diagonal
3 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 
3 0 0
0 2 0  
  0 0 5 0
0 0 1  
0 0 0 9
i.e. aij =0 for all i = j
aij = 0 for some or all i = j
 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES
6. Unit or Identity matrix - I
A diagonal matrix with ones on the main diagonal

1 0 0 0
0 
 1 0 0 1 0 aij 0
0 0 1 0 0 1  0 
   aij 
 
0 0 0 1
i.e. aij =0 for all i = j
aij = 1 for some or all i = j
 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES

7. Null (zero) matrix - 0

All elements in the matrix are zero

0  0 0 0 
0  0 0 0 
 
0  
0 0 0

aij  0 For all i,j

 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES
8. Triangular matrix
A square matrix whose elements above or below the main
diagonal are all zero

1 0 0  1 0 0  1 8 9
 2 1 0  2 1 0 0 1 6 
     
5 2 3 5 2 3 0 0 3
 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES

8a. Upper triangular matrix

A square matrix whose elements below the main
diagonal are all zero
1 7 4 4
aij aij aij  1 8 7  0 
  0 1 8   1 7 4
0 aij aij 
  0
0 0 7 8
 0 aij  0 0 3  
0 0 0 3
i.e. aij = 0 for all i > j
 Matrices - Introduction

TYPES OF MATRICES

8b. Lower triangular matrix

A square matrix whose elements above the main diagonal are all
zero

aij 0 0 1 0 0 
   2 1 0
aij aij 0
 
aij aij aij  5 2 3

i.e. aij = 0 for all i < j
 Matrices – Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES
9. Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix whose main diagonal elements are
equal to the same scalar
A scalar is defined as a single number or constant

aij 0 0 1 0 0 6 0 0 0
  0 1 0  0 
0 aij 0    6 0 0
0 0 aij  0 0 1
 0 0 6 0
 
i.e. aij = 0 for all i = j 0 0 0 6
aij = a for all i = j
Matrices

Matrix Operations
 Matrices - Operations

EQUALITY OF MATRICES
Two matrices are said to be equal only when all
corresponding elements are equal
Therefore their size or dimensions are equal as well

1 0 0  1 0 0 
A=  2 1 0 B=  2 1 0 A=B
   
5 2 3 5 2 3
 Matrices - Operations

Some properties of equality:

•IIf A = B, then B = A for all A and B
•IIf A = B, and B = C, then A = C for all A, B and C

1 0 0  b11 b12 b13 

A=  2 1 0 B=
b b b23 
   21 22

5 2 3 b31 b32 b33 

If A = B then aij  bij

 Matrices - Operations

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

The sum or difference of two matrices, A and B of the same

size yields a matrix C of the same size

cij  aij  bij

Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or subtracted
 Matrices - Operations

Commutative Law:
A+B=B+A

Associative Law:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C

7 3  1  1 5 6  8 8 5
 2  5 6     4  2 3    2  7 9 
     
A B C
2x3 2x3 2x3
 Matrices - Operations

A+0=0+A=A
A + (-A) = 0 (where –A is the matrix composed of –aij as elements)

6 4 2 1 2 0 5 2 2 
3 2 7   1 0 8  2 2  1
     
 Matrices - Operations

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

Matrices can be multiplied by a scalar (constant or single

element)
Let k be a scalar quantity; then
kA = Ak

3 1
Ex. If k=4 and
2 1 
A 
2 3
 
4 1
Matrices - Operations

3 1 3 1 12  4 

2 1  2 1  8 4 
4   4   
2 3 2 3  8 12
     
4 1  4 1 16 4 

Properties:
• k (A + B) = kA + kB
• (k + g)A = kA + gA
• k(AB) = (kA)B = A(k)B
• k(gA) = (kg)A
 Matrices - Operations

MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

The product of two matrices is another matrix

Two matrices A and B must be conformable for multiplication to
be possible
i.e. the number of columns of A must equal the number of rows
of B
Example.
A x B = C
(1x3) (3x1) (1x1)
Matrices - Operations
B x A = Not possible!
(2x1) (4x2)

A x B = Not possible!
(6x2) (6x3)

Example
A x B = C
(2x3) (3x2) (2x2)
Matrices - Operations

b11 b12 
 a11 a12 a13     c11 c12 
a   b21 b22    
 21 a22 a23   c21 c22 
b31 b32 

(a11  b11 )  (a12  b21 )  (a13  b31 )  c11

(a11  b12 )  (a12  b22 )  (a13  b32 )  c12
(a21  b11 )  (a22  b21 )  (a23  b31 )  c21
(a21  b12 )  (a22  b22 )  (a23  b32 )  c22

Successive multiplication of row i of A with column j of

B – row by column multiplication
 Matrices - Operations

4 8
1 2 3     (1 4)  (2  6)  (3  5) (1 8)  (2  2)  (3  3) 
4 2 7  6 2  (4  4)  (2  6)  (7  5) (4  8)  (2  2)  (7  3)
  5 3  
 

31 21
 
63 57 

Remember also:
IA = A

1 0 31 21 31 21

0 1 63 57   
     63 57 
 Matrices - Operations
Assuming that matrices A, B and C are conformable for
the operations indicated, the following are true:
1. AI = IA = A
2. A(BC) = (AB)C = ABC - (associative law)
3. A(B+C) = AB + AC - (first distributive law)
4. (A+B)C = AC + BC - (second distributive law)
Caution!
1. AB not generally equal to BA, BA may not be conformable
2. If AB = 0, neither A nor B necessarily = 0
3. If AB = AC, B not necessarily = C
 Matrices - Operations

AB not generally equal to BA, BA may not be conformable

1 2
T  
5 0
3 4
S 
0 2 
1 2 3 4  3 8
TS       
5 0 0 2 15 20
3 4 1 2 23 6
ST       
0 2 5 0 10 0
Matrices - Operations

If AB = 0, neither A nor B necessarily = 0

1 1  2 3  0 0 
0 0  2  3  0 0
    
 Matrices - Operations

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
If :
2 4 7 
A 2 A  3

2x3 5 3 1 
Then transpose of A, denoted AT is:

2 5
A 2 A
T 3T 
 4 3 
7 1

aij  a T
ji For all i and j
Matrices - Operations

To transpose:
Interchange rows and columns
The dimensions of AT are the reverse of the dimensions of A

2 4 7 
A 2 A  
3
 2x3
5 3 1 
2 5
A 3 A
T T2 
 4 3 
3x2
7 1
Matrices - Operations

Properties of transposed matrices:

1. (A+B)T = AT + BT
2. (AB)T = BT AT
3. (kA)T = kAT
4. (AT)T = A
 Matrices - Operations

1. (A+B)T = AT + BT

7 3  1  1 5 6  8 8 5 8  2
 2  5 6     4  2 3    2  7 9  8  7 
       
5 9 

7 2  1  4 8  2
 3  5  5  2  8  7 
     
 1 6  6 3  5 9 
Matrices - Operations

(AB)T = BT AT

1 
1 1 0   2
0 2 3 1   8   2 8
   2  
 
1 0
 
1 1 21 2  2 8
0 3
 Matrices - Operations

SYMMETRIC MATRICES
A Square matrix is symmetric if it is equal to its
transpose:
A = AT

a b 
A 
 b d 
a b 
A 
T

b d 
 Matrices - Operations

When the original matrix is square, transposition does not

affect the elements of the main diagonal

a b 
A 
 c d 
a c 
A 
T

b d 
The identity matrix, I, a diagonal matrix D, and a scalar matrix, K,
are equal to their transpose since the diagonal is unaffected.
Matrices - Operations

SYMMETRIC MATRICES
A square matrix A is said to be antisymmetric if its transpose is
equal to its negative, meaning it satisfies the equation:
AT = –A
Or, if A=a(i,j) for all i and j, it holds that:
a(j,i)=−a(i,j)
Matrix Inversion

Simple 2 x 2 case
 Simple 2 x 2 case

Let
and
a b  w x
1
A  A  
c d   y z

Since it is known that

A A-1 = I

then
 a b   w x  1 0 
 c d   y z   0 1 
    
Simple 2 x 2 case

Multiplying gives

aw  by  1
ax  bz  0
cw  dy  0
cx  dz  1

It can simply be shown that

A  ad  bc
 Simple 2 x 2 case

thus
1  aw
y
b
 cw
y
d
1  aw  cw

b d
d d
w 
da  bc A
Simple 2 x 2 case

 ax
z
b
1  cx
z
d
 ax 1  cx

b d
b b
x 
 da  bc A
Simple 2 x 2 case

1  by
w
a
 dy
w
c
1  by  dy

a c
c c
y 
 ad  cb A
Simple 2 x 2 case

 bz
x
a
1  dz
x
c
 bz 1  dz

a c
a a
z 
ad  bc A
 Simple 2 x 2 case

So that for a 2 x 2 matrix the inverse can be constructed

in a simple fashion as

d b
 A A  1  d  b
1  w x    
A     c a  A  c a 
 y z  A
 A 

•Exchange elements of main diagonal

•Change sign in elements off main diagonal
•Divide resulting matrix by the determinant
 Simple 2 x 2 case

Example
2 3
A 
 4 1
1 1  1  3  0.1 0.3 
A     
10   4 2   0 .4  0 .2 
Check inverse
A-1 A=I

1  1  3 2 3 1 0
       I
10  4 2  4 1 0 1
 Matrices - Operations
INVERSE OF A MATRIX
Consider a scalar k. The inverse is the reciprocal or division of 1
by the scalar.
Example:
k=7 the inverse of k or k-1 = 1/k = 1/7
Division of matrices is not defined since there may be AB = AC
while B = C
Instead matrix inversion is used.
The inverse of a square matrix, A, if it exists, is the unique matrix
A-1 where:
AA-1 = A-1 A = I
 Matrices - Operations

Example:
3 1
A 2 A  
2

2 1
1 1  1
A  
 2 3
Because:
 1  1 3 1 1 0
 2 3  2 1  0 1
   
3 1  1  1 1 0
2 1  2 3   0 1
   
 Matrices - Operations
Properties of the inverse:
1 1 1
( AB )  B A
1 1
(A )  A
T 1 1 T
(A )  (A )
1 1
1
(kA)  A
k
A square matrix that has an inverse is called a nonsingular matrix
A matrix that does not have an inverse is called a singular matrix
Square matrices have inverses except when the determinant is zero
When the determinant of a matrix is zero the matrix is singular
 Matrices - Operations

DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

To compute the inverse of a matrix, the determinant is required

Each square matrix A has a unit scalar value called the
determinant of A, denoted by det A or |A|

1 2
If A 
6 5 
1 2
then A = (1x5)-(6x2) = -7
6 5
 Matrices - Operations

If A = [A] is a single element (1x1), then the determinant is

defined as the value of the element
Then |A| =det A = a11
If A is (n x n), its determinant may be defined in terms of order
(n-1) or less.
 Matrices - Operations
MINORS
If A is an n x n matrix and one row and one column are deleted,
the resulting matrix is an (n-1) x (n-1) submatrix of A.
The determinant of such a submatrix is called a minor of A and
is designated by mij , where i and j correspond to the deleted
row and column, respectively.
mij is the minor of the element aij in A.
 Matrices - Operations

eg.
 a11 a12 a13 

A  a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
Each element in A has a minor
Delete first row and column from A .
The determinant of the remaining 2 x 2 submatrix is the minor
of a11
a22 a23
m11 
a32 a33
 Matrices - Operations

Therefore the minor of a12 is:

a21 a23
m12 
a31 a33
And the minor for a13 is:

a21 a22
m13 
a31 a32
 Matrices - Operations

COFACTORS
The cofactor Cij of an element aij is defined as:
i j
Cij  (1) mij

When the sum of a row number i and column j is even, cij = mij and
when i+j is odd, cij =-mij
11
c11 (i  1, j  1)  (1) m11   m11
1 2
c12 (i  1, j  2)  (1) m12   m12
1 3
c13 (i  1, j  3)  (1) m13   m13
 Matrices - Operations

DETERMINANTS CONTINUED

The determinant of an n x n matrix A can now be defined as

A  det A  a11c11  a12 c12    a1n c1n

The determinant of A is therefore the sum of the products of the

elements of the first row of A and their corresponding cofactors.
(It is possible to define |A| in terms of any other row or column
but for simplicity, the first row only is used)
 Matrices - Operations

Therefore the 2 x 2 matrix :

 a11 a12 
A 
a21 a22 
Has cofactors :
c11  m11  a22  a22
And:
c12   m12   a21  a21

And the determinant of A is:

A  a11c11  a12 c12  a11a22  a12 a21

 Matrices - Operations

Example 1:
3 1 
A 
1 2
A  (3)(2)  (1)(1)  5
 Matrices - Operations
For a 3 x 3 matrix:
 a11 a12 a13 

A  a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33 
The cofactors of the first row are:
a22 a23
c11   a22 a33  a23 a32
a32 a33
a21 a23
c12    (a21a33  a23 a31 )
a31 a33
a21 a22
c13   a21a32  a22 a31
a31 a32
 Matrices - Operations

The determinant of a matrix A is:

A  a11c11  a12 c12  a11a22  a12 a21

Which by substituting for the cofactors in this case is:
A  a11 (a22 a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23a31 )  a13 (a21a32  a22 a31 )
 Matrices - Operations

Example 2:
 1 0 1
A   0 2 3
 1 0 1

A  a11 (a22 a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23 a31 )  a13 (a21a32  a22 a31 )

A  (1)(2  0)  (0)(0  3)  (1)(0  2)  4

 Matrices - Operations

ADJOINT MATRICES
A cofactor matrix C of a matrix A is the square matrix of the same
order as A in which each element aij is replaced by its cofactor cij .

Example:
 1 2
If A 
  3 4

 4 3
The cofactor C of A is C 
 2 1
 Matrices - Operations

The adjoint matrix of A, denoted by adj A, is the transpose of its

cofactor matrix
adjA  C T

It can be shown that:

A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

Example:
 1 2
A 
  3 4
A  (1)(4)  (2)(3)  10
 4  2
adjA  C  
T

3 1 
Matrices - Operations

 1 2 4  2 10 0 
A(adjA)         10 I
 3 4 3 1   0 10

4  2  1 2 10 0 
(adjA) A         10 I
3 1   3 4  0 10
 Matrices - Operations

USING THE ADJOINT MATRIX IN MATRIX INVERSION

Since
AA-1 = A-1 A = I

and
A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

then
1adjA
A 
A
 Matrices - Operations

Example
 1 2
A=   3 4
 

1 1  4  2   0 .4  0 .2 
A     
10  3 1   0 . 3 0 . 1 
To check AA-1 = A-1 A = I
 1 2 0.4  0.2 1
1 0
AA        I
 3 4 0.3 0.1  0 1
1 0.4  0.2  1 2 1 0
A A      I
0.3 0.1   3 4 0 1
 Matrices - Operations

Example 2
3  1 1 
A  2 1 0 
1 2  1
The determinant of A is
|A| = (3)(-1-0)-(-1)(-2-0)+(1)(4-1) = -2

The elements of the cofactor matrix are

c11  (1), c12  (2), c13  (3),
c21  (1), c22  (4), c23  (7),
c31   (1), c32  (2), c33  (5),
 Matrices - Operations

The cofactor matrix is therefore

 1 2 3
C   1  4  7 
 1 2 5 

so
 1 1  1
adjA  C T   2  4 2 
 3  7 5 

and
 1 1  1  0.5  0.5 0.5 
1 adjA 1     1.0 2.0  1.0 
A   2  4 2
A 2    
 3  7 5    1.5 3.5  2.5
 Matrices - Operations

The result can be checked using

AA-1 = A-1 A = I

The determinant of a matrix must not be zero for the inverse to

exist as there will not be a solution
Nonsingular matrices have non-zero determinants
Singular matrices have zero determinants
Matrices and Linear
Equations

Linear Equations
Linear Equations
Linear equations are common and important for survey
problems
Matrices can be used to express these linear equations and
aid in the computation of unknown values
Example
n equations in n unknowns, the aij are numerical coefficients,
the bi are constants and the xj are unknowns

a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1

a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  b2

an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn  bn
 Linear Equations

The equations may be expressed in the form

AX = B
where

 a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1 

a21 a22  a2 n   x2  b2 
A , X   , and B 
       
 an1 an1  ann   xn  bn 

nxn nx1 nx1

Number of unknowns = number of equations = n

 Linear Equations

If the determinant is nonzero, the equation can be solved to produce

n numerical values for x that satisfy all the simultaneous equations
To solve, premultiply both sides of the equation by A-1 which exists
because |A| = 0

A-1 AX = A-1 B
Now since
A-1 A = I

We get
X = A-1 B

So if the inverse of the coefficient matrix is found, the unknowns,

X would be determined
 Linear Equations

Example
3 x1  x2  x3  2
2 x1  x2  1
x1  2 x2  x3  3

The equations can be expressed as

3  1 1   x1  2
 2 1 0   x   1 
  2   
1 2  1  x3  3
 Linear Equations

When A-1 is computed the equation becomes

 0.5  0.5 0.5  2  2 

1     
X  A B   1.0 2.0  1.0  1   3 
 1.5 3.5  2.5 3  7 

Therefore
x1  2,
x2  3,
x3  7
 Linear Equations

The values for the unknowns should be checked by substitution

back into the initial equations

x1  2, 3 x1  x2  x3  2
x2  3, 2 x1  x2  1
x3  7 x1  2 x2  x3  3

3  (2)  (3)  (7)  2

2  (2)  (3)  1
(2)  2  (3)  (7)  3