Cairo University

Credit-Hours System
Mechanical Power Engineering
MEPN 219

Basic Vapor Cycle

Dr. Muhammed A. Zidan
 Steam power plants 2

Earlier, we discussed gas power cycles, in which the operating fluid

remains gas (air or combustion products) throughout the entire cycle.
Here, we consider vapor/steam power cycles where the working fluid
alternatively vaporizes and condenses.

Steam power plans are very popular for the low cost, availability, and
high enthalpy of vaporization of the medium (H2O). Steam power
plants can be driven by using burnt coal, natural gas, or liquid fuels,
as well as by using nuclear reactors, or solar thermal concentrators.
Steam power plants 3
Steam power plants 4
Steam power plants 5
Steam power plants 6
Steam power plants 7
Steam power plants 8
Steam power plants 9
Steam power plants 10
 Carnot vapor cycle 11

We have mentioned repeatedly that the Carnot cycle is the most

efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature limits.
Thus it is natural to look at the Carnot cycle first as a prospective ideal
cycle for vapor power plants. If we could, we would certainly adopt it
as the ideal cycle.

As explained below, however, the Carnot cycle is not a suitable model

for power cycles. Throughout the discussions, we assume steam to be
the working fluid since it is the working fluid predominantly used in
vapor power cycles.
 Carnot vapor cycle 12

Consider a steady-flow Carnot cycle executed within the saturation

dome of a pure substance, as shown in the top figure. The fluid is
heated reversibly and isothermally in a boiler (process 1-2), expanded
isentropically in a turbine (process 2-3), condensed reversibly and
isothermally in a condenser (process 3-4), and compressed
isentropically by a compressor to the initial state (process 4-1).
 Carnot vapor cycle 13

Several impracticalities are associated with this

cycle:

1. Isothermal heat transfer to or from a two-phase

system is not difficult to achieve in practice since
maintaining a constant pressure in the device
automatically fixes the temperature at the saturation
value. Therefore, processes 1-2 and 3-4 can be
approached closely in actual boilers and condensers.
Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase
systems, however, severely limits the maximum
temperature that can be used in the cycle (it has to
remain under the critical-point value, which is
374°C for water). Limiting the maximum
temperature in the cycle also limits the thermal
efficiency. Any attempt to raise the maximum
temperature in the cycle involves heat transfer to the
working fluid in a single phase, which is not easy to
accomplish isothermally.
 Carnot vapor cycle 14

2. The isentropic expansion process (process 2-3) can

be approximated closely by a well-designed turbine.
However, the quality of the steam decreases during
this process. Thus the turbine has to handle steam
with low quality, that is, steam with a high moisture
content. The impingement of liquid droplets on the
turbine blades causes erosion and is a major source
of wear. Thus steam with qualities less than about
90% cannot be tolerated in the operation of power
plants. This problem could be eliminated by using a
working fluid with a very steep saturated vapor
line.
 Carnot vapor cycle 15

3. The isentropic compression process (process 4-1) involves the

compression of a liquid–vapor mixture to a saturated liquid. There are
two difficulties associated with this process. First, it is not easy to
control the condensation process so precisely as to end up with the
desired quality at state 4. Second, it is not practical to design a
compressor that handles two phases.
 Carnot vapor cycle 16

Some of these problems could be eliminated by executing the Carnot

cycle in a different way, as shown in the figure below. This cycle,
however, presents other problems such as isentropic compression to
extremely high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable
pressures. Thus we conclude that the Carnot cycle cannot be
approximated in actual devices and is not a realistic model for vapor
power cycles.
 Rankine cycle 17

Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be

eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it
completely in the condenser. The cycle that results is the Rankine
cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal
Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities and
consists of the following four processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
Rankine cycle 18
 Rankine cycle 19

Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed

isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. The water
temperature increases somewhat during this isentropic compression
process due to a slight decrease in the specific volume of water. The
vertical distance between states 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly
exaggerated for clarity. Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid
at state 2 and leaves as a superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is
basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from
combustion gases, nuclear reactors, or other sources is transferred to
the water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler, together with the
section where the steam is superheated (the super- heater), is often
called the steam generator.
 Rankine cycle 20

The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands

isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to
an electric generator. The pressure and the temperature of steam drop
during this process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the
condenser. At this state, steam is usually a saturated liquid–vapor
mixture with a high quality. Steam is condensed at constant pressure
in the condenser, which is basically a large heat exchanger, by
rejecting heat to a cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the
atmosphere. Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters
the pump, completing the cycle. In areas where water is precious, the
power plants are cooled by air instead of water. This method of
cooling, which is also used in car engines, is called dry cooling.
 Rankine cycle 21

Remembering that the area

under the process curve on a
T-s diagram rep- resents the
heat transfer for internally
reversible processes, we see
that the area under process
curve 2-3 represents the heat
transferred to the water in
the boiler and the area under
the process curve 4-1
represents the heat rejected
in the condenser. The
difference between these
two (the area enclosed by
the cycle curve) is the net
work produced during the
cycle.
 Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle 22

All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump,
boiler, turbine, and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all
four processes that make up the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as
steady-flow processes. The kinetic and potential energy changes of
the steam are usually small relative to the work and heat transfer
terms and are therefore usually neglected. Then the steady-flow
energy equation per unit mass of steam reduces to

The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the pump
and the turbine are assumed to be isentropic.
 Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle 23

Pump (q = 0):

Boiler (w = 0):

Turbine (q = 0):

Condenser (w = 0):
 Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle 24

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is determined from

where

The thermal efficiency can also be interpreted as the ratio of the area
enclosed by the cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under the heat-
addition process.
Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle 25
Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle 26
Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle 27
Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle 28
 Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 29

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as
illustrated in the figure, as a result of irreversibilities in various
components. Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the
two common sources of irreversibilities.
 Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 30

Fluid friction causes pressure drops in

the boiler, the condenser, and the
piping between various components.
As a result, steam leaves the boiler at
a somewhat lower pressure. Also, the
pressure at the turbine inlet is
somewhat lower than that at the
boiler exit due to the pressure drop in
the connecting pipes. The pressure
drop in the condenser is usually very
small. To compensate for these
pressure drops, the water must be
pumped to a sufficiently higher
pressure than the ideal cycle calls for.
This requires a larger pump and
larger work input to the pump.
 Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 31

The other major source of

irreversibility is the heat loss from the
steam to the surroundings as the
steam flows through various
components. To maintain the same
level of net work output, more heat
needs to be transferred to the steam in
the boiler to compensate for these
undesired heat losses. As a result,
cycle efficiency decreases.
 Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 32

Of particular importance are the

irreversibilities occurring within the
pump and the turbine. A pump
requires a greater work input, and a
turbine produces a smaller work
output as a result of irreversibilities.
Under ideal conditions, the flow
through these devices is isentropic.
The deviation of actual pumps and
turbines from the isentropic ones can
be accounted for by utilizing
isentropic efficiencies, defined as

where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the pump and the turbine,
respectively, and 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the isentropic
case.
 Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 33

Other factors also need to be considered in the analysis of actual vapor

power cycles. In actual condensers, for example, the liquid is usually
sub-cooled to prevent the onset of cavitation, the rapid vaporization
and condensation of the fluid at the low-pressure side of the pump
impeller, which may damage it.

Additional losses occur at the bearings between the moving parts as a

result of friction.

Steam that leaks out during the cycle and air that leaks into the
condenser represent two other sources of loss.

Finally, the power consumed by the auxiliary equipment such as fans

that supply air to the furnace should also be considered in evaluating
the overall performance of power plants.
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 34
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 35
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 36
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles 37
 Thanks!

Any questions?
You can find me at [email protected]

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