SEMICONDUCTOR COMPONENTS

AND CIRCUITS

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 LECTURE 1
Conduction in Semiconductor materials
 All-solid-state devices, such as diodes and transistors are fabricated from materials
known as semiconductors. The basic mechanism of how currents flow through them
(i.e. conduction in semiconductors) is very important to understand the operation of
these devices.

 The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom i.e. valence electrons govern the nature
of chemical reactions of the elements and additionally play a major role in determining
the electrical behavior of the elements and the crystalline structure of solids. The class
of elements which have four valence electrons is called semiconductors.

 Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors: (based on electrical conductivity)

 A material is known as metal (i.e. conductor) which supports a generous flow of

charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its terminals.
They have very low resistivity (i.e. high conductivity) which generally lies
between 10-2-10-8 Ωm.
 An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity or high
level of resistivity under pressure from an applied voltage source. Their
resistivity is nearly around 108 Ωm.
 A semiconductor is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between
the extremes of an insulator and a conductor. Their resistivity lies between 10 5-
100 Ωm.

 Semiconductors: Semiconductors have lower conductivity than metals but by adding

a proper impurity (i.e. doping) to them, they can be converted into good conductors of
electricity. Depending upon the type of dopant atom added, the dominant charge carrier
in the semiconductor will be either electron in the conduction band or holes in the
valence band.

 The ability to change the characteristics of semiconductors, such as Si and Ge

with doping process and application of light or heat (used to develop heat and
light-sensitive devices) make them so special.
 Semiconductors have both positive and negative temperature coefficient of
resistivity. The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with increasing
temperature while the same increases for the metals. An increase in temperature
of a semiconductor can result in a substantial increase in the number of free
electrons.

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  Semiconductors can be classified into two categories intrinsic and extrinsic
based on the source and nature of charge carriers.

 Intrinsic Semiconductors:

 Intrinsic semiconductors are those materials that have been carefully refined
to reduce the impurities to a very low level.
 An ideal intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor with no impurity
atoms and no lattice defects in the crystal. For an intrinsic semiconductor at T =
0 K, all energy states in the valence band are filled with electrons and all energy
states in the conduction band are empty of electrons i.e. concentration of
charge carriers is zero.
 In an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are created in pairs by the
thermal energy so that the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal
to the number of holes in the valence band.
 Holes are essentially the electron vacancies with an effective positive charge.
When the temperature increases, an electron may break away from the covalent
bond due to increased thermal energy of covalent bond and become free (i.e.
may jump from valance band to conduction band) leaving behind a vacancy i.e.
hole back in the valance band.

Figure 6.1: Covalent bonding of pure (i.e. intrinsic) silicon

 Limitations with intrinsic semiconductors:

 They have low electrical conductivity due to less concentration of intrinsic
charge carriers.
 Intrinsic charge carriers are generated thermally so we don’t have any
control over their concentration.
 They cannot have predominant electrons or holes which puts a limitation
on their usefulness.

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  To overcome the abovementioned limitations of an intrinsic semiconductor, a
small number of impurities having valency different than target semiconductors
is added. The process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity to a pure
semiconductor is called doping and the impurity atoms added are called dopants.

 Extrinsic Semiconductor: An extrinsic semiconductor is defined as a semiconductor

in which a controlled amount of specific dopants or impurity atoms have been added so
that thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations are different from the
intrinsic carrier concentration. One type of carrier will predominate in an extrinsic
semiconductor. There are two types of dopants used for doping: pentavalent and
trivalent dopants.

 n-type semiconductor: The n-type is created by introducing those impurities

that have five valence electrons (i.e. pentavalent) such as antimony, arsenic, and
phosphorous. As shown in Fig.6.2, there is an additional fifth electron (apart
from four electrons involved in covalent bonding) due to dopant atoms which are
unbonded and loosely attached with the parent atom. Diffused impurities with
five valence electrons are called donor atoms.

 These semiconductors have free electrons contributed by donor atoms and

generated by the thermal process as well while the holes are only due to
thermal generation.
 Hence, the electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the
minority charge carriers.

Figure 6.2: Antimony impurity in n-type material.

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  p-type Semiconductor: The p-type material is formed by doping a pure Si or Ge
with impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The dopant elements mostly
used for this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium.

 The impurity atoms use their three valence electrons in forming the
covalent bonds with three neighboring Si atoms and one covalent bond is
left incomplete due to the inefficiency of an electron (void of an
electron).
 When an electron from a neighboring bond slides into this void, then a
hole is generated.
 These trivalent impurities are known as acceptor dopant elements.
 Holes are created by acceptor atoms in addition to the thermally
generated holes while the free electrons are only due to the thermal
generation. Hence, holes are majority charge carriers and electrons
are minority charge carriers.

Figure 6.3: Boron impurity in the p-type material.

 Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors: (based on band theory)

 Depending on the energy bandgap (zero, small or large), solids may be classified
into metals, semiconductors, and insulators.
 Metals: In metals (conductors), the valence band is either not fully occupied with
electrons, or the filled valence band overlaps with the empty conduction band. In
general, both states occur at the same time, the electrons can therefore move
inside the partially filled valence band or the two overlapping bands.
 In metals, the last occupied band (i.e. conduction band) is partially filled
with an electron. There are two types of band structures for metals.

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  In one case, there is no band-gap between the valence band and conduction
band. The conduction band partially overlaps the valence band. Metals like
Be, Mg, Zn show this type of band structure.
 In another case, there is an energy gap between a fully-filled valence band
and a partially filled conduction band. This type of band structure is found
in alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.), noble metals (Cu, Ag, Au), and third
group elements like Al, Ga, In, etc.

 Insulators: In insulators, the valence band is fully occupied with electrons (or
the conduction band is completely empty), and eventually, the electrons cannot
move because they're "locked up" between the atoms.

 To achieve conductivity, electrons from the valence band must move into
the conduction band. Here a large energy gap (Eg > 3𝑒𝑉 for example
Diamond having Eg = 6eV) lying in-between the valence band and
conduction band prevents the movement of electrons from the valence
band to the conduction band.
 In the case of an insulator, even an applied electric field cannot give
enough energy to an electron to make it jump from the valence band to
the conduction band.

Figure 6.4: Valance band and conduction band of insulator, semiconductor, and metal.

 Semiconductor: Even in semiconductors, there is a bandgap, but compared to

insulators it is so small that even at room temperature electrons from the valence
band can be lifted into the conduction band.

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  The electrons can move freely and act as charge carriers. Also, each
electron leaves a hole in the valence band behind, which can be filled by
other electrons in the valence band, thus providing conduction caused by
the movement of holes. Thus, one gets wandering holes in the valence
band, which can be viewed as positive charge carriers.
 At 0K, the conduction band is completely empty and the valence band is
filled. So, the semiconductors are essentially insulators at low
temperatures.
 Typically, the energy gap in semiconductors is found to be less than 3eV.

 Conductivity and Resistivity in Materials: (mainly semiconductors)

Figure 6.5: Bar of semiconductor material as resistor.

The resistance is expressed as:

L
R=𝜌 6.11
A

Example-6.1: The resistivity of pure silicon is 3000 Ωm, and electron and hole
mobilities are 0.12 m2V-1s-1 and 0.045 m2V-1s-1, respectively. Determine (a) the
concentration of intrinsic charge carriers (b) resistivity of material when 1019 atoms of
phosphorous are added per m3 and (b) resistivity if further 2×1019 boron atoms are
added to the semiconductor.

Solution: The resistivity of pure silicon = 3000 Ωm

1 1
𝜌= =
σ eni (μn +μh)

(a) Intrinsic carrier concentration,

1 1
ni = = = 1.437 × 1016 𝑚−3
e𝜌(μn + μh) 1.6 × 10−19 × 300 × (0.12 + 0.045)

(b) When 1019 donor atoms of phosphorous are added per m3:

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 n = 1019
1 1 1
𝜌= = = = 5.21 Ωm
σ enμn 1.6×10−19 ×1019 ×0.12

(c) When 2×1019 atoms of boron are further added:

p = (Na-Nd) = 2×1019 -1×1019 =1019

1 1 1
𝜌= = = = 25Ω𝑚
σ epμh 1.6 × 10−19 × 1019 × 0.025

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 LECTURE 2
PN junction diodes, HWR, and Bridge Rectifier design

The PN Junction:

The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to
maintain a neutral charge condition around the junction. If the depletion layer
region has a distance D, it, therefore, must penetrate the silicon by a distance
of Dp for the positive side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side giving a
relationship between the two of Dp*NA = Dn*ND to maintain charge neutrality
also called equilibrium.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and

which has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only.
However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly concerning the
applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V )
relationship and therefore we can not describe its operation by simply using an
equation such as Ohm’s law.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of
the PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they

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require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN
junction is decreased.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being
pulled away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being
increased. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance
of the junction itself allowing or blocking the flow of current through the diodes
pn-junction.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse
voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This
is due to the differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN
junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the results produces
rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage)
characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the
polarity of the bias voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics:

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:

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  1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction
diode.

 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the

P-type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode
which has the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.

 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the

P-type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode
which has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode:

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

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Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important

characteristics:

 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and

“Electrons”.

 The holes are positively charged while the electrons are negatively
charged.

 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony

(N-type doping) so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily
electrons.

 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-

type doping) so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.

 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the
depletion region.

 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with
the applied voltage.

 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a

natural Potential Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is
approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt
for germanium diodes.

 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion

region reduces and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full circuit
current to flow.

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  When a junction diode has Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion
region increases and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current
flow, (only a very small leakage current will flow).

We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear devices whose
I-V characteristics are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the
applied voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse
Biased, VD < 0. Either way, we can model these current-voltage characteristics
for both an ideal diode and a real silicon diode as shown:

Diode Current Equation:

Diode current equation expresses the relationship between the current flowing
through the diode as a function of the voltage applied across it.

Mathematically it is given as

Where,
I is the current flowing through the diode

I0 is the reverse saturation current,

q is the charge on the electron, V is the voltage applied across the diode,

η is the (exponential) ideality factor (1 for Ge and 2 for Si typically)

is the Boltzmann constant.

T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin.

Thus the diode current equation (equation 1) becomes

Half-Wave Rectifier:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into
a Direct Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a
single-phase or a multi-phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits
being that of the Half Wave Rectifier.

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The power diode in a half-wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each
complete sine wave of the AC supply to convert it into a DC supply. Then this
type of circuit is called a “half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the
incoming AC power supply as shown below.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

During each “positive” half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward
biased as the anode is positive concerning the cathode resulting in current flowing
through the diode.

Since the DC load is resistive (resistor, R), the current flowing in the load resistor
is therefore proportional to the voltage (Ohm´s Law), and the voltage across the
load resistor will therefore be the same as the supply voltage, Vs (minus Vƒ), that
is the “DC” voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the first half cycle only
so Vout = Vs.

During each “negative” half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode
is reverse biased as the anode is negative concerning the cathode. Therefore, NO
current flows through the diode or circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the
supply, no current flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it so,
therefore, Vout = 0.

The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the
circuit Unidirectional. As the load resistor receives from the diode a positive half
of the waveform, zero volts, a positive half of the waveform, zero volts, etc, the
value of this irregular voltage would be equal in value to an equivalent DC voltage
of 0.318*Vmax of the input sinusoidal waveform or 0.45*Vrms of the input
sinusoidal waveform.

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Then the equivalent DC voltage, VDC across the load resistor is calculated as
follows.

Where VMAX is the maximum or peak voltage value of the AC sinusoidal supply,
and VRMSis the RMS (Root Mean Squared) value of the supply voltage.

Bridge Rectifier:

Many electronic circuits require a rectified DC power supply to power various

electronic basic components from the available AC mains supply. Rectifiers are
used to convert AC power to DC power. Among the rectifiers, the bridge rectifier
is the most efficient rectifier circuit.

We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or
more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating
(AC) current to a direct (DC) current. Let us learn more about its construction,
working, and more.

Construction

The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge
rectifier circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The

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four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the
alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main advantage of this
configuration is the absence of the expensive center-tapped transformer.
Therefore, the size and cost are reduced. The input signal is applied across
terminals A and B and the output DC signal is obtained across the load resistor
RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a
way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D1 and D3 are
pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes
D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.

Working

When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, during the positive half
cycle, terminal A becomes positive while terminal B becomes negative. This
results in diodes D1 and D3 to become forward biased while D2and D4 becomes
reverse biased.

The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A

becomes negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and
diodes D1 and D3 to be reverse biased.

The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:

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From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor
RL is the same during the positive half cycle and the negative half cycles. The
output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative. In our
case, it is completely positive. If the direction of diodes is reversed then we get a
complete negative DC voltage.

Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative
half cycles of the input AC signal.

The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.

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Characteristics of Bridge Rectifier:

Ripple Factor

The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the

ripple factor. The output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth DC
signal while the output with high ripples is considered a high pulsating DC signal.

Mathematically, the ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the
pure DC voltage.

The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
γ=√( )−1
𝑉𝐷𝐶

For bridge rectifiers, the ripple factor is 0.48.

Peak Inverse Voltage

The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is
known as a peak inverse voltage. During the positive half cycle, the diodes D1 and
D3 are conducting while D2 and D4 are non-conducting. Similarly, during the
negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 are conducting, and diodes D1 and D3 are
non-conducting.

Efficiency

The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts

Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is defined
as the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power. The maximum
efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2%.

η=DCOutputPowerACOutputPower

Advantages

 The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a half-
wave rectifier. However, the rectifier efficiency of the bridge rectifier and
the center-tapped full-wave rectifier is the same.

 The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier is smoother than the output DC
signal of a half-wave rectifier.

 In a half-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used and the
other half is blocked. Half of the input signal is wasted in a half-wave

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 rectifier. However, in a bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed
during both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal. Hence,
the output DC signal is almost equal to the input AC signal.

Disadvantages

 The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave

rectifier and center-tapped full-wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4
diodes while half-wave rectifiers and center tapped full wave rectifiers use
only two diodes.

 When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a center-tapped
full-wave rectifier, only one diode conducts during each half cycle. But in
a bridge rectifier, two diodes connected in series conduct during each half
cycle. Hence, the voltage drop is higher in a bridge rectifier.

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 LECTURE 3
Zener diodes, design examples of voltage regulator circuits

 Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN
junction and when biased in the forward direction.
 Unlike a general-purpose diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when
reverse biased the Zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.
 When the reverse voltage applied across the Zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the
device a process called Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer.
Breakdown Types:
 Zener Breakdown: Because of the heavily doped P and N materials at either side
of the junction, which are therefore good conductors, and the very thin depletion
layer, the electric field strength across the depletion layer is very strong, and it
becomes relatively easy, even at low voltages, for holes and electrons to cross the
depletion layer and combine to create a reverse current. This effect mostly happens
in Zener diodes with a low reverse breakdown voltage, typically 5 to 6V or less and
leads to a gradual, rather than a sudden increase in reverse current.
 Avalanche Breakdown: In Zener diodes with wider depletion layers and therefore
higher breakdown voltages, the increase in current at the breakdown voltage is much
more sudden, giving an abrupt reduction in the reverse resistance of the diode and a
nearly vertical region to the diode´s reverse current characteristic. This effect
happens mainly in diodes with a higher reverse breakdown voltage (above about
5V) and less heavily doped P and N regions. As the reverse voltage approaches the
reverse breakdown voltage the electrons and holes entering the depletion layer come
under the effect of a strong electric field and are rapidly accelerated. In this
accelerated state, they begin to collide with other atoms and knock electrons from
their atomic bonds in a process called ‘impact ionization’, so creating more
electron/hole pairs that are also greatly accelerated by the electric field. These
secondary current carriers, in turn, ionize other atoms, creating a very rapid increase
in reverse current through the diode. This process is called ‘Avalanche Breakdown’.

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 The voltage point at which the voltage across the Zener diode becomes stable is called
the “Zener voltage”, ( Vz ) and for Zener diodes, this voltage can range from less than
one volt to a few hundred volts.

 Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative
voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.
 This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing the
Zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum
current rating IZ(max). This ability of the Zener diode to control itself can be used to great
effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source against supply or load variations.
Applications of Zener diode

 Zener diodes are used in Voltage stabilizers (or) shunt regulators

 used in Surge suppression circuitry for device protection
 used in Overvoltage protection circuits.
 Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits especially peak
clippers.
 They are used as Reference elements.
 Used in switching applications.

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Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Q: A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC

power supply input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the Zener diode is
2W. Using the Zener regulator circuit above calculate:

a) The maximum current flowing through the Zener diode.

b) The minimum value of the series resistor, RS
c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the Zener
diode.
d) The Zener current IZ at full load.

Solution:

a) Maximum Current = Power/ Voltage = 2W/5V = 400mA

b) Minimum value of the series resistor, RS = (Vs – Vz) / Iz =
(12-5) / 400mA =17.5Ω
c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener
diode.
IL= Vz / RL = 5V/ 1000Ω = 5mA
d) The Zener current IZ at full load.
Iz = Is -IL = 400 mA -5mA = 395mA.

Q: For the circuit shown below find : (a) the output voltage (b) the voltage drop
across series resistance (c) the current through Zener diode.

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Solution:

a) output voltage = Vz = 50 V
b) voltage drop across R = Input Voltage – Vz= 120-50 = 70 V
c) Load Current IL = 50/ 10K =5mA.
Current through R, I= 70/ 5K = 14mA
Current through Zener Diode (Iz) = I- IL =14-5= 9 mA.

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 LECTURE 4
Bipolar Junction Transistors, design examples on BJT as a switch

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):

 1st transistor (point-contact transistor) was invented in the year 1947 by J. Bardeen and
W.H. Brattain in Bell Telephone Laboratories, U.S.A.
 The first junction transistor (BJT) consisting of two back-to-back p-n junctions was
invented by William Schockley in 1951.
 BJT is a three-terminal device that can operate as an “Amplifier” or as a “Switch”.
 The voltage between the two terminals is used to control the current in the third
terminal.
 BJT consist of three semiconductor regions: NPN or PNP
 In the transistor, current flows due to both majority as well as minority carrier that’s
why called a bipolar device.

2. Transistor: structure and action

 A transistor has three doped regions forming two p-n junctions between
them.
 There are two types of transistors, as shown in Fig. 1

(a) (b)
Fig.1. (a) Schematic representations of a n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor
(b) Symbols for n-p-n and p-n-p transistors.

I. NPN transistor:
In this transistor, two segments of an n-type semiconductor (emitter and
collector) are separated by a segment of a p-type semiconductor (base).
II. PNP transistor:
Here two segments of p-type semiconductor (termed as emitter and
collector) are separated by a segment of an n-type semiconductor (termed
as a base).
 The schematic representations of an NPN and a PNP configuration are
shown in Fig.1(a).
 All the three segments of a transistor have different thickness and their
doping levels are also different.

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  In the schematic symbols used for representing PNP and NPN transistors
as shown in Fig.1.(b), the arrowhead shows the direction of conventional
current in the transistor.

3. Description of the three segments of a transistor is given below:

[1] Emitter:
This is the segment on one side of the transistor shown in Fig.1(a).
It is of moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large number of
majority charge carriers i.e. electrons or holes for the current flow through
the transistor.
[2] Base:
This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped as
compared to other sections. Its main function is to transfer the majority of
carriers from emitter to collector.
[3] Collector:
This segment collects a major portion of the majority of carriers
supplied by the emitter. The collector side is moderately doped and larger
as compared to the emitter.

4. BJT Modes of operation:

Sl. No. Regions JE JC Applications

1. Active Region FB RB Amplifier

2. Saturation Region FB FB ON Switch

3. Cut-off Region RB RB OFF Switch

4. Inverse Actuve Region RB FB ×

 The biasing of the transistor is done differently for different uses. It can be
used as an Amplifier or as a Switch.
 The transistor works as an amplifier, with its emitter-base junction (JE)
forward biased and the base-collector junction (JC) reverse biased as shown
in Fig.3, where VCC and VEE are used for creating the respective biasing.
 When the transistor is biased in this way it is said to be in an “active” state.
VEB and VCB represent the voltage between the emitter and base and the
collector and the base respectively.

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 Fig.2. Bias Voltage applied on: (a) p-n-p transistor and (b) n-p-n transistor

 In Fig.2, the base is a common terminal for the two power supplies whose
other terminals are connected to emitter and collector, respectively. So the
two power supplies are represented as VEE, and VCC, respectively.
 In circuits, where the emitter is a common terminal, the power supply
between the base and the emitter is represented as VBB and that between
collector and emitter as VCC.
 The heavily doped emitter has a high concentration of majority carriers,
which will be holes in a PNP transistor and electrons in an NPN transistor.
 These majority carriers enter the base region in large numbers. The base is
thin and lightly doped. So the majority carriers there would be few.
 In a PNP transistor, the majority of carriers in the base are electrons since
the base is of n-type semiconductor. The large number of holes entering
the base from the emitter swamps the small number of electrons there. As
the base collector-junction is reverse biased, these holes, which appear as
minority carriers at the junction, can easily cross the junction and enter the
collector.
 The holes in the base could move either towards the base terminal to
combine with the electrons entering from outside or cross the junction to
enter into the collector and reach the collector terminal. The base is made
thin so that most of the holes find themselves near the reverse-biased base-
collector junction and so cross the junction instead of moving to the base
terminal.
 The current entering into the emitter from outside is equal to the emitter
current IE. Similarly, the current emerging from the base terminal is IB and
that from the collector terminal is IC. It is obvious from the above
description and also from a straight forward application of Kirchhoff’s law
to Fig. 2(a) that the emitter current is the sum of collector current and base
current:
IE = IC + IB

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5. Basic transistor circuit configurations and transistor Characteristics

 Common Emitter (CE)

 Common Base (CB)
 Common Collector (CC)

 Common emitter transistor characteristics

 When a transistor is used in CE configuration, the input is between the base
and the emitter and the output is between the collector and the emitter.
 The variation of the base current IB with the base-emitter voltage VBE is
called the input characteristic.
 Similarly, the variation of the collector current IC with the collector-emitter
voltage VCE is called the output characteristic.
 The output characteristics are controlled by the input characteristics. This
implies that the collector current changes with the base current.
 The input and the output characteristics of an NPN transistor can be studied
by using the circuit shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3 Circuit arrangement for studying the input and output characteristics of an n-p-n
transistor in CE configuration.

 Input characteristics
o To study the input characteristics of the transistor in CE
configuration, a curve is plotted between the base current IB against
the base-emitter voltage VBE.
o The collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept fixed while studying the
dependence of IB on VBE.
o The collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept large enough to make the
base-collector junction reverse biased.
o The input characteristic of a transistor is as shown in Fig.4.

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 Fig.4 Typical input characteristics

 Output characteristics

o The output characteristic is obtained by observing the variation of IC

as VCE is varied keeping IB constant.
o It is obvious that if VBE is increased by a small amount, both hole
current from the emitter region and the electron current from the
base region will increase. As a consequence, both IB and IC will
increase proportionately.
o This shows that when IB increases IC also increases. The plot of IC
versus VCE for different fixed values of IB gives one output
characteristic. So there will be different output characteristics
corresponding to different values of IB as shown in Fig.5.

Fig.5 Typical input characteristics

6. Transistor as a device
The transistor can be used as a device application depending on the
configuration used (namely CB, CC, and CE), the biasing of the E-B and B-C
junction, and the operation region namely cutoff, active region, and saturation.
When the transistor is used in the cutoff or saturation state it acts as a switch. On
the other hand for using the transistor as an amplifier, it has to operate in the
active region.

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 Transistor as a switch
 We shall try to understand the operation of the transistor as a switch by
analyzing the behavior of the base-biased transistor in CE configuration as
shown in Fig.6(a).

Fig.6. (a) The base-biased transistor in configuration, (b) Transfer characteristic

 Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to the input and output sides of this
circuit, we get:

VBB = IBRB + VBE & VCE = VCC - ICRC

(OR)
Vi = IBRB + VBE & VO = VCC - ICRC
 In the case of the Si transistor, as long as input Vi is less than 0.6 V, the
transistor will be in a cut-off state and the current IC will be zero. Hence Vo
= VCC.
 When Vi becomes greater than 0.6 V the transistor is in an “active” state
with some current IC in the output path and the output Vo decrease as the
term ICRC increases.
 With the increase of Vi, IC increases almost linearly and so Vo decreases
linearly until its value becomes less than about 1.0 V.
 Beyond this, the change becomes non-linear and the transistor goes into a
saturation state.
 If we plot the Vo vs Vi curve, [also called the transfer characteristics of the
base-biased transistor (Fig.6(b)], we see that between cut off state and
active state and also between the active state and saturation state there are
regions of non-linearity showing that the transition from cutoff state to
active state and from the active state to saturation state are not sharply
defined.

Transistor as a switch:
 As long as Vi is low and unable to forward-bias the transistor, Vo is high
(at VCC ). If Vi is high enough to drive the transistor into saturation, then Vo
is low, very near to zero. When the transistor is not conducting it is said to
be switched off and when it is driven into saturation it is said to be switched
on. This shows that if we define low and high states as below and above

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 certain voltage levels corresponding to cutoff and saturation of the
transistor, then we can say that a low input switches the transistor off and
a high input switches it on. Alternatively, we can say that a low input to
the transistor gives a high output and a high input gives a low output. The
switching circuits are designed in such a way that the transistor does not
remain in an “active” state.

Circuit Analysis:

1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current
(IB), zero output collector current (IC), and maximum collector voltage (VCE)
which results in a large depletion layer and no current flowing through the device.
Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-OFF”.
Cut-off Characteristics:

Working:

 The input and Base are grounded ( 0V )

 Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7V
 Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
 Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
 The transistor is "fully-OFF' ( Cut-off region )
 No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
 VOUT = VCE = VCC = “1”
 Transistor operates as an "open switch”

Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar
transistor as a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB<0.7 v and IC=0.
For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the
Base.
2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base
current is applied, resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the
minimum collector-emitter voltage drop which results in the depletion layer being
as small as the possible and maximum current flowing through the transistor.
Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.

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Saturation Characteristics:

Working:

 The input and Base are connected to Vcc

 Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7V
 Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
 Base-Collector junction is forward biased
 The transistor is "fully-ON" ( saturation region )
 Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc / RL)
 VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
 VOUT = VCE = “0”
 Transistor operates as a “closed switch”

 Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a
bipolar transistor as a switch as being, both junctions forward
biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter
potential must be positive with respect to the Base.

Transistor Biasing

 Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistor’s DC operating voltage or current

conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by
the transistor.
 Transistors are one of the most widely used semiconductor devices which are used for a
wide variety of applications, including amplification and switching. However, to achieve
these functions satisfactorily, a transistor must be supplied with a certain amount of current
and/or voltage.
 The process of setting these conditions for a transistor circuit is referred to as transistor
biasing.

The types of transistor biasing include:

 Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias

 Collector Feedback Bias

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  Dual Feedback Bias
 Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor
 Emitter Bias
 Emitter Feedback Bias
 Voltage Divider Bias

Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias

Figure: Fixed Base Bias Circuit

Here the values of VCC and VBE are fixed, while the value for RB is constant once the circuit
is designed. This leads to a constant value for IB, resulting in a fixed operating point due to
which the circuit is named fixed base bias

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Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor

Figure: Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor

 This biasing circuit is nothing but a fixed bias network with an additional emitter
resistor, RE.
 Here, if IC rises due to an increase in temperature, the IE also increases, increasing the
voltage drop across RE.
 This results in the reduction of VC, causing a decrease in IB, bringing IC back to its
normal value. Thus, this kind of biasing network offers better stability compared to a
fixed base bias network.
 However, the presence of RE reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier as it results in
unwanted AC feedback. In this circuit, the mathematical equations for different
voltages and current are given as

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Example: Calculate the emitter current, IE and collector voltage, VC.

To calculate the emitter current IE the formula is

𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐸 =
𝑅𝐵
+ 𝑅𝐸
(𝛽𝑑𝑐 )

10𝑉 − 0.7𝑉
𝐼𝐸 = = 4.23𝑚𝐴
1𝐾Ω
( 200 ) + 2.2𝐾Ω

To calculate the collector Voltage VC

𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 = 10 − (4.23𝑚𝐴 × 1𝐾Ω) = 5.77𝑉

35