UNIT II

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
 SYLLABUS
• Operating principles of relays
• Universal torque equation
• R-X diagram
• Electromagnetic Relays
• Over current, Directional, Distance, differential,
Negative sequence and Under frequency relays
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
1. Relay: An automatic device which senses an abnormal condition in
an electric circuit and closes its contacts. These contacts in turn
close the circuit breaker trip coil circuit (the faulty part of the
electric circuit is disconnected from the rest of the healthy circuit).
2. Operating force (or) torque: Torque (or) Force which tends to
close the contacts of the relay
3. Restraining force (or) torque: Torque (or) Force which opposes the
operating torque (or) force and tends to prevent the closure of
relay contacts
4. Operating or Pick up (Ievel): It is defined as the threshold value of
the actuating quantity (current or voltage) above which the relay
operates.
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
5. Drop out (or) Reset (Level): The value of current or voltage
below which a relay opens its contacts and comes to original
position. The ratio of reset to pick up value is called drop out
or reset ratio
6. Flag (or) Target: It is a device, usually spring or gravity
operated, for indicating the operation of a relay
7. Power Consumption (Burden): Power absorbed by the
circuits of the relay expressed in volt amperes in a.c. and in
watts in d.c. circuits at the rated current or voltage
8. Operating Time: Time which elapses between the instant
when the actuating quantity exceeds the pick-up value to
the instant when the relay contacts close
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
9. Reset Time: The time which elapses between the instant when the
actuating quantity becomes less than the reset value to the
instant when the relay contact returns to its normal position.
10. Seal-in-coil: A coil that is provided not to allow the relay contacts
to open when the normal current is flowing through them
11. Maximum Torque Angle (or) Characteristic angle of the relay: The
design angle of the relay that will yield maximum torque is called
Maximum Torque Angle (MTA)
12. Primary Relays: The relays which are connected directly in the
circuit to be protected.
13. Secondary Relays: The relays which are connected in the circuit to
be protected through current and potential transformers.
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
14. Auxiliary Relays: Relays which operate in response to the opening
or closing of its operating circuit to assist another relay in the
performance of its function. This relay may be instantaneous or
may have a time delay.
15. Reach: A distance relay operates whenever the impedance seen by
the relay is less than a pre-specified value. This impedance or the
corresponding distance is known as the reach of the relay.
16. Underreach: The tendency of the relay to restrain at the set value
of the impedance or impedance lower than the set value is known
as underreach.
17. Overreach: The tendency of the relay to operate at impedances
larger than its setting is known as overreach.
PROTECTIVE RELAY
 PROTECTIVE RELAY
• The diagram shows one phase of 3-phase system for simplicity. The
relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts:
i. First part is the primary winding of a current transformer which is
connected in series with the line to be protected
ii. Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the relay
operating coil
iii. Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or d.c. It
consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker
and the relay moving contact.
• When a short circuit occurs at point ‘F’ on the transmission line,
heavy current flow through relay coil - operate by closing its
contacts - in turn closes trip circuit of the breaker, making the CB
open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system
 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS
Depending upon their construction and principle of operation
1. Electromagnetic relays
i. Attraction type
ii. Induction type
2. Electro thermal relays
3. Electro dynamic relays (same as moving coil instrument
principle)
4. Physico electric relays (Eg. Buchholz’s relay)
5. Static relays (uses semi conductor devices like IC’s, transistors,
diodes and gates, etc.)
6. Microprocessor based relay
 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS
According to their Application
1. Under-voltage, under-current and under-power relays
2. Over-voltage, over-current and over-power relays
3. Directional or reverse current relays
4. Directional or reverse power relays
5. Differential relays
6. Distance relays
7. Negative sequence and Under-frequency relays
 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS
According to their time of operation
1. Instantaneous relays (operates after a small interval of time)
2. Definite time-lag relays (operating time is independent of
current or other actuating quantities)
3. Inverse time-lag relays (operating time  [1/I] or other
quantity)
4. Inverse Definite Minimum Time-lag (IDMT) relays (operating
time  [1/I] and tends to have a definite minimum time as
the actuating quantity increases without limit)
OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF RELAYS
• All the relays employed for protection against faults operate by
virtue of the current and/or voltage supplied to them by CTs or PTs.
• The main principle employed in the operation of the relay is either
electro-magnetic attraction or electro-magnetic induction.
• Based on this, there are two principal types
1. Attracted armature type
2. Induction type
• In an electro-magnetic attraction relay, a plunger is drawn into a
solenoid or an armature is attracted to the poles of an electro-
magnet (operated either by dc or ac)
• In the case of electro-magnetic induction relays, principle of
induction motor is used and torque is developed by electro-
magnetic induction (operated by ac quantities only)
OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF RELAYS
• The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is
proportional to square of flux in the airgap. If saturation is
neglected, it is proportional to square of operating current, so
F = k1I2 – k2
Where, F = Net force,
K1 = a constant of current coil converting the current to force
K2 = restraining force including friction (-ve sign because of
restraining force)
I = RMS value of operating current
• When the relay is on the verge of pick-up, the net force F = 0
and so k1I2 = k2 (or) I = k2/k1 = constant
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE
• Simplest type of relays - have coil or an electromagnet
energized by coil
• The coil is energized by the operating quantity proportional
to circuit current or voltage
• The different types include
1. Plunger (or solenoid),
2. Hinged armature,
3. Rotating armature (or balanced beam) and
4. Polarized moving iron relays.
• All of these operates on ac as well as dc
ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE
• All of these relays operate on electromagnetic force produced by
magnetic flux which in turn produced by the operating quantity.
• Operation: armature being attracted to the poles of an electro-
magnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid.
• Electro-magnetic force exerted on moving element is  to square of
flux in air gap or the square of current flowing through coil.
• It is basically a single actuating quantity relay. Such relays respond
to both ac and dc
• With dc, torque developed is constant and if it exceeds restraining
torque or force caused by controlling spring, relay operates reliably.
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE
• In case of ac quantity the electro-magnetic force developed is
given as

• It shows that the electro-magnetic force consists of two

components, one constant independent of time
• Another dependent upon time and pulsating at double the
supply frequency
• The total electro-magnetic force, therefore, pulsates at double
the supply frequency.
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE
• Since restraining force produced by spring is constant and electro-
magnetic force developed is pulsating, the relay armature vibrates
at double the power supply frequency.
• This causes the relay to hum and produce noise. This leads to
sparking between the contacts and the relay contacts will soon be
damaged.
• To overcome this difficulty, flux is divided into two fluxes acting
simultaneously but differing in time phase, so that resultant
deflecting force is positive and constant and if this is greater than
restraining force then armature will not vibrate.
• Phase displacement can be easily achieved either by providing two
windings on the electro magnet having a phase shifting network or
by putting shading rings on the poles of the electro-magnet.
• The latter method is more simple and widely used. The flux through
the shaded pole lags behind the flux through the un-shaded pole.
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE

• Hinged armature relays are mainly employed as auxiliary relays,

e.g., ac and dc over/under voltage and over/under current relays.
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE

• In balanced beam type relay, two quantities IAI2 and IBI2 are
compared because electro-magnetic forces vary as square of
ampere-turns.
• Ratio of reset/operating current for such relays is low. If set for fast
operation, it may over reach on transient conditions.
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE
• It consists of a horizontal beam (armature) pivoted centrally, there
are two coils on each side of the core. The beam remained in
horizontal position till ‘operating force becomes > restraining force’
• Action is being similar to ‘see saw’. Current in one coil gives
operating force while current in other coil gives restraining force
• Spring is used to maintain contacts open under normal conditions.
When operating torque increases, beam tilts and contacts close
• In current balance, both coils are energized by current derived from
CT’s. In impedance (balance) relay the coils are energized by V and I
• Net torque, T = k1I12 – k2I22
• At verge of operation, T = 0; k1I12 = k2I22 (or) I1/I2 = k2/k1 = constant
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE

• The sensitivity of the hinged armature relays can be increased for

dc operation by addition of a permanent magnet, known as a
polarized moving iron relay. More robust; employ leaf-spring
supported armatures.
• Attracted armature relays have fast operation and fast reset (small
length of travel and light moving parts). But affected by transients
(contain dc component: relay may pick-up)
 INDUCTION RELAYS
• Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of
Induction Motor and are widely used for protective relaying
purposes involving a.c. quantities (not used with d.c. quantities)
• Depending upon the type of rotor being used, these relays are
categorized as
i. Induction disc type and
ii. Induction cup type of relays
• There are two structures available under the disc type of relay.
a) Shaded pole structure and b) Watt-hour meter structure
• Rotor (disc/cup) is placed in between the two alternating magnetic
fields of the same frequency but displaced in time and phase
• Torque is produced in the disc (rotor) by the interaction of one of
the magnetic fields with the eddy current induced in the disc by
other magnetic field.
 INDUCTION RELAYS
Torque expression
 INDUCTION RELAYS

• The two magnetic fluxes 1 and 2 differing in time phase by an

angle  induces emf’s e1 and e2 in the disc which lag their
respective fluxes by 90 and cause the circulation of eddy currents
i1 and i2 respectively.
• These eddy currents lag the voltages e1 and e2 by an impedance
angle  of the disc.
• By the interaction of 1 with eddy current i2 and 2 with i1 a driving
torque is produced.
 INDUCTION RELAYS
• Referring to phasor diagram, let

• 1 & 2 are instantaneous values of fluxes, 2 leads 1 by 

• As the paths in which the eddy currents flow in the rotor have
negligible self-inductance, with negligible errors it may be
assumed that induced eddy currents in the rotor will be in-
phase with their voltages

.
 INDUCTION RELAYS
.

• Current produced by the flux interacts with other fluxes and vice-
versa. The forces produced are:

.

.
.
As  is constant
 INDUCTION RELAYS

• The following points may be noted from the above exp. :

i. The greater the phase angle  between fluxes, the greater is
the net force applied to the disc. Maximum force will be
produced when the two fluxes are 90° out of phase
ii. The net force is the same at every instant
iii. The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion
of the disc depends upon which flux is leading.
UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION OF RELAY
• Most of the protection relays consist of electro-magnets with
either current windings or voltage windings and in some cases both
the windings. Currents through the windings produce magnetic
fluxes and the torque is produced by interaction between the fluxes
of the same winding or between the fluxes of both the windings
• Torque developed by current winding = K1I2 (current coil)
• Torque developed by voltage winding = K2V2 (pressure coil)
• If both the current and voltage windings are used (directional unit),
torque developed by interaction between fluxes = K3VI cos ( - )
where  is the angle between V and I and  is the relay Maximum
Torque Angle
UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION OF RELAY
• If a relay consists of all the three elements (current coil, pressure coil and
directional unit), torque will be developed due to all the three causes and
therefore, its torque in general will be given as
T = K1I2 + K2V2 + K3VI cos ( - ) + k4
• where K1, K2, K3 are tap settings or constants of I and V and K4 is the
mechanical restraint due to spring or gravity.
• By assigning plus or minus signs to certain of the constants and letting
others be zero, and sometimes by adding other similar terms, the
operating characteristics of all types of protective relays can be obtained.
• For example, in case of an “over current” relay K2 = K3 = 0 because of
absence of voltage windings and therefore the torque equation becomes
T = K1I2 – k4, -ve sign for K4 as torque produced by spring is restraining one
• Similarly, for “directional” relay K1 = K2 = 0 and the torque developed will
be given as T = K3VI cos ( - ) – k4
R-X DIAGRAM
R-X DIAGRAM
 IMPORTANT TERMS
i. Pick-up current: It is the minimum current in the relay coil
at which the relay starts to operate. When the relay coil
current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the
relay operates to energize the trip coil of the circuit breaker.
ii. Current setting: Current above which an over-current relay
should operate can be set by the use of tappings on relay
operating coil. Taps are brought out to plug bridge (Fig.)
 IMPORTANT TERMS
• Plug bridge permits to alter number of turns on relay coil. This
changes torque on the disc and hence time of operation of the
relay. The tap values are expressed in terms of percentage full-load
rating of associated C.T. and represents the value above which the
disc commences to rotate and finally closes the trip circuit.
• Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. x Current setting
• For example, suppose that an over-current relay having current
setting of 125% is connected to a supply circuit through a C.T. of
400/5. The rated secondary current of C.T. is 5 amperes. Therefore,
the pick-up value will be 25% more than 5 A i.e. 5 x 1.25 = 6.25 A
(relay will actually operate for a relay coil current ≥ 6.25 A)
• Current plug settings usually range from 50% to 200% in steps of
25% for over-current relays and 10% to 70% in steps of 10% for
earth leakage relays.
 IMPORTANT TERMS
iii. Plug-Setting Multiplier (PSM):
• It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to pick up current, i.e.
Time/PSM Curve:

• If time-current curves are drawn, taking I on X-axis then there will be

one graph for each setting of the relay. To avoid this complex situation,
the PSM’s are taken on X-axis, now there will be only one curve for all
the settings of the relay as shown in Fig.
• The curve is generally plotted on log/log graph, advantage is if the
characteristics for one particular pick up value is known, then
characteristics for any other pick up value can be obtained. The curves
are used to know how far the relay moving contact would have travelled
towards fixed contacts within any time interval.
 IMPORTANT TERMS
iv. Time Setting Multiplier (TMS): The operating time of the relay
can be set at a desired value. In induction disc type relay, the
angular distance by which the moving part of the relay travels for
closing the contacts can be adjusted to get different operating
time. A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time
of operation. This adjustment is known as “Time-Setting
Multiplier”. The time-setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps
of 0.05 sec as shown in Fig.
 IMPORTANT TERMS
• These values are used to convert the time derived from time/P.S.M.
curve into the actual operating time. Thus if the time setting is 0.1
and the time obtained from the time/P.S.M. curve is 3 seconds,
then actual relay operating time = 3 x 0.1 = 0.3 second.
• TMS is generally in the form of an adjustable back stop which
decides the arc-length through which the disc travels, by reducing
the length of travel, operating time is reduced
• Actually the relay should operate at current equal to plug setting.
However, due to friction, dust, etc. the operation may not take
place at exact plug setting value.
• The relay characteristics is plotted with multiples of plug setting as
an abscissa (log scale) and time in seconds (log scale) as ordinate,
for different TMS. By reducing the TMS, the characteristics is shifted
to lower side, indicating that operating time is reduced (Fig.)
IMPORTANT TERMS
 IMPORTANT TERMS
Determine the time of operation of a relay of rating 5A, 2.2 second
IDMT relay having a current setting of 125% and a time setting
multiplier of 0.6. It is connected to a supply circuit through a 400/5
current transformer and the circuit carries a fault current of 4000 A.
Use the curve shown below.
Contd.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
• A protective relay which operates when the load current
exceeds a preset value, is called an over-current relay.
• These relays are used for the protection of distribution lines,
large motors, power equipment, industrial systems, etc.
• A scheme which incorporates over-current relays for the
protection of an element of a power system, is known as “over-
current protection scheme” or “over-current protection”
• An over-current protection scheme may include one or more
over-current relays.
• At present, electromagnetic relays of induction (disc) type are
widely used for over-current protection.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
• With the development of numerical relays based on
microprocessors or microcontrollers, there is a growing trend
to use numerical over-current relays for o/c protection.
• The operating time of all over-current relays tends to become
asymptotic to a definite minimum value with increase in value
of current in various time-current characteristics
• This is inherent in electro magnetic relays due to saturation of
the magnetic circuit.
• So by varying the point of saturation, depending upon the
time of operation the relays are categorized as,
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS

(a) (b)
(c) (d)

(e) (c)

(f) (c)

a. Definite-time Over-current Relay: It operates after a

predetermined time when the current exceeds its pick-up value.
Curve (a) shows time-current characteristic for this type of relay.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
• Operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of
the current, achieved by saturating core at a very early stage.
The desired definite operating time can be set with the help
of an intentional time-delay mechanism.
b. Instantaneous Over-current Relay: It operates instantly (0.1
sec or less) when current exceeds its pick-up value. The
operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of
the current, [curve (b)]
• No intentional time-delay provided for the operation. This
characteristic can be achieved with the help of hinged
armature relays. It is more effective.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
c. Inverse-time Over-current Relay: It operates when current
exceeds its pick-up value. Operating time depends on
magnitude of the operating current. Operating time
decreases as current increases in magnitude [Curve (c)]
• All time current curves are inverse to a greater or lesser
degree. They are normally more inverse near the pick up
value and become less inverse as it is increased.
• This characteristics can be obtained with induction type of
relays by using a suitable core which does not saturate for a
large value of fault current.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
d. Inverse Definite Minimum Time (I.D.M.T) Over-current
Relay: In this relay, the operating time is approximately
inversely proportional to fault current near pick up value and
becomes substantially constant slightly above the pick up
value of the relay (curve d),
• It gives inverse-time current characteristic at lower values of
fault current and definite-time characteristic at higher values
of fault current.
• This is achieved by using a core of electromagnet which gets
saturated for currents slightly greater than pick up current.
• IDMT relays are widely used for the protection of distribution
lines. Such relays have a provision for current and time
settings.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
e. Very Inverse-time Over-current Relay: In this relay, saturation of
core occurs at a later stage, as shown in curve (e).
• It gives more inverse characteristic than that of a plain inverse
relay or I.D.M.T. relay. Its time-current characteristic lies between
an I.D.M.T. characteristic and extremely inverse characteristic.
• The t-I characteristics is inverse over a greater range and after
saturation tends to definite time.
• The very inverse characteristic gives better selectivity than the
I.D.M.T. characteristic. Hence, it can be used where an I.D.M.T.
relay fails to achieve good selectivity. Its recommended standard
time-current characteristic is given by
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
• The general expression for time-current characteristic of over-
current relays is given by

• Value of n for very inverse characteristic may lie between 1.02

and 2. These relays are recommended for the cases where
there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the
distance from the power source increases.
• They are particularly effective with ground faults because of
their steep characteristic.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
f. Extremely Inverse-time over current relay: In this relay, saturation
occurs at a still later stage than curve (e) as shown in curve (f).
• When IDMT and very inverse relay fail in selectivity, extremely
inverse relays are employed. The equation describing the curve (f)
is approximately of the form I2t = K, where I is the operating
current and t is the operating time.
• It is very suitable for the protection of machines against
overheating. (heating characteristics of machines and other
apparatus are also governed by the law I2t = K).
• Hence, this type of relays are used for protection of alternators,
power transformers, earthing transformers, expensive cables,
railways trolley wires, etc.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
• This relay is used for the protection of alternators against
overloads and internal faults.
• Also used for reclosing distribution circuits after a long
outage. After long outages, when circuit breaker is reclosed - a
heavy inrush current (comparable to a fault current) flows.
• An I.D.M.T. relay is not able to distinguish between the rapidly
decaying inrush current of load and persistent high current of
a fault. Hence, an I.D.M.T. relay trips again after reclosing.
• But an extremely inverse relay is able to distinguish between a
fault current and inrush current due to its steep time-current
characteristic. Therefore an extremely inverse relay is quite
suitable for the load restoration purpose.
 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
Method of defining shape of Time-Current characteristics:
• General expression for time-current characteristics is given by,

• Approximate expression is

i. For definite-time characteristics, n = 0. So t = k (constant)

ii. I.D.M.T. :

iii. Very inverse:

iv. Extremely inverse:

 OVER CURRENT RELAYS
• If the core is designed to saturate at the pick up value of the
current, the relay gives a definite-time characteristics.
• If the core is designed to saturate at a later stage, an IDMT
characteristics is obtained.
• If the core saturates at a still later stage, a very inverse
characteristics is obtained.
• If saturation occurs at a very later stage, then extremely
inverse characteristics is obtained
 INDUCTION TYPE OVER CURRENT RELAY
(Non-Directional)

• It works on induction principle and initiates corrective

measures when current in the circuit exceeds the
predetermined value.
• The actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied to the
relay from a current transformer.
• These relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate for
fault current flow in either direction.
 INDUCTION TYPE OVER CURRENT RELAY
(Non-Directional)
Construction:
• It consists of a metallic (aluminium) disc which is free to rotate
in between the poles of two electromagnets.
• The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary
winding. The primary is connected to the secondary of a CT in
the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals.
• The tappings are connected to a plug-setting bridge by which
the number of active turns on the relay operating coil can be
varied, thereby giving the desired current setting
• The secondary winding is energized by induction from
primary and is connected in series with the winding on the
lower magnet.
 INDUCTION TYPE OVER CURRENT RELAY
(Non-Directional)
• The controlling torque is provided by a spiral spring.
• Spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two
fixed contacts (connected to trip circuit) when the disc rotates
through a pre-set angle.
• This angle can be adjusted to any value between 0° and 360°,
so that, travel of the moving contact can be adjusted and
hence relay can be given any desired time setting (TMS)
Operation:
• The driving torque on the aluminium disc is set up due to the
induction principle. This torque is opposed by the restraining
torque provided by the spring.
 INDUCTION TYPE OVER CURRENT RELAY
(Non-Directional)
• Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is
greater than the driving torque produced by relay coil current.
• Therefore, aluminium disc remains stationary. However, if the
current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the
driving torque becomes greater than the restraining torque.
• Consequently, the disc rotates and moving contact bridges
fixed contacts when disc has rotated through a pre-set angle
• The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker which isolates the
faulty section.
INDUCTION TYPE OVER CURRENT RELAY
(Non-Directional)
 INDUCTION TYPE OVER CURRENT RELAY
(Non-Directional)
Drawbacks:

• The reach and operating time of over-current relay depend

upon magnitude of fault current, which in turn depends upon:
1. type of fault (ground fault or phase fault)
2. source impedance as shown in Figure.
 INDUCTION TYPE OVER CURRENT RELAY
(Non-Directional)
• Since neither type of fault nor the source impedance is predictable,
operating time (reach) of the over-current relay keeps on changing
depending upon the source conditions and type of fault.
• Thus, even though the relays are set with great care, they are likely
to suffer from loss of selectivity - can be tolerated to some extent in
low-voltage distribution systems, where the only objective to be
met is the continuity of supply to the consumer.
• However in EHV interconnected system (grid), loss of selectivity can
lead to danger to stability of the power system, in addition to large
disruption of loads.
• Therefore, over-current relays cannot be relied upon as a primary
means of protection in EHV systems.
 DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
Need:

• Fig. shows a double-end-fed power system. The zones to be

generated by the relays are also shown.
• Consider the system has only “over-current relays”. OC relays
operate on the magnitude of fault current and cannot sense
direction of fault. Consider OC relays at Bus C only.
 DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
• For a Fault Fa, as per the desired zones, only CBs 4 and 5
should trip. However, if plain OC relays are used, CBs 3, 4, 5, &
6 will all trip (fault will be seen by OC relays at these locations)
• Thus, desired zones are not generated. The desired relay
response is shown in Table with respect to Faults Fa and Fb.
 DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
• Thus it can be seen from the Table that whenever the fault power
flows away from the bus, it is desired that the OC relay should Trip.
It should Restrain if the fault power flowing towards the bus.
• There are other situations where it becomes necessary to use
directional relays to supervise OC relays. One such situation is a
single-end-fed system of parallel feeders, shown in Fig., where a
fault on any of the parallel lines is fed not only from the faulted line
but from the healthy line as well.
 DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
• If directional relays are not provided, in conjunction with OC
relays, then desired zones will not be generated. It results in
both lines trip out for any fault on any one of the lines.
• It may be noted that directional relays with tripping direction
away from the bus will be required at locations '2' and '3‘.
• However, at locations '1' and '4', non-directional over-current
relays will suffice. Since directional relay units cost more and
also need the provision of PTs, they should be used only when
absolutely necessary.
 DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
Principle of Measurement:

• Active power flowing through a part of an electric circuit is given by, P = VI

cos ,  - phase angle between V and I and Reactive power, Q = VI sin
• Referring to fig. for 270 <  < 90, cos  is positive, hence real power is
positive, for  = 90 and 270, P = 0, for 90 <  < 270, P is negative. 
power flow can be sensed by sensing magnitude & sign of VI cos .
• Directional relay senses and responds if real power is positive
INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• This type of relay operates when power in the circuit flows in
a specific direction.
• A directional relay is energized by TWO quantities, Voltage
and Current
• This type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and the direction
of the torque set up in the relay depends upon the direction
of the current relative to the associated voltage
Constructional details:
• It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in
between the poles of two electromagnets.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• The upper electromagnet carries a winding (potential coil) on
the central limb which is connected through a potential
transformer (P.T.) to the circuit voltage source.
• The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (current
coil) connected to secondary of C.T. in the line to be
protected.
• The current coil is provided with a number of tappings
connected to the plug-setting bridge (not shown for clarity).
• A compensating winding and shading coil are provided to
produce maximum torque during fault condition, when power
factor is very poor.
• The restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• Spindle of disc carries a moving contact which bridges two
fixed contacts when disc has rotated through a pre-set angle.
• By adjusting this angle, any desired time-setting can be given.
Operation:
• The flux 1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly
90° lagging behind the applied voltage, V.
• The flux 2 due to current coil will be nearly in-phase with the
operating current I.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• Interaction of fluxes 1 and 2 with eddy currents induced in
the disc produces a driving torque which rotates the disc is
given by,

• Torque produced is +ve when cos  is +ve, i.e.  < 90.

• When  > 90 (90 <  < 270), the torque is –ve.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc
depends upon the direction of power flow in the circuit to
which the relay is associated.
• When the power in the circuit flows in the normal direction,
the relay produces a –ve torque and remains inoperative.
• If due to any reason the power flows in the reverse direction,
the relay produces a +ve torque and it operates (closes the
contacts).
• In this condition, the angle between the actuating quantities,
 is kept < 90 to produce +ve torque as shown.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY

• For normal flow of power, the relay is supplied with V and – I.

• For reverse power flow, the actuating quantities become V
and I, Torque becomes VI cos , i.e. +ve.
• This can be achieved easily by reversing the current coil (Fig.)
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY

Operating Characteristics:
• Let V be the voltage applied to the relay through PT and I be the
relay current through CT.
• In phasor diagram (fig.) I is leading V by an angle . Here v is the
flux due to voltage coil and lags behind voltage by angle  (60 to
70) and I is flux due to current coil and is in-phase with current I.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• The net torque is produced due to the interaction of v and I
• The torque therefore is given as,
T  v and I sin ( + )
• Where, v  V and I  I
• So the torque equation for the relay can be given as,
T = KVI sin ( + )
• Torque is maximum when two fluxes are displaced by 90° i.e. ( + )
= 90°. Here dotted line in the phasor diagram represents the
desired position of I for maximum torque.
• Since V is the reference quantity and V has fixed position with
respect to V for a particular design, angle between dotted line and
reference quantity V is known as the “maximum torque angle” ().
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• Zero torque will occur when sin ( + ) = 0° i e., ( + ) = 0° or 180°,
(when the relay current phasor lies along the chain dotted line)
• The directional element will,  operate provided current phasor
lies with in + or - 90° of maximum torque line and If current phasor
is displaced by more than 90° directional element will restrain.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• It may be seen that  = 90 -  (or)  = 90 - 
• So, torque equation becomes,
T = KVI sin ( + 90 - ) = KVI cos ( - )
• When the relay is about to start, neglecting the spring constant,
VI cos ( - ) = 0 (or)  -  = 90 (or)  =  + 90
• This equation describes polar characteristics of directional relay
• The zone between the dotted line and the line parallel to it
corresponds to the spring torque. If the current phasor lies within
these lines, torque developed is less than spring torque and hence
relay does not operate.
• If the current phasor crosses the dotted line the operating torque
exceeds the spring torque and hence the relay operates.
• Relay will not pickup or it will reset for any current phasor lying in
the negative torque region.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
(REVERSE POWER) RELAY
• It may be noted that the system current usually lags behind the
system voltage but the relay current is made to lead the relay
voltage by inserting resistance or capacitance or a combination of
the two in series with the voltage or potential coil
• Such relays are very suitable for protection of parallel feeders.
• The directional over-current relay suffers from the drawback that
the feeder voltage falls to a much lower value when a fault occurs
resulting into non-operation of the relay.
• This short-coming may be overcome by compensating the relay
secondary winding on the lower magnet (opposes ampere-turns
produced by current coil) by increasing the turns of current coil.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
OVER CURRENT RELAY
• The directional power relay is unsuitable under short-circuit
conditions: system voltage falls to a low value and there may
be insufficient torque developed.
• This difficulty is overcome in directional over-current relay -
almost independent of system voltage and power factor.
Constructional details:
• It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case,
viz.
(i) Directional element and
(ii) Non-directional element.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
OVER CURRENT RELAY
i. Directional element: It is essentially a directional power relay
which operates when power flows in a specific direction.
• The potential coil is connected through a potential transformer (PT.)
to system voltage source.
• The current coil is energized through a C.T. by the circuit current.
This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-
directional element.
• The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element are connected
in series with the secondary circuit of the over-current element.
• Therefore, latter element cannot start to operate until its secondary
circuit is completed. (directional element must operate first in order
to operate over-current element)
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
OVER CURRENT RELAY
ii. Non-directional element: It is an over-current element similar to
a non-directional over-current relay.
• Spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which closes the fixed
contacts (trip circuit) after the operation of directional element.
• Plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting
(not shown). The tappings are provided on upper magnet of over-
current element and are connected to bridge
Operation:
• Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal
direction in the circuit protected by the relay.  Directional power
relay (upper element) does not operate, thereby keeping the over-
current element (lower element) un-energised.
 INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL
OVER CURRENT RELAY
• When a short circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or
power to flow in the reverse direction.
• Soon, disc of upper element rotates to bridge fixed contacts 1 and
2. This completes circuit for over-current element.
• The disc of this o/c element rotates and moving contact attached to
it closes trip circuit – operates C.B to isolate faulty section
• Two relay elements are so arranged that final tripping is not made
till the following conditions are satisfied:
i. Current flows in specific direction - to operate directional element
ii. Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value
iii. Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to time
setting of o/c element
 DIRECTIONAL RELAY CONNECTIONS
• There are two methods of connections:
1. 30 connection with a maximum torque angle of 0
2. 90 connection with a maximum torque angle of 45