CHAPTER

5
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

INTRODUCTION

Billions of years before the evolution of life began on earth, the

earth was a ball of fire. Then gradually its outer surface cooled
suficiently to allow life to begin. But in the earth's interior very
vast quantities of heat is still lying trapped. When energy is extracted
from this source we call it 'geothermal energy'.

Origin and Nature of Geothermal Energy

In the molten core of the earth, temperatures are as high as 4000°C
(7200°F). In this veritable furnace, thermal energy is continued to
be produced by the decay of radioactive materials within the interior.
For this reason some scientists refer to geothermal energy as a
form of fossil nuclear energy, Friction caused by the movement of
gigantic rystal plates in the earth as also energy dissipation of
solar and lunar tides, also contributes to the heat contained in the
bosom of the earth.
The interior of the earth is thought to consist of a central
molten core surrounded by a region of semifluid material called the
mantle (Figure 5.1). This is covered by the crust, which has a
depth of about 30 to 90 km. The temperature in the crust increases
proportionally to depth at a rate of about 30°C per kilometre. The
temperature at the base of the crust (at the top of the mantle)
levels off at a value of about 1000°C, and then increases Slowy
upto the earth's core. On an average, worldwide, heat is flowing
outward the earth's surface at the rate of 0.063 W/m². By comparison
the average daily flux of solar energy falling on the ear
200 W/m², which is over. 3000 times higher than the geothermal
78
Geothermal Energy 79

Crust
mantle

Inner
mantle

Liquid
outer
Core

Solid
inner
Core
6370 5120 2900 900 150 0

Distance from surface (km)

Figure 5.1 Different layers in the cross-section of the earth.
flux. Therefore if only the average flux of the heat coming out of
the earth was all that was available to us it might not have been
possible to make effective use of it. Nor would it have been possible
to extract heat from the base of the crust as it would be much too
deep for tapping. Fortunately there are regions in which hot molten
rock of the mantle called magma, has pushed up through faults
and cracks to near the surface, creating hot spots" within 2 to
3 km of the surface.
We see evidence of such hot spots' in volcanic eruptions, geysers,
and bubbling mud holes. In fact, the zone of likely geothermal sites
corresponds roughly to the region of earthquakes and volcanic activity,
as shown in Figure 5.2. These regions are at the junctions of tectonic
plates that make up the earth's crust (Figure 5.3). These plates

Figure 5.2 Geothermal sites, which are zones of earthauakes and volcanic
activity.
 continuously
from are fissurestraps porous The
vents reservoir volcanic
or
rock thisto
the of (molten
actionSuch
fromcentimetres
nearstrong are Fiqure 80
by the
Itcalled
the heatedthrough Pacific
Figure in
show the mixing igneous he
can and ormass) world's the tforces a 5.3
fissures (E) gneous
actiongreat interior
junctions
fumarols) hot is plate, state
be up permeable 5.4 Tectonic
inside
vented
thatwater with
capped waterfissures (meaning neargeothermal that per
seen at rock. rheat. shows of
for act the rock.) year). the via at Renewable
Energy
will hot can
or
that through as in by gases Ground the ofconstant theplate
use surface in
(Igneous so-called
subsurfacethesebuild
the a
vents reservojr The surface of a Where junctions
othermal inhot layer Lhen it, fire typical sites boundaries.
reservoir, and will heat
springs a rise water in mountains
plates relative
geothermalfissures asthe of of steam rock they
gevsers (C) be of Latin) (A) ringtoday
geothermal magma of Sources
impermeable conneg
giant The above heated that found the solidifies collide theHeat
steam (G), in ofare that motion
magma rocks plates.
the finds fire. to or travels and
fumarols
powerunderground
A solid by at located heat cause or
is the are surface
well field. Their
ofground, rock,iuneous the its isthe into travels grind, (at
two
solidupward conducted formed
earthquakes. very
plant. (H) near
Trom heat waysurfaceigneous Thevolcanoes. rates Environmental
(F)
however, rock there quickly
sa the most
tapsthese boiler. of
the down by hot
(steam rock. and of
(D) magma. theupwardvolcanic is rock are
several trom
steavents into tocalled magma edges rapidly
has that The rock this (B). Most Itvery Impact
15 the
a of is

no originating
The fronmfromthe
Geothermal
Energy
a reservoir
proportion and crust e lower
and argeothermal om
available.
become extractable
contribution
Nevertheless,
cally portion ground
therefore
(3)
natural
greatly totalThe inlatter
ground
From C
temperature
petrothermal. water
of is of
sources is
these the gas.
defined theexceeds
toheat), of thwater
e
acted. amount three Figure
the this at
mueh
hot geothermal At all largest
produce beoto
energy
amount may as that Thesebasic and so 5.4
spots, larger present.
a of that
There region contain
energy kinds: A
resources, beobtainable souree by
is energy will theresteam typical
eothermal the
are
dry regarded
large however, Heat
where in be(1) only
magma
othergeothermal is as of
Calgeothermal
ied (Fissures)
inhydrothermal,
explained
the later.
enough
With wet by hot only geothe
there e described
tvpes
energy as only thouter rock. hot called magnetic Stream
technology. reservoirs
advances into
economically combustion rmal field.
of energv is the 10 water.
Geothermal
can make a km meteoritic
thermal concentration (2) above.
relatively steam. steam,
resources
be ta of
geopressured, Some
a
easily significantgeothermal ofthe Some and G
coal,
earth's sources Not
receive steam. 8)
energy useful. 81
small that
and may oil are all
of
 Their
Renowable Energy Sources and
82 Environmental Impact
above (hot igneous magma
resources, mentioned
geopressured regions) that
have as much, if not
but they will more,
become utilizable
systemspotential
and
than these hot spots';technology is only
appropriate extraction developed. Although after
the amount
of thermal energy
within the earth is almost unlimited,
geothermal energy is limited to certain
sites, useful
It is estimated that the 35 km thick continental crust
1sa km area contains approximately 26.31 EJ (Armstead 18 covering
Total annual world energy consumption is around 370 EJ
and Ellis 1987). On this basis a 1 sq kn surface area of (Stephensoncrust
contains enough energy to supply 6% of the world's total annual
consumption (Bichan 1988). Edwards et al. presented an estimate
of the total world continental geothermal energy reserve using the
global heat flow data compiled by Pollack and Chapman. Only
0-10 km of crystal depth is taken as being a viable resource base
On a 550 km x 550 km grid the continental world was divided into
two regions--areas with high heat flow greater than 50 mW/m and
those with low heat flow less than 50 mW/mn. Based on an average
rock density of 2.5 glem and crystal specific heat of 770 kJ/kg/°C.
they estimated the global geothermal resource base as 245 x 10 EJ
for the high heat flow areas and 181 × 10° EJ for the low grade
areas (a total of 426 x 10 EJ or approximately 2.95 EJ/km of land
area). If one assumes that 0.1% of this resource could be
with the use of existing technology it would give an exploited
continental geothermal resource base in excess of 0.4 × 'accessible
10° EJ, or
more than 1000 years of energy reserves at
level (Bichan 1988). the present consunnpti0n
It has also been estimated that
about 40 to
required by the society is below 200°C. 30% heat50%is of total heat
about 150°C, 20% at about 100°C. Thus required at
there is a vast scope to use
geothermal energy for low temperature
of various power plants that applications. Block diagra
can be constructed from geothermal
sources are shown in Figures 5.5a,
5.5b and 5.5c.
HISTORY AND PRESENT EXTENT OF
The first UTILIZATION
Larderello,commercial
Tuscany, utilization of
Italy in 1904, geothermal power
but historically. t
applications of geothermal energy
and medicinal purposes. The were for spacp heating,hecookii
nd
back to 1300 A.D. in lceland. Inearliest
the
record of space heating da
was used on what was early
then a large seal 1800s, geothermal enel
to recover borie acid. by Franceso de Lade
when the steanm of theThe first
field at mechanical conversion was in
Larderallo. Italy, was used to t
oothermalEneroy
83

network
Electric Electric
network

plant.
power
geothermal
generatorplant generator
Electric
Electric
power

geothermal

Steam
turbine Steam
turbine Petrothermal
5.5a
Figure
dominated

Centrifugal Vapour Centrifugal

separator Separator
External
water
steam steam

Steam Steam
water

Steam
deposit
 Cansumer
watHoert Hot water
Flashed
Steam Electric
> 180°C
steam
Separator
turbine genorator Renewable t

Liquid dominated flashed steam geothermal power plant

Consumer
Brine
brineor Hot brine Vapour Electric Electric
150'C < or water working driven generator network
< 150°C fluid turbine

Geothermal Heat Working

fluid loop exchanger fluid loop

Figure 5.5b Liquid dominated binary cycle geothermal power plant.

Consumer
Electric
Total flow Electric
Hot b elwork
brinHoel Hot brine turbine generator

geolhermal power plant

Liquid dominated total flow
Consumer
Steam
turbine Electric Electric
brine
Hot Brine Combustor network
generator
Hot brine boiler Gas
airr waler
turbine

Feed water
Steam thermal
Heat power plant or
Geothermal exchanger Feed air Combined cycle plant
tluid

geothermal-conventional power plant.

Figure 5.5c Hybrid
 86
Renewable Energy Sources and Their Environmental Impact

a boiler for producing steam that drove a small steam engine. The
in
first attempt to produce electricity also took place at Larderallo
1904 with an electric generator that powered four light bulbs. This
was followed in 1912 by a condensing turbine. By the year 1914,
Larderello was
8.5 MW of electricity was being produced. By 1944
producing 127 MW. The plant was destroyed toward the end of
World War II, but was fortunately rebuilt and expanded and the
power production eventually reached 360 MW in l981.
( The second largest development of geothermal power is at
Wairakei, New Zealand. The first power plant began operation in
about 1958 and now has a capacity of about 290 MW. T'he Wairakei
plant is 10 km north of Lake Taupo in the volcanic zone of North
Island. The lake's outlet river provides the cooling water for the
power plant. At the wellheads, the geothermal fluid is a mixture of
one part of steam to four parts of water. The steam is separated
from the water by cyclone separators. The power plant is baseloaded,
i.e. it produces continuously at full power and has an annual load
factor of 0.9. Power has been produced by a consortium of three
companies delivering steam to the Pacific Gas and Electric Company
from the Geysers area of northern California since 1960. The dry
steam fields of the Geysers were discovered in 1847 by a hunter
looking for grizzly bears. Seeing the natural steam venting into the
air, he later told his friends that he thought he had found the
"gates of Hell". A resort was built in the area in the 1860s, featuring
the hot springs, and electric power for the resort was provided in
the 1920s by using the steam from several wells to run a steam
turbine generator. Thus the first geothermal power plant in the
United States came into existence. Large scale operations did not
begin for another 30 years, when two small private power companies
invited Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) to come into the area and
test the dry steam wells that they had drilled. Engineering and
economic conditions seemed right, so in 1960 the first unit of the
Geysers went into operation with an output of 11 MWe. Today the
output is more than 1360 MWe, with 19 power plants. About 10%
of PG&E's electricity is supplied by the Geysers. The steam is of
relatively low pressure (689,000 pascal) and temperature (205°C)
compared to pressure (2,067,000 pascal) and temperature (550°C)
of steam generated in modern fossil fuel power plants. Because of
the lower pressure and temperaure at which they operate, the
turbines at the Geysers are about one-third less efficient than those
of conventional power plants, and, according to Hammond (1972).
require about 450 MW of heat to produce 100 MW of electricity.
The present capacity of the Geysers is 1400 MWe, which is increasin8
This resource is estimated to have a total capacity of 2500 MY
GeothermalEnergy 87

This is a
field of dry steam, a relatively rare situation. How
steam supply will last is not known.
more.
this
long
Cauthern California Edison Company has dropped its plan to
47-MWe geothermal plant about 10 km north of the Mexican
build a the town of Calexico and near the Salton Sea. This
border near
DOwOuld have supplied electrical power to about 50,000 people.
much
However, the cost of this
geothermal power is expected to be
present.
too high at was begun at
In Japan, geothermal power production capacity was 20 and
Matsukawa in 1966 and at Otake in 1967. The
13 MW respectively in 1969, but later on each was expanded to
geothermal power production today
about 60 MW. Japan has a total
of about 215 MW. Prieto, just south of the US border, a
In Mexico, near Cerro
is a wet steam plant; this
operation. It
425 MW power plant is in water. In
that they must separate the steam from the hot
means
there are several small geothermal power plants in operation
addition,
in Mexico.
Iceland is well known for its use of geothermal power. Two
dwellings are heated geothermally. The steam from
thirds of its has been used for heating the
geothermnal reservoirs
one of its large and a 17-MWe power-generating plant
entire town of Hveragerdi, Iceland is an
installed there in 1969. The island known as
mid-Atlantic ridge, which is a boundary
was
segment of the
exposed continental plates. Iceland is
between the Eurasian and Americanmovement of these two gigantic
with the
literally being pulled apartdirections.
opposite The result is hot basalt flowing
tectonic plates in fissures underneath. For example, Surtsey,
to the surface through the Iceland
island, was formed in 1963 in the ocean south of
a volcanic poured out of the sea floor. Most offromthe
When 300 million m² of ash
Reykjavik, Iceland are heated by hot water tapped
nouses of
the Soviet Union geothermal power is produced
not lava nearly. In
small plants in Kamchatka, with a total capacity of less
at three
than 40 MW. Hawaii, a 3 MWe plant
on the big island of
In Puna district from geothermal power for delivery to about
generating electricity 25 MWe plant there. However,
There are plans to build a
000 homes.
on the island of Hawaii but on the heavily
e power is not needed 80% of Hawaii's energy consumption
POpulated island of Oabu, where between
transfer of the power would require a cable
. S . However, a distance of 250 km and lying
at
etwo islands. a cable covering
abundance of renewable energy
depth of 2100 m. Hawaii has an the windv ard side of Oahu,
the form of wind and biomass. On
turbine farm is being
commissioned; it is
e world's largest wind
 aquifer for
analyses
integrated commercialization
with
Volcanic
andHigh-enthalpy
Geothermal
zonesAquifers the
Exploitation thosepresence isgenerating
water depthstemperatures grade resource
EXTRACTION
for Geothermal ENERGY thiswhento£ay ldaho:
as are and notImany (sugarcane
the bagasse
production waste)
expected 88
power
geophysical. experimental notheating early
rock Geothermal level likely
are for whereoccurs worth
lessresource one isThe commercialbuildings
San with Many Min-0TEC
formations
are formations and
as sOures t
generation. surveys this or that considers
of only totalBernardino, to to
interpreted
released ofabsence than dwellings electricity; Klamath
1890. toWns and
inexploiting. between resources power develop
Based type. hot hot
association that has about
installed of provide
stagestagewater dry reserves 6 renewable
in process
plant Renewable
such
into TheExploitation where of km. hastemperatures output. that 6000
onbasalts, of Falls, the this
S0
fo r (Figure rock or California:
electricity hot these as
further
whereasZones naturaltemperatures To 90°C an are geothermal
a itsof heat.
high are for resource
United MWe. Energy
geological, (HDR) with intermediate-grade be of single MWOregon. energy
ffuids rhyolites industrial and to
surveys,temperature 5.6). in further useful, three (Table Hawaii
coast.
exploitation of water-geothermal
energy
thermal natural geothermal burn
alternative
Another Sources
generating that
150°C above nuclear Pagosa States
of
Some extensively.
these are power other
hydrogeolocial,
svstematic and general 5.1), Ithas
are from clássified thesebelow for and
situated
aquifer, crystal process and 150°C heat thanseems
aquifers power
production
a Springs,
pumped aquifers
ofandesites, these also fuel Ther
turbines. HDR resources 90°C could types: rather some
these energy.geothermal that
thermal thermal resource and
heat; for
beenEnvironmentalIm
without
zones has aquifers on and, be plant were
detailed
needs are Colorado;
out hot are small electric
of Hawaii
Excess geochemical reachedthe the is a in working
with is
reservoirs assoclated must and usedhigh-grade may constructed Among their
fromgradient potential is heat useful
that the to
still water. where basis general,directly quantit. that
be a exceed houses
and low world Boise,these has power use Impact
e in of at has for it the
is so

Denmar Bulgaria Austria

Azores
Belgium Australia
Algeria Country
Switzerland Poland Zealand
Nicaragua Mexico Indonesia
New KenyaJapan Guatemala
Italy lceland
Hungary Greece
GermanyFrance
Ethiopia
Czechoslovakia
Salvador CostaRica China
El Colombia Canada Geothermal
Energy
Yugoslavia
Indies Tunisia TaiwanRomania
Thailand Philippines
"Under Total UK
West USSR USA Turkey

construction,
Table 5,

Source
Worldwide
Hutter

10,
electre
Non
geothermal
11605 3321 2143
Freeston 24F 329 142.3 774 276 337 105 293 92
113 1133 463 3 10 38 12 11 12
1 4

190 capacity

6a7 4 2770 894 293 700 214.6 545

206 35 20.9
4 03 (MW)
20
Electrtc
+
602 160
50 2
89
 Figure wellsleaks arexternal
used used four in SteamWet 92
e temperatures
ittheasthis reach hrSystems
When
to 34%
inenergy at
springs
the called
liquid. a hot the the
parts
for to tap to the of
5.8 well, surrounding water is
direct run hot these the water hot. the
may surface. of
water Cold "fumaroles". Places
steam
Conduction
figure.porous Model it
turbines flashes surface, drv Yelbetotallowstone
heating water. wet pressure is trapped in
from
rocks, of where released rock However. Renewable
a rock-conducts
heat
Solid
rocksSolid steam rocks,
partially
underground
the of
high to as
Well The into forming
reservoir.
which heat aleu or
generato steam
In is high as thePark,
fissure fields
temperature Magma for steam a some much to it an Energy
from Gevser,
springhot the extracted
escapes hot escapes ls hvdrothermalwhere
is amixture underground energy
the desalination (Figure under
collected isgeothermal surface, less 370°C Sources
maama springs the
to hot of by
the containing
water
heated
that is through than very content,.
Porous
rock about 5.8). (700°F) artificially hvdrothermal
activity and
surface
inheatswater
component
a The
or that will itreservoir high
well, As Impact Their
geothermal
up plant. rom Geysers. onereservoirs, cracks the
via
aswater hot
the necessary "flash"
koor topressure
without Environmental
th e part hot remainder
injecting
fissures.
shown water in
Geothermal and is
insiae watersteam water into
syste. hot the boiling. only
in can surfaco and is
The water et heated erupts
of
e e gnd and rises water the about
be oe
If

Figure
Los water National Gevsers, driveeteam
to temperatures eituation,ahove SystemsDrSteam
y Geothermal
Dry Energy
Figure
underground
Alamos extract steam
or aatmospheric
taken
5.9 5.9), Laboratory, turbine.
steam California, geothermal
water
An energy
purposes. whiischunder basement
rock
Hot is
scientists structure, from of
then artist's simple onto Geothermal about
the from boils
such pressure
tractures
drawn
New use
earth'sketch
s have inthe 350°C tields
fracturing hot dry underground a
out concept
and beensurface. Mexico,geothermal andoccur
from crust. of rocks steam.plants and
a t
penetrates way experimenting
the Water but the USA, pressures the when
rock of The by
Scientists atweltemperature
drawing rock, l and
is Larderello, the
difficult injecting
bed the sent have
method. and can of
androcks. energy generatespressure
into at to developed at about
thern be
fractures
Man-made Fenton
utilized The the implement. water the used is
illustrated Italy,
hot trom bringinghot Los 100 high. is
heated
for Hill, a directly not
rock hot into Alamos
method and psisteam
. In
vanous much 93
water bedrocks New The
in the the toThe atthis
 found GEOTHERMAL
haulakhandi
temperatures Ind1a
hot conventional A plants system
presented experiment, in
sections extraction s°C the and about ofwel. fieldthe 94
fractures
multiple the position was where
drilled Mexico,
comparison Geothermal "
Table surrounding
with water has "Geothermal "A The The following extraction
It fluid
fluida Geothermal for power 10 and based 50,000m²granitic
. Success 197°C. an
vast drop variety main basic of was on
eratures springs
is extraction MW,
geothermal
in5.2. this well injection the
plants over not (due Table the Then
nearpotential
et in plants differencesInformation on aspects about
FIELDS of
pressure
technically 15 volcanic Los 288 had wells, reservoir the of
long to of MW), geothermal 5.3. rock hvdrothermal
they western Renewatble
althe all
isthe powerlesserpower systems have power Alamos
days a Some did
300 well
1996). of The temperature but operation
boiling over for presented distances power of become
of drilled to flank
15-20°C IN costs large between geothermal field itwater occurrocks.
plants plantssteam whereas plants various sustained m a Energy
Large geothermal the INDIA
and temperature on 1s above depth
feasible are luids and
scientists and an of
temperature. of from unit plants typical expected Measurements loss
indicated
point
country, due are filled. depended component the
over
tracts geothermal in e have
need used sizes thconventional types more of extraction
the of Sources
Table located are occurred created 2.9 3 Valleys
at to to geothermal power operation. 153°C
mean energy the conventional are: geothermal experiments are Water to input
their
of and transport and a in(200smaller presented of temperature
upon km. and
5.5. large
geothermal electric drilling diminish is
bient
hot fact on MW, plants a Caldera, Their
places with pressure). which between
withdrawn from L heat the point welwhere l only
ground many power the flow steam
that energy 500 unit Encouraged Environmental
more geothermal hot power
inpower are arewellsdeclined transfer proper whose theThey about1%.
ues. of of steam thermal as of
have plants there power MW, sizes Table the the large a
occurTe these
waterS than geothermal geothermal source. summarized in the large.
that
generatina into fracturingwithdrawal
will 800
thermal (5 plantsprogroes injection
pores injection
plants 5.4 by by aera volcanie Impact
nis and field. MW) MW, power hattor
be thie of
is of

Table
of 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. GootherImal
Energy
CoastNicobar Sub India.) bottom
province, 7. usedType
the Rating
generatorunit Unit Types generalor,rotorTypes of .Working"SteamType Type 5.2
north-west concept
Geothermal
province, as of
(Konkan) These bore hole rating of of
of input Feature BasiC
geothermal(vi) of cvcle
thermodynamic geothermal geothermal
power
generator turbines
drivingfor
holes fluid
(ii)temperatures are of aspecis
rmada-TaptiHimalavan Muid to
turbine
fault located drilled station binary power
Naga-Lushai total resource fluids regarding
eothermalprovince, plant
in flow cycle cvcle
subalong
(140200°C)
sedimentary
Graben various
province,
geothermal(v)
the
Bladeless
turbine turbines
Steam
" " . Alternatives:
" . . Alternatives: " " " brine " " "
Hot "Alternatives:
province, Alternative
" ratings
.5unit " . " " Alternatives: Gas With energy
With Hydrothermal
With hot-dry dissolved
solids of Steam Hot Hot
50 turbine
driven bv 3 Helical working
Impactfluid) primary
energy
sourceprimary
energy
sourceprimary
source WithPetrothermal
Hydrothermal
dominated
rock vapour Mixture
geothermalCambay following MW, phase, types
MW, waterwater
(ii) basins are turbine hot steam
8.5
warm hot
100 AC, turbine
screw of of
province,
Andaman (iv) also fluid geothermal water as above
higher
(liquid
with < > geothermal
north-east
geothermal AW, Data
MW,
(vinl Graben
for synchronous expander driven water primary liquid
150°C 80°C 1
province, recorded 10 driven
brineby
(ammonia,
Damodar hydrocarbons 200 above
MW. by
MMW, (<150C) energy
source
ene dominated power
geothermal vapour brine
vii) Himalayan
provinces: in 15generator 180°C
400 MW organie content
many as plants
valley West MW 95
of as as
in a
 Conventional.nnt
gas water feedpre-heating
the
flow heat low and
mW/m. 4l+10 values
of Himalayan loothill thermal steam temperature for used 150°C 70°Cto plants
temperature belts
low show temperatures Conventional watater -Hot geothermalpower uel fossil
fHybr
Ckm 17+5 gradients of
outer the along occur
id 6.
Himalayas. the margin of thermal Lukewarm Values.
The hot cavity
in Iracturedrock dry
computed
base low withsprings, temperature 60+20°C With intoinjected water -Cold
andgradient Alaknanda ahd plant power
flow heat mW/m² 130+30 of typical are valley 280°C production
at
well
rrences such examples springs axis.
hot The mimalayan turbine Steam
the of located are
from steam plus water
Hot
PetroGeothermal
thermal rock) dry (hot
5.
valley, Sutlej valley, Parbatithrust central
and main between the geothermal
brine
central the (MICTT mW/m². 200 excess of tlow heat
in
springs ot However, hot driven
by planttype powertiow
hot majority with zone this In turbine Special flgeothermal
uid (brine) Hot geothermal
100°C/km
and excess gradients
of in temperature strongest. Himalayas is totaldominated Liquid
are and Puga .
of Chumathang
areas examples the adjacentto 150°C
geothermal temperature power<
rth-west the in Suture
zone Indus-Tsungbo turbine plant cycle binary
temperatures
close with Several gas fluid
-Organic brigeothermal
atne Hot
activity thermal The 100°C. to number Large dominated Liquid
theoccur springs thermal
in of
Himalayan
region, geothermal
luid the
Geothermal
Energy from lashed Steam
RegionHimlayan in
the Sources powergeothermal plant
10°Ctemperature> at
1988).Shankar (Ravi turbine Steam steam, wet and water Hot dominattypeed steam flashed
Liquid 2.
preparation utilized
for been have plant) power type
India flow-values
in heat of Atomic by
studied. been also have Division
Mineral steam (Dry plants
data These holes
in bore above,
12 powergeothermal
drilled another 2 anda fields coalTalcher for Board turbine -
Steam temperature 200°C
exploration. groundwater andmineral steam
at Dry dominated Vapour 1.
the from Apart deep) drilled were turbine Typeof
undwater Central and GSI by (100400m holes Geothermal
fluid plant Types
of
Thirty-two
wells exploration. geothermal fordeep) (40-700m
15last the during GSI India. plants power electricgeothermal Types
of 5.4 Table
bore 152 about drilled period year Survey
ofGeophysical
geothermal
map
of prepared a has India approximately
7%. geothermal
published and work field Based
on plantsis capacity
of installed total increase
in *Annual
National the GSI, of data exploration
work
patterns. heat
flow geothermal the study India
to in 64
The 3 W
S+ 185 300 USSR
extensive taken
up has (GSI) India Survey of Geological 1400
province. geothermal Archean Indian South (xiii) and W+ S S, 250 500 USA
Indian East province,
(xii) geothermal 5 5 W
S+ 190 700 Turkey
province,geothermal Archean Philippines
valley Godavari (x) 665
ecambrian India North province, (xi) geothermal W
S+ 200 920
province. geothermal valleyMahanadi (ix)province, geothermal 350 W
S+ 230 Zealand New
300
I80 17 Mexico
WS+ 300 800
fixed. annual 17% on
Based + 300 WS,S+ 1000 Japan
5 220
Hydro 21 Italy
1875 W + S S. 200 700
1.5 8-12 1200 63
10-15 2650 1200 Nuclear 1 W
S+ 250 1000 lceland
5 0.4 Coal
b.1 5.1 6-8 1300 1200 Geothermal 230 1000 EI-Salvador
W
S+
1.5 1.8 2-3 750 110 Chile
(MW) 15 15 W
S+ 230 650
(cents/kWh) (centskWh (years) ($/%W)
eosts ratng costs plant costscapacity (MWe) (g/kg) C) (m)
gene Total power AnnualConstruetion plant Poer size Plant typeResource incapacity
stal ed fluid place and
fluid well
temp.
of depth
of Country
of
Total Dissolvsoledids
($US) 1986 plants Type Average Average
capacity.generating electrical baseload new r Levelized
focosts 65
-_ble
of
locations Countries
and 5.3 Table
97
Energy
Goothermal EnviImpacrtonmentelectrical
al geothermal
Energy Renewable 96
Their and Sources
 was pilot
Utilization Pradesh
Uttar Kashmir
HimachalJammuand
Pradesh State
tonnes/day
kg/day
100 boraxtemperatures
Extraction at Zambia.
Spoce Guadeloupe
(France),
andMexico,
Russia,Kenya, in
forward
New Bolivia,possible thatpower hasclosed
National
geothermalPower plants. to In Pradesh. 12
kg/day Puga. several India, The
used with been are There
of and heating. Thailand, Canada, because op
plants logeneration
in
A todesigned
Aeronautical the and list
borax. of for and 62.5 countriesproduce Table the are
ofsulphur economic Rankine energy utilization of of
sulphur. borax refining the 20°C have Uttar
Geothermal geothermal
m' geothermal springs
113
5.6 thermal
The Space Himalavan Renewable
extraction inhut The China, not and has
pilot ore
at across
liberalization Pradesh
springs
hotState-wise
power fabricatedcycle, Number of
was
ofexcessheating been of
whilePuga. Azores Costa
Laboratory been 5A
geothermal 62 30 20
plant borax heated emala, employing kW springs Energy
of
the from
power developed domain
the The and installed Resources are
and the
experiments (Portugal),
Philippines,
Nicaragua,
Romania, Rica,
world, at pilot-scale distribution
for with geothermal given in Sources
extraction
refining
refinement ambient. lceland, plants NAL. (NAL). Jammu
refining sulphu. E1 privateFreon-113 energy Puga-Chhumathung,
Tattapani
AlaknandaParbati (Table in
geothermal in north-western
Salvador, most in and
Turkey,
are India But This at in valley, of
plant Indonesia, Manikaranpower has Tables and 5.6), ImpactTheir
sulphur plant of have notablycompanies
successfullyenergy. larger India hot Environmental
Geothermal till valley, Areas
could locally plant
as so Kashmir, Beas springs
could waterbeen Ethiopia, date.working
scalefluid. It plant far 5.7-5.9. Bhagirathi
could
United valley. India,
which of
handle Italy, in This operates been
carried Argentina, may
geothermal It by
occurrin
handle achieving operating based Himachal
hunde enerEy Greece, is is GSI confined Tattapani
States, Japan,
00 out quitecomehoped onand valley
a
on

Geothermal
Energy
Table

5.7
Geothermal

Nature
spring of
Cold Thermal
Cold Thermal
Cold Cold
Thermal Cold
Thermal Thermal
Cold Thermal
Cold Thermal
Cold Cold
Thermal Cold
Thermal Thermal
Cold Thermal
Cold Thermal
Cold Thermal Thermal
Thermal Thermal
Thermal
Cold Thermal
Cold Thermal Thermal springs

in
Jammu

and
Temperature°C
Kashmir
29 40 18 34 1 1: 12 56 12 40 16 12 46 1 65 12 40 18 51 20 42 27 4.5 21 53 28 8 76 60

99
 Dobat
PanglaPangla Lamari
KalapaniKalapani Khemon
Kalapani Dar Dar NyuBalati
Devibagar
SirtolaBadheli
UgraliJim1ghat
Tera Locality 102
country
feasibilitya during The
Joshimath, 37an Refrigeration.
The Plan The was
model altitude
E
The
"The temperatures Tapovan established.
demonstration
generation,
geothermal
greenhnouse,
training, poultr of
utilization in for cold
November he
project objective
for of tUtilization storage
using
not the
Garhwal of
geothermal
1800-1900
has nearest At Renewable
research of only and in plant It
Manikaran,
resourcesfisheries, geothermal of utilized
geothermal the the
Uttar the
December. region of is
areatown, Table5.9
production,feasibilityltry following Tapovan Geothermalm,
field based Energy
and the spring
Type of
in spa, Pradesh varies latitude of Thermal ColdTher
Thermal
Thermal Cold
Thermal Thermal
ThermalThermal
Thermal
Thermal
Thermal ColdThermal
ThermalThermal
Thermal
the energy, Himalaya. by a
evelonment ermal
isgeothermal
energy located on 7.5 Sources
etc. an Contd.
imalayan specific project from ammonia
of ton
but all-weather
It 30°
using at Energy capacity and
is 0
heating,
biogas
space to 29in
Tapovan; goals: alsoalso is Tapovan
DhauligangaN water Their
for
geothermal to30°C; absorption
region. other and
wider aimed
demonstrate at cold TemperatureEnvironmental
"C
motorable is flowing
Tapovan
longitude
parts connected storage 56 20 56 62
| 30 58 19 79 49 68 35 10 40 56
to
usage system.
heat serve valley at
of occurs Impact
road. 90°C.plant
Ol for the asthe 29°
to at

The
5.10). 55°C. exploratory
temperature
temperature
availability Geothermal
Eneray
SOurces production,
establishing derive of (Table
for sheep The Figure
Support.
Villages withWind. Scientific
society.
provided
Agricultural
Research
dependsresearch
onCooperative main
Garhwal, project
The .
greenhouse The only A The Hence Heat Heat collection transportation
cascade
erection
modules,
of from
"The rearing schematic
5.10. geothermal
heat.
payback Thea maximum cost proJect
will station by Tapovanindustry loss
available geothermal
economic available hole is
whether Tapovan
having and
of
Tapovanenergy GSI, and and of inestimated to of
be and 10°C AGW-6 would be poultry, components
the 4 derive
greenhouses,
directlyperiod l
at Oirunning heating,
spa.project diagram transportation data
efficiency wool is at kg/m of
in it Auli.
feasibility & the a is projectenergy and
The well well
geothermal
can Natural
projectthat Laboratory strong a as flowing and
itsfishery,
of production.
envisages cottageremote pressure. basedon maximum
benefited8-10 compete the space wind = 1400
modules of has = 1900 to are:
region-fossilis of
know-how
technical
and
Gas project of presence the (1900 space
Tapovan
expected
years. agrarian been = kWhspeed at analysis biogas
(DARL; heatheating, industry Tapovan 500 kWh harnessing efficiency water
geothermalCorporation
economically application Considering the
if would at heating
e estimated 500) kWh kWh of rate
thSome would use. of a for
generation, village
to village flow 10 through
project
given is fuels, which production,
biogas
be of
fipara-military
sh of further of
be The
be plant what systems,
2500 energy (ONGC), of
set weaving, ratemiles earlier
500 heat
use,
and (4
conmmercially has vested geothermal in to average
nuclear, with responsibility in Chamoli is be insulated
of Vmin application kilometres).
pepiel spa,
other in a wil be a presented Rs. 500 ph, residential
high and with linked
any cascade personnel. at ete.
nearby ofsolar, 90 Vminambient was an 103
available altitude heat 65°C pipe
viable region Defencejointly a energy with district lakh in
local in at of
and of to
 one
supply CrusthatLIMITATIONS
resource
15°C byMAJOR earning
We poultrvlanimal
spahusbandr
greenhouse
In
TotalFrom
cultiy
From (C) Total
cost Pipeline Wel
malnl: (B) Total poultryand
ost Livestock Biogas
andspa Fish (area
Space Greenhouse Well cost(A)
Miscellaneous
PipelineCapital 104
add1tion expenditure
Recurring
Housing Biogas accessories
SpaMiscellaneousStructure
and
exchangerlaccessories
Miscellaneous Structure
Heat overheads 4
Other Laving Item
must some have mav Revenue Reeurring km head,
more
to Mainteintenance *hance pond heating
Laintenance (area
our This is a be with
he mentioned
to to (volume
m') 50(area Table
worth to of well
energy thandepth systems
other of and
careful be be the earning 1000 (area various 16"
costs 1000 other a
600m)diameter head 5.10
equivalent above:
Rs. m²)
2x ofthe very
needs 1200
valves
Renewable
in 10 that 15-17 vation for m´) accessories assembly
102 entire
km. high. (per Economics
accepting conventional
system including m) insulated
at the lakhs. annum) and
current toBLuWithheat The Energy
size and
joints
900 of (per
this
such thermalcontent USof piping. buriedrepairs, of
rutes geothermal eneroy Tapovan Sources
trillion annum)
defnition
Geological
members pipeline
for saving ete ete,
of
eheroy and
350 tons the geothermal
resources
the from Their
thermal 000 Survey
ofearth's
exists
vears!
coal, USGS suace Environmental
Cost Impact

within defines crust is 10.00 S.00 75.00 (Rs project

enougn heating 2.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 1.00
However estimates estimae 1.00 8.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 5,.00 3,00 5.00 1.00 1.00 7.00 3.0032.00 2.00
ener5> in
above lakhs)
The tne and

us
distance 1000psi.withWater 1S
Figure
5.10 Geothermal
Energy
Cannot
yPe.0 close *is
temperature
Lhe
Steam oout quite
the
Tn the to only Geothermal used Greenhousing 700
4 Vmin
hot be heaing
Heat:
180KW WELL kg/cm 68-C Actual
ntortunately,
iswet 100°C. away low-grade
steam
efficiently for is s00 m²
vater used of only Flow AGW-6
Vmin,
55°C130
steamsource. direct
steam from in insulated
pipeline
4"16"
hot Vmin,
35C 35C130
260 Umin,
chart Aquaculture
was inConsequently, betweena Area
Heat:400kw (1900
the very
Systems. spots because estimate
For
reguired
heating
transported the : 500
4 Vmin
thrown conventional showing 1000 kW koycm 65-C kn) (4
veneration few heating
Space
(Resi
Poultry,
dence,
Catte)
Area: /min
500
markets are 150° m Heat:375kW SITE
only
geothermal (as the the
for 1200 m
aaway many sparsely and Vmin,
390
20C
utilization
temperature
the very in the
of fossil250°C
into part Iceland). needing
efficient (1400
55°C
KW)
clectrieity. reservoirs
far, distributed Umin,
55C110Vnin,
55°C260
a sources of
of the fuel (at
lake the energy.
Tapovan Disposal
V'm110in
production plant
100 of
orwater are
pointSince minimum
of Thery. psi). the Area
Heat:350kW Biogas50
m
Originally, hot and
stream. of of
thermal geothermal : (spa)
at
This 1000
steam
that of
the use water usually
550°C 20C
m
dry electricity compares
the
lashes must or 105
steam energy can some water.
rest and hot
be be