• Machines that can replace human beings as regards to physical work and decision making

are categorized as robots and their study as robotics.

• Robots and robot-like manipulators are now commonly employed in hostile environment,
such as at various places in an atomic plant for handling radioactive materials.

• Robots are being employed to construct and repair space stations and satellites. There are
now increasing number of applications of robots such as in nursing and aiding a patient.

• Microrobots are being designed to do damage control inside human veins. Robot like
systems are now employed in heavy earth-moving equipment. It is not possible to put up
an exhaustive list of robot applications.

• One type of robot commonly used in the industry is a robotic manipulator or simply a
manipulator or a robotic arm.
• It is an open or closed kinematic chain of
rigid links interconnected by movable
joints.

• In some configurations, links can be

considered to correspond to human
anatomy as waist, upper arm, and
forearm with joints at shoulder and
elbow.

• At the end of the arm, a wrist joint

connects an end-effector to the forearm.
The end-effector may be a tool and its
fixture or a gripper or any other device to
do the work.
Objectives: At the completion of the course students will know how to:
• Model the kinematics of robotic systems.
• Compute end-effector position and orientation from joint angles of a robotic
system.
• Compute the joint angles of a robotic system to reach the desired end-effector
position and orientation.
• Compute the linear and angular velocities of the end-effector of a robotic system
from the joint angle velocities.
• Convert a robot’s workspace to its configuration space and represent obstacles in
the configuration space.
• Compute valid path in a configuration space with motion planning algorithms
• Apply the generated motion path to the robotic system to generate a proper
motion trajectory.
• Apply the learned knowledge to several robotic systems: including robotic
manipulators, humanoid robots.
EVOLUTION OF ROBOTS AND ROBOTICS
Czech writer, Karel Capek, in his drama, introduced the word robot to the
world in 1921. It is derived from Czech word robota meaning “forced
labourer”. Isaac Asimov the well-known Russian science fiction writer,
coined the word robotics in his story “Runaround”, published in 1942, to
denote the science devoted to study of robots.
 • Need of systems to work in hostile environments
that human workers cannot easily or safely access
(for example radioactive material handling) led to
the development of teleoperated manipulator in
1940s.

• The field of “Telecherics” deals with the use of

remote manipulators controlled by a human being
in a “Master-Slave” configuration. Here, the actual
A master-slave manipulator machine (slave) is operated from a distance by a
control “joystick” of a geometrically similar
machine (master), as shown in Figure.
• The combination of numerical control and telecherics have evolved the basic concepts of
modern industrial robots with human operator and master manipulator of Fig. 1.2 replaced by
a programmable controller. This merging created a new field of engineering referred to as
robotics, and with it a number of engineering and scientific issues in design, control, and
programming have emerged, which are substantially different from those of the existing
techniques.
• In 1938–1939, a jointed mechanical arm was invented for use in spray painting.

• A process controller that could be used as a general-purpose playback device for operating
machines, was developed in 1946, the year in which first large-scale electronic computer
ENIAC was built.

• The first numerically controlled machine tool was developed in 1952.

• The patenting of the first manipulator, with the basic concept of teaching/playback, in 1954,
set rolling the exponential growth in robotics.

• The unmatched quality, reliability, and productivity offered by these robots, although in very
limited applications, was recognized by the industry and sparked the formation of several
world-wide centres of research in this area by the mid-1960s.

• The new field of robotics received support from simultaneously developing fields of
artificial intelligence (AI), artificial vision, and developments in digital microcomputers.
 • In 1967–1968, the first legged and
wheeled walking machines using vision
and other sensors, were reported. The
servomotors were used in place of
hydraulic devices in 1970 to power the
robots.

• In 1974, the first servomotor actuated and

Sketch of a mobile robot, the kind used as microcomputer-controlled robots were
Viking lander commercially launched and in 1976, they
were used by NASA Viking lander to
collect samples from the surface of Mars.
An elementary sketch of this lander is
drawn in Figure.
• The decade following 1975 saw the largest worldwide growth of university based laboratories, research centres,
curricula, and publications in robotics. Mobile robotics also grew substantially during this period with designs of
legged vehicles based on gait of both human beings and insects.

• The research activity in robotics started almost 40 years ago. The Robotic Institute of America (RIA), now called
Robotic Industries Association (RIA), was formed only in 1975 as an organization of robot manufacturers and
users.

• The growth, thereafter, in robotics has been closely associated with developments in microcomputers, micro-
controllers, sensor technology, vision technology, and artificial intelligence.

• The year 1997 saw the amalgamation of all these in the success of the Mars mission through “Pathfinder” and
“Sojourner”.

• Industrial robots are increasingly used in manufacturing plants, medical surgery, and rescue efforts. These require
more difficult technology as much higher degree of accuracy, repeatability, flexibility, and reliability is needed for
industrial robots.

Robotics today is dealing with research and development in a number of interdisciplinary

areas, including kinematics, dynamics, control, motion planning, sensing, programming, and
machine intelligence.
LAWS OF ROBOTICS
Robots were required to perform according to three principles known as “three
laws of Robotics”, which are as valid for real robots as they were for Asimov’s
robots, and they are:
1. A robot should not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a
human to be harmed.

2. A robot must obey orders given by humans except when that conflicts
with the First Law.

3. A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the
First or Second Law.

These are very general laws and apply even to other machines and
appliances. They are always taken care of in any robot design.
WHAT IS AND WHAT IS NOT A ROBOT
Japan Industrial Robot Association (JIRA) and the Japanese Industrial
Standards Committee defines the industrial robot at various levels as:

Manipulator: a machine that has functions similar to human upper limbs, and
moves the objects spatially.

Playback robot: a manipulator that is able to perform an operation by reading

off the memorized information for an operating sequence, which islearned
beforehand.

Intelligent robot: a robot that can determine its own behavior and conduct
through its functions of sense and recognition.
The British Robot Association (BRA) has defined the
industrial robot as:

“A reprogrammable device with minimum of four degrees of freedom

designed to both manipulate and transport parts, tools, or specialized
manufacturing implements through variable programmed motions for
performance of specific manufacturing task.”
The Robotics Industries Association (RIA) of USA
defines the robot as:

“A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to

move material through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks.”
The definition adopted by International Standards
Organization (ISO) and agreed upon by most of the
users and manufacturers is:

“An industrial robot is an automatic, servo-controlled, freely

programmable, multipurpose manipulator, with several areas, for the
handling of work pieces, tools, or special devices. Variably
programmed operations make the execution of a multiplicity of tasks
possible.”
The RIA definition lays emphasis on programmability,
whereas while the BRA qualifies minimum degrees of
freedom.

The JIRA definition is fragmented. Because of all this, there is

still confusion in distinguishing a robot from automation and
in describing functions of a robot.

To distinguish between a robot and automation, following

guidelines can be used.
For a machine to be called a robot, it must be able to respond to stimuli
based on the information received from the environment. The robot
must interpret the stimuli either passively or through active sensing to
bring about the changes required in its environment.

The decision-making, performance of tasks and so on, all are done as

defined in the programs taught to the robot. The functions of a robot
can be classified into three areas:

“Sensing” the environment by external sensors, for example, vision,

voice, touch, proximity and so on, “decision-making” based on the
information received from the sensors, and “performing” the task
decided.
PROGRESSIVE ADVANCEMENT IN ROBOTS
The growth in the capabilities of robots has been taking rapid
strides since the introduction of robots in the industry in early
1960s, but there is still a long way to go to obtain the super-
humanoid anthropomorphic robot depicted in fiction.

The growth of robots can be grouped into robot generations,

based on characteristic breakthroughs in robot’s capabilities.
These generations are overlapping and include futuristic
projections.
 First Generation
• The first generation robots are repeating, non servo, pick-
and-place, or point-to point kind.

• The technology for these is fully developed and at present

about 80% robots in use in the industry are of this kind.

• It is predicted that these will continue to be in use for a long

time.
 Second Generation
• The addition of sensing devices and enabling the robot to
alter its movements in response to sensory feedback
marked the beginning of second generation.

• These robots exhibit path-control capabilities. This

technological breakthrough came around 1980s and is yet
not mature.
 Third Generation
• The third generation is marked with
robots having human-like intelligence.

• The growth in computers led to high-

speed processing of information and, thus,
robots also acquired artificial intelligence,
self-learning, and conclusion-drawing
capabilities by past experiences.

• On-line computations and control, artificial vision, and active force/torque

interaction with the environment are the significant characteristics of these
robots. The technology is still in infancy and has to go a long way.
 Fourth Generation
• This is futuristic and may be a reality only during this
millennium.

• Prediction about its features is difficult, if not impossible.

• It may be a true android or an artificial biological robot or a

super humanoid capable of producing its own clones.

• This might provide for fifth and higher generation robots.

 ROBOT ANATOMY
• The manipulator or robotic arm has
many similarities to the human body.

• The mechanical structure of a robot is

like the skeleton in the human body.

• The robot anatomy is, therefore, the

The base, arm, wrist, and end-effector
forming the mechanical structure of a
study of skeleton of robot, that is, the
manipulator. physical construction of the
manipulator structure.
 • The mechanical structure of a
manipulator that consists of rigid
bodies (links) connected by means of
articulations (joints), is segmented into
an arm that ensures mobility and
reachability, a wrist that confers
orientation, and an end effector that
performs the required task.

The base, arm, wrist, and end-effector

forming the mechanical structure of a
• Most manipulators are mounted on a
manipulator. base fastened to the floor or on the
mobile platform of an autonomous
guided vehicle (AGV).
 Links • The mechanical structure of a robotic
manipulator is a mechanism, whose
members are rigid links or bars.

• A rigid link that can be connected, at

most, with two other links is referred to
as a binary link.
Two rigid binary links in free space
• Figure shows two rigid binary links, 1
and 2, each with two holes at the ends A,
B, and C, D, respectively to connect
with each other or to other links.
 • Two links are connected together by a joint.
By putting a pin through holes B and C of
links 1 and 2, an open kinematic chain is
formed as shown in Figure.
• The joint formed is called a pin joint also
known as a revolute or rotary joint.

• Relative rotary motion between the links is

An open kinematic chain formed by
possible and the two links are said to be
joining two links paired.

• In Figure links are represented by straight

lines and rotary joint by a small circle.
Joints and Joint Notation Scheme
•Many types of joints can be made between two links.
However, only two basic types are commonly used in
industrial robots. These are:

• Revolute (R) and

• Prismatic (P)

•The relative motion of the adjoining links of a joint is

either rotary or linear depending on the type of joint.
Revolute joint

It is sketched in Figure. The two

links are jointed by a pin (pivot)
about the axis of which the links
can rotate with respect to each
other.
Prismatic joint

• It is sketched in Figure. The two

links are so jointed that these can
slide (linearly move) with respect
to each other.

• Screw and nut (slow linear

motion of the nut), rack and
pinon are ways to implement
prismatic joints.
Other types of possible joints used
are: planar (one surface sliding
over another surface); cylindrical
(one link rotates about the other at
90° angle, Figure; and spherical
(one link can move with respect to
the other in three dimensions).
• Yet another variant of rotary joint is the
‘twist’ joint, where two links remain aligned
along a straight line but one turns (twists)
about the other around the link axis, Figure.

• At a joint, links are connected such that they

can be made to move relative to each other by
the actuators. A rotary joint allows a pure
rotation of one link relative to the connecting
link and prismatic joint allows a pure
translation of one link relative to the
connecting link relative to the connecting link
and prismatic joint allows a pure translation
of one link relative to the connecting link.
 • The kinematic chain formed by joining two links is
extended by connecting more links. To form a
manipulator, one end of the chain is connected to the
base or ground with a joint. Such a manipulator is an
open kinematic chain. The end effector is connected
to the free end of the last link, as illustrated in
Figure.

• Closed kinematic chains are used in special purpose

The base, arm, wrist, and end-
effector forming the mechanical manipulators, such as parallel manipulators, to create
structure of a manipulator certain kind of motion of the end-effector.

• The kinematic chain of the manipulator is

characterized by the degrees of freedom it has, and
the space its end-effector can sweep.
Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
 The number of independent movements that
an object can perform in a 3-D space is
called the number of degrees of freedom
(DOF). Thus, a rigid body free in space has
six degrees of freedom—three for position
and three for orientation. These six
Representation of six independent movements pictured in Figure
degrees of freedom with
respect to a coordinate are:
frame
 Note from the figure that
six independent variables
are required to specify
the location (position and
orientation) of an object
Representation of six
degrees of freedom with in 3-D space, that is, 2 x
3 = 6.
respect to a coordinate
frame
Nevertheless, in a 2-D space (a
plane), an object has 3-DOF—two
translator and one rotational. For
instance, link 1 and link 2 in Figure
have 3-DOF each.
• Consider an open kinematic chain of two links with revolute joints at A and B
(or C ), as shown in Figure. Here, the first link is connected to the ground by a
joint at A. Therefore, link 1 can only rotate about joint 1 (J ) with respect to
1

ground and contributes one independent variable (an angle), or in other words,
it contributes one degree of freedom. Link 2 can rotate about joint 2 (J ) with 2

respect to link 1, contributing another independent variable and so another

DOF.
• Thus, by induction, conclude that an open
kinematic chain with one end connected to
the ground by a joint and the farther end of
the last link free, has as many degrees of
freedom as the number of joints in the
chain. It is assumed that each joint has
A two-DOF planar manipulator–two links, only one DOF.
two joints
• The DOF is also equal to the number of links in the open kinematic chain. For
example, in Figure, the open kinematic chain manipulator with two DOF has
two links and two joints.
• The variable defining the motion of a link at
a joint is called a joint-link variable. Thus,
for an n-DOF manipulator n independent
joint-link variables are required to
completely specify the location (position
and orientation) of each link (and joint),
specifying the location of the end-effector
in space.

• Thus, for the two- link, in turn 2-DOF

manipulator, in Figure, two variables are
required to define location of end-point,
point D.
Required DOF in a Manipulator
• To position and orient a body freely in 3-D space, a manipulator with 6-DOF is required. Such a
manipulator is called a spatial manipulator. It has three joints for positioning and three for
orienting the end-effector.

• A manipulator with less than 6-DOF has constrained motion in 3-D space. There are situations
where five or even four joints (DOF) are enough to do the required job. There are many
industrial manipulators that have five or fewer DOF. These are useful for specific applications
that do not require 6-DOF. A planar manipulator can only sweep a 2-D space or a plane and
can have any number of degrees of freedom. For example, a planar manipulator with three
joints (3-DOF)— may be two for positioning and one for orientation —can only sweep a plane.

• Spatial manipulators with more than 6-DOF have surplus joints and are known as redundant
manipulators. The extra DOF may enhance the performance by adding to its dexterity.

• Dexterity implies that the manipulator can reach a subspace, which is obstructed by objects, by
the capability of going around these. However, redundant manipulators present complexities in
modelling and coordinate frame transformations and therefore in their programming and
control.
 • The DOF of a manipulator are
distributed into subassemblies of arm
and wrist.

• The arm is used for positioning the

end-effector in space and, hence, the
three positional DOF, as seen in Figure,
are provided to the arm.

• The remaining 3-DOF are provided in

the wrist, whose task is to orient the
Representation of six degrees of freedom with end-effector. The type and arrangement
respect to a coordinate frame
of joints in the arm and wrist can vary
considerably.