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PORE PRESSURE DISSIPATION
AFTER CONE PENETRATION
Mohsen M. Baligh
Jacques-Noel Levadoux
Sea Grant College Program

Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Report No. MITSG 80-.13

Index No. 80-313-Cim
April 1980
ABSTRACT
Deep quasi-static cone penetration in saturated soils

develops excess pore pressures. This report estimates the con-
solidation and permeability characteristics of fine grained
soils from measurements of the pore pressure decay that takes
place after cone penetration is interrupted.
Relatively new conical piezometers with a very rapid res-

ponse time are described. Linear consolidation analyses are
performed to investigate the importance of different factors
affecting pore pressure dissipation around cones: initial dis-
tribution of excess pore pressures, cone angle and location of
the porous stone, soil anisotropy and coupling between pore
pressures and total stresses.
A new economical and consistent method for estimating the

coefficients of consolidation and permeability is proposed'
The method is evaluated by means of extensive dissipation meas-
urements in two clay deposits. The predicted profiles provide
good agreement with laboratory data and full scale performance.
FOREWORD
A three-year research program entitled, "In Situ Evaluation
of Geotechnical Properties of Marine Sediments," sponsored pri-
marily by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
through its MIT Sea Grant Program, was initiated in July 1978
by the Constructed Facilities Division at MIT. Matching funds
for this research were provided by FUGRO, Inc., Consulting En-
gineers, and by Instituto Tecnologico Venezolano Del Petroleo.
The objective of this research is to provide the geotech-
nical designer with more reliable methods for estimating in situ
properties of marine sediments for foundation design.
The electric Dutch! cone penetrometer and the conical
piezometer probe represent a new generation of in situ testing
devices which are particularly valuable offshore, by combining
simplicity, consistency, and economy.
Previous efforts at MIT concentrated on:
1. Evaluating the capability of cone penetration in
establishing stratification, determining variability,
and performing soil identification Baligh et al, 1980!,
2. Estimating the undrained shear strength of clays Ba-
ligh et al, 1978; Baligh and Vivatrat, 1979!.
This report investigates the pore pressure decay that takes
place after interrupting cone penetration in order to estimate

the coefficients of consolidation and permeability of fine
grained soils.
AC KNOWLE DGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to their MIT colleagues who

contributed to the success of this research: Charles C.
Ladd, Professor; Dr, Robert T. Martin, Senior Research
Associate; Dr. Amr Azzouz, Research Associate; Jack Germaine,
Research Assistant.
The authors are especially indebted to Dr. A. Azzouz
for invaluable help in preparing the final manuscript.
This report describes the results of research done
as a part of the MIT Sea Grant College Program with support
from the Office of Sea Grant in the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce,
through grant number NA79AA-D-00101, and from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The U.S. Government
is authorized to produce and distribute reprints for
governmental purposes notwithstanding any copyright
notation that may appear herein.
RELATED SEA GRANT REPORTS
MIT/Marine Industry Collegium, RISKS AND COSTS FOR OCEAN

STRUCTURES: OPPORTUNITY BRIEF 117. MITSG 79-18.
l3 pp. $3.50.
MIT/Marine Industry Collegium. TOWARDS IMPROVED TECHNIQUES

FOR PREDICTING SOIL STRENGTH: OPPORTUNITY BRIEF 416.
MITSG 79-17. 19 pp. $3.50.
Baligh, Mohsen M., vitoon vivatrat and charles c. Ladd.

EXPLORATION AND EVAIUATION OF ENGINEERING PROPERTIES FOR
FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE STRUCTURES. MITSG 79-8
268 pp. $8.00.
Chryssostomidis, Marjorie. OFFSHORE PETROLEUM ENGINEERING:

A BIBLIOGRAPHIC GUIDE TO PUBLICATIONS AND INFORMATION
SOURCES. MITSG 78-5. 366 pp. $45.00.
The Sea Grant Marine Resources Information Center

maintains an inventory of technical publications. We invite
orders and inquiries to:
Marine Resources Information Center

MIT Sea Grant College Program
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Building E38-302
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
17! 253-5944
TABLE OF CONTENT S
Page
ABSTRACT. ~' ~ '~ ~ ~ 2
FOREWORD.......... ~~ 3
ACKNOWLEDGENZNTS ~~~t ~0 ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~4~~~ '~ 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS........... ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~ 5
LIST OF TABLES....................... 92 ~~ t ~ ~ ~4 ~~ ~~ ~~ 10
LIST OF FIGURES................ ~~ ll
CHAPTER l: INTRODUCTION.. ~ ..- ~ -. ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ 16
The Need for Soil Classification...
1.2 Coarse Grained Soils...... 17
1.3 Fine Grained Soils................. .-.-- 19
1.3.1 Laboratory Tests..... 19
1.3.2 In Situ Tests.ee.....e.ee.. 21
1.4 Summary: State of Practice.............. 28
Research Objectives.... es ~~~~o 30
1.6 Report Organization............ 31
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND......... ~ . ~ ............. ~ ..... 35
2.1 Conical Piezometers 35
2.2 Typical Records..... 38
2.2.1 Steady Penetration Records............... 38
2.2.2 Dissipation Records 39
2.3 Interpretation of Dissipation Records.... 42
2.3.1 Linear Consolidation.... 44
2.3.2 Nonlinear Soil Behavior. . .. ......-... 46
2.3.3 Soil Remolding.. 47
2 ' 3.4 Soil Anisotropy.......................... 49

2.4 Existing Methods
2.5 Summary ~4 ~~~~~~~~ tt ~~~~ ~~ 56
CHAPTER 3: INITIAL EXCESS PORE PRESSURES.............. 69
3.1 Difficulties of Estimating Penetration

Pore Pressures.... 69
3.1.1 Theoretical Predictions.. 69
3.1.2 Measurements + ~ ~ ~a ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 70
3.2 Importance of Initial Excess Pore

Pressures ~ ~o ~~ ~~ ~~ 74
3.3 Typical Initial Distributions. 81
3.4 Proposed Penetration Pore Pressures........ 84

3.4.1 The Strain Path Method.... ~ ~.... ~ .......... 84
3.4.2 The Strain Path Method in Cone

Penetration ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ 85
3.4.3 Predictions of Penetration Pore Pressures.. 88
3.4.4 Comparison with Measurements 89
3.5 Conclusions ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ 93
CHAPTER 4: EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON PORE

PRESSUREDISSIPATION AROUNDCONES.......... 117
4 ~1 Introduction . 117
4.2 Uncoupled Two-Dimensional Solutions........ 118

Effect of Anisotropy 124
4.3
4.4 Effect of Linear Coupling..........,....... 125

4.4.1 Finite Element Program CONSOL. 126
4 ' 4.2 Results of Consolidation Analyses.......... 128
4. 5 Effects of Soil Variability and/or Errors

in Measurements 131
Summary and Conclusions 134

4.6
CHAPTER 5: EVALUATION OF DISSIPATION SOLUTIONS IN

BOSTON BLUE CLAY 150
5.1 Introduction.................-.--- --- ..- 150
5.2 Site Description.... 151
5.2.1 G eology.. ~~ ~~~t ~~s~ e~ ~~~~ t~ ~~ ~~~~ e 151
5.2 ' 2 Soil Conditions at the Test Site.......... 152
5.2.3 Undrained Shear Strength......... ~ ........ 153
5.2.4 Cone Penetration Data................. ~ ~ ~~ 155
5 ' 2.5 In Situ Static Pore Pressures. 155
5 ' 2 ' 6 Pressuremeter Results 156
5.2.7 Clay Compressibility.......... ~ ....... ~ ... 156
5 ' 3 Evaluation of Predictions: Effect of

Cone Angle and Porous Stone Locations . ~ ... 157
5.3.1 Dissipation at. Mid-Height of an 18' Cone.. 158
5.3.2 Effect of Stone Location.................. 159
5.3.3 Effect of Cone Angle~ ...... 162
5.3.4 Summary of Comparisons................... ~ 162
5.4 Coefficient of Consolidation Profiles..... 164
5.4.1 18' Piezometer Probe with Measurements

at Mid-Cone 166
5.4.2 18' Piezometer Probe with Stone at Tip.... 167

5.4.3 60' Piezometer Probe with Stone at Tip.... 168
Comparison with Laboratory Measurements
and Field Performance.......... .......... 169
5.6 Coefficient of Permeability 172
5.6.1 Mechanism and Simplificat.ions............ 172
5.6.2 Coefficient of Permeability.-- ...... 175
5.7 Discussion of Clay Compressibility During

Dissipation... ~ ....... ~ ..... ~ ~ ~ ~- 177
5.7.1 The Lower BBC Below 75 feet............... 178
5.7.2 The Upper BBC Between 40 and 75 feet...... 180

5.8 Discussion of Probe Designs ~ ~ ~ ~ e 182
5.9 Summary and Conclusions.. ......... ... 183
CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDED INTERPRETATION METHOD.......... 223
6.1 Introduction 223
6.2 Prediction Method.. ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ 223
6.2.1 Normalized Dissipation Curves.... ~ ......... 224
6.2.2 Choice of Records.. 224
6.2.3 Applicability of Predictions 225
6.2.4 Evaluation of ch probe!.................... 226

6.2.5 Prediction of kh probe! 227
6.2 ~6 Prediction of c NC! 228

v
6.2.7 Assimilation of RR probe! data in

different soils 229
6.3 Practical Considerations........ ~ ~.... ~ .... 230
6.3.1. Performance of the Piezometer Probe........ 230
6.3.2 Static Pore Pressure 231
6.3.3 Dissipation Time... ~~~................. ~... 232
6.4 Application of the Prediction Nethod

to a Varved Clay Deposit.... ~ ~...... ~ ~..,.. 233
6.4.1 Static Pore Pressure 234
6.4.2 Normalized Dissipation Records............. 234
6.4.3 Applicability of the Prediction Nethod.....234

6.4.4 Predicted Profile of ch probe! . 235
6.4.5 Comparison of Predicted and Measured

Permeabilities 237
6.4.6 Comparison of Predicted and Measured

Coefficients of Consolidation in the
Virgin Range...............................238
6.5 Summary and Conclusions.......... ...,.....239
CHAPTRR 7: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS........ ..255
REFERENCES................. ~~~~~ ~~~~a 269
APPENDIX A DISSIPATION DATA IN BOSTON BLUR CLAY

SAUGVS, MASS........ ..................,....278
APPENDIX B DISSIPATION DATA IN CONNECTICUT VALLEY

VARVED CLAY: AMHERST, MASS..
10
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page
Existing in situ permeability testing methods 33
2.1 Plane strain undrained shear strength of six

normally consolidated clays in different
modes of failure 57
3.1 Summary of existing solutions for cylindrical

and spherical cavity expansion
3.2 Summary of case histories where excess pore

pressures were measured during pile installa-
97
tion in clay
3.3 Comparison of stress path and strain path

98
methods
4.1 Time steps used in finite element consolida-

137
tion analyses
5.1 Recommended time factors for predicting the

horizontal coefficient of consolidation from
dissipation records 188
Evaluation of different probe designs 189

5.2
6.1 Recommended time factors for predicting hori-

zontal coefficient of consolidation from dis-
sipation records 242
6 ~2 Empirical correlations and typical properties

of clays 243
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title ~acae
Typical permeability of soils
2.1 Conical piezometer probes used at MIT

58
2.2 Piezometer response in a pressurized water bath 59
2.3 Torstensson's piezometer probe 60
2.4 Typical pore pressures recorded at the tip of an

18 conical probe during penetration in clay 61
2.5 Cone penetration in soil stratification and

identification 62
2.6 Typical dissipation records after interrupting

steady cone penetration in clay 63
2.7 Typical normalized dissipation curves 64
2.8 Effect of undrained shear and creep on the corn-

pressibility of Atchafalaya clay
2.9 Effect of overconsolidation on the normalized

shear induced pore pressure in plane strain com-
pression tests on resedimented Boston Blue Clay 66
2.10 Pore pressure dissipation around spherical and

cylindrical pore pressure probes predicted by
Torstensson, 1977 67
2. 11 Laboratory and field measurements of the secant

shear modulus, Gs, of Boston Blue Clay as a func-
tion of strain level 68
3.1 Excess pore pressures during penetration of two 99

adjacent conical probes
3.2 Pore pressure measurements during pile installa-

tion in champlain clay 101
3.3 Initial normalized excess pore pressures for one-

dimensional consolidation analyses 102
3.4 Effect of initial excess pore pressure distribu-

tion on dissipation around an impervious cylinder
X=20! 103
3.5 Effect of cavity type and initial distribution of

excess pore pressures on dissipation at the
cavity wall 104
12
3.6 Dissipation curves at. the wall of a cylindrical

cavity; linear initial pore pressure distribution j05
3.7 Dissipation curves at the wall of a cylindrical

cavity; logarithmic initial pore pressure distri-
bution 106
3.8 Excess pore pressure measurements due to pile in-

stallation in clays 107
3.9 Application of the strain path method to deep

steady cone penetration in clays 109
3. 10 Predicted deformation pattern around a 60 cone

assuming no shearing resistance of the soil 110
3.11 Strain paths of selected elements during penetra-

tion of a 60' cone
3. 12 Predicted deviatoric stress path during steady

penetration of a 60' cone in normally consolidated
Boston Blue Clay 112
3. 13 Predicted shear induced pore pressures during

steady cone penetration in normally consolidated.
Boston Blue Clay 8 and 60' tips! 113
3. 14 Predicted excess pore pressures during steady cone

penetration in normally consolidated Boston Blue
Clay 8' and 60' tips! 114
3. 15 Predicted vs. measured normalized excess pore

pressures along the face and shaft of 18' and
60' cones during steady penetration in Boston Blue 115
Clay
3.16 Predicted vs. measured distribution of normalized

excess pore pressures during penetration in clays 116
4.1 Detailed finite element mesh 138
4 ' 2 Check on numerical solutions 139
4.3 Contours of excess pore pressures during uncoupled

consolidation around an 18' cone in a linear iso-
tropic material 140
4.4 Dissipation curves for an 18' cone according to

linear isotropic uncoupled solutions 141
4.5 Contours of excess pore pressures during uncoupled

consolidation around a 60' cone in a linear iso-
tropic material 142
4.6 Dissipation curves for a 60' cone according to
linear isotropic uncoupled solutions 143
4.7 Effect of anisotropy on the contours of excess

pore pressures during uncoupled consolidation
around an 18' cone T=c t/R ! 144
h
4.8 Effect of anisotropy on dissipation curves for

an 18' cone uncoupled linear analysis! 145
4 ~9 Coarse finite element mesh 146
4.10 Effect of coupling on the predicted contours of

excess pore pressures during isotropic consoli-
dation around an 18 cone 147
4.11 Effect of linear coupling on dissipation curves

for an 18' tip linear isotropic analyses! 148
4. 12 Effect of errors in static and penetration pore

pressures on dissipation curves at mid-cone of an
18' piezometer probe 149
5.l Location map of Saugus 7-95 embankment 190
5.2 Cross section of Station 246 at Saugus I-95 em-

bankment 191
5.3 Soil Profile, index properties and stress history

at the Saugus site 192
5 ' 4 Undrained shear strength at the Saugus site 193
5.5 Cone resistance and penetration pore pressures

5.6 In situ stresses at the Saugus site 195
5.7 Limit pressure measurements at the Saugus site 196
5.8 Ratio of peak to ultimate strengths measured by

pressuremeter tests at the Saugus site 197
5.9 Typical compressibility of the upper and lower

Boston Blue Clay at the Saugus site CRSC tests! 198
5.10 Predicted vs. measured. dissipation curves at

mid-height of an 18' conical probe below 60 ft.
5. 11 Evaluation of linear uncoupled dissipation pre-

dections for an 18' conical probe in Boston Blue
Clay OCR<2! 200
14
5. 12 Evaluation of linear uncoupled dissipation pre-

dictions for a 60' conical probe in Boston Blue
Clay OCR! 201
5 ~ 13 Predicted profile of ch in BBC Saugus, Station

246!: 18' mid-height, 20% dissipation 202
5. 14 Predicted profile of ch in BBC Saugus, Station

246!: 18' rnid-height, 40% dissipation 203

246!: 18 mid-height, 50% diss ipation 204
5.16 Predicted profile of ch in BBC Saugus,Station

246!: 18' rnid-height, 60% dissipation 205
5.17 Predicted profile of ch in BBC Saugus, Station

246!: 18' mid-height, 80% dissipation 206
5. 18 Predicted profile of ch in BBC Saugus,Station

246!: 18' tip, 20% dissipation

246!: 18' tip, 40% dissipation 208
5.20 Predicted profile of ch in BBC Saugus, Station



246!= 18 tip, 80% dissipation 211
5 23 Predicted profile of ch in BBC Saugus, Station


246!: 60 tip, 40% dissipation 213

246!: 60 tip, 50% dissipation


5.28 Summaryof predicted ch probe! prof iles in Boston

Blue Clay: Saugus site 217
5. 29 Comparison of predicted and measured coefficients

of consolidation in Boston Blue Clay 218
5. 30 Comparison between estimated and measured coef- 219
ficients of permeability in Boston Blue Clay
5.31 Permeability data from sensitivity tests along
the I-95 embankment in Saugus, Mass. 220
5.32 Backfigured compressibility of the lower Boston

Blue Clay from dissipation analyses 221
5. 33 Backfigured compressibility of the upper Boston

Blue Clay from dissipation analyses 222
6. l Recommended dissipation curves for predicting

ch probe! 244
6.2 Graphical method of estimating kh and c NC! from

ch probe! 245
6.3 Soil conditions at the Amherst, Mass. testing site 246
6.4 SHANSEP and field vane strength profiles for the

Arnherst, Mass. testing site 247
6.5 Profile of cone resistance, q, in Connecticut

Valley Varved Clay at Amherst, Mass. 248
6.6 Evaluation of predicted dissipation curves for

a 60 cone 249
6.7 Evaluation of predicted dissipation curves for

18' and 60 cones assuming c h=O.l cm /sec. 250
6.8 Results of 18' conical probes at the Amherst site 251
6.9 Results of 60' conical probes at the Amherst Site 252
6. 10 Comparison of predicted and measured coefficients

of permeability at the Amherst site 253
6.ll Comparison of predicted and measured coefficients

of consolidation at the Arnherst site 254
l6
CHAPTER l
INTRODUCTION
l.l THE NEED FOR SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Geotechnical engineers classify soils into coarse and
fine grained materials for convenience and in order to identify

possible foundation problems, select adequate approaches and
techniques to evaluate important design parameters and, if
needed, plan construction and field monitoring programs. Coarse

grained soils consist of gravels and sands and, are generally
considered "good" foundation and construction materials with
few exceptions e.g. natural deposits of loose uniform sands.
Fine grained soils include silts and clays and, deserve more
careful consideration by the engineer because of their different
and often more adversely complicated behavior. However, the most
important characteristic of soils requiring classification of

coarse and fine grained materials into separate categories is
their very different drainage behavior i.e. their permeabilities.
The dominating effect of permeability in geotechnical engineering
derives from its very large variation from one soil to another
or, for a given soil, depending on its void ratio and possible
micro or macrostructure, Fig. l.l.
-4
Coarse grained soils have a high permeability, k> l0 cm/sec,
quickly dissipate excess pore water pressures and hence reach
steady flow conditions very rapidly. Therefore, in most geotechnical
problems, the relevant stress-strain-strength behavior of coarse
17
grained soils corresponds to "drained" conditions and is little

affected by the presence of water. Partial or no drainage con-
ditions occur in limited instances e.g. soil dynamics. Particle
migration and erosion problems caused by steady fluid flow are
important exceptions.
On the other hand, geotechnical problems associated with
fine grained soils are intimately related to "excess" pore water
pressures above steady state! that are basically governed by

the drainage conditions. Undrained, partially drained or fully
drained situations take place depending on the rate of load
application, the drainage path i.e. the linear scale of the

problem!, the compressibility of the soil and, most importantly,
its permeability.
Therefore, estimates of the permeability, k, are essential
in geotechnical engineering. The accuracy of these estimates

varies with the problem at hand and depends on existing measure-
ment methods.
l. 2 COARSE GRAINED SOILS
In most applications, the permeability of gravel is so high

k > 1 cm/sec! that accurate estimates of k are rarely ~ceded.
In cases where excessive seepage losses from reservoirs are
expected or when large volumes of water must be pumped from

excavations and cuts, engineering judgement and trial and error
metnods represent the best available tools.

18
-4
In sands, reasonable estimates of permeability 0 cm/sec
k < 1 cm/sec! can be obtained within an order of magnitude!
fromcorrelations with the effective grain size* D 0 determined
from laboratory particle size analyses on disturbed samples
Loudon, 1952; WES, 1956; Mansur and Kaufman, 1962; Ahmad et al,
1975, IQAVFACDN 7, 1971!. More accurate estimates of k in natural
sand deposits are difficult to obtain by means of direct laboratory

measurements because of severe problems associated with "undisturbed"
sampling. However, laboratory permeability tests can provide data

on the possible ranges of in situ permeability of natural deposits
and valuable information when sands are used as construction mate-
rials under controlled conditions e.g. in embankments, dams, etc.
In situ permeability tests provide more reliable methods for

determining k in the field. Milligan 975! reviews existing
in situ tests, Table 1.1, and describes the accuracy of determining

k in sands by "... discrepancies between construction observations
of permeability, between bore hole tests in situ and laboratory

tests can vary by an order of magnitude. Where the deposits are
not uniform and the stratigraphy is erratic, ..., such discrep-

ancies are increased." and concludes that "... existing methods
used with discretion and judgement can give workable answers
probably to within one order of magnitude." for deposits with

-5
k> 10 cm/sec.
D10 is the particle size at which 10% of the soil weight

is finer. Because of its correlation to k, the effective grain
size D10 is probably the most useful parameter for th= designer!
obtained from extensive index and even engineering! tests
routinely performed in the laboratory on natural sand deposits.
19
1.3 FINE GRAINED SOILS
The distinction between silts and clays based on particle
size is convenient because silts have generally higher permeabil-

ities 0 <k < 10 cm/sec, say! than clays, Fig. 1.1. How-
ever, most natural fine grained deposits consist of silt and
clay particle sizes and very rarely do "clays" consist of 100%
3
particles less than 2x 10 mm in diameter.
Geotechnical problems of interest. involving fine grained
soils almost always require consideration of unsteady water
flow or consolidation! before steady conditions are reached.
Consolidation rates are governed bv the coefficient. of consoli-
dation* cv or ch!
h v' that depends
on soil compressibility m
say! in addition to soil permeability.
1.3.1 Laborator Tests
In contrast to coarse grained soils, adequate "undisturbed"

samples of fine grained soils can be routinely obtained for lab-
oratory testing by meansof existing drilling and sampling equip-
ment.** Iaboratory tests are designed to minimize interpretation
difficulties caused. by the complicated behavior of soils! by
imposing well defined boundary conditions leading to simple
flow, stress and strain distributions throughout the sample.
Goodquality laboratory testing can be expensive, time consuming
and generally covers a very small fraction of the foundation
soil. Nost importantly, however, laboratory test results require
judgementbefore application to f ield situations in order to account
c = k/m y , m= coefficient of volume change.

vv ld v
**Offshore work requires special precautions; see Baligh and

Vivatrat, 1979.
20
for the differences betweenthe behavior of samplesand that

of the soil massin situ. Thesedifferences are principally
caused by sample disturbance, stress and environmental histories
and size effects.
Uniform clays have low coefficients of permeability, k,

andconsolidation, cv . However,natural deposits often develop
a micro or macrostructure during deposition and their subsequent
stress and environmental history. Silt and sand dustings, seams,
laminations, clusters or thin layers on bedding planes, in addition
to discontinuities in the form of cracks, fissures, slip planes,
fractures and passages caused by desiccation. infiltration and
organic action can drastically increase the masspermeability
and cause significant anisotropy especially if these features
are continuous and interconnected. Laboratory measurements of
k and cVin well-structured clays can lead to serious difficulties
because
1. Results dependon sample size Roweand Harden, 1966;

Rowe, 1972!.
2. Field values can be underpredicted by several orders

of magnitude Grisak and Cherry, 1975; Grisak, 197~;
Rowe, 1972! .
Therefore, laboratory measurements of k and c on conventional

v
size samples of structured fine grained soils are of doubtful

value in predicting field performance.
On the other hand, laboratory tests on relatively unstructured

clays can provide acceptable predictions of cVand k. Using
superior sampling and testing equipment and techniques together
21
with the best understanding of soil behavior and experience in
interpreting test results, field values of cvand k can probably

be predicted within a factor of two but can be in error by a
factor of 10 Bishop and Al-Dhahir, 1970!. Furthermore, even
under these ideal conditions, laboratory tests performed on
samples obtained at selected depths will typically showa sig-

nificant scatter that often prevents good estimates of profiles
variation with depth! to be achieved.
1.3.2 In Situ Tests
In situ tests avoid problems associated with sample size
and sample disturbance but lack the simple laboratory testing

conditions and hence are more difficult to interpret. Compared
to coarse grained soils, in situ tests in fine grained materials

require a much longer time to reach steady state conditions*
because of the lower permeability! and can cause significant
changes in soil properties because of the higher compressibil-
ity!. Theoretically, the longer time required for excess pore
pressure dissipation offers the advantage of measuring ch in
addition to k obtained from steady state conditions*!. How-
h
ever, from a practical standpoint, the low permeability and

high compressibility of fine grained soils represent a major
disadvantage because
l. Reliable "large scale" tests used in granular media,
e.g., well pumping tests, cannot be applied to fine

grained soils, Table 1.1.
2. Performance and interpretation of in situ tests re-
quire special equipment and skill and cannot be per-

formed under the severe conditions encountered offshore.
22
Available in situ permeability and/or consolidation tests
in clays utilize hydraulic piezometers, Table 1.1, of relatively

small linear dimension in order to minimize testing time. Piezo-
meters commonly used are installed by l! sinking a borehole to
the required depth, placing a piezometer tip in a pocket of sand

and then sealing and back filling Casagrande, 1946!; and 2!
pushing a conical piezameter tip into softer soils Bjerrum and
Johannessen, l96l! or into a preformed borehole without the use

of a sand pocket. Two types of tests can be performed: 1!
Constant head tests where the water pressure in the piezometer
is fixed and the discharge is measured; and, 2! Variable head
tests where the water pressure in a standpipe is recorded as
it equilibrates with time. In each type of test, the piezometer
pressure can be raised to cause outflow of water accompanied by
swelling or can be lowered to cause inflow of water and soil
compression. Outflow tests are more common because they are
easier to perform and avoid problems associated with the appli-

cation of suction.
The major difficulties encountered in conducting in situ

tests in fine grained soils are:
1! Disturbance and smear effects due to installation.
Piezometer installation invariably causes changes in stresses
and properties of the surrounding soils. As in the case of
sample disturbance in laboratory testing, the usefulness of the
in situ permeability/consolidation test results depends on the
severity of these changes.

23
Installation causes changes in total stresses and distortions
undrained shearing! of the soil surrounding the piezometer and
hence develops excess pore pressures that can confuse interpre-
tation of tests performed shortly after installation. Theoretically,
piezometers installed by carefully controlled boring can reduce
the size of the sheared disturbed! volume of soil as compared to
piezometers installed by pushing but require a very careful
monitoring of water pressures in the borehole. Accurate estimates
of the waiting time required for installation excess pore pressures
to dissipate and the starting of the permeability test is diffi-
cult to predict accurately and depends on the size diameter! of
the piezometer, the soil type, the severity of disturbance, etc.
Milligan 97S! notes that a period of as much as 20 to 30 days
is needed for small diameter tips between installation and testing.
After this consolidation period, serious questions remain as to
whether soil stresses and properties around the piezometer are
comparable to the virgin soil to be tested' Soil stresses after
consolidation are difficult to estimate or measure. Experimental
observations indicate that significant changes in properties can
take place in the so-called smear zone near the piezometer.
Accurate estimates of the size and properties of this severely
disturbed smear zone are not available. However, rough estimates
based. on simple spherical solutions Gibson, 1966! indicate that
smear can significantly affect test results and is expected to
be more important in clays with well-defined macrostructure i.e.
silt layering, silt filled fissures, organic inclusions, etc.
Wilkinson, 1968!.
24
2! Hydraulic fracturing during permeability testing.

An increase in pore pressures beyond a certain fraction of
the effective stresses in the soil causes a significant in-
crease in its mass permeability due to soil hydraulic fracture.

Therefore, increments of heads imposed during outflow in situ
permeability tests must be small and carefully controlled in
order to avoid fracturing of the soil and overpredicting its

permeability Bjerrum et al, 1972!.
3! Response time and hardware.
Results of in situ permeability tests are very sensitive to

the hardware and the testing procedures used. The most
important and very difficult task consists of minimizing the

flexibility of the system piezometer tip, leads, measuring
devices, etc.! caused by volume compressibility of the dif-
ferent components and, in particular, by the entrapped air

in order to reduce the time-lag in measurements Hvorslev,
1951, Bishop and Henkel, 1962; Whitman et al, 1961; Kallstenius
and Wallgren, 1956; Penman, 1961, Bishop et al, 1964, wilkinson,

1968!. Serious additional problems can result from leaks, low
permeability piezometers in relatively pervious soils Gibson,
1966!, pressure losses in the leads and, in constant head tests,

the difficulties of maintaining accurate constant small pres-
sures for long periods of time.
4! Interpretation of test results.
Gibson 963! developed an interpretation method for variable
head tests conducted by means of a spherical piezometer in an

25
isotropic soil based on uncoupled» linear closed-form solutions.

Results of these spherically symmetric one-dimensional! solu-
tions are identical to relations obtained earlier by de Jong
953! who introduced coupling according to Biot's 941! theory
which assumes the soil skeleton behaves as a linear elastic iso-
tropic material. Extensions of these solutions to develop in-

terpretation methods for more realistic conditions of cylindri-
cal piezometers in anisotropic non linear soils can be obtained
by existing numerical methods. However, efforts in this direc-
tion were apparently curtailed by the non monotonic effective
stress loading conditions imposed by variable head tests. Gib-
son 963! correctly points out that in falling or rising! head
tests the soi1 surrounding the piezometer first expands or con-
tracts!, and then contracts or expands!, before excess pore
pressures ultimately vanish. Since the compressibility of a

clay invariably differs from its swelling characteristics, lin-
ear analyses will predict some"average" coefficient of consoli-
dation that is difficult to evaluate. Nonlinear analyses can
resolve this problem but interpretation methods based on non-

linear solutions require additional soil parameters to be known
a priori and hence add to the uncertainties in interpreting test

results. This is, however, generally true in soil mechanics
testing where the more realistic the modelling of soil behavior,
the more sophisticated and complicated! the analysis required,
and more importantly, the larger the number of soil parameters
needed to interpret test results.
i.e., pore pressures are not affected by soil skeleton

deformations and hence are independent of total stresses.
26
Compared to falling head tests, constant head tests

are more difficult to conduct* but offer two advantages:
a! A steady state is ultimately reached. Theoretically,
this means that. direct permeability measurements can be
obtained without the added complications of consolidation
solutions. However, in order to reach a steady state, a

very long testing time is often required under difficult
field conditions. In practice, measurements are conducted

for a few hours and extrapolated to infinite times by means
of consolidation solutions. b! Assuming that no significant
changes in total stresses occur during a constant head test,
no reversals in ef f ective stresses~* take place and hence linear
solutions can be used with less uncertainties in interpreting

test results.
Gibson 963! developed the necessary linear uncoupled

solutio~s for interpreting constant head tests for spherical
piezometers in an isotropic soil. Wilkinson 968! extended
these solutions to the more practical case of a cylindrical

piezometer in an anisotropic soil and included non-linear
permeability and compressibility relationships. Jezequel and

Mieussens 975!, and Al-Dhahir et al 970! describe useful
interpretation details e.g. plots of test results, etc.! to
avoid difficulties and to obtain more reliable predictions.
Gibson 970! suggests the modification of his 963! theory

to include shear-induced pore pressures'
Because of the better controls needed.

**Nore precisely, reversals in effective stress rates.
27
Surprisingly, few comprehensive studies were conducted in

the USA to evaluate in situ permeability testing in fine grained
soils. Most of the published data were obtained in Europe Bish-

op and Al-Dhahir, 1970; Al-Dhahir et al, 1970; Rove, 1968 and 1972;
Wilkinson et al, 1970; and Jezequal and Mieussens, 1975! from
onshore sites and indicate that:
1! Constant head tests are preferred to variable head

tests because of the reduced interpretation uncertain-
ties. However, few variable head tests were thorough-
ly evaluated Rowe, 1968!.

2! Estimates of the coefficient of consolidation c V or ch!
from constant head in situ tests are not very reliable
and are sensitive to the test variables, e.g., changes
in the stress history of the soil around piezometers

due to installation, de-airing, previous test runs, etc.
3! Good estimates of in situ permeability kh! can be ob-

tained by extrapolating constant head test results on
the basis of linear consolidation solutions. However,
it is important to note that, contrary to c,v direct

evaluation of kh by meansof full scale performance
data requires estimates of the soil compressibility
m , say! and possibly kh/k ! as well. In most cases,
laboratory data of m and kh/k were used with judgement
to achieve good agreements
Attempts by the authors to evaluate extensive in situ per-

meability tests in two soft clay deposits using regular piezo-
meters of the Casagrande type bored! and the Geonor type
pushed! installed and tested according to the standard
28
U.S. practice, indicated that:
1! Estimates of the coefficients of permeability and
consolidation from constant head tests exhibited
considerable scatter two orders of magnitude or

more! above that expected due to inherent soil
variability.
2! Because of excessive scatter, constant head tests
did not prove superior to falling head tests."
3! Both types of in situ tests added very little useful
information to laboratory test results for ernbankrnent
design.
In conclusion, the successful performance and interpreta-
tion of in situ permeability tests in fine grained soils re-
quires considerable skill and experience. The current average
U.S. practice of installing piezometers and conducting in situ
permeability tests is believed to be well below acceptable levels.
This might explain their absence from routine site investigations

even onshore! .
1.4 SUMMARY: STATE OF PRACTICE
l. Estimates of the permeability k! and/or the consolida-
tion characteristics of soils is important in most geotechnical

problems.
2. Most practical situations involving coarse grained

-4
soils gravels and sands; k> 10 cm/sec! impose "drained"
conditions.
*
An approximate theory for cylindrical piezorneters had
to be developed for falling head tests.
29
3. The permeability of gravels is often too large

k !l cm/sec! such that good estimates of k are rarely
needed.
4. The permeability of natural sand deposits can be
estimated from correlations with the effective grain size,
Dlo, obtainedfromparticle size analyseson disturbedsamples.

Improved estimates of in situ k cannot usually be obtained
from laboratory tests because of limitations of existing
sampling capabilities. In situ permeability tests can provide
more reliable estimates of k, especially in non uniform deposits,
but errors within an order of magnitude are not uncommon. There-
fore, considerable judgement and local experience are required

in utilizing sand permeability data in practice.
5. Problems of interest involving fine grained soils
silts and clays! cause significant excess pore pressures and

hence require estimates of the coefficient of consolidation
c V or c h! o f the soil.
6. Laboratory measurements of k and cv in "structured"
fine grained soils can be several orders of magnitude lower
than field values and thus have a very limited use in designs
In relatively structureless clays, the most experienced engineer

using the best laboratory testing equipment and procedures can,
at best, predict field values of k and c Vwithin a factor of
two or three. However, the average geotechnical engineer using
routine sampling and testing methods can probably estimate k and

c within a factor of five to ten from laboratory measurements.
V
30
7. Reliable in situ tests in fine grained soils are

time consumingandrequire considerableskill andexperience
abovethe current averageU.S. practice. Underideal conditions,
useful permeability data can be obtained from onshore in situ tests.
However,direct measurements
of the moreimportant. coefficient
of consolidation, c , are not sufficiently reliable to provide
muchadditional information to laboratory data. Offshore in situ
permeability tests do not exist.
l.5 RZSEARCH OBJECTIVES
This research is aimed at providing the geotechnical

designerwith morereliable andeconomical
methods
for estimating
the in situ consolidation and/or permeability characteristics
of fine grainedsoils. This is achievedby analyzingthe pore
pressuredecaythat takes place after interruption of steady
penetration by conical piezometerprobeshavinga very rapid
response time.
The proposedmethodis economicaland provides consis-.

tent* profiles of coefficients of consolidationandpermeability.
Theseprofiles cannotbe obtainedby existing laboratory and in
situ tests conductedat discrete, widely spacedlocations and
are especially valuable to:
a! inage layers in consolidation, excavation,

earth pressureandtunnelingproblems,dewateringandgrouting
operations; anddamfoundationsanalyses uplift pressures,
erosion and piping!,
*repeatable
31
b! perform more accurate consolidatio~ anal ses for
application in predicting settlement rates, monitoring earth
structures, designing preloading surcharge and vertical sand
drains, and;
c! aid for decision making in foundation en ineerin
such as selecting adequate dewatering methods and pressure
relief, planning of long term instrumentation programs,
tunnelling operations, etc...
1 . 6 REPORT ORGANI ZATION
meters with a very rapid response time used in this re-
search are described, the difficulties associated with the
interpretation of pore pressure decay around cones are dis-
cussed and existing methods are reviewed.
steady cone penetration because they provide the initial dis-

tribution required for dissipation studies. The importance
of penetration pore pressures on consolidation results is il-
lustrated by means of a parametric one-dimensional study.
Penetration vore pressures obtained by the "strain path

method" Baligh, 197'! using soil parameters appropriate
to normally consolidated Boston Blue Clay are presented and com-
pared to field measurements in BBC and other clays.

32
ical consolidation analyses around conical probes based on the
estimated initial distribution of pore pressures Chapter 3! in
order to evaluate the effects of: the location of the porous
stone on the cone or the shaft behind it!, the cone angle, soil
anisotropy, coupling, the mesh size, the time increments, and
the errors in the estimated initial and hydrostatic final!
pore pressures.
tensive in situ dissipation measurements around cones in BBC;
investigates the effects of various practical factors on the
reliability of the estimated profiles of the coefficients of
consolidation and permeability, e.g., cone angle, porous stone
location, degree of dissipation; and compares the estimated co-
efficients of consolidation and permeability with laboratory
measurements and field performance data.
Chapter 6 recommends procedures to estimate the coefficients
of consolidation and permeability from dissipation records, ap-
plies these procedures to measurements in a varved clay deposit
and compares predictions with laboratory test results.
Finally, summarizes the main conclusions of this
study.
33
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35
CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND
2.1 CONICAL PIEZOMETERS
Conical piezometer probes used in this research were

developed by Wissa et al 975!. In the original design,
the cone angle was 18' 6 = 18'! and pore pressures were
measured by means of a cylindrical porous stone located at
the cone tip, Fig. 2.1. Second generation probes were de-
veloped in order to measuretne pore pressures along the cone
face and at different locations on the shaft behind
tne cone! for 26 = 18 and 60, Fig. 2.1. The pore pressure
sensor corrsists of a high air entry stainless steel porous
element hydraulically conrrected to a pressure transducer con-
tained in a 1.5" .8 cm!diameterstainless steel housing. The
upper end of the housirrg screws into a standard A or AWdrilling
rod used to jack the probe into the soil. Penetration proceeds,
in general, by 5 ft incrementsafter which a new pushirrgrod
is installed. The interruption of penetration is often inten-
tionally extendedto observe pore pressure decay. The penetra-
tion rate* is approximatelyequalto 2 cm/sec +50%!
**. During
*Tnejackingequipment
utilized in porepressure
measure-
ments is attached to a standard drilling rig and is pressure,
rather than flow, controlled.
* Testsconducted
byM.I.T.to investigatethe effect of
penetration rate on cone resistance and penetration pore pressures
indicate that, in clays, a +50%changein the "standard" penetra-
tion velocity of 2 cm/sec has no detectable effects.
36
penetration and pore pressure dissipation, the electrical signal

is transmitted to the surface by a cable strung through the push-
ing rods and is recorded continuously on a strip chart recorder

as a function of time.
An important feature of these probes compared to existing

piezometers is their In order to record a change
of pore pressure in the soil, some water flow is required from

the soil to the measuring element. A "rigid" system involving
well deaired water requires a small volume of displaced water

and provides a rapid response. On the other hand, a "flexible"
system involving air and requiring large volumes of displaced
water creates a time lag in measurements. This time lag is
especially significant in penetration and consolidation records
and makes the interpretation of pore pressures difficult if
at all possible see Chap. 1!.
No accurate measurements of the probe response time was
performed by MIT. However, Fig. 2.2 shows t:he performance of

a probe" in a calibration test conducted in the laboratory after
tne device was left in a saturated clay deposit for about one
week. The strip chart on the left represents the water pressure
measured through the porous stone when the device is inserted

in a pressurized water bath where the pressure is varied rapidly
with time The record to the right is the water pressure as
measured by a total stress cell i.e. involving no porous stone.
Comparing the two records, the porous element clearly records

variations in water pressure taking place within one second
This proble is built for different purposes but has

essentially the same design as the conical probes in Fig. 2.1.
37
interval. Somesluggish response can be detected for faster

changes. This performance is considered acceptable for measure-
rnents in clays. Martin 980! estimates that reasonable rneasure-
rnents in sands require a response time less than 0.1 sec.
Torstensson 975! developed a piezometer probe, with similar

features as the Wissa probe but with a different geometry,
Fig. 2.3. M.I.T ~ did not use the Torstensson probe. Ghionna
et al. 979! present dissipation results in Italian clays using a
Torstensson probe where the pore pressure increases for about 1
minute before starting to decrease. Similar results were ob-

tained by Lunne and Lacasse 980! in Scandinavian clays where
they used the same piezometer probe and the same deairing tech-
nique.* However, after adopting a deairing technique similar
to that used at M.I.T., Lunne and Lacasse observe that: 1! the
penetration pore pressures become higher in parts of the
deposit, and; 2! the pore pressure starts to decrease as soon

as penetration stops.
This emphasizes the importance of adequate deairing
of the probe to obtain good quality measurements. It is, there-

fore, strongly recommendedto adopt a deairing technique at
least as careful as currently adopted at. N.I.T. This method
consists of:
a! disassembling the probe, cleaning and thoroughly drying

all parts;
*Thedeairingoperationis reportedasaccomplished
quickly = 15 minutes! in the field by placing the piezo-
meter probe in a container full of water and connected to a
vacuum pump Lacasse, 1980!.
38
b! placing all parts in a container under a good
vacuum less than 10 millitorrs! * for at least 12 hours;
c! flowing deaired water into the container still
under vacuum!, and;
d! assembling the probe under water.
Furthermore, the stone must be prevented from drying
by keeping it under water until it is used in the field.
Careful deairing of the piezometer probe is especially
important in nighly pervious soils silty sands and sands!
and very impervious soils plastic clays!. Pore pressure
dissipation in very pervious soils might be faster than
the response time of the probe and hence even penetration
pore pressures might go undetected. In highly impervious
soils, the required inflow of water into the system might
be too large to be provided rapidly by the soil.
2. 2 TYPICAL RZCORDS
2.2.1 Stead Penetration Records
Figure 2.4 shows a typical record of pore pressure
measurements at the tip of an 18 conical probe in a Boston
Blue Clay BBC! deposit. When steady penetration starts at
a depth of 43.5 ft, say, the pore pressure i~creases rapidly
and reaches the so-called penetratio~ value, u., in less than
3 inches. Steady penetration at a rate of about 2 cm/sec
*1 Torr = 1 mmof mercury - 0.0013 atm.

39
continues to a depth of 47 ft indicated by the arrow! when

another push rod is required. The installation of the rod
takes 45 sec and the pore pressure during this time decreases
due to soil consolidation. Penetration is then resumed and
the process repeated. Note the unmistakable sudden decrease
in u.1 at depths 47.2, 49.3 and 58.6 ft which suggests the
presence of dense sandy lenses.
Figure 2.5 shows the cone resistance q , and the pene-

c
tration pore pressure, u.,

1
obtained from two separate tests
45 ft apart in a deposit consisting of peat, sandand heavily
desiccatedclay whichcontains sandy lenses. individually,
qc and u.j. records detect major changes in soil strata, but
jointly, they have an excellent potential for soil identif i-
cationas well. For example,in the peat, qc is low andui
is high, whereasin the relatively clean sand, qc is high and
u,i is very close to the hydrostatic values, u0 . Small excess
pore pressures during penetration hu. = u, u ! were also
0
measured by Schmertmann 978! when he attempted to assess

the liquification potential of sandsby meansof similar probes.
Baligh et al. 980! describe the use of steady penetra-
tion records for soil profiling.
2 ' 2.2 Dissipation Records
Fig. 2.6 shows typical excess pore pressure dissipation

records at the tip of an 18' probe at depths 20, 40, 50 and
68 ft in the sameBBCdeposit Figs. 2.4 and 2.5!. The measured
pore pressure, u, after a time, t, from interrupting steady
40
penetration decreases from an initial value u. to a final

hydrostatic! value u0. Clearly, dissipation of excess pore
pressure B,u = u u! takes place slower as the depth increases.
0
This is presumably caused by a decrease in the coefficient of
consolidation and/or permeability! with depth.
It is interesting to note that, at any depth, the initial

pore pressure, u., for dissipation studies Fig. 2. 6! is the
l
~stead penetration pressure Fig. 2. 4I at that depth. The

latter varies significantly due to inherent soil variability
and hence u. is difficult to estimate reliably in erratic
i
deposits. Furthermore, the full dissipation of excess pore

pressures caused by cone penetration can Cause significant
delays in the exploration program and, therefore, the final
pore pressure, u, is more often estimated than measured.
0
In dissipation studies, it is more meaningful to plot

the decay of the excess pore pressure hu = u u 0! especially
when normalized by its inital value hu.3. ss u.3. u 0
!. Using
the same test results presented in Fig. 2.6, a plot of the

normalized excess pore pressures, u = hu/Au.3 !, is shown in
Fight 2. 7. During consolidation, u decreases~ from unity to
zero and provides a good measure of the degree of consolidation

= l
Figure 2.7 clearly indicates that dissipation of excess

pore pressures becomes much slower with depth in the BBC deposit.
At a depth of 20 ft most of the dissipation u = 0.2! is completed
In some cases, u increases during early stages of con-

solidation because of soil variability, or due to the special
location of the porous stone, but more often indicates poor
deairing of the stone.
4I
in 6 seconds whereas at a depth of 68 ft only 30% consolidation

u = 0.7! takes place after 100 seconds.
In investigating dissipation results plotted as u vs.
log t, it is interesting to note that: according to simple

linear consolidation analyses based on Terzaghi theory, two
soils with the same normalized distribution of initial excess
pore pressures caused by steady penetration! but with d.if-
ferent values of the coefficient of consolidation must have
parallel or horizontally shifted! dissipation curves. Further-

more, the amount of horizorrtal shift required to reach one
dissipation curve from another represents the ratio between

the coefficient of consolidation for the two soils. This
simple rule is quite useful to assess the importance of measure-

ment scatter, evaluate predictions, ...etc. When applied to
Fig. 2.7 this rule indicates that:
a! the dissipation curve at a depth of 50 ft can be

obtained by shifting the curve at 68 ft by a horizontal distance
to the left: ! approximately equal to 2 see scale of log t!.

This suggests that linear uncoupled! analyses are applicable
at these depths using the same distribution of normalized initial
excess pore pressures. Furthermore, the coefficient of consolida-
tion at 50 ft is roughly twice smaller than at 68 ft.
b! the dissipation curve at depth 20 ft cannot
be obtained by horizontally shifting the curve at 68 ft or 50 ft!-

This indicates that: either the initial distribution of excess
pore pressures is different or that linear uncoupled! analyses

are not applicable at shallow depths.
42
2. 3 INTERPRETATION OF DISSIPATION RECORDS
From a practical standpoint, a rational interpretation
method of the pore pressure dissipation that takes place after
interrupting steady cone penetration should answer two basic

questions:* 1! What is the measured soil parameter s! ? e.g ~
vertical or horizontal coefficient of consolidation and/or
permeability; 2! What is the value magnitude! of this para-

meter and the range of practical applications** it applies to?
Additional questions include 3! How long should dissipation
be allowed? i.e. what degree of consolidation is required;
4! What cone angle provides the most reliable results?;
5! Where to measure the pore pressures, on the cone or the
shaft behind it? ...etc.
More empirically oriented approaches use engineering
judgement to guess the answers to questions l!, 3!, 4! and

S!, standardize procedures regarding questions 3!, 4!, 5!
and rely on correlations between dissipation measurements,
laboratory test results, and foundation performance in the

widest. possible variety of soil deposits. Empirical approaches
in interpreting in situ tests represent the backbone of present
geotechnical practice~~* and, to some extent, are justified by

the very complicated behavior of soils. However, heavy reliance
That face any in situ or laboratory! test.
Because of complicated soil behavior rarely does a para-

meter have the same magnitude for all practical applications,
e.g. the appropriate undrained shear strength of a clay for a
bearing capacity problem is, in general, different from a
retaining wall problem.
See for example the use of the standard penetration test

or the cone penetration te t in practice.
43
on empiricism has serious and far reaching consequences. In

particular, new methods and techniques are very difficult to
incorporate into practice because of l! the large effort re-
quired to provide convincing empirical evidence, and 2! the
dependence of present practice on existing testing methods
and techniques.
ln this report, a more rational interpretation method is
attempted by l! theoretically investigating the mechanism of

dissipation in order to identify and, to the extent possible,
evaluate the effect of important factors; 2! developing an
adequate model for dissipation on which to base a prediction
method; and 3! evaluating the prediction method by means of
measurements and foundation performance.
Theoretically, dissipation records are difficult to
interpret because of two major factors:
l! The uncertainties associated with the initial excess pore

pressure distribution in the soil caused by steady cone penetra-
tion. Chapter 3 shows the importance of this distribution;
discusses the difficulties encountered in predicting or measuring
steady penetration pore pressures; and describes results of
significant efforts spent in estimating a reasonable field of

excess pore pressures.
2! The complicated aspects of soil behavior as related
to soil consolidation around cones. In particular: soil non-
linearities, soil anisotropy, nonhomogeneities caused by soil

remolding due to penetration, and time-dependent creep! behavior.
44
Additional difficulties in analyses are caused by:
l! The two-dimensional nature of consolidation around a
cone. Fluid flow and soil deformations take place in the
radial and vertical directions; 2! The high gradients ex-
pected near the tip of the cone; 3! The coupling between
total stresses and pore pressures during consolidation.
The following sections discuss some of these problems
and provide the necessary background for subsequent consolida-
tion analyses.
2.3.1 Linear Consolidation
The analyses required to develop an interpretation method
are conceptually different. from predicting the response in a

particular clay under particular conditions. A useful inter-
pretation method should provide sufficient generality and
hence applicability to a wide range of soils. An accurate

consolidation analysis that faithfully incorporates soil non-
linearities might provide excellent dissipation predictions
around a particular cone in a particular soil. However, this
analysis cannot be expected to apply to other deposits because

of the significant changes in the nonlinear behavior of dif-
ferent soils due to changes in types, methods of deposition,
stress and environmental histories ...etc. Linear analyses
provide valuable normalizations and hence cover a wide ra~ge
of applications.
Linear consolidation studies are generally treated by
means of one of two theories. 1! the Terzaghi-Rendulic,* un-
coupled or unlinked theory which treats the excess pore
pressures independently from the total stresses dur'ing
consolidation, and; 2! the Biot 941! coupled or linked
theory where the interaction between skeleton and pore
water is introduced. Sills 975! shows that a class of
problems exists where both approaches lead to the same governing
equation and hence can be treated by uncoupled theories even

though total stresses might change during consolidation. These
problems include the obvious one-dimensional rectilinear con-
solidation and the consolidation around spherical and cylindrical

cavities in an infinite isotropic linearly elastic medium.
One of the significant features of coupling during con-
solidation is the so-called Mandel-Cryer effect.~ The effect
causes an increase in the excess pore pressure at early times
which was observed experimentally during consolidation of a
spherical sample Gibson et al., 1963!. Schiffman et al. 969!
investigate the plane strain consolidation under a strip footing
using Biot's theory and find that significant Mandel-Cryer effects
take place under the load and close to the surface. These effects,
however, decrease in magnitude when: a! the drainability of
the loaded surface decreases, and; b! the drained Poisson's
ratio of the material increases. Viggiani 970! and Davis and
Poulos 970! show that in a wide range of practical problems,
Terzaghi 923!, Rendulic 936!.
Mandel 953! and, Cryer 963!.

46
andexcept for the occurrenceof the handel-Cryereffect

during the early stagesof consolidation,the Terzaghi-
Rendulic theory predicts fairly well the excess pore
pressure-time
relationship providedthat the appropriate
coefficient of consolidation is usedto evaluate the time
factor."
Biot consolidation theory can therefore be considered

morecorrect than the Terzaghi-Rendulictheory becauseit
predicts the Mandel-Cryer
effect that hasbeenobserved
experimentally. However,its use leads to muchmore
complicated
computations.In particular, whenthe finite
elementmethodis utilized to solve a two-dimensional
consolidation problem,Biot's theory requires 3 degreesof
freedom for the displacements and 1 for the pore pres-
sure! at each nodewhereasthe Terzaghi-Rendulic theory
requires only one pore pressure!.
2.3.2 Nonlinear Soil Behavior
Terzaghi-Rendulicand Biot theories both assume
that
the ratio of permeability to compressibility of the soil re-
mainsconstant during consolidation. In fact, the com-
pressibility of a givenclay is a function of its current
effective stress level as well as its past stress history
i.e., overconsolidation ratio! whereas its permeabilityis
principally a function.iof its current void ratio. When the
clay is normallyconsolidated,the compressibilityandper-
The coefficient of consolidation used in Terzaghi-

Rendulic equation should be the sameas that used in Biot
equation.
meability vary in such a way that the coefficient of con-
solidation remains approximately constant. On the other
hand, if an overconsolidated clay is loaded to effective
stress levels exceedingits maximumpast pressure, large
soil nonlinearities arise during consolidation. Consequently,
linear solutions are only applicable to small stress
increments awayfrom the maximum
past pressure. Many
researchers have investigated non-linear one-dimensional
consolidation. Fuleihan and Ladd l976! present a compre-
hensive review of these theories.
Small et al. 976! propose an incremental finite

element formulation to solve the two-dimensional elasto-
plastic consolidation of soils by extending Biot's theory.
However, in the case of three- and even two-dimensional
consolidation problems, solutions are very difficult to
obtain because of the large number of soil parameters and
the resulting computational difficulties.
Comprehensive non-linear consolidation analyses are

thus currently limited to simple geometries and simplified
soil behavioral models.
2.3.3 Soil Remoldin
Deep steady cone penetration causesvery large shearing

strains in the soil, especially in the immediatevicinity of
the tip. In normally consolidated Boston Blue Clay, these
48
strains produce a failure zone extending to a radial distance
equal to 6.5 times the shaft radius Levadoux and Baligh, 1980!.
When shearing strains are applied to a normally con-
solidated clay, positive shear -induced pore pressure s, P,u

s
develop resulting in a negative mean effective stress

change, ha = Au !. With regards to clay consolidation,
oct s
the reduction in mean effective stress at a constant void
ratio due to undrained shearing can be viewed as an artif icial
overconsolidation of the clay. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.8
showing the results of consolidation tests conducted on
Atchafalaya Clay* reported by Fuleihan and Ladd {1976! .

Test A in Fig. 2.8 shows results of a typical oedometer test.
Test B consisted of: a! consolidating the clay sample in a
Direct Simple Shear apparatus under K0conditions to a vert-
ical effective stress, a= 1.0 kg/cm 2.; b! conducting an

VC
undrained creep test, i.e., applying a constant horizontal

shear stress T {equal to 73% of the failure shear stress,
{z ! ! for more than two days while maintaining the

h max
sample volume constant, and; c! reconsolidating the

sample to a vertical effective stress, avc= 2.0 kg/cm
after relieving the shear stress v. The results in Fig.
2.8 clearly indicate that the initially normally conso-
lidated clay behaves as an overconsolidated clay after
being subjected to undrained shearing and creep.
*Atchafalya clay is a soft plastic clay Pl = 75! from

south-central Louisiana.
This behavior might not take place if Th is maintained

during consolidation or if creep is not allowed.
49
Figure 2.9 illustrates the effect of overconsolidation

on the shear inducedpore pressure normalized with respect
to the maximumpast. pressure!, Aus /a vm , at different axial
strain levels during* CK0 U plane strain compressions tests
on resedimentedBoston Blue Clay. Whenthe clay is initially
overconsolidated OCR= 4, say! undrained shearing generates
negative hu and thus the mean effective stress, 0, is
s oct
increased. However,this increase in uoctis small compared
to a < l5%! .
vm
In surnrnary, limited experimental data on clay consolidation

after undrained shearing suggest that pore pressure dissipation
during early stages of consolidation around cones takes place in
a recompression mode as opposed to virgin compression! for both
normally consolidated and over-consolidated clays OCR < 4!.
Nore careful testing to simulate the actual soil consolidation
around cones requires more complicated stress systems to be im-

posed on laboratory samples in order to maintain shear stresses
during reconsolidation. However, this shearing is expected to

vary with time and is difficult to estimate.
2.3.4 Soil Anisotro
Because of their mode of deposition, natural clays

generally exhibit some anisotropy in permeability and in
compressibility. The ratio of horizontal to vertical
Ko consolida ted undrained tests wi th pore pr es sure

measurements.
50
permeability, kh/k v , is difficult to evaluate. Based on

limited laboratory data, typical values of k /k for homo-
v
~eneous clay deposits i.e., clays with a uniform stratifi
cation! are given by Ladd, l976:
k /k
l. No evidence of layering 1.2 + 0.2
2. Slight layering, e.g. sedimentary clays
with occasional silt hustings to random
lenses 2 5
3. Varved clays in Northeastern U.S. 10+ 5
However, for sedimentary deposits with erratic layers of
more pervious soil, the results of tests on samples selected
at random locations will generally be misleading. Ladd
976! recommends to evaluate k from laboratory tests and

v
kh from in situ permeability tests.

Little experimental information exists on the ratio
of horizontal to vertical compressibilities. This ratio
is, however, believed to be close to unity and, in practice,
the compressibility of clays is generally considered iso-
tropic Mitchell and Gardner, 1975!.
Therefore, it appears reasonable to assume that the
anisotropic behavior of clays during consolidation is prin-
cipally caused by anisotropic permeability. Parametric
analyses will be presented to determine which permeability
k v or kh!, if any, governs the consolidation around conical

probes.
2.4 EXISTING METHODS
Few attempts have been made to interpret dissipation records

around cones because conical piezometers with a sufficiently rap-
id response have only recently been developed and because of the
difficulties of estimating the initial excess pore pressure dis-

tribution.
Tortensson 977! suggests that the pore pressures in the
soil caused by steady cone penetration can be estimated by one-

dimensional radial! solutions corresponding to cylindrical and
spherical cavities Soderberg, 1962, Ladanyi, 1963!. He assumes
the soil to be isotropic, initially subjected to an isotropic

state of stress, to behave as an elastic-perfectly plastic ma-
terial during cavity expansion and utilizes linear uncoupled one-
dimensional finite difference consolidation analyses to estimate

the normalized excess pore pressure dissipation curves in Fig.
2
2.10 u vs. log T; T= ct/R !. In order to estimate the coef-
ficient on consolidation, c, Torstensson proposes matching of

predictions and measurements at S0% consolidation u = 0.5!
and hence uses the expression
50 2
c= R . 1!
50
where T50 is the predicted time factor at u = 0.5 Fig. 2 10!

for an appropriate value* of E/su; t50 is the measured time
E and su . are "equivalent" Young's modulus and undrained

shear strength of the clay, respectively' For undrained shear-
ing E= 3G, where G is the shear modulus.
52
to achieve 50% consolidation; and R is an "equivalent" radius

that simulates the cavity radius.
The use of Torstensson method to estimate the coefficient

of consolidation, c, from dissipation records raises serious
theoretical and practical problems caused by the severe over-
simplifications he introduces.
Practically, given the results in Fig. 2.10, the determina-
tion of c requires estimates of: the rigidity index, Ejs u , the
equivalent radius, R, and the type of cavity cylindrical or
spherical! .
1. The rigidity index E/s u u = 3G/s !

Soils subjected to undrained shearing exhibit marked non-
linearities. Fig. 2.ll shows the variation of the secant shear
modulus, G , of Boston Blue Clay at different strain levels,
s
as measuredby different in situ and laboratory tests. Clearly,
the selection of an adequate shear modulus or E! is very dif-
ficult. Estimates of Gs can easily vary by one order of magni-
tude dependingon y, the overconsolidation ratio, the type of
test,.. oretc. Furthermore, the selection of an appropriate
shear strength, su , is not an easy task. Table 2.1 shows lab-
oratory test results for six normally consolidated clays de-
termined after consolidating samples under K0 -conditions and
shearing under plan strain conditions. Estimated values of s
in a routine job can easily differ by a factor of 2, especially
in view of other uncertainties e.g., strain rate effects, over-
consolidation ratio, strain-softening,...etc.! and the limita-
tions of present testing capabilities.
53
In summary, significant uncertainties exist in estimating
the ratio, E/s u

.A good understanding of the mode and rate of
shearing of the clay is necessary before reasonabIe estimates
of E/s can be made. The range of E/s selected by Torstensson
to plot Fig. 2.10 00 to 500 corresponding to G/s = 33 to 165!

u
is probably based on the collective wisdom of the profession at

the present time.* However, results in Table 2.1 and Fig. 2.11
indicate that, in BBC, this range corresponds to a "high" strain-
ing level of the clay. Based on cavity expansion analyses and

comparisons with pressuremeter and other in situ test results,
Azzouz et al 980! estimate that higher values of E/s 0

u
times, say! are more appropriate see also Chap. 3! . This in-
crease in E/s causes an increase in the radius of the soil
affected by cavity expansion plastic zone!, results in a
slower dissipation and hence an increase in the estimated coef-
ficient of consolidation c at 50% consolidation Eq. 2.1! by

about a factor of 3.
2. The cavity type and the quivalent radius R
The geotechnical engineer has to choose between spherical
cavity solutions upper diagram in Fig. 2.10! and cylindrical
solutions lower diagram!; and select an appropriate radius R.
*Suchnumbersare often quotedandused in manyapplica-

tions, e.g., Ladd et al 977!; Randolf et al 978!.
54
This choice is difficult because cavity solutions are one-
dimensional whereas cone penetration is two-dimensional, and
the geometrical analogy between the two problems is not clear.
For a given clay p/s fixed!, spherical cavity solutions

predict much faster dissipation Tgp smaller! than cylindrical
cavities and hence predict smaller values of the coefficient
of consolidation c. Prom Fig. 2.10, the ratio of c estimated
by the two methods is about 5.
In selecting an appropriate value of R, two limiting

possibilities arise when the Torstensson probe is considered,
Fig. 2.3. The first is the radius of the porous stone and
the second is the radius of the shaft which is roughly twice

2
as large. Eq. 2.1 indicates that c is proportional to R
and hence the estimated coef f icient of consolidation will be
four times higher if the radius of the shaft is used. When
other probe geometries are considered, Fig. 2.1, the selection

of R remains a difficult task
Prom a theoretical or rational! standpoint, Torstensson
interpretation method does not provide an answer to most
questions raised in Section 2. 3. Zn particular, the method
fails to provide
1. The necessary insight into the cone penetration
mechanism which is essential in understanding and hopefully
accounting for soil nonlinearities neglected in consolidation

55
analyses, e. g. soil straining remold ing!, consolida tion

under variable shearing, creep effects,...etc.
2. The "type" of the estimated coefficient of con-
solidation c, i.e. horizontal vs. vertical and overconsolidated

vs. normally consolidated. Differences between different
types of c can reach 20 or 40 times.
3. Guidelines to select an adequate cone angle and to

locate the porous stone on the cone.
4. A rational justification for selecting the log-

arithmic initial excess pore pressure distribution cor-
responding to cavity expansions in an elastic-perfectly

plastic material. Chapter 3 shows that, in one-
dimensional consolidation analyses, the initial distribution
of excesspore pressures is most important in estimating

the value of c. Different initial distributions can easily
lead to 5 times higher values of c than the logarithmic
distribution assumed by Torstensson.
5. An acceptable argument to select 50% consolidation
to estimate c. Ideally, a "good" consolidation analysis should
predict the same value of c at all levels of dissipation
degrees of consolidation!. On the other hand, ~an dissipation
curve* u vs. log T! will predict some value of c for a given
degree of consolidation. Therefore, unless a consistent the
same! value of c is obtained at 20, 50 and 80% consolidation
say!, the prediction methodcannot be considered adequate.
Even drawn arbitrarily.

56
2 . 5 SUMMARY
The evaluation of the consolidation and/or permeability
properties of soils is important in a wide variety of geo-

technical problems. In concept, this can be achieved by
adequately interpreting records of pore pressure dissipation
after cone penetration is interrupted provided that the mea-
suring probe has a sufficiently rapid response.
Existing interpretation methods rely on one-dimensional
solutions and. hence are too simplified to yield reliable
results. Acceptable two-dimensional analyses require estimates
of the pore pressure distribution in the soil during steady

cone penetration and reasonable modelling of the complicated
behavior of soils during consolidation around cones.
57
>! su~f q = 0.5

' l cr v z! except
f for DSSwhere s u~ h z ! max
WW
! L.I.
w w
p
>! plane strain compression

~! direct: simple shear
~! plane strain extension
Table 2. l Plane strain undrained shear strength

of six normally consolidated clays in
different modes of failure data from
Ladd et al., l977; table courtesy of
A.S. Azzouz!
58
POLYETHYLENE TUBING
TUBE NUT
A orAW
ROO
~ HOU SI NG
Ie TIP
ELECTRICAL
TRAN SD UCE
POROU S STONE
PO S I T ION S
60 Tl P
I8' TIP
POROUS 0I 2 In.
STONE
SCALE
Fig. 2.l Conical oiezometer probes used at NI'7

after '.missa et al., l97'5; Balinh et al., 1978!
CALI BRATION Of fer Field Test !
I
I
I
IO sec
~O
tQ
0 I
GO
II
tO
CO
0
Cl.
40
4P
L
Time
Ficr. 2.? Piezorneter response in a pressurized

water bath
60
ELECTRICAL CABI E
FILTER
IO cm
POROUS STONE!
Fig. 2.3 Torstensson's piezometer probe

61
PORE PRESSURE
kg/cm~ or TSF!
0 5 IO
36
40
45
ILI
O
50
Fig. 2.4 Typical pore pressures recorded

at the tip of an 18' conical
probe during penetration in clay
from BOSS 79!
A
z~ co g0
o~ +
pS
~ v!
DJ~ u 4
~ 4J
~o-
CL
0
0W
-P U
nJ -+
4W
W S -V
C
8
C 'U
M 0
C
O
E
Z,'
0V
O CU
Hld30
63 00
0UJ
0
Z
64 00
0
00
O Ol m tQ A~ tn eu
Q 0 0 Q0 0
n']np =n
65
A
QJ'LC
0 4 f
Qi CP
frl
0
8 '0
AC
4 ~l
4 'U
O 06
9
6 S;
4
Al Q -+
E 6
V
ob
~I
4
O
V!
'6 vv
O
'IJ 6
gW
1 U
a
!
foal
~I
4J 41 4'
0C
AU
0 4l
Qg
4l 4l
0
viDl!Q lODI!iOQ
66
80
4V
0 III
C4 0
gl
5 'G
OQ
4 'U
8
5 cO
6
tf'
'C C'.
<U G
Pl
IU
0
g
0
II'I
Z g
8
44
I- 0 G.
F'
Ch
0
00
CJ
q$ -g
CI C
K IU
Q IO
8
04
0
4~
U Q;
0
OQe
5U
M
IU u! II!
8
4-I
G. CQ
0
Al Al
O O
OO O
I 0
I
"4/ ~V '38ASS38d 380d 033AONI 8'tI'3HS 03ZI1VWHON
67
0,5
78
II
IN
0,001 0,01 0,1 1$ 10

time factor T = ct/R
R = radius of pore pressureprobe
c = coefficient of consolidation
1,0
~ 0,5
cl
II
IV
0
1,0 10 100
time factor p - c tyR'
R =radius of pore presare probe
=coefficient of consolidation
Fig. 2.l0 Pore pressure dissipation around spherical

and cylindrical pore pressure probes predicted
by Torstenssonr l977
68
'0
g
CV
0
01
M
CV
n 0
o m
OI
III 0
1$
C 0 44
'0
0 0
O llJ A
Ct C
O C 0
O 'C 8
IL' 0
~t 0
0- 8
CJ CC
O Ih C
0
0
Cl Ih 0 8
Ch 0 ID o
Z Ll 0D
00
0
00
00 8
qf
0
O g I!I*.' e C
m
C '0
D C C
00
? IO II
V! C
O Vl 4> 0
Z Q.
C1
0 n0 ?
g -rt
8W
Co
5
~0 - 0
C C7I K
X 4J 0 C M I 5 4~
4J Vl
O E
oE E n$ n5
lU D Cp 0
Z
0 0 h.
C 00D a '0
W
z
89
m
O E q5
a
Z I C0
0
C Ol
0C
0
a
E
0
lA
'd
8
IK 00
0
o c8 o
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l
0
E0
a 0
CC
00
'U 8
I tJ C 00
C C
Ci
LIJ
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I
01
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E
0
00
~0
DC
O
0
~
C C!
O 0 0'
gO
N 0 C 0
0 00 lg M r4
0p 00
0~ 0 0
OZ
K 0 0C 00 0 00
Cg
00
ac
ug
0
C
0
05
'tI W
0 X 00 g0 0 0 |I
C 0~
0 K 0 V6 0X L'
o ~~
I
I-
OO
~~ ~ CI
'O
0 o Q
O0
0 O
0
"Df 5 'SA1AOOW 8'tI'3HS LtVV33S 03ZI1VWHON

69
CHAPTFR 3
INITIAL EXCESS PORF PRFSSURES
Steady cone penetration in saturated clays causes undrained
shearing and develops excess pore water pressures in the sail.
When penetration is interrupted, the initial excess pore
pressures governing subsequent dissipation are determined by
the pore pressure distribution in the soil during penetration.
3. l DIFFICULTIES OF ESTIMATING PENETRATION
PORE PRFS SURES
3.l.l Theoretical Predictions
The continuous deep penetration of a cone ar pile! in a
homogeneous mass represents a two-dimensional steady state
problem, i.e., to an observer moving with the cone or pile!,

stresses , strains and deformations in the soil do not chanqe
with time. A complete theory of cane penetration should
determine stresses , strains and displacements in the soil
to satisfy the boundary conditions corresponding to steadv
quasi-static penetration and the field equations based on the
properties of the soil. However, because soil behavior is
complicated and cone penetration involves large strains and
high gradients, simplifications are needed.
including pore pressures

70
Existing theories of cone penetration utilize simple

soil models and are based on one of two approaches: 1! Bearing
capacity solutions that neglect the steady state aspects of

cone penetration: Terzaghi 943!; Meyerhof 951! and. 961!;
Mitchell and Dorgunoqlu 973!; and, 2! Cavity exoansion
solutions that neglect the two-dimensional aspect.s of cone
penetration, Table 3.1. Rearing capacity solutions

cannot predict the distribution of excess pore pressures
during cone penetration. An the other hand, pore pressures

estimated by cavitv expansion solutions offer some answers but
raise serious questions see Sec. 2.4!.
3.1.2 Measurements
Penetrat.ion pore pressures can be measured alonq the

face of a penetratinq cone and the shaft behind it provided
that the response time of the device is sufficiently small
see Chapter 2!. However, reliable measurements of pore
pressures in the soil at. somedistance from a penetrating cone
or pile! is a very difficult task that is often unappreciated
by researchers. NIT attempted to measure these pore pressures
using conical probes in a Boston Blue Clav deposit.
The testing philosophy was as follows:
1! A probe is pushed to a given depth and left. in
even though pore pressures are probably the easiest

"stress" that can be measured by existinq methods.
71
place until the pore pressure decay becomes neq-

ligible i.e., until most of the consolidation has
taken place!.
2! At a lateral distance hr, a second probe is pushed

to a depth approximately 2.5 ft below the first probe
while readings of both probes are recorded.
Steps l! and 2! are then repeated in 5 ft increments by switch-

ing the roles of the static and moving probes until the desired
maximum depth is reached. Readings obtained from the static
probe in tests performed for different values of hr can thus
provide the pore pressure distribution in the soil during cone

penetration. Figure 3.la shows the soil profile and the
testing procedure. Figures 3.lb, c and d show the pore pressure

changes hu . recorded by the static probe at, different depths
when the radial spacing between probes, hr = 2.l, 3.0 and 4.0
ft, respectively. In each figure, hu. is plotted vs. the

difference in elevation Az between the two conical tips
-2.5 <A < 2.5 ft!; negative values of hz correspond to
cases where the static measuring! probe is below the moving

probe.
The results in Fig. 3.l indicate that:
l! for a given spacing, hr, and for approximatelv equal

depths, the curves of hu. obtained with the two probes
j
described in more details in Chapter 5.

72
playing alternatively the role of the static

measuring probe! are very similar. This indicates
that the test is repeatable;
2! the results for Ar = 2.1 and 4.0 ft are consistent
hu, decreases with increasing hr!. On the other hand,

j
no significant excess pore pressures were recorded
for an intermediate spacing P,r = 3.0 ft, thus
sugqestinq that the probes in this test deviated from

their intended aliqnments;
3! the excess pore pressures are significant at h,r = 4.1

ft 8r/H = 30! but show no consistent trend with depth
and, most importantly;
4! at all depths and all soacinqs, Du.is

1
neqative when
Az is neqative ahead of the moving probe! and becomes
positive when hz is positive behind the movinq probe!.

This is in agreement with measurements obtained by:
a! Kcizumi and Eto 967! where the incremental pore
pressures measured on a stationary pile at an elevation

lower than the pile being pushed Az < 0! are negative
Au. < 0!, and; b! Roy et al 979! where the pore
1
pressures, during pile driving, monitored bv means of an

electrical Geonor! piezometer rigidly connected to
the surface, exhibit an identical pattern Fig. 3.2!.
However, this contradicts the trend predicted by

73
simple analyses such as linear elasticity! where a
soil element located below the tip Az < 0! should
experience an increase in isotropic stress and,
therefore, an increase in pore pressure hu. > 0!.
This surprising result can be explained by the inter-
ference of the static measuring! probe with soil
deformations. When the moving probe or vile! is
pushed, the static probe cannot accommodate soil
deformations and hence causes a relative displacement
with respect to the soil where it records the pore
pressure. During steady penetration of a conical
probe, Levadoux 980! shows that a soil particle
moves monotonically away from the cone axis in the
radial direction!, whereas the soil movement in the
vertical direction is first downwards and then reverses
direction when the cone approximately reaches the
elevation of the soil particle. Conseauently, the
relative displacement between the static measuring!
probe and the surrounding soil induces first tensile
and then compressive incremental pore pressures due
to the moving probe.
In conclusion, meaningful measurements of pore pressures
caused by cone or pile! penetration are verv difficult to
conduct because of: a! the interaction between the measuring
device and the surrounding soil, and; b! the difficulties in

74
estimating accuratelv the relative location of the moving tip

with respect to the soil element where pore pressures are
measured.
3. 2 INPORTARCF, OF INITIAL KXCFSS PORF, PRESSURFS
Since penetration pore pressures are difficult to estimate

accurately, it is necessarv to identifv important factors
describinm the initial distribution of excess vore pressures
and evaluate the effect on dissipation results. This can be
indirectly achieved bv means of a parametric study of simple

one-dimensional consolidation problems.
Levadoux and Baligh l980! obtained closed form and

numerical linear uncoupled consolidation solutions around
impervious spherical and cylindrical cavities in order to
study the effect of the following factors on dissipation'
1- The "size" of the soil zone affected bv cone pene-
tration. This is conveniently expressed by the parameter

r /R; where R is the radius of the cavitv , and. r is the
Pp
smallest radius around the cavity where no excess pore
pressures develop.
2- The spatial variation of the initial excess pore
pressures. Three types of variations with the radius, r,

were considered: constant, linear and logarithmic between
according to Terzaghi theory.
**or the radius of the cone shaft, sav.

75
r= R and r= XR, Fig. 3.3
3- The location of boundary drainage. Results were

obtained for dissipation in an infinite medium as in actual
situations! and whendrainage takes place at r = AR. Comparisons
between these two cases provide valuable insights into the
effect of the outer soil on dissipation and the importance of
the drainage boundary in numerical solutions.
Before discussing the results of these analyses, we note
that:
l- In one-dimensionallinear problemsinvolving an
infinite mass,pore pressuredissipation is controlled by
the heat equation and hence solutions can be obtained without
consideration of total and/or effective stresses Sills, 1975!.
However,the consolidation coefficient differs from Terzaghi's
expression.
2- In linear consolidation solutions, dissipation results
do not depend on the absolute value magnitude! of the excess
pore pressures. Therefore, it is sufficient to consider the
normalized excess pore pressures hu.1 sr!/ hu! h as in Fig. 3.3;

where Au.3.r! and Au! sh
are the initial excess pore pressures
at a radius r and at the cavity wall shaft!, respectively.
3- When the clay is assumed to be isotropic, incom-
pressible, initially subjected to an isotropic state of stress,
elastic linear prior to yielding! with a shear modulus G,

76
perfectly-plastic after vielding! with an undrained shear

strength s; and when shear-induced pore pressures are
u
neglected,cavity expansion
solutions* froma zeroradius
predict that, for a cylindrical cavity:
!;G 1/2 5u. r! = 2s . ln - ! - 1!
u
and, for a spherical cavity:

G 1/3 Au. r! = 4s . 2!
! u
Su
where hu. r! is the excess pore pressure at a radius r. There-

1
fore, the variation of the normalized excess pore pressure
fu,i shr!/ Au! h is givenhv the logarithmicexpressionin Fig.

3.3 for both cvlindrical and spherical cavities. [Note that
hu! = Au. R! ] .
Figure 3.4 shows the normalized excess pore pressures,
Au/ hu!shh duringconsolidationarounda cvlindrical cavitv

when X = 20. We note in Fig. 3.4 that:
1! for a constant initial spatial variation, significant

time is required before excess pore pressures at the cavitv
wall start to decrease;
2! for a logarithmic init,ial spatial variation , high
*hereafter called elasto-plastic solutions were utilized

by Torstensson 977! and others, Table 3.1
* corresponding to elasto-plastic cavity expansionsolutions

in a clay with G/s u u = 400 or F/s = 1200, Eq. 3.1
77
oore pressure qradients occur at the cavity wall and, thus,
excess pore pressures at the wall dissipate rapidly, and;
3! for all three types of variation, and at any time

2
factor, T. =ct/R , where c is the coefficient of consolidation!,
the soil can be divided into two zones. In the inner zone,
pore pressures decrease, whereas in the outer zone, pore
pressures increase. The boundary between the two zones no
change in pore pressure at a given time! moves monotonically

with time away from the cavity. This indicates that,
soil elements close to the wall tend to be constantly

subjected to loadinq i.e., increase in effective stresses
due to decrease in pore pressure!. On the other hand, soil
elements at a larqer distance from the wall are first unloaded
and then reloaded Carter et al., 1978!.
Figure 3.5 shows the dissipation curves, u vs. log T, at
the cavity wall of impervious cvlindrical and spherical
cavities, in the case of X= 20, for different variations of
the initial excess pore pressures. The normalized excess pore
pressure u at the cavity wall is defined as Au/Au. tAu. equals

11
hu! shh in one dimensional problems]; and, the time factor T

2.
ct/R ; where c is the coefficient of consolidation. The
logarithmic variation corresponds to elasto-plastic expansion
solutions in a clay with G/s u = 400 for a cvlindrical cavity;

and; G/s = 8000 for a spherical cavity. Results in Fig. 3.5
u
indicate that:
1- for a given initial distribution K and variation!
dissipation is slightly faster around a spherical cavity a
factor of 1.5 to 2 at 50% dissipation!. This appears to
contradict results obtained by Torstensson Pig. 2.10! where
the spherical cavity predicts much faster dissipation rates
about 5 times! than the cvlindrical cavity. The difference
arises because Torstensson does not distinguish between the
effects of initial distribution on one hand and, consolidation
in radial cvlindrical vs. spherical svmmetrv on the other.
Torstensson determines the initial excess vore Dressures
distribution from elasto-plastic cavitv expansion solutions
which, for a given clay i.e., a fixed value of C'/s U !, predict
a much smaller value of X for a spherical cavity see
Eqs. 3. 1 and 3. 2! .
2- for a given type of cavity, the initial variation
of excess pore pressures in the soil, between r= R and.
r= XR, has an important effect on dissipation, especially
at early times. For example, at 50%dissipation: T50 7,

35 and 140 for the logarithmic, linear and constant variations,
respectively. Since the time factor T is proportional to

the coefficient of consolidation, c, this means that back-
figured values of c by the three tvpes of variations are in

the ratios of 1:5:20, respectively.
79
Figures 3.6 and 3.7 show the effects af the size parameter,
and the drainage conditions on dissipation curves at the
wall of a cvlindrical cavitv for linear and logarithmic
initial distributions, respectively. In both cases, we note
that:
1! ~he effect of A is significant. Considering a

linear variation, Figure 3.6, '7 corresponding to
50 is about seven times larger than A = 20. 'This
means that, if the excess pore pressures extend to
50R instead of an assumed value of 208, the coefficient

of consolidation, c, at 50% dissipation! will be
underpredicted by a factor of 7. In case of the
logarithmic variation, Fiaure 3.7, the effect of
A is less pronounced such that. the corresponding

difference in c is about 3 instead of 7!;
2! Drainage at r = AR instead of ~ has a negligible

effect on dissipation; especiallv during early con-
solidation stages. ~his indicates that, consolidation
is mainlv governed bv the soil within a radius AR
and is little affected by the outer soil. Furthermore,

errors in numerical solutions caused by analyses of
finite domains are not verv significant, at. least in
the earlv stages of dissipation.
80
Xn summary, results of simple linear uncoupled one-
dimensional consolidation analyses indicate that:
1! Dissipation curves plotted as u vs. log T! are
very sensitive to the initial distribution of the
normalized excess pore pressures* hu.1 r!/ hu! sh

h as
characterized by:
a! '7he extent or size or radius! of the soil
subjected to excess pore pressures compared to
the cavity radius, i.e., the parameter
b! '7he spatial variation in the soil, e.g., log-
arithmic, linear, etc.
2! Analyses performed for a given initial distribution
A and spatial variation! assuming spherical symmetry,
lead to sliqhtlv faster dissipation than cylindrical
svmmetrv a factor of 1.5 to 2 in t~e backfigured
coefficient of consolidation at 50% dissipation!
3! Dissipation is mainlv controlled by the soil pro-
perties within a radius XR and is little affected
bv the outer soil. Furthermore, the soil near the
cavity is predominantlv subjected to a decrease in
volume compression or recompression! during dissipa-
tion
*Linear solutions are not affected bv the absolute value

maqnitude! of the excess pore pressure.
3 . 3 TYPICAL INITIAL >DISTRIBUTIONS
The distribution of excess pore pressures around pile

shafts is one-dimensional* and is thus relatively simple to
investiqate. Figure 3.8a shows excess pore vressure measure-
ments due to pile and model nile! installation in eight clay
deposits. The first six cases involve displacement piles
whereas caSes g and h consist of H piles. In cases a, b,

c and d, measurements are conducted in the soil surroundinq the
pile. In cases c,d,e and f measurements on the pile shaft are

available. Important vroperties of the eiqht clavs are
summarized in Fiqure 3.8a and Table 3.2; and, cover a wide
range of soil tvpes. We note in Figure 3.8a that:
l! In a qiven clay deposit, measurements of oore
pressures in the soil surrounding the vile exhibit
significant scatter. This is esvecially clear in cases
b and c, and is probably caused bv the measurement
difficulties discussed earlier in section 3.1.2;
2! Significant excess oore pressures [~u. r! > 0.2 v say]

VOp
develop within a radius r= 20R i.e., ~= 20! around
the vile and measurable excess vore pressures extend
to r= 50R or even 80R. However, it is difficult to
ascertain the effect of probe-soil interaction on these
data see sec. 3.1.2!.
*In relatively lonq piles, the onlv spatial coordinate is

the radius r.
82
3! Little correlation can be established between
hu. r!/a and the clay type as described by the

j vo
plasticity index PI, say!, or its overconsolidation
ratio OCR!, or its undrained shear strenqth s U !,
or its structure or sensisitivitv < !, or the
method of pile installation driving vs. jacking!,

or the size or cross section of the pile", or the
depth of measurements i.e., confining stress!.
4! Few data points are available in the vicinity of the
Dile R<r<5R! ~
5! In spite of the very different conditions soil and
pile! in cases a, b, c, d, q and h, results between

r= 5R and r = 20P. fall within a well defined band and
suqqest tl at X= 20R.
Figure 3.8h shows the band includinq most of the test
data for r>5R. A reasonablv qood fittinq of the data between
r= 5R and r = 20R can be achieved bv either a loqarithmic
distribution or a linear distribution. Pore pressures bevond
r= 20R are small and can probably be neglected in analyses

of single piles. Figure 3 ' 5 indicates that the logarithmic and
linear distributions of initial excess pore pressures lead to
very different dissipation curves such that the backfigured

coefficients of consolidation at 50% dissipation, say! can
differ by a factor of five or more. This uncertainty is essen-
tially due to the lack of reliable data near the pile R<r<5R!.
*For P piles, the radius R was selected as half the pile

width, i.e., R= 6".
83
Notinq that the loqarithmic initial excess pore pressure
distribution is derived by elasto-plastic cvlindricai cavity

expansion solutions; according to Fquation 3.l, the straight
line in Fiqure 3. 8b corresponds to a clay with G/s = 400 and
su/a
vo
= 0.68 i.e., G/a vo = 272!. This ratio of G/s u is much
higher than estimated by many investigators in analyvzing cavity
expansion problems* even though s = 0.68 a is excessively
u vo
high especially for the soft clays ACR = 1! in cases a and b.
Therefore, special care is needed in selectinq the shear modulus,
G, for cavity expansion problems, Figure 2.11!. A more realistic
soil model than the bilinear elasto-plastic behavior can
reduce this difficulty.
In summary, existing measurements of pore pressures in
clays due to pile installation indicate that A= 20 or more.
However, the measurement scatter and the lack of sufficient
data near the pile R<r<5R! prevent reliable estimates of the
spatial variation of excess pore pressures to be made.
Uncertainties in the spatial variation of initial excess
pore pressures have an important effect on dissipation results.
In the relatively simple problem af consolidation around
pile shafts, estimates of the coefficient of consolidation
from dissipation rates can easily differ by a factor of 5
depending on the selected initial distribution and the degree
of dissipation.
*See Fiq. 2.10 where Torstensson plots results for G/s

u
between 33 and 165.
84
3. 4 PROPOSED PENETRATION PORE PRESSURES
3. 4. 1 The Strain Path Method
Deep steady cone prenetration in clay is essentially a

"strain-controlled" problem where strains and deformations are
primarily imposed by kinematic requirements. For this type
of proble~, Baligh 975! proposes an approximate method

of solution called the "Strain path method". This method is
based on concepts similar to the more popular "stress path
method" Lambe, 1967! and consists of four basic steps:
a! estimate the initial stresses; b! estimate an approximate
strain field satisfying conservation of volume, compatibility

and boundary velocity requirements; c! evaluate the deviatoric
stresses at a selected number of elements by performing labora-
tory tests on samples subjected to the same strain paths or,
alternatively, by using an appropriate soil behavioral model,

and; d! estimate the octahedral isotropic! stresses by
integrating the equilibrium equations.
Table 3.3 compares the strain path method with the stress
path method to identify their strong similarities. As

indicated in Table 3.3, the strain path method is an approximate
method because the estimated stresses will not, in general,
satisfy the equilibrium requirements, unless the estimated

strain field is identical to the actual one.
85
3.4.2 The Strain Path Method in Cone Penetration
Figure 3.9 describes the steps for evaluating stresses

and pore pressures in the soil due to deep steady cone pene-
tration in saturated clays by means of the strain path method:
1! Estimate a velocity field* satisfying the conserva-
tion of volume or mass! requirement and the boundary

conditions.
2! From the velocity field determine the soil defor-
mations by integration along streamlines. Figure 3.10

shows the deformation of a square grid due to steady
penetration of a 60 cone as determined by Levadoux
and Baligh 980! after neglecting the shearing
resistance of the soil i.e., assuming the soil to
behave as an ideal fluid!.
3! Compute the strain rates, along the streamlines

3. 7
by differentiating the velocities with respect to the
spacial coordinates.
4! Integrate the strain rates, g, along streamlines to

i7
determine the strain path q..! of different soil
l7
e lemen ts .
*The velocity field describes the velocity of soil

particles as they move around the cone.
86
Figure 3.11 shows the deviatoric" strain paths of
three soil elements initially located at r /R = 0.2,
0.3 and l.0 from the axis! due to penetration of a
60' cone Fig. 3.10!. Clearly, the paths are compli-
cated and involve large strains with strain reversals.
5! Estimate the initial stresses, a..! , and initial

j! o
pore pressures, u, in the soil prior to cone

0
penetration.
6! Compute the deviatoric stresses, s, and the shear-

j!
induced pore pressures, hu , along streamlines.
Levadoux and Baligh 980! developed the necessary
mathematical models to estimate s.. and hu due to

i! s
the complicated strain paths imposed by cone penetra-
tion taking into consideration the anisotropic inelastic
nonlinear behavior of clays. Using soil parameters
obtained from laboratory tests on normally consolidated
resedimented Boston Blue clay, Levadoux and Baligh 980!
predict: a! The deviatoric stress paths. Fig. 3.12
shows the stress path for an element initially located
at a radius r= 25R due to steady penetration of a

0
60' cone For comparison, the paths corresponding
to idealized! Direct Simple Shear DSS! and Pres-
suremeter PR! modes of shearing are also shown in
"No volumetric straining takes place during undrained

shearing of a saturated soil.
87
Fig. 3.l2. Clearly, cone penetration subjects the

soil to very complicated stress paths consisting of
a combination of triaxial compressior, DSS and PR
modes. b! The shear induced pore pressures.

Fig. 3.13 compares the predicted contours of Au
s
due to penetration of l8' and 60' cones with
cylindrical cavity solutions.*
7! a! From equilibrium considerations, compute the total

stresses,** o.. =s,. +6 .a !, given the devia-
ij ij ij oct
toric stresses, s... This requires the determination
1j
of the octahedral stresses, aoct't. Since the assumed

strains are not exact, the estimated values of a
oct
are approximate because they depend on the integration

path, i.e., on the direction where equilibrium is
satisfied; radial, axial, etc.
b! From s.. and hu , compute the effective stresses,

ij s
a..[= a,,! + Ao,. ; Aa.. = hs.. 5u 6..]

3.3 13 03 3 3.7 j.j s 1j
8! From ooct
and u sdetermine the penetration pore
pressures u, = u+ Au.; hu. = Ao + Au !
0 i' i oct s
Finally, by estimating the shear stresses at the cone
soil interface and integratinq tractions along the cone face,

the cone resistance, q, can be evaluated.
c
*According to the same soil model.
"*6..l.3 = Kronecker delta: = 0 when i g j; = 1 when i = j

and, 0= 1/3 a...
oct l.i
88
3.4.3 Predictions of Penetration Pore Pressures
Figure 3.14 shows the distribution of excess pore pressures,
Zu., during penetration of 18 and 60' cones based on soil
properties obtained from laboratory tests on resedimented

normally consolidated Boston Blue clay. In order to obtain these
solutions by the strain path method, displacements and strains
were determined by assuming the soil to offer no shearing
resistance i.e., to behave as an ideal fluid, Fig. 3.10 and
3.11! and the octahedral stresses were computed. by satisfying
equilibrium in the radial direction. Results in Fig. 3.14
indicate that:
1! The excess pore pressures, hu., are significant even

at large distances from the cone. These pore pres-
sures are principally due to the increase in

octahedral stresses, i.e., the contribution of Aus
is small about 20%, see Fig. 3. 13! .
2! The soil can be divided into two zones: a! An inner

zone where the pore pressure gradients are high and
the strains are sufficiently large to cause failure
of the soil, and b! An outer zone where the strains

are smaller, the soil is in a pre-peak state* and
the excess pore pressures are not significantly
dependent on the cone angle. The boundary between
*but far from being in an elastic linear! state as

assumed by simple bilinear elasto-plastic models.
the inner and outer zones is roughly given by the
contour of the octahedral strain* y= 2% located

oct
at. a radius approximately equal to 5R.
3! Far behind the cone tip, the excess pore pressures
are higher than estimated by cavity expansion solutions**
in the outer zone and lower than cavity expansion
solutions in the inner zone.
3.4.4 Comparison with Measurements
A detailed discussion of various predictions obtained by
applying the strain path method to cone penetration is beyond
the scope of this report. However, the method is capable of
estimating reasonable distributions of normalized excess

pore pressures for conductin linear anal ses of dissipation
after interrupting cone penetration.
The solid lines in Fig. 3.15 present the same predictions
of penetration excess pore pressures,*** hu., at different
locations on the face and shaft behind 18 and 60 cones after
normalization by the excess pore pressure on the shaft, hu sh!

i e., 8,u./Au approaches unity at a sufficiently large distance
i sh!
behind the tip. Fig. 3.15 also shows in situ measurements
* 22 2 1/2
Y oct
= 1/3 [ E E !+ c E !+ s -c !+ 6c j
rQ Z zr rz
yoct is approximately equal to the radius of Mohr circle

of strain.
««Using the same soil model and soil parameters corresponding

to normally consolidated BBC.
**"As in Fig. 3.14.

90
of hu./Au
i sh!
h conducted
in a Boston
BlueClaydeposit*at
Saugus, Massachusetts. Fig. 3.15 indicates that, even though
predictions are basedon laboratory test data on resedimented
normally consolidated BBC, they provide good agreementwith
measurements in the natural deposit having overconsolidation
ratios OCR= 3, 2 and 1.3. This important result means that
linear dissipation analyses can be conducted using the same
initial distribution of Au./
1 sh
hu! h for the entire BBCdeposit
where OCR < 3.
Attempts to extend this result to the upper clay having

an OCR>3were prevented by the large scatter of measured
penetration pore pressures, hu., due to inherent soil
variability! as compared to the small average values of hu..
In order to check the predicted penetration pore
pressures at somedistance from the cone, measurements
of u.l.
in the soil around the cone are reauired. Such measurements are
very difficult to obtain in situ because of: a! the

interference between the measuring device and soil deformations,
and; b! the uncertainties in alignments which can introduce
significant errors in the estimated radial distances. Attempts
to perform such measurementsin BBCby meansof two piezometers
were unsuccessful, see Sec. 3.1.2.
*Discussed in detail in Chapter 5.

91
Therefore, using the analogy between cone penetration and
pile installation, predictions of Au/ hu! shh in the soil are

compared with measurements conducted around a cylindrical
pile 1. 9 cm in diameter! j acked into Champlain Clay
Roy et al., 1979!.
The measurements are quite cor.sistent and reliable and,
because of the small size of the piezometers Geonor M-600!
compared to the pile,* are hopefully less sensitive to the

errors mentioned above piezometer-soil interaction and
alignment!. Furthermore, the excess pore pressure measured
along the shaft of the pile Au!shh = 2ovo is very close to

that measured in BBC behind conical probes, = 2.1a !.
vo
Figure 3.16 compares the predicted radial distribution of
excess pore pressure at a sufficiently large distance z = 14R!
behind 18 and 60' cones during penetration in normally
consolidated BBC to measurements in Champlain Clay. Results
in Fig. 3.16 show that:
1! The predicted radial distributions of pore pressures
behind 18' and 60' are almost identical;
2! The agreement between predictions and measurements
is remarkable, in view of a! the approximations
in the strain path method, b! the uncertainties
in the field measurements in particular at small
radii! and especially, c! the difference in
"The pile diameter is about 6.5 times that of the

piezometer.
92
behavior between BBC OCR 1! used for predictions
and the Champlain Clay OCR = 2! where measurements
are made.
Results in Fig. 3.16 are very encouraging since they

suggest that the normalized excess ore ressure distribu-
tion during pile installation is not very sensitive to soil
type or stress history OCR!. This is further supported by
the results in Figure 3.8 showing that measurements in Champlain
Clay case d! are not unique but are similar to other clays of
different types and stress histories. Results obtained by
Azzouz et al., 1980, indicate that, at some distance from
the axis, the pore pressures are governed by the shear
modulus of the soil at low strain levels. The latter
apparently is not very sensitive to OCR*as compared to other

factors e.g., soil structure, aging, etc.
In summary, the two-dimensional axisymmetric! normalized

excess pore pressure distribution around cones or piles!
predicted by the strain path method compares very well with
field measurements a! at. different locations along the cone
for a wide range of overconsolidation ratios .3 < OCR< 3! and
b! in the radial direction far behind the tip. These
distributions appear, therefore, sufficiently accurate to
perform dissipation analyses which will hopefully be applicable
for a wide variety of clays with OCR < 3.
*possibly becauseof the compensating

effects of
h,a and hu
oct s
93
3. 5 CONCLUSIONS
1! Measurements of excess pore pressures in the so'l
due to cone penetration are very difficult to conduct

because of a! the interaction between the measuring
device and the soil; and b! alignment problems.
2! Results of dissipation analyses are sensitive to the
initial distribution of the excess pore pressures
as characterized by a! the extent or size or radius!
of the soil subjected to significant excess pore
pressures and, b! the spatial variation of the
initial excess pore pressures within this radius.
3! Exist.ing measurements in clays indicate that
a! significant. excess pore pressures develop due

to pile installation within a radius extending to
20 times the pile radius, b! uncertainties in the
spatial variation of these excess pore pressures
due to measurement scatter and the lack of data
near the pile can easily lead to a factor of 5
difference in the backfigured coefficient of
consolidation from dissipation records.
4! Existing theories cannot predict the distribution
of excess pore pressures during cone penetration.
Bearing capacity solutions neglect the steady state
aspect of cone penetration. Cavity expansion

94
solutions neglect the two-dimensional nature of
cone penetration and, even in the relatively simple
problem of estimating pore pressures around pile

shafts, require more realistic modelling of soil
behavior than presently used* and then, provide
questionable results.
5! Linear dissipation analyses are not affected by
the absolute value magnitude! of excess pore pressures
Au., and only require estimates of the normalized

j.
excess pore pressures, e.g., Au./

3.
Au! shh where du! sh
is the shaft excess pore pressure at a sufficiently
large distance behind the cone.
6! Predictions of hu./
j
hu! shh obtained by the strain
path method on the basis of laboratory test data
on normally consolidated resedimented Boston Blue
clay provide good agreement with in situ measurements

a! on the face and the shaft behind 18' and 60'
cones in a BBC deposit having 1.3 < OCR < 3; and
b! in the soil surrounding a jacked pile in
Champlain clay.
7! The measurements of pore pressures around the jacked
pile in Champlain clay are very similar to a number
e.g., a bilinear elasto-plastic model, say.

of other clays of different types and stress histories.
Therefore, it seems possible that the predicted dis-
tributions of Au./
1 sh
Au! h by the strain path method
for normally consolidated BBC will prove satisfactory
in other clays as well.
8! Finally, linear uncoupled one-dimensional consolidation
analyses indicate that a! dissipation is only
affected by the soil where significant initial excess
pore pressures develop i.e., within a radius = 20 times
the shaft radius! and b! this soil is predominantly
subjected to a decrease in volume compression or
recompression! during consolidation.

96
caviry initial proposed Semarks

Author Material Model Stresses Applrvatrvr
s
cyl. Sph.
Bishop,Hill andMott Elastio-Plastic mot Conaiderld Metal indentation CloaedformSolutioniex-

VonMines! perimentalresults of copper
945! strain hardening prenunably indentationcompare mell vith
IeotrvPic! theory' unenaturalstrains.
Chadvlck x Eiaatrr-perfert.ly ISOtrO.>ic Cylindrical cavity C*rlaiderebothloading expan.
plastic Tresca! expansion in soils sion! endunloadingcontrac-
959! andmetals t!on! of a sphericalcavity.
Gibsonind Anderson x Elastic-perfect.iy v 1= c Interpretat.ionof Closedformsolution
pl*st Ic Tie sea! thv presauremeter
961! test
Experimental Lsotropic Stressdistribu- Burnerical Integrationof
stressandmean tion around equtllb lealSquat!one
badnnyr effective stress cavities - Predicts bothtotal stresses
vs. strain curves Bearingcapacity andporepi'essures.
963! determined from of deepfvunda-
triaxial test t.iona
Excess por
pressuredintri-
outionaround
drivenpales
Butterfield and Elastic-perfecr.iy entropic stress andpore ClosedCormsolution
Bannerjee pleat.ic pressuredis- Considerboundary shear
VonMixes! tr ibut iona stresseaInnntt tt lcllorr!
970! arounddriven Error in equationsdo not.
piles satisfy the conservation
of volume;seeAppend ir A
for correctsoiution!.
Baguelinet al. General non Pressuremeter Providea method of inter-
Linear' stress- t.est pretat.ionof the pressure-
972! stra n curve rmter test i.e., obtain
stress-r,traincurvefroe
elnpansionCurve!.
badanyi Generalstress- Preaa~remeter Saneas above.
strain curve rest
972!
Palmer Generalstress- o= o Pressuremetrr Same
as above.
972! strain curve t.est
Elastic-perfectly lsotropic Gltimatecavity Considers volumechartge
Vesic plastic pressure for drainedexpansion
972! EvaluatiOnOf EVaiuates porepressures
pressure- and total stressesfvr
metertests undrained expansion
Evaluativnof
excesspare
pressures due
to pile driving
PrevOSI.
andHoeg Elastic-plastic I sotropic Pressurereter Provideral.henatteai
VonMtses! test expression for rhe y c'.I
979! v/ isotroplc funCtior lo obtnrncloned
hardeningor 'rr -. !.tr ~ ", I .tr ~
softening
Carter, Randolph Modifiedcam- y,0 Stressdistribu- !'inite elementan* yare
andWroth clay condition tion a1ongthe
shaft o! a driven
978! pile
NvrEI Ail referencesconsidera! an incompressibleisotropichomogeneous

nonviscousmateri~ 1 unless otherwiseindicated!
b! rniecestrain deformations
In the cylindric~1cavity expansion
vi.thGo r e Gon!
Table 3.l Summary of existing solutions for cylindrical

and spherical cavity expansion
97
J
0
~0 I
4 4 0
tatJ CI
~ I4 JI
IJ
J4'a 0 0 40
Ia
40 40
ClC la 0
I tl
O
1
0 ta
it
I I
0v 40 i<: 10
0 O
40 4 ::.sm
4 I
0 44 8'04
44 0 5+400
00 g3j a 4
04 O 1~1Ct4
«t ~ 0 1 0 0~ tt
~ 'a
~ 0'1' ~tJ
fEg
C 0 rv
g ew
I 4 It ~
~I
00 Ih 0
~I
I
0 IL
IJ
4 0I
1 II
4
Jl
0
la O tl 0
IC
0K C
40 C I tJ
JI 00
0I ~ I IJ
~
Id ~~ tt '4 0
I
04 C 0
~ 0'
I 0 0 Ii I IJ 92 04 Jl
~I
0 Od 4 a& 0 ~ PR
0'
U 00
C Ia
f.:f
JI I I ~ 0
0
0 Jf 0 v~
It g Ij
4 0 ~ IJ
It
Itt
IJ 00
00 ~4a 4 I1
~~ ~I
0 ta 0 4JJIC
I
0
~I t
0
~ ~ ~I 0 0
4 4 C
CWIJ 0
4 II IC 0 Il
C ~0 I4
I l4tt ~t ~
4g
01 4 ~ V
JJI ~I
RJC
~ tt
l4Q IJ 4 10
A
~ 0I
3w- ~
0 0 U IJ
0 4 a. a w 4~ 4$
0 IC4'0
4 IJ t
tl 0 0 ~ tt
~ 11 4
00 CI
IJHw$ 4
0
40 5
II
0
tt
CI
4 00
Cf Cl tt O C
II 4 O4 tt0 I Ia ~
4u la 0m
Cl0 0-
4 IJ
0I IJ ~I
0I 0 CI
EL 5 4et 4
0 00
Il I Itt
IJ 00
0
4 Vl 00
0 '0
0
0I C
Il 4I
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C
tl ~
~I
CL I tt 0I
4 C 0 4 'C
0
I0 4 '0 0I
I tv II '0
Vl
Stress Path Method Strain Path Method
APPLICATIONS
Surface Problems Deep Problems
STEPS
l. Estimate initial stresses l. Estimate initial stresses
2. Estimate incremental stresses 2. Estimate incremental strains
3. Perform stress path tests on 3. Perform strain path tests on

samples or use adequate soil samples or use adequate soil
model! to obtain strains at model! to obtain deviatoric
selected locations. stresses at selected
locations.
4. Estimate deformations by
integrating strains 4. Estimate octahedral isotro-
pic! stresses by integrating
equilibrium equations.
APPROXIMATION
In Step 2, StreSSeS are approximate In step 2, strains are approxi-

thus leading to strains not satis- mate thus leading to stresses
fying compatibility requirements. not satisfying all equilibrium
i.e., deformations in step 4 de- conditions. i.e., octahedral
pend on strain integration path. stresses in step 4 depend on
equilibrium integration path.
Table 3.3 Comparison of stress path and

strain path methods
99IA
II
04M
mD
80
4
8 40
k -rl
Q0
4O
0 C4
W
tG 5
Ul Q
S IU
0-n
8 'U
kl rd
r
o
IJ ' HJ.CI30
100
kk ' Hld30
101
tttt,eeceetparewaterpreeeure,
ttpa
50 lOO
Fig. 3.2 Pore pressures measuredduring driving

in the soil surrounding a pile after
Roy et al., 1979!
102
constant
IO 20 30 50
r = r/R linear scale!
constant
/R
IO 20 30 40 50
r = r/R log scale!
Initial normalized excess pore pressures for

one-dimensional consolidation analyses
103
1,0
08
0,4
0,2
Z
QQ
CI
CI 1.0
os
LIJ
0,6
LLJ
0.4
0.2
X
0.0
IJJ
I.O
cr
O
Z Q6
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
5 IQ 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
NORMALIZED RADIUS r/R
Fig. 3.4 Effect of initial excess pore pressure distribution

on dissipation around an impervious cylinder A=-20!
104
r0
84
0
Q
Al
0
4
S
CJ K
II
Q
0 p
0
U
LLJ n$ Q
5%
Qi r5
W Pi
W Ui
-rl ~
4U
0
WM
Q8
O
0Q
if/
8
w
C4
0 0! ED AJ 00
0O 00 0
'"V/" 9= 3L '38ASS38d 380d SS33X3 03ZIQVWHON

105
~i
O C
U
o5
g
Q
O.H
O0 ~ Cl
5 cQ
we
6
5
9 C4
0
00
Qi
Ge
M
07
a-~
0 lD ct' V
O O O0
'"7/"V' = 9 38flSS38d 380cI SS33X3 03ZI ICATION

106
O
K
o0 4
4J
X
Al
O 0! ED CP EV OO
O O O O
'"T/ "V = 9 38ASS38d 380d SS33X3 03ZI1VAHON

107
~I
C
Q
a
0K 0
IV
00
8
8 <D
K A$
0 OJ
CO
88
OK 5
CQ
Ai 0
O
hl 84
40
OA
Lm
t6 A
RO
? 48
UN
NU
CO
O tO OJ O
CV N OO
"y/ ~!.~V' 38ASS38d 380d SS30X3 03ZllIWHON

108
APPROXIMATE SHEAR STRAIN, 7 /o

50 20 I0 52 I 0.5 0,2 0I 0.05 0.02 O.OI
O
ib
2.4
2.0
4J
tr
ch
UJ
tr I.6
Q.
4J
K V!
0 O I.2
4J
OX
LJj
O 0.8
t4
OX
X 0.4
0
I 5 IO 20 50 IOO
NOR MAL I 2 E D RADIUS, r/ R
Fig. 3.8b Excess pore pressure measurements due to pile

installation in clays Simplified distributions
109
6.a Deviatoric stresses 6.b Shear induced pore pressures
hu
8
7.a Total stresses, o. 7.b Effective stresses, U..

Lj
8 Pore pressures u
Fig. 3.9 Application of the strain path method to

deep steady cone penetration in clays
Fig. 3.10 Pred.icte6 deformation pattern around. a 60 cone
assuming no shearing resistance of the soil
111
Fig. 3.11 Strain paths of selected elements during

penetration of a 60 cone.
EH
00
QS
'U 4
5O
t0 Q
Ql ~
Cl
4g
0
'Q N
0
C4%
Q '5
4 .H
O4
0
4U
0
0
'U C
0
'V 8
SC
0
F4 V
rI
P!
113
CYLINDRICAL
CAVITY
E XPAN SION
I1 IT IT I I 0.5 T
O.l O.I5 0.2 0.25 QE QBS 036 0,3 G25 0,2 O,l
J. II JI J.
Fig. 3.13 Predicted shear induced pore pressures during

steady cone penetration in normally consolidated
Boston Blue Clay 8' and 60' tips!
114
CYLINDRICAL
CAVITY
EXPANSION
TI TfT I ll
LLl dl
Fig. 3.14 Predicted excess pore pressures during steady

cone penetration in normally consolidated Boston
Blue Clay 8' and 60' tips!
115
O
prl
8U
0
8
O
Q%
g
0
R
00
rI
8
0
M.rI
K
8
4W
6
6g
48
0 C4
G4
U7~
M
6
UN
W
Ql
8 .H
N
~H
Ch
M q5
h
o S
0C
UJ
X 0
0
'4
eo
4J Q D
hl
0
0
lK
IB 0
O P IXI
'6
0 W
A0
U
NW
Ol 4
C4 M
lA
rl
1.16
X
Ch
t.2
CI
:3
I.O
LU
Kf!
Cf! 0.8
UJ
K CL
0.6
bJ
0.4
X UJ
C!
0.2
CC
O
Io ZO 50
NORMALIZED RADIUS, r/R
Fig. 3.16 Predicted vs measured distribution of normalized

excess pore pressures during penetration in clays
117
CHAPTER 4
EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON
PORE PRESSURE DISSIPATEON AROUND CONES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents two-dimensional linear con-
solidation analyses around conical piezometer probes
with 18' and 60' tips after steady penetration has been
interrupted. The initial distribution of normalized
excess pore pressures prior to consolidation is obtained
from the steady state penetration solutions in normally
consolidated Boston Blue Clay BBC!- Comparisons with
field measurements show that the normalized excess ore
consolidation ratio OCR! is less than 3 and can be
acceptable in other clays, Chapter 3.
Isotropic linear uncoupled finite element consolida-
tion analyses are first conducted with a fine mesh to
obtain accurate predictions of pore pressure dissipation
at various locations on the tip and the shaft of l8' and
60~ piezometer probes. The effect of soil anisotropy is

evaluated by reducing the vertical coefficient of consoli-
dation, c v, and comparing the dissipation results around

118
an 18 piezometer probe with those obtained for the
isotropic case. The effects of linear coupling discussed
in Chapter 2! are assessed by comparing dissipation re-
sults around an 18' piezometer probe obtained with
a! a linear uncoupled finite element program i.e.,
based on Terzaghi-Rendulic theory!, and; b! a linear
coupled finite element program i.e., based on Biot's
theory! ~ Because of the computational limitations of
the coupled finite element program, both analyses are
performed with a relatively coarse mesh. The effects of
finite element mesh are evaluated by comparing the
results of uncoupled linear solutions obtained by means of
the fine mesh high resolution! and the coarse mesh low
resolution!. Finally, the effects of possible errors* in
the estimated penetration pore pressures, u,, and, static

i
or initial in situ! pore pressures, u, on the predicted

0
dissipation curves are evaluated. These errors are im-
portant in developing reliable methods for interpreting
dissipation records.
4 . 2 UNCOUPLED TWO-DIMENSIONAL SOLUTIONS
The analyses presented in this section were con-
ducted with the finite element program ADINAT Bathe, 1977!.
This program solves linear and nonlinear! transient and
*Dueto inherent soil variability or measurement

errors.
119
steady state! heat transfer problems where the temperature

e is governed by the equation:
ae
y'e= a . 1!
in which q is the Laplacian operator, r is the diffusivity

of the substance* and, t the time.
By simply substituting e and v by the pore pressure,

u, and the coefficient of consolidation, c, respectively,
Eq. 4.1 reduces to the uncoupled Terzaghi-Rendulic equation:
2 au
cq u -2!
at
Figure 4.1 presents the finite element mesh adopted

to analyze the uncoupled linear consolidation around a
piezometer probe with an 18' tip angle. The mesh consists

of 511 nodal points and 538 elements. It extends between
elevations 30R and + 15 R with respect to the apex of
the conical tip R = shaft radius! and up to a radius
r= l00 R away from the symmetry axis. The outside mesh
boundary is impervious everywhere except along the cylinder

located at r = 100 R where a zero excess pore pressure
is maintained at all times.*»
See Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959 for further information.
* Chapter 3 indicates that the flow condition at

this boundary does not affect the dissipation in the
neighborhood of the tip up to very large times.
120
In order to assess the adequacy of the two-dimensional
mesh Fig. 4.l! and select appropriate time steps, a simple

one-dimensional analysis was first conducted. The one-
dimensional mesh consisted of 20 rectangular elements con-
nected to 21 pairs of nodes located at the same radii as
the upper horizontal row of nodes in the two-dimensional
mesh Fig. 4.1!. Figure 4 2 compares the dissipation re-

sults at the impervious wall of a cylindrical cavity for
a logarithmic initial pore pressure distribution obtained:
a! with ADINAT using the one-dimensional mesh described
above and the time steps in Table 4.1, and; b! from closed-
form solutions, Levadoux and Baligh, 1980. The agreement between
numerical and analytical results in Fig. 4.2 is very good
especially in view of the large initial pore pressure
gradients near the cavity wall due to a logarithmic
initial distribution.
Figure 4.3 shows the predicted contours of the
excess pore pressures hu/a vo

! during uncoupled
consolidation around an l8' cone in a linear isotropic
material obtained with ADINAT using the mesh in Fig. 4.1
and the time steps in Table 4.1! for selected values of

2
the time factor, T = ct/R where c is the isotropic coef-
ficient of consolidation, t the time and R the shaft radius! .
The pore pressures at T = 0 are the same as predicted during
steady cone penetration in normally consolidated BBC and
presented in Chapter 3.
121
The results shown in Fig. 4.3 indicate that:

l! the consolidation at early times T < l, say! is
limited to the immediatevicinity of the tip. For example,
du
the contour of = O.l remains virtually unchangedat
vo
T = l compared to its initial location at T = 0! .
2! as consolidation proceeds, the contours initially
close to the conical tip move closer to the tip where
they eventually vanish. This indicates that hu decreases
near the cone. On the other hand, the contours initially

far from the tip first move outwards see, for example,
Au
contours of = 0.0l, 0.03 in Fig. 4.3! and then, at
vo
later times not shown in Fig. 4 ~3! come back toward the
tip where they eventually vanish. This indicates that

soil elements close to the tip tend to be subjected to
monotonic loading* i.e., hu decreases! whereas, those
further away are first unloaded i.e,, du increases! and
then reloaded.** Such results are important in the inter-
pretation of actual dissipation records because soils ex-
hibit a nonlinear behavior with a coefficient of consoli-
dation during loading which is different from unloading.
*In terms of effective stresses.

**A similar behavioroccursduring the one-dimensional
consolidation around a cylindrical cavity, Chapter 3.
122
Figure 4.4 shows plots of normalized excess pore
pressure, ~ u, versus time factor, T, at four selected
locations** along the tip and the shaf t of an 18' piezometer
probe during uncoupled consolidation in a linear isotropic
materials
We note in Fig. 4.4 that:
l! the time required to achieve a given degree of
dissipation, u, increases for points further away from
the apex of the cone;
2! the pore pressure at point 3 on the shaft, right
behind the cone! increases slightly at early times.
This is due to tne larger initial pore pressures
along the cone face see contours in Fig. 4.3 at
T= 0!, and;
3! at T= 100, most of the consolidation 82 to 92%!
has been achieved u = l8 to 8%! and at T= lOOD,
consolidation is practically completed u = 1%, say!
at all locations'
Analyses identical to those presented above were con-
ducted for the consolidation around a piezometer probe with
a 60' tip angle. A finite element mesh very similar to that
u= Au/oui where, Au and Aui are the current and

initial excess pore pressures at the point under study,
respectively.
At the cone apex, mid-cone, cone base and, on the

shaft. at. LOR behind the cone apex R = shaft radius!.
123
in Fig. 4.1 was used* together with the sametime steps

Table 4.1! . The predicted contours of excess pore pressure
during the uncoupled consolidation around a 60' cone in a
linear isotropic material obtained with ADINATare given
in Fig. 4.5. Results in this figure show basically the
same trends discussed above for the 18' cone. We note,
however, that because of the smaller cone length, the con-
tours around the 60' tip Fig. 4.5! are more spherical in
shape especially at early times.
Figure 4.6 shows plots of the normalized excess
pore pressure, u = ~u/hu.!, versus time factor, T, at four

selected locations along the tip and the shaft of a 60'
piezometer probe during uncoupled consolidation in a linear
isotropic material. Wenote in Fig. 4.6 that dissipation
at locations l and 2 are virtually identical and, in fact,
are very close to that of point 3. Furthermore, dissipation
at location 40 R above the cone apex! behind the two
18' and 60' conical tips in Figs. 4.4 and 4.6, respectively!
are very similar.
One-dimensional cylindrical! finite difference analyses

conducted by Levadoux and Baligh, 1980, using the same'initial radial
excess pore pressure distributions far be; 'ind the 18' and 60'
tips give dissipation curves very similar to those at location

4 in Figs. 4.4 and 4.6 ~ However, a logarithmic initial dis-
tribution predicted by cylindrical cavity expansion in an
elastic perfectly-plastic material leads to different
dissipation curves "ee, for example, . iq. 3.5! .
Nodal points in the tip vicinity were relocated to

achieve the new geometry i.e., 60' tip! .
124
4.3 EFFECT OF ANISOTROPY
Clays typically have a higher horizontal permeability,
kh, than vertical permeability, kv , and hencea higher co-

efficient of consolidation in the horizontal direction than
in the vertical direction i. e., ch > cv ! . This section

investigates the effect of anisotropy on the uncoupled
consolidation around an 18' piezometer probe.
The dotted lines in Fig. 4.7 show the contours of
excess pore pressure during uncoupled consolidation around

an 18' cone in a linear cross-anisotropic material having
andwhereT = cht/R2
cv = O.l ch as obtainedwith ADINAT*
For comparison, the solid contours denote the results in
case of an isotropic soil cV = ch! previously presented

in Fig. 4.3. Figure 4.7 shows that the effect of de-
creasing c from c to O.l c is very limited especially

V
at early times T < O.l, provided that the time factor is

2
defined as T = c t/R !. This result is particularly im-
h
portant in the interpretation of dissipation records by
indicating that c controls dissipation, especially at
early stages of consolidation.
Figure 4.8 presents another illustration of the
effect. of soil anisotropy on consolidation by comparing
*Using the mesh in Fig. 4.1 and the time steps

in Table 4.1.
125
the normalized excess pore pressure, u = hu/Au.!, at four

selected locations along the tip and the shaft of an 18'
piezometer probe during uncoupled consolidation in a
linear isotropic, cv = ch solid lines! and, cross-
anisotropic, ch = O.l ch dashedlines!, materials.* The
results in Fig. 4.8 clearly indicate that ch governsthe
consolidation process. A significant decrease in c
v
slightly delays the pore pressure dissipation at the loca-

tions of interest along the probe.** For example, the
normalized time factors, T, required to reach 50%dissipa-
tion i.e., u = 0.5! are respectively increased by 20, 34,
36 and 24% at locations 1, 2, 3 and 4 when c decreases from
v
ch to O.l ch. These values represent the error in the

estimated c if, in interpreting dissipation records, soil
anisotropy is neglected and results at 50% consolidation
are used.
4.4 EFFECT OF LINEAR COUPLING
All solutions presented above were obtained according

to the Terzaghi-Rendulic theory neglecting the coupling
between total stresses and pore pressures during consolida-
tion. This theory is rigorously applicable to a narrow
Note that, in Fig. 4.8 the time factor is controlled

by ch' e'' T ht/R
**
A similar conclusion might not hold if cv is higher
than ch. However,
a situation wherecV > ch is unlikely
in practice.
l26
range of problems including one-dimensional consolidation
in semi-infinite masses where the soil is assumed to be
homogeneous, linear, isotropic and elastic Sills, 1975!.
This section investigates the effect of coupling
during consolidation around an 18' piezometer probe in a
linear isotropic elastic material. This is achieved by
comparing results obtained with the finite element program
CONSOL utilizing Biot theory! to those obtained by ADINAT
utilizing Terzaghi-Rendulic theory!.
4.4.1 Finite Element Pro ram CONSOL
Ghaboussi and Wilson 971 and 1973! propose a finite
element formulation for the unsteady saturated fluid flow in
a porous isotropic elastic matrix based. on Biot's formula-
tion using a Gurtin-type variational principle. For a

compressible pore fluid, the constitutive relations can be
expressed by the following matrix equation Ghaboussi and
Wilson, 1971!:
[C] w ~!
T
c] [z] -~~at [z]
t+ At
[O] [O]
~ t+at]
~~t v, !+ a !! [C] -[E] + qat[H]

127
where [K] = skeleton stiffness matrix;
[E] = fluid compressibility matrix;

[C] = coupling matrix;
[H] = permeability matrix;
{wt! = nodal displacement vector at time t;

{ut! = nodal pore pressure vector at time t;
{F t ! = externally applied nodal load at time t;
{Qt ! = externally applied nodal flow at time t, and;
time increment.
In this formulation, excess pore pressures, hu,
in the soil due to boundary loading equal the increase in

octahedral stress, Aaoct . Therefore, in order to impose
a given distribution of pore pressures at the nodes, u.!,
i
a slight modification of the program was necessary to

apply a fictitious set of nodal loads {F.! at time t= 0.
i
According to Eq. 4.l, the initial response of a

system t = 0! is given by:
[K] {w.! + [C] {u != {F ! .2!
Neglecting soil deformations* due to an excess pore

pressure build-up at t= 0 i.e., [w. ! = {0!!, the fictitious
applied nodal force vector {Fj. ! required to simulate a given

initial nodal pore pressure vector {u.! at time t = 0 is
given by:
Of no consequence to pore pressure solutions of in-

terest in linear problems.
128
Components of the vector {F. } were therefore ob-

i
tained by means of the same computer program according to
Kq. 4.3 and maintained throughout the solution;* i.e.,
{F } = F.} for any t.

t
4.4.2 Results of Consolidation Anal ses
The finite element program CONSOL requires much larger
core storage than ADINAT** and, hence consolidatio~ analyses
with CONSOL proved imposssible to carry out with the detailed
mesh in Fig. 4 ' 1 ~ Consequently, the coarser mesh shown in
Fig. 4.9 was used for the analyses described below with
CONSOL as well as with ADINAT!. This mesh consists of 117
nodal points and 96 rectangular elements. Zt extends be-
tween elevations -10 R and 15 R with respect to the apex
of the conical tip and up to a radius r= 25 R away from
the symmetry axis. The boundary conditions are indicated
in Fig. 4.9.
The dotted contours in Fig. 4.10 show the decay of
excess pore pressures during ~cou led isotropic linear

consolidation around an 18' cone when the soil is saturated
If effective stresses were also required and not

only their changes! an additional set of nodal forces
would be needed. to account for the initial nodal dis-
placements and hence satisfy Eq. 4.2.
Because of a threefold increase in the degrees

of freedom from 1 to 3! and a lesser use of out of core
scratch! storage.
129
with an incompressible pore fluid as obtained with CONSOL.*

The solid contours in Fig. 4.10 denote the uncoupled
analyses obtained by ADZNATrising the same grid Fig. 4.9!
and identical soil properties, time steps Table 4.1!,
etc. The results in Fig. 4.10 indicate that coupling
effects are not very significant and are limited to the
immediate vicinity of the conical tip.
Figure 4.11 compares plots of normalized excess pore
pressures, u = 5u/du 1
!, versus time factor, T, at four
locations along the tip and the shaft of an 18 piezo-

meter probe during uncoupled consolidation solid lines!
and coupled consolidation dashed lines! in a linear iso-
tropic elastic material.
Results in Fig. 4.11 indicate the following effects

of linear coupling:
a! as expected Sills, 1975!, the pore pressure

at location 4 is practically unaffected by coupling
because the one-dimensional cylindrical situation
is approached;
b! the coupled dissipation curve at location 3

exhibits Mandel-Cryer effects at early times but
comes very close to the uncoupled dissipation curve
when T ! 1 i.e., u 0.92, approximately!;
*Forcoupledanalysesthe results depend

onthe drained
Poisson's ratio v. These analyses were carried out with
v= 0.25.
130
c! coupling causes a faster dissipation at location 2. How-

ever, the ef feet becomes small f or u< 0. 8 about 20% at u=0. 5!; and,
d! coupling appears to be especially important at the
apex of the cone, location 1*. However, numerical dif-
ficulties at this singular point prevent definite con-
clusions to be reached.
Finally, it is interesting to note the effects of the

mesh size on dissipation results obtained by means of
ADINAT usinq a fine mesh in Fig. 4.l! to those with the
coarse mesh in Fig. 4.9! and shown in Figs. 4.4 and 4.11,
respectively:
a! results at location 4 are not affected by the

mesh size they differ by less than 1%! for any time
factor T;
b! dissipation at locations 2 and 3 is very slightly

affected by the mesh size at large times when u < 0.5!
but is significantly affected during early stages of
consolidation;
c! dissipation at the cone apex. location 1, is

strongly affected by the mesh size. For example, the
time factor to reach 20% consolidation u = 0.8! is
T= 0.065 for the fine grid and T = 0.38 for the
*It is important to note that location 1 in consolidation

analyses corresponds to the tip of a perfect cone i.e., a
singular point! and does not occur in actual probes.
131
coarse grid. Therefore, results with the coarse
mesh at 20% consolidation overestimate the coeffi-
cient of consolidation by a factor of 5.85.

This clearly demonstrates the need for a fine mesh
to provide an adequate resolution in the vicinity of the
tip where large pore pressure gradients occur especially

in the early stages of consolidation.
4.5 EFFECTS OF SOIL VARIABILITY AND/OR
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
Dissipation results presented above and subsequently
used for estimating the horizontal Coefficient of consoli-

dation, ch, are expressed in terms of the normalized excess
pore pressure u:
u u
hu 0
u .4!
hu. u. u
1 l. 0
in which
u= measured pore pressure at time T;
u 0= static pore pressure i.e., in situ before pene-

tr ation!, and;
u, = penetration pore pressure i.e., at T= 0 when
penetration is interrupted! ~
This section investigates the effect of uncertainties
in the values of u and u. in order to select reliable

0
methods for estimating ch.

132
In practice, the static pore pressure, u,0 should be

measured at selected depths by leaving the piezometer probe
in the soil long enough to achieve complete soil consolidation.
This is, however, a time consuming and expensive task which
is often overlooked hence leading to an error Bu0 in the
estimated static pore pressure, u*, at any depth:
u* =u + 6u . 5!
00 0
where u is the "true" {or in situ! static pore pressure.
The apparent normalized excess pore pressure, u*, is

thus given by:
u {u + 5u !
00
u" . 6!
u. u + hu !
i 00
Figure 4.12a shows the effects of the error hu0 on the

dissipation at mid-cone of an 18 piezometer probe. The
solid line represents the "true" dissipation curve
{identical to curve 2 in Fig. 4.4! and the dashed lines
represent the "apparent" dissipation curves for 6u /Au.i
20, 10, -10 and -20% oui is the "true" initial excess
pore pressure at time T = 0!. Clearly, the effect of
5u is more pronounced at late consolidation stages.
0
On the other hand, errors in the penetration pore
pressure, u., can occur due to: a! inherent soil vari-

ability causing the recorded value u".
i
at the beginning
of dissipation to be different from the relevant {average!
value u., and; b! incomplete deairing of the piezometer or
3.
133
low permeability of the clay causing a time lag in the

measurements. The measured penetration pore pressure,
u~, thus becomes:
u~ = u. + 6u. . 7!
3 3. 1
where u. is the relevant penetration pore pressure.

The apparent normalized excess pore pressure, u*,
is thus given by:
uu
0
.8!
Figure 4.12b shows the effect of Bu.1 on the dissipa-

tion at mid-cone of an 18' piezometer probe. "Apparent"
dissipation curves are given for 6u./hu. = 20, 10, -lO
and -20%.
The results in Fig. 4.2 are valuable in providing

guidelines for the prediction of the horizontal coefficient
of consolidation, ch, from dissipation measurements:
a! when u 0is0 reliably measured i.e., 6u " 0!,
prediction of ch is best achieved by matching measured
and predicted dissipation curves at large times where
the effects of 5u.i are least significant;
b! when u. is measured with a high level of confi-

dence i.e., 6u.i = 0! as indicated by the consis-
tency and uniformity of measurements, prediction of

c is reliably and economically achieved by early
time matching, and;
l34
c! when errors in both u and u. are expected,

0
predict.ion of ch at intermediate times when

u= 0.5, say! appears to represent a reasonable
compromise.
4. 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The pore pressure dissipation around conical probes
requires two-dimensional numerical analyses in order to
interpret dissipation records and hence estimate the
coefficient of consolidation of the soil. This chapter
presents linear consolidation analyses to investigate the

effects of cone angle; the location of the porous stone;
the anisotropy of the soil; the size af the mesh reso-
lution!; the coupling between pore pressures and total
stresses, and; the uncertainties in the estimated initial
and final pore pressures on prediction of dissipation
rates.
Results of consolidation analyses indicate that:
1! dissipation at. different locations on an l8' cone
based on linear uncoupled solutions using a fine
finite element mesh Fig. 4.l! are very different
Fig. 4.4!. This emphasizes the need for two-

dimensional solutions because one dimensional con-
solidation studies cannot detect the effect of
porous stone location. Similar analyses for a 60'

probe show that the predicted dissipation along the
conical tip varies little with location Fig. 4.6!;
135
2! at a sufficient distance behind the tip dis-

sipation on the shaft is not significantly dependent
on the cone angle and is about one to two orders of
magnitude slower than dissipation at the tip;

3! a reduction in the vertical coefficient of conso-
lidation, cv , from ch to 0.1 ch causes little delay

in the uncoupled pore pressure dissipation at 4
selected locations along the tip and the shaft of
an 18' piezometer probe in a linear elastic material*
Fig. 4.8!. This suggeststhat ch governsconsolida-

tion around piezometer probes;
4! the effect of linear coupling between total
stresses and pore pressures is reasonably small except

at early stages of consolida.tion especially near the
apex of an 18 cone** Fig. 4.11>. This suggests that

uncoupled solutions can provide reasonably accurate
predictions away from the apex and after sufficient
dissipation has taken place;
5! accurate predictions of excess pore pressure

dissipation especially in the vicinity of the
conical tip! requires the use of a fine mesh
Fig. 4.1!, and;
*2
Providedthat the time factor is defined as T = cht/R
In analyses, an ideal cone is considered with a singular
apex point. This geometry is not encountered in actual probes.
136
6! errors in the static and penetration pore
pressures u 0 and u., respectively! can seriously

affect the estimated coefficient of consolidation.
Matching of measured and predicted dissipation re-
cords at small, large and, intermediate degrees of

consolidation is recommended if errors in u, u.
0i
or both, respectively, are expected'

137
*Consolidation analyses with the coarse mesh Fig.11.9!

are interrupted at T= 100
Table 4.1 Time steps used in finite element consolidation

analyses
OO
Vl
I
OL Z
>o o~
<z R
Id
2 g! O lu
0 fl! 0
Z
C>
IA
139 O
O
U
Og
0
m
0
qj
0
4
E
O ID tV O
OO OO O
."T/"V = " '38ASS38d 380d 5533X3 03ZI IVNIUON
3.40
Contours o excess vore pressures durinc uncoupled

consolidation around an 18 cone in a linear
isotronic material
0
00
5
=l~ g
0
II
0 U
o L'!
K p
O
6
4C
4 P v3
4J
QJw
C
4
p
UU
0
~rf Q
rd
Qi p
4
K' A
fQ p
Q
O IO tO AJ
O 0 0O 0O
"7/~V Q 38ASS38d 380d SS33X3 03211'IFNHON
142
Contours of excess pore pressures during

uncoupled consolidation around a 60' cone
in a linear isotropic material
143
OO
0
O
O
0
00
S
C
C
0
o
c. 0
R'
O cK 0e
0
th U
6W
> Gi
50
U0
g
C
0
O': 0
mP
U! Q
h
0
O C! 40 Al o~
OO 0 O0
'"V/ "V * 9 38llSS38d 380d SS33X3 03ZI lVAHON

144
Fig. 4.7 Effect of anisotropy on the contours of excess

pore pressures during uncoupled consolidation
around an l8' cone T = c tjc"! .
h
145
O
O
0
W
6
4
OO 0
g 9!
0-+
Ol r5 W
K 0
C
R rd
EJ V!
'0
rd
6
CL 0
O
I- D. N
CQ
4~
C'i
0
R0
U
08
0
U0
4
O +' 0
W CO
I4 ~
0 00
0 0
-"V'/ "V' = 9 3HASS38d 380d SS33X3 03ZI1VWHON

146
ISR
IB
I OR
25 R
~ FIX ED NODE I I 7 NODAL PO IN TS

96 ELEMENTS
Fig. 4.9 Coarse finite element mesh

SOLUTION WITH ADINAT I LINEAR-UNCOUPLED!
SOLUTION WITH CONSOL LINEAR- COUPLED!
Fig. 4.10 Effect of coupling on tiie predicted contours of

excess pore pressures during isotropic consoli-
dation around an 18' cone
OO
00
~ al
0
R
0
Ao
O Q CO
Q W
O
O C! 4 gO
OO O 0
.~V/~'V = 2L 38ASS38d 380' SS33X3 03ZIRVWHON

149
0,8
0,6
LLI 18 Tl P
04
C'
L w -20
4J -10
CLV 1 0
O 02
LLT 4! ERROR
IN STAT'IC
POREPRES
~ URE
O
Pg0.0
IQ MEA5UREO POREPRE55URE
ATTIMET
I.O U44 STATICPOIIE PRE5SURE
N u; a PENETRATION PUREPRESSURE
IT~ ol
-20 bup~ ERROR IN u4
X Sul ~ ERRORIN u;
bul a ul- ua
0.8 10
Z 8V~
LAS hV!
LL
0.6
V Vy
0.4 V4
V>+ I!V[! Vo
0.2
b ! ERRORIN PENETRATION
POREPRESSURE
0,0
O.OI O. I 10 I 00 1000
TI ME FACTOR T=
R2
Fig. 4.l2 E feet of errors in static and penetration

pore pressures on dissipation curves at
mid-cone of an 18' piezometer probe
150
CHAPTER 5
EVALUATION OF DISSIPATION SOLUTIONS
IN BOSTON BLUE CLAY
5.l INTRODUCTION
Linear dissipation solutions obtainedin Chapter4

involve significant simplifications of soil behaviorduring
consolidation* anduncertainties in the initial excesspore
pressure distribution**. Simple linear solutions are attrac-
tive for applications in different soils, but can cause
serious difficulties in interpreting test. results for the
selection of appropriate engineeringparametersfor design.
Few comprehensive nonlinear analyses were conducted to
study consolidation around penetrating objects. Randolf
et al. 978! investigate nonlinear consolidation around
pile shafts andconcludethat, in this relatively simple
one-dimensionalproblem, pore pressure dissipation is not
significantly affected by soil nonlinearities.
By assuming that the soil skeleton is linear and

exhibits no time-dependent. properties.
* Derived
bythestrainpathmethod
based
onproperties
of normally consolidated Boston Blue Clay.
151
This chapter has four objectives: a! Evaluate the
capability of simple linear solutions in predicting in

situ dissipation measurements in Boston Blue clay; b! In-
vestigate the effect of various practical factors on the
reliability repeatability! of the estimated profiles of

the coefficients of consolidation and permeability, e.g.
cone angle, porous stone location, degree of consolidation

dissipation! required,...etc.; c! Compare the estimated
coefficients of consolidation and permeability with lab-
oratory measurements and field performance data; and hence,

d! Provide guidelines for the interpretation of dissipation
records in practice.
5.2 SITE DESCRIPTION
5.2.1 Geology
The Boston Blue Clay BBC! was formed during the wane
of the late Pleistocene ice age about 14,000 years ago!

under a marine environment in the Boston Basin, probably
not very far from the ice margin The clay deposit over-
laid a glacial till which covered the bedrock, and had a

typical thickness in excess of 50 to 125 ft depending on
the topography of the till. The clay includes numerous
lenses of fine sands, isolated sand pockets and occasional
stones or pebbles. Subsequent to clay deposition, movements

of the earth crust and of the sea level resulted. in emergence
of the clay above the sea, followed by extensive weathering,

152
desiccation, and erosion of the upper part of the deposit.

This was followed by at least two periods of submergence
and deposition, of lesser significance, in which outwash
sand, and peat and silt were deposited above the clay.
Further geologic details are given by Kenney 964! and
Aldrich 970!.
5.2.2 Soil Conditions at the Test. Site
The test site is adjacent to the coastline in Saugus,

Mass., 160 to 200 ft 9 to 61 m! to the east of the un-
finished Interstate 95 embankment centerline at Station 246,
Figs. 5 1 and 5.2. N.I.T. studied this embankmentextensively

in the last decade by means of laboratory and in situ tests,
embankment monitoring during construction, and a planned em-
bankment loading to failure D'Appolonia et al., 1971; M.I.T.,
1975!.
Figure 5.3 shows the soil profile at the test site as
determined by conventional sampling and laboratory testing
methods. The upper 25 ft consist of peat, sand and stiff
clay layers which overlie 130 ft of Boston Blue Clay BBC!.
The BBC of interest is located between depths 25 and 120 ft.
Typically, the visual classification, and index tests e.g.,
the natural water content, wn' , the liquid limit, w<, and
plastic limit, w! provide little reliable information re-
P
garding stratification and variability of the clay .

153
On the other hand, laboratory estimates of the maximum
past pressure, a, by means of conventional oedometer

and constant rate of strain consolidation tests clearly
indicate that the clay abave a depth of 75 ft, approxi-
mately, is significantly overconsolidated i.e., has an

OCR = o /a well above unity!.
vm vo
5.2.3 Undrained Shear Strength
Figure 5.4.a shows the undrained shear strength,

s, of the clay determined by means of laboratory tests
u
on 3" $ "undisturbed" fixed piston samples. Unconfined
U! and unconsolidated undrained UU! tests are not sig-
nificantly different and vary between the wide range given
by 0.4 + 0.2 TSF without. a clear trend with depth. Higher
quality samples obtained in l978 give higher strengths and
exhibit relatively less scatter because of the reduced effect
of sample disturbance.
Figure 5.4a also shows the peak strengths, su, obtained

by the SHANSEP
procedure based on the estimated OCRprofile
in Fig. 5.3 for K -consolidated undrained plane strain com-
0
pression PSC! and plane strain extension PSE! tests Ladd

and Foott, 1974!. Direct simple shear and triaxial tests
where samples are isotropically and K0 -consolidated generally

give s between the band provided by PSC and PSE in Fig. 5.4a
except for the K -consolidated triaxial extension tests
0
yielding s 18% lower than PSE!. The SHANSEP

profiles in
u
154
Fig. 5. 4 a are smooth and cannot detect soil variability

because averaging is required in estimating the profile
of a s u PSZ!
u
is significantly less than s PSC! and
hence indicates the significant strength anisotropy of

the clay.
Azzouz and Baligh l978! backfigured the field strength,

s field! required for circular arc stability analyses based
on the results of a planned embankment failure that extended
to a depth of 75 ft. The profile of s field! above 75 ft
is based on their results and below 75 ft is estimated from
the SHANSEP Strength profiles, Fig. 5.4a.
Figure 5.4.b shows the undrained shear strength, s

u
determined by means of the Geonor Field Vane FV! at about
3 ft intervals in four holes within 200 ft from the test
site where one notes that su FV! is generally between 0.4
and 0.6 TSF throughout the profile. Looking more carefully,

two distinct layers can be identified: the first is located
below a depth of 75 ft where s FV! exhibits less scatter
and increases with depth. The second layer is above 75 ft
where s FV! varies between 0 ' 4 and 0.6 TSF with little
u
identifiable trend. This is the more overconsolidated part
of the deposit which was probably subjected to significant
desiccation.
155
5.2.4 Cone Penetration Data
Figure 5.5 shows the cone penetration resistance, qc, ob-

tained by a standard FUGRO 60 cone and the pore pressure, u.,3
measured at the tip of an 18' conical piezometer during steady
penetration at a rate of 1 to 2 cm/sec in three different holes

each!. Since cone penetration is continuous and largely inde-
pendent of testing procedures and human interference, q cand

j
u.
provide consistent and reliable data for evaluating stratifica-
tion and variabiilty of the soil.
As in the case of field vane test results Fig. 5.4b! and
conventional sampling and laboratory testing data Fig. 5.3!,

BBC between 25 and 120 ft. can be divided into an upper over-
consolidated clay above 75 ft. and a different lower clay. In
addition, q and u. indicate that the upper clay can possibly

c l
be divided into two sublayers, 25 to 60; and 60 to 75 ft., or
even three sublayers, 25 to 40; 40 to 60; and 60 to 75 ft.
5.2.5 In Situ Static Pore Pressures
Figure 5.6 shows estimated values of the total stress, 0
and the static pore pressures, u, in the soil obtained by leav-

ing conical probes in the ground for sufficient periods of time.
Measurements suggest that some artesian pressure exists in the
underlying glacial till' For purposes of dissipation calcula-
tions, a 10 ft. artesian head in the till was selected.
l56
5.2.6 Pressuremeter Results
Ladd et al. 979! conducted a comprehensive study of

self boring pressuremeter tests in BBC. Fig. 5.7 shows
the limit pressure, p<, obtained at Sta. 246 by meansof

the French FAFSOR equipment. Amongst all pressuremeter
measurements, p< was most consistent less scatter! and
relatively independent of the testing procedures and the
interpretation method. Results in Fig. 5.7 indicate that,
regardless of the interpretation method, the variation of
p< with depth in the upper BBC above a depth of 75 ft is

different from the lower BBC below 75 ft.
Another interesting aspect of pressuremeter results
is the ratio of peak to ultimate* strengths backfigured
from FAFSOR tests at Station 246. Fig. 5.8 indicates that:
1! Xn spite of significant scatter due to testing procedures

and different interpretation methods, the lower BBC below
75 ft exhibits a more pronounced strain-softening behavior;
and 2! Tests performed by the British CAMKOMETERequipment,

at Station 263 give basically the same results.
5.2.7 Cla Compressibility
Constant rate of strain tests performed by Germaine
978! on good quality undisturbed samples at Station 246

indicate different compressibilities in the upper and lower
*At relatively large strains'

157
BBC below 75 ft. Fig. 5.9 shows typical strain* vs. log
effective stress plots for two samples recovered from
depths 4l.5 and 84.5 ft. Clearly, the lower clay exhibits
a very sensitive behavior with a collapse in structure once
the maximum past pressure is exceeded.
5.3 EVALUATION OF PREDICTIONS:
EFFECT OF CONE ANGLE AND POROUS STONE LOCATION
This section attempts to answer two basic questions:
1! Is the initial distribution of excess pore pres-
sures estimated by the strain path method Chapter 3!
adequate for dissipation predictions?
2! Are predictions based on linear uncoupled analyses
sufficiently accurate for estimating dissipation rates?
This will be achieved by the following approach:
1! Select a section layer! of the BBC deposit where
dissipation data exhibit no trend with depth. Appendix

A shows detailed dissipation measurements indicating
that, below a depth of 60 ft approximately!, no
depth effect. can be detected.
2! Compare dissipation measurements obtained at mid-

height of an 18' cone with linear uncoupled solutions
in order to estimate a coefficient of consolidation for
*Strains are expressed

as e/1+cofor illustration.
e and e are the initial and present void ratio at any stress
level.
158
this section below 60 f t! . The mid-height of the

cone is attractive because a! Solutions are based
on the same cone geometry as actual piezometers.
This is not the case for measurements conducted at
the tip of a cone. b! The analytical uncertainties

are reasonably small e.g. low level of linear coupling,
pore pressure gradients and numerical instabilities
near the cone axis!.
3! Using this coefficient of consolidation and the

solutions presented in Chapter 4, predict dissipation
rates for 18 and 60 cones at different locations
on the cone and shaft behind it; and evaluate pre-

dictions by comparisons with measurements.
It is important to recall that dissipation is mainly

controlled by the horizontal coefficient of consolidation
see Chapter 4! and is believed to impose a reloading mode
of drained straining see Chaps.2 &3 ! in the early
dissipation stages.
5.3.1 Dissi ation at Mid-Hei ht of an 18 Cone
Figure 5.10 compares measured values of the normalized

excess pore pressure, u = hu/Au ! vs. time, with linear
uncoupled solutions at mid height of an 18 conical probe

Chapter 4!. The shaded band represents the range of six
dissipation records below a depth of 60 ft in the BBCdeposit
at Saugus. No effect of depth could be detected in these
records obtained from two holes test locations!.
159
Results in Fig. 5.10 indicate that:
1! Measurements fall within a narrow band and are
bound by linear isotropic uncoupled solutions cor-
responding to coefficients of consolidation of 0.02

2
and 0.08 cm /sec. Since dissipation is mainly gov-
erned by the horizontal coefficient. of consolidation,
solutions for an anisotropic soil are expected to lead
to the same results provided that ch = 0.02 and 0.08

2
cm /sec, as indicated in Fig. 5.10.
2! For ch = 0.04 cm2 /sec, good agreementbetween

linear uncoupled predictions and measurements is achieved
up to 50% consolidation u = 0.5!. At later consolida-
tion stages, actual dissipation appears to take place
slightly slower than predicted.
5.3.2 Effect of Stone Location
Using ch = 0.04 cm2 /sec for the BBCdeposit below 60

ft, Fig. 5.11 shows dissipation predictions heavy lines!
at four different locations on an 18' conical probe after sub-
stituting the appropriate value of R= 1.91 cm in the ex-
pression for the time factor T = cht/R 2 !. The shaded ba~ds

represent the range of selected* dissipation records below
a depth of 60 ft in the BBC deposit in Saugus, Mass. The
selection of dissipation records for this comparison is
Records selected are clearly identified in Appendix A.

160
performed on the basis of consistency in order to minimize

discrepancies due to natural soil variability and, in some
cases, to eliminate clearly unacceptable results due to poor
deairing of the porous stone.
The results in Fig. 5.11 indicate that:
1! Stone at the cone apex Fig. 5.lla!; the measure-

ment band falls between the predicted dissipation
curves at the, cone apex and the rnid-cone, but remains
closer to the latter at most dissipation levels. This

result is not surprising since predictions consider a
complete conical tip, whereas measurements are con-
ducted with a probe having a cylindrical porous stone

at the tip, see Fig. 5.lla and Fig. 2.1
The dashed heavy! line in Fig. 5.lla represents
the "average" dissipation curve obtained at any time
t, by averaging the predicted normalized excess pore
pressure, u, at the cone apex and mid-cone. This
semi-empirical "average" dissipation curve shows very

good agreement with measurements especially when
u< 0.6! and will be used subsequently to predict
the horizontal coefficient of consolidation,ch, from

dissipation records obtained with the 18' piezometer
probe when the porous element is located at the cone
tip Fig. 2.1!.
2! Stone at rnid-cone; results in Fig. 5.lib are the

sarae as Fig. 5.10 discussed earlier.
161
3! Stone at the base of the cone Fig. 5. llc!; rela-
tively few experiments were conducted with the porous
stone at the base of the cone [One testing location
hole! and 8 depths dissipation records!] and dis-
sipation was interrupted at relatively small consoli-

dation levels* u = 0.7!. Nevertheless, records are
consistent, plot in a relatively narrow band, and ex-
hibit a slower dissipation rate than predicted.
4! Stone far behind the cone Fig. 5.lid!; pore
pressure dissipation far behind the tip is of parti-

cular interest because it simulates the condition along
pile shafts after driving. The predicted dissipation

curve heavy line! corresponds to solutions obtained
at a distance 10 R R = radius of the shaft! behind
the cone apex location 4 in Fig. 4.4! and is very
close to one-dimensional solutions simulating the
shaft conditions far behind the tip. The measured
dissipation curves are obtained at a distance l6 R
behind the tip where a uniform condition along the
shaft is closely reached .. Clearly, measurements
fall in a narrow band*" and take longer to
Dissipation behind the tip requires approximately

one log cycle of time more than the tip.
This does not necessarily imply a small experimental

scatter but probably reflects the small number of available
records depths!.
162
dissipate than predicted. For example, when

0.7 < u < 0.8, the predicted time to reach a given
u is approximately 2.5 times less than measured.

5.3.3 Effect of Cone Angle
Figure 5.12 compares predicted and measured normalized

excess pore pressure dissipation at the apex of a 60' probe.
The predicted heavy! curve corresponds to linear uncoupled

solutions at the apex of the cone which are very close to
mid-cone
solutions,Fig. 4.6! andassumes
ch = 0.04 cm2 /sec
as in Fig. 5.11!. The shaded area represents the range
of selected dissipation records below a depth of 60 ft and
indicates significant scatter at early stages of consolida-
tion t < 1000 sec, say! when compared to results of the

18' cone Fig. 5.11!. The results in Fig. 5.12 show
good agreement between predictions and measurements up to
50% consolidation u > 0.5!. At later consolidation stages
u < 0.5! the theory "slightly" overpredicts the dissipation

rate as in the case of the 18' cone.
5.3.4 Summar of Corn arisons
Predictions of excess pore pressure dissipation based

on linear uncoupled solutions lead to good agreement with
measurements at different locations on an 18' cone and at
the tip of a 60' cone! at the early stages of consolidation.
This suggests that the initial distribution of excess pore

163
pressures estimated by the strain path method Chapter 3!

is reasonably accurate. On the other hand, predictions at
later stages of consolidation tend to overestimate dis-
sipation rates* especially on the shaft behind the 18 cone
and the tip of the 60' cone. This discrepancy is believed
to result from coupling, nonlinearities, and various
levels of soil remolding*" around the cone so far neglected
in the analysis. The decrease in the drained volumetric!

soil stiffness with the increase in effective stresses during
consolidation provides the most reasonable explanation for

the delay in measured dissipation rates.
The accuracy achieved by linear uncoupled solutions
in estimating ch within a factor of 1.5 to 2.5! is be-
lieved to provide adequate predictions for most practical
purposes, especially in view of other existing methods of
determining in situ values of ch and the scatter of experi-
mental results due to inherent soil variability. More
sophisticated analyses would be necessary only if measure-

ments conducted to large degrees of consolidation*** say
u< 0.1! indicate a more significant deviation from pre-
dictions. However, the designer using ch values estimated
By underestimating the time to reach a given degree

of consolidation by a factor of 1.5 to 2.5.
Leading to a nonuniform ch in the soil.

** Not performedherein.
164
from dissipation records by means of linear uncoupled
solutions recommended herein! should bear in mind that
these ch values apply to reloading conditions after

severe shear straining or slight remolding has taken
place!, might be slightly overestimated if the degree
of consolidation achieved is low u > 0.5! and are sig-
nificantly higher than needed to predict foundation per-
formance involving soil conso1.idation in the normally
consolidated range.
Table 5.l presents the recommended factors to inter-
pret dissipation records obtained by means of l8' probe
when the stone is located at the tip and at mid-height;
and, for a 60' probe with the stone at the tip. The coef-
ficient of consolidation ch at a given degree of consolida-

2
tion is evaluated by dividing the factor RT in Table 5.l!
by the measured time necessary to achieve this dissipation
level.
5. 4 COEFPICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION PROFILES
A major advantage of dissipation tests conducted by
means of conical probes is that they are rapidly performed
and hence enable profiles of the coefficient of consolidation,
ch, and possibly the coefficient of permeability, kh vs.

depth to be obtained economically. Such profiles are ex-
pensive to develop through other in situ or laboratory tests

165
and are necessary for reliably evaluating the performance of

foundations* and many other geotechnical applications see Chap-
ter L! .
This section investigates the capability of conical probes

to establish profiles of ch and possibly k ! in the BBCdeposit.
and, in addition, attempts to answer the following two basic
questions:
1. What cone angle and what location of the porous stone
provides the most reliable profiles? and,
2. What degree of consolidation or dissipation time! is
necessary to obtain reasonably accurate profiles?
Thefollowing ch profiles are basedon the results in Table
5.1 obtained from linear uncoupled dissipation analyses using
the initial excess pore pressures derived by the strain path
method. These initial distributions were found to provide good
agreementwith measurements
for the BBCdeposit below a depth
of 45 +5! ft. having an OCR< 3 Chapter 3!; therefore, predic-
tions of ch above45 ft. are not as reliable as the profiles
below 45 ft. Finally, adequate theoretical modelling of dissi-
pation can be detected in the following profiles if ch does not
dependon the consolidation level, i.e., the value of u.
which are, in turn, necessary to evaluate the estimated

profile.
166
5. 4. 1 18' Piezometer Probe with Measurements at Mid-Cone
Figures 5.13 through 5.17 show the predicted profiles

of ch in BBC at Saugus, Staktt.on 246! obtained by matching
solutions and measurements at 20, 40, 50, 60 and, 80% dis-
sipation, i.e. u = 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.8, respectively.

The solid line in each figure represents a reference line
for comparisons which is later shown to provide the best
estimate of the ch profile.~
Results in Figs. 5 13 through 5.17 indiaate that;
a! at 20%consolidation, the ch0 data in Fig.

5.13 exhibit significant scatter, especially above
40 ft where, at a given depth, ch can vary within one

log cycle. Furthermore, most of the ch data above
40 ft to 50 ft! are lower than the reference profile,
and, below 40 ft are higher than the reference profile;
b! the scatter is significantly reduced when 40%
Fig. 5.14! and 50% Fig. 5.15! consolidation are
reached. Furthermore, ch0 and ch! 50 data are

very close and more evenly distributed about the
reference profile; and,
c! at high consolidation.levels, ch!60 and ch!80

Figs. 5.16 and 5.17! exhibit approximately the same
features as ch0 but tend to overestimate ch in the
*At about 50%consolidation.

167
deposit below 40 to 50! ft. Note that the number

of data points at high consolidation:-levels is re-
duced by the long dissipation times required; especially

in the lower deposit.
5.4.2 18' Piezometer Probe with Stone at Tip
Figures 5.18 through 5.24 show predicted profiles of

ch in BSCobtainedby matchingsolutions andmeasurements
at 20, 40, 50, 60 and, 80% dissipation. Results indicate
that:
a! at, 20%dissipation Fig. 5. 18!, ch! 20 data

exhibit considerable scatter at. any depth and are
generally smaller than the reference profile. The

scatter is consistent with the wide band of measure-
ments in the u vs. log t plot at early times Fig.
5 ' lla!;
b! the experimental scatter is somewhat reduced in

the prof iles of ch!40 and. ch!50 Figs. 5. 19 and 5.20!
and the predictions are well centered about the
reference profile, and;
c! the predicted profiles of ch! 60 and ch!80
Figs. 5.21 and 5.22! are very similar to that of

ch0 but contain muchless data points.
l68
5.4.3 60' Piezometer Probe with Stone at Ti
Figures 5 23 through 5.27 show predicted profiles
of ch in BBC obtained by matching predictions and mea-

surements at 20, 40, 50, 60 and 80% dissipation, res-
pectively. Results indicate that:
a! at 20%consolidation Fig. 5.23!, the ch0 data

exhibit considerable scatter. In the deposit above
40 ft, ch! 20 is significantlv higher than the

reference profile;
b! at 40%consolidation Fig. 5.24!, the ch0

data are much more consistent and plot close to
the reference profile;
c! values of ch! 50 exhibit practically no scatter

but indicate a slightly lower value of ch
2
= 0.03 cm /sec! than the reference profile
ch = 0.04 cm2 /sec! for the clay below a depth of

60 f t, and;
c! prof iles of ch! 60 and ch! 80 Figs. 5. 26 and

5 ~27! show the samefeatures as ch! 50
Fig. 5.25! but contain much less data points.
5. 4.4
1- Estimates of the coefficient of consolidation after
20% consolidation involve significant scatter and
are therefore unreliable.
2 Results obtained after 40,50,60, and 80% consolida-
tion are plotted in Fig. 5.28 for three types of probe:

a! An l8~ cone with the porous stone at midheight.
l69
Predictions of ch probe! basedon linear uncoupled

solutions involve moderate scatter and are very close
to the reference profile. However, no data are avail-
able below 75 ft.
b! An 18' cone with the porous stone at the tip. Pre-

dictions of c probe! based on a semi-empirical pro-
h
cedure see Sec. 5.3.2! are generally close to the

reference profile but involve more scatter, especial-
ly in the upper clay above 75 ft.
c! A 60 cone with the porous stone at the tip. Predic-
tions of ch probe!basedon linear uncoupled
solutions
are close to the reference profile and involve moderate
scatter. However,values of ch probe! in the lower
clay below 75 ft.! are 25%smaller than the reference
profile.
3 - Therefore, it appears reasonable to assumethat ch probe!

is given by the reference profile
5. 5 COMPARISON WITH LABORATORYMEASUREMENTS

AND FIELD PERFORMANCE
Figure 5.29 comparesthe predicted reference! profile

of horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch probe! ob-
tained from dissipation records of conical probes with
relevant laboratory and field measurementsconsisting of:
170
a! constant rate of strain consolidation CRSC>

tests* conducted by Germaine {1978! on six good
guality undisturbed samples recovered between depths
40 ft and 100 ft at the Saugus site. The data from
these tests consist of the vertical coefficient of
consolidation corresponding to: ! the normally

consolidated range, c v NC!, after the estimated
maximum past pressure has been significantly exceeded;

and, ! the overconsolidated range, c SW!, obtained
v
during rebound {swelling! at the corresponding estimated

OCR;
b! profiles of cV{loading! estimated by Davis and

Poulos and by Duncan M.I.T., l975! on the basis of in
situ pore pressure measurements conducted in the
foundation clay under the I-95 embankment centerline,
about 2000 ft from the cone penetration testing site,

since its construction in 1967 and up to 1974.
d! A range of swelling c unloading!, back-

figured by Bromwell and Lambe 968! on the basis
of in situ pore pressure dissipation measurements in

a thick BBC deposit due to a wide excavation for the
construction of the Student Center at M.I.T. The
soil deposit underlying M I.T. conta.ins a 50 ft BBC
Wissa et al., 1971

171
layer with very strong similarities to the BBC
below 50 ft at the Saugus site.
Noting that all available lab measurements and
field performance data correspond to vertical water flow,
the results in Fig. 5. 2 9 indicate that:
a! ch probe! in the lower BBCbelow 75 f t is

virtually identical to the backfigured values of
c unloading! obtained by Bromwell and Lambe 968!.
V
This strongly suggests that dissipation predictions

by the piezometer probe at 50% consolidation give
reasonable field rebound or reloading! values of
ch and that the lower BBCexhibits little anisotropy,

b! ch probe! is approximately twice higher than
swelling laboratory values c v SÃ! in the lower BBC
below 75 ft; and, 5 to 8 times higher in the upper
clay between 40 and 75 ft. This appears to indicate

that the upper clay has a more pronounced anisotropic
permeability.
c! The variation of ch probe! with depth shows the

same trend as laboratory measurements of c v NC!.
Furthermore, the profile of c v NC! is virtually the
same as backfigured by Duncan N. I.'P., 1974! for
f ield cv loading! . However, the magnitude of ch probe!

is about 40 times higher than cv loading! in the
172
lower clay below 75 ft; and, about 30 +10! times
in the upper clay between 40 and 75 feet.
In summary,the profile of ch probe! determined at 50%

dissipation in BBC appears to provide good estimates of the
coefficient of consolidation to be used in foundation prob-
lems involving unloading and possiblv reloading of over
consolidated clays above the maximum past pressure. On
the other hand, ch probe! are significantly higher than

values of the coefficient of consolidation required to
estimate the pore pressure dissipation rate in foundation
clays compressed in the normally consolidated range. The
application of ch probe! to these problems requires an

investigation of the relevant clay compressibility that
governs dissipation of excess pore pressures around cones.
This is a difficult task involving significant. uncertainties

but is also necessary to estimate the coefficient of
permeability from ch probe!.
5.6 COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
5.6.l Mechanism and Simplifications
Cone penetration in clays causes undrained shearing of
the soil under constant volume conditions and hence, in
medium to soft clays, reduces the effective stresses. When
steady penetration is interrupted and pore pressures start
to dissipate, effective stresses increase and the soil de-
creases in volume. Soil compressibility during dissipation

173
is very difficult to predict accurately because of the compli-

cated two-dimensional nature of the problem and the variation
of soil compressibility during consolidation i.e. nonlinear-

ity!. However, knowing that consolidation starts at an ef-
fective stress level lower than previously existed before pene-
tration, suggests that soil compressibility corresponds to

a reloading or recompression! mode, at least in the early
stages of consolidation. In this mode, the soil compressi-
bility is low and dissipation takes place rapidly because the
coefficient of consolidation is proportional to the ratio
of permeability to compressibility. Using one-dimensional

consolidation for illustration, this means that the coeffi-
cient of consolidation during vertical straining and horizontal
water flow, is given by
kh . l!
h
VW
In a virgin compression mode normally consolidated clay!

ha
CR v
. 2!
m NC! log l+ !
6
vc
and in a recompression mode overconsolidated!
RR .3!
m OC! =- locffl v- !
ha 0
v VC
wherekh is the horizontal permeability cm/sec!;mv

2
is the coefficient of volume change cm /kg!; y, is the unit
weight of water lO-3 kg/cm3 !; CRand RRare the compression
174
and recompression ratios* respectively; and, a and Ao

VC v
are the vertical effective stress and its increment at any

2
consolidation level, respectively kg/em !
For small increments of effective stresses i.e., Av /o' « l!.
Rqs. . 2! and . 3! become
m NC!
2.30
vc
. 4!
m OC!
2 3g
vc
and hence,
W . 5!
k= ' RR ch OC!
2 ~ 30
vc
and; f or a f ixed value of kh small changes in void ratio!,

we can also write
.6!
ch NC! ch OC!
CR
Eqs. 5. 5 and 5. 6 provide estimates of the horizontal
permeability ,k , and the normally consolidated coefficient
of consolidation, ch NC!, in terms of the overconsolidated

horizontal coefficient of consolidation , ch OC!, for vertical
compression of the clay due to horizontal water flow.
*Slope of the vertical strain vs. vertical effective stress

175
Assuming that early consolidation around cones takes place
in a recompression mode, we assume that Eqs 5.5 and 5.6

can be used approximatel for dissi ation around conical
probes when
ch probe! = ch OC!
. 7!
and 0 a
vo VC
wherech probe! is estimatedfrom dissipation records

as discussed previously; and, ovois the vertical effective
stress in the soil prior to cone penetration.
Substituting Eqs .7! into .5! and .6! we get
kh probe! RRprobe! . ch probe! . 8!
2. 3G
vo
ch mC! RHprobe! b . 9!
CR
and knowing that cv NC! = k V /kh! ~ chNC!, we can also write

k
RR probe! v l0!
c NC! ~ ch pro e
CR kh
5. 6. 2 Coef f icient of Permeability
Figure 5.30 shows the predicted profile of kh probe!

based on Kq. 5.8 and the reference c probe! profile*
estimated from dissipation studies for selected values of
basically obtained at 50% dissipation

176
-2
RR probe! = 0. 5, 1 and 2x 10 . Comparing k probe! to the
h
vertical permeability k estimated from laboratory CRSC tests

V
we note that:
l. In the lower more uniform BBC below 75 ft, k probe!
predicted for RR probe! = 10 agree with k lab!

v
8 ~5 1. 5! 10 cm/sec.
2. In the upper BBC,between40 and 75 f t, kh probe!

-2
obtained for RR probe! = 10 underpredicts k lab!
V
by a factor of two approximately! indicating one
or more of the following possibilities.
a- The upper BBC has a more pronounced anisotropic
permeability than the lower clay. This is also
suggested by the swelling vertical coefficients
of consolidation ,c SW!, from CRSC tests and

V
discussed earlier see section 5.5!
b- The value of RR probe! in the upper clay is

-2
lower than 0. 01 equal to 0. 5 x 10, say! be-
cause of its higher OCR =3.5 to 1.3! as compared
to the lower clay OCR = 1.3 to 1.2!
c- The selected ch probe! profile based on results

from all probes tested! neglects the reduced
permeability of the upper BBC. Some results of
18 -probes suggest this possibility and/or the
more erratic nature of this layer see Figs. 5.14,

177
5.15, 5.20, and 5.28!
d- More reliable laboratory or field! permeability
measurements are needed, especially the horizontal
permeability kh
In spite of the above uncertainties in selecting adequate
values of RR probe! and the severe simplifications needed to
reach Eq.5.8, the predictions of kh probe! are considered
very satisfactory especially when compared with other existing
in situ permeability testing methods. Figure 5.31 pre-
sents "sensitivity" test results performed along the 1-95

embankment in Saugus Reeker, 1973!. Sensitivity tests
basically consist of falling head permeability tests which
are conducted to check that field peizometers are functioning
adequately. Interpretation of these falling head tests is
very questionable, see Chapter 1 and Bishop et al., 1964!
and were conducted by Reeker, 1973 after neglecting soil
compressibility. Cl.early, the amount of scatter on the
order of two log cycles! is unacceptable* for design pur-
poses but the data show a general trend of decreasing per-

meability with depth.
5. 7 DISCUSSION OF CLAY COMPRESSIBILITY
DURING DISSIPATION
Ideally, a complete nonlinear analysis of consolidation
If soil compressibility is introduced in interpreting

test data, some reduction of the scatter might be achieved.
178
around cones should provide appropriate values of the recompres-
sion ratio RR probe! to be used in predictions of kh probe! and

c NC! in a particular clay.* However, such a sophisticated an-
alysis is not available, and Kqs. 5.8 and 5.10 are based on sim-
plifying assumptions Eqs. 5.7! and hence, appropriate values of
RR probe! can only be back-figured from measurements or esti-
mates! of kh, c NC!, k, and CR.
5.7.1 The lower BBC below 75 ft.
Eqs. 5.10 and 5.8 are graphically illustrated in the upper
and lower parts of Fig. 5.32, respectively. Estimates of
RR probe! can be obtained by two methods' The first Eq. 5.10!
is based on the measured value of cv NC!/ch probe! and estimates

of kh/k V ! and CR. The second Eq. 5.8! is based on the measured
value of kh/ch probe! [or kv /ch
h
probe! and kh/k
hv
] and an esti-
mate** of the vertical effective stress, o
vo
At a depth of 90 f t. 7. 5 m! in the lower BBC, ch probe!

-3 2 -3 2
40 x 10 cm /sec and laboratory results give c NC! " -10 cm /sec
v
and kv"V 8. 5 x 10 8 cm/sec. Theref ore, c NC! /ch probe! and.

-6 -1
kV/ch probe! equal 0.025 and 2.13 x 10 cm respectively; and
are entered in the upper and lower left hand scales of
Fig. 5.32. Assuming that CR = 0.4, both consolidation and
Of a given type, stress, and environmental history, etc.

**In Fig. 3.51, 0 was computed assuming an effective unit
vo
weight y= 0.75t/m = 47pcf.
179
permeability laboratory test results lead to RR probe!

10 for kh/kv =1; and, RR probe! = 2 x 10 for k h/kv = 2.
Clearly, RR probe! depends on the selected values of CR and
kh/k
a- the compression ratio CR
The selection of an appropriate compression ratio CR
in the lower RBC is a difficult task. In CRSC tests, the

clay consistently exhibits a structural collapse see Fig.
5.9! with a verv high compression ratio, CRmax = 0.7+ 0.2,
after the maximum past pressure has just been exceeded.
higher pressures, a much reduced compression ration CRmin
2
0.17 is reached at cr =5 to 10 kg/cm . Therefore,
CR = 0.4 selected in Fig. 5.32 appears to be a reasonable

average, especially that a decrease in CR causes a decrease
in the backfigured value of RR probe! from consolidation
results but does not affect RR probe! from permeability tests.
b- Anisotropic permeabilitv
Fewreliable data exist on kh/kv in BBC. Guertin 967!

measured
kh/kV = 1.7 in laboratorv permeability tests and
I add 976! recommendskh/k = l. 2 + O.2
c- RR +robe !
Since recompression and swelling ratios are generally
of the same order, the backfiqured values of RR probe! can

be compared to measured swelling ratios SR in CRSC tests:
180
SR = 2.5 +0. 4! x 10 at an OCR= 5; and, SR = 1 7 +0.2!

-2
x 10 at an OCR = 2. Increments of effective stresses in
the early stages of consolidation around cones are not believed

to be large. Therefore, values of &R at an OCR = 2 or less
-2
appear reasonable to compare with RR probe! = 10 estimated
at 50% dissipation.
In conclusion, the above comparisons appear to indicate

that the lower BBCbelow 75 ft. has a very slight anisotropic
permeability i.e. kh/k v = 1! and a value of RR probe! = 10-2
However, the uncertainties in selecting appropriate values of
kh/k v and CR; and, the scatter of experimental results cannot
eliminate the possibility of RR probe! being as low as 0.5 x
-2 -2
10 or as high as 2x 10
S.7.2 The up er BBC between 40 and 75 ft.
Corrrpared to the lower BBC below 75 ft, the upper BBC has
1- Nore strength scatter. An analysis of the cone
resistance and field vane scatter Figs. 5.4 and 5.5!
indicate a coefficient of variation in strength
= standard deviation/mean! equal to 0.1 + 0 F05 as
compared to 0.05 + 0.025 in the lower clav Baliqh

and Vivatrat, 1979!.
2- A higher OCR = 3.5 to 1.3 as compared to 1.3 to 1.2 in
the lower clay, Fig. S.3.

3- A slightly higher salt concentration in the pore water
15 gr/litre as corrrparedto 10 to 15 in the lower clay.

181
4- A slightly lower plasticitv index PI = 19 + 4% vs.
22 + 4% in the lower clay!; and, a slighly lower
liquidity index LI "- 0.8 + 0.3 vs. 1+ 0.3 in the
lower clay.
5- Nore "reasonable" peak strengths and stress-strain
behavior backfigured from aressuremeter tests. The
lower clay has very large peak strengths and verv
severe strain softening, Fig. 5.8.
6- More "reasonable" compression ratios in CRhC laboratorv
tests Fig. 5.9!: CRmax = 0.17 + 0.03 and CRmin
0. 14
7- Possibly a more pronounced anisotropic permeability,
i.e., k /k is probably about 2 see sections 5.5 and

V
5.6.2! .
Figure 5.33 shows the backfigured values of RR probe!

at depths 41.5, 52 and 67.5 ft in the upper BBC assuming that
kh/kV = 2 and CR= 0.15. Basedon laboratory measurements
of
the consolidation coefficients c NC!, the backfigured values
v
of RR probe! are l. 5 x 10, 10 and 0. 75 x 10, respectively.

On the other hand, based on laboratorv estimates of k V, values
2 2 -2
of RR probe! are 0.78 x 10 , 0.46 x 10 and 1.42 x 10 at
depths 41.5, 52 and 67.5 ft, respectively.

Therefore, representative values of RR probe! for the
upper BBC seem to be similar to the lower BBC: approximately

-2 -2
equal to 10 and generally in the range between 0.5 x 10
182
-2
to 2x 10 . Swelling ratios for the upper RBC measured in
CRSC tests give SR = 2.2 +0.4! x 10 at an OCR = 5; and,
SR = 1.6 +0 ~ 6! x 10 at an OCR = 2. This provides added
evidence that the selected values of k /k =2 and CR = 0.15

hv
are reasonable and the recompression of the clay around cones
involves relatively "small" increments of effective stresses
at the early stages of consolidation.
5.8 DISCUSSION AF PROBE DFSIGNS
Table 5.2 describes the advantages and disadvantages
of various conical pore pressure probes used by N.I.T. in
four clay deposits Important aspects in this evaluation
are: a! resolution for soil profiling, i.e., detection of
small scale soil variability; b! cost of manufacturing,
maintaining deairing and replacing porous elements! and
operating the probe; c! repeatability and scatter in
dissipation results; d! dissipation time required to
achieve various levels of consolidation and to measure the
static pore pressure, u; e! reliability and degree of

0
rationality in interpreting results; and, f! special
importance of results to foundation design and the

interpretation of cone penetration resistance testing.
Table 5.2 shows that each type of probe provides some
attractive features but no single design satisfies all
reguirements. In particular, some positive features for one

183
application can represent a disadvantage for another application.
For example, the 18' - tip is believed to provide the best
resolution for soil profiling, but leads to significant scatter
in the pore pressure dissipation at early times.

Therefore, the choice of a probe type must be made after
the objectives of the field investigation program have been

defined and the most critical parameters clearly identified.
5. 9 SUMMARY AND CONCLU<L'ONS
This chapter investigates the capability of simple linear
dissipation solutions in predicting the coefficients of

consolidation and permeability in Boston Blue Clay and evaluates
the effect of various factors in order to achieve reliable and
efficient methods for conducting and interpreting dissipation
tests.
! Results of linear uncoupled consolidation analyses
Chap. 4!, based on the initial distribution of excess pore
pressures determined by the strain path method Chap. 3!, are

compared to dissipation measurements in the soft OCR < 2!
Boston Blue Clay deposit below 60 ft at the Saugus site. The
comparison Figs. 5.11 and 5.l2! indicates that reasonably
good dissipation predictions are achieved at. four locations on
a 18' cone and at. the tip of a 60' cone when the horizontal
coefficient of consolidation ch = 0.04 cm2 /sec. Additional

results of this comparison show that:
184
1.1 At early dissipation stages u > 0.8!, measurements
fall in a wide band and hence lead to significant uncertainties
scatter! in estimating ch. This is particularly true when

the porous stone is located at the tip of the cone Figs.
5.lla and 5.12!.
1.2 At advanced consolidation stages u < 0.6, say!
dissipation tends to proceed slower than predicted Figs.

5.11b, c, d and 5.12!. This is believed to result from soil
nonlinearities and, in particular, the changes in the drained!
soil compressibilitv during consolidation.
1.3 The interpretation of dissipation results obtained
when the porous stone is located at the tip of an 18' cone
requires a semi-empirical procedure because of the difficulty
of analyzing the actual cone geometrv. In this
procedure the degree of consolidation or u! is taken as the
average of the predicted values at the apex and rnid-height
of an ideal cone geometry!.
1.4 Dissipation records obtained on the shaft behind an
18' cone plot in a narrow band but exhibit a slightly slower
rate of dissipation than predicted equivalent to a factor of
about 2 in ch, Figs. 5 llc and d!. This could reflect in-
accuracies in the initial distribution of excess pore pressures
and/or nonlinear coupling effects and/or creep effects neglected
in the proposed prediction method! leading to faster dissipation
ahead of the cone. Nore tests conducted with the porous stone
185
located on the shaft! to high consolidation levels and tests
involving measurements of total stresses on the cone and the

shaft behind it are necessary before more definite conclusions
can be reached.
! Based on these results, the recommended factors for
estimating ch probe! from dissipation records are summarized

Table 5.1!. Profiles of ch probe! in the BBCdeposit at
Saugus are then obtained at different dissipation levels for
three- types of conical probes.. a! an 18' cone with the stone
at the tip; b! an 18 cone with the stone at rnid-height; and
c! a 60~ cone with the stone at the tip. Profiles of ch probe!

are difficult and expensive to develop through other existing
in situ and laboratory tests, and are essential for many geo-
technical applications. The profiling analvsis based on
dissipation data indicates that:
2 1 At early dissipation stages u > 0.8! the scatter of
the data is so high that reasonable ch probe! profiles cannot

be established. The scatter is particularly high when the
porous stone is located at the tip of the cone and. less severe
when the stone is at rnid-height.
2.2 All three probes provide consistent ch probe!

profiles after 50% consolidation +10%! involving a very
moderate degree of scatter.
2.3 Values of ch estimated at high levels of consolidation

u = 0.2! are slightlv lower than obtained at 50% dissipation
186
in the clay below 45 ft.* and higher in the more pervious clav
above 45 ft.
! The predicted profiles of ch probe! after 50%

dissipation are then compared with laboratory and field measure-
ments of the vertical coefficient of consolidation, c, in

v
BBC Fig. 5.29!. This comparison indicates that:
3.1 The predicted variation of c probe! with depth is

h
consistent with the trends of c NC! measured in the laboratory

V
in the normally consolidated range and the profile of c loading!

V
backfigured by Duncan and by Davis and Poulos NIT, l975! on
the basis of insitu pore pressure measurements conducted in
the foundation clay under the I-95 embankment for a period of
7 years after construction.
3.2 The predicted magnitude of c probe! is: - a! very
close to c Vunloading! backfigured by Bromwell and Lambe l968!
on the basis of in situ pore pressure measurements in a very
similar BBC deposit due to a wide exeat.ion; and, b! much higher
0 to 40 times! than c VNC!

v
or c loading! described above.
3.3 Profiles of ch probe! can therefore provide good

estimates of the coefficient of consolidation to be used in
foundation problems involving unloading and possiblv reloading
of overconsolidated clays above the maximum past pressure.
On the other hand, problems involving the compression of clays
*Havingan OCR< 3 and for which the initial pore

pressure distribution, estimated by the strain path method,
proved satisfactorv Chap. 8!.
187
in the normally consolidated. range require modification of
ch probe!to accountfor the differencein clay compressibility

during dissipation [as expressed bV RR probe!] and the
compression ratio, CR, in the normallv consolidated range.
! An approximate method for estimating profiles of
the horizontal coefficient of permeability kh probe! and
cV NC! from profiles of ch probe! is proposed. In spite of
significant simplifying assumptions, the oredicted profiles
of kh probe! andcV NC! appearverv reasonablewhencompared
to laboratory data.
! The backfigured compressibilitv of BBC durinq

-2
dissipation is approximately given by RR probe! = 10 . This
confirms that, as expected, the clay in the early stages of
dissipation around cones u > 0.5! consolidates under relatively
"small" increments of effective stresses such that the maximum
past pressure is not exceeded.
! Finally, a comparison of the advantages of different
types of probes Table 5.2! indicates that the choice of a

probe cone anqle and location of porous stone! for a parti-
cular job can only be made after the objectives of the

investigation program have been defined and the most critical
parameters clearly identified.
188
80
AW
C0
U
~ R~
0
M
0
0V
80
0~
U8
a5 6 CQ
0N
40 8W 0
W gW 0
Q OC4
U
'0
8~ 0
8drd
0 C4
0-~ m
04 8
80+
axa
Lh
0o
189
ADVANTAGES DTSADVANTAGES
-Very sensitive to laeal. soil -Stone exposed to bcndirig

variability hence, very good damage by gravels and
for soil profiling other obstructions
Past dissipation hence econom- -Large scatter in dissipa-
18 Tlp'
ical to operate, especially tion curves at early times
to evaluate the in situ static and significant scatter at
pare pressures later times
-Zrrexpensive design -Geometry difficult to
include in theoretical
a na lyse s hence re@ ui res
semi-empirical interpreta-
tionn
-Little scatter in ch wnen match- -Stone exposed to bending
ing done at intermediate times damage
t4p < t < t6p, say! -Large scatter in dissi-
-past dissipation pation curves at carly
60' TIP -Inexpensive design times hence reguires a=
-Rational interpretation despite least 404 di.ssipation
geometry to determine ch,
-Provides i~sight into penetration.
mechanisms with dutch cone same
cone an Le!
-Reasonable dissipation time - Iore exoensive design
18' -Reasonable scatter in dissipation need special porous
curves even at early times elements!
Mid Height Rational theoretical predictions -Porous stone is easily
-Stone well protected from struc- smeared during perretra-
tural dama es tion in ranular materi
-Close simulation of pile instal- -Very long dissipation
lation hence, useful in pile time i.e., expensive
design to operate!
18' or 60'
-Very litt' e scatter in dissipation -Nat very sensit.ive to
rrrtith Stone curves small scale soil vari-
on Shaft -Easier to interpret ability i.e,, tendency
-Appears to provide estimates of ch to average out pore
c1oser to normally consolidated pressure!
values Yore difficult to keep
-Excellent protection for the the stone well drained
cross stane -Yore ex enaive design
NOTES ' The conclusions in this table are based on N.I.T.

experience in three clay deposits. Different.
probe designs and/or procedures in other clays
might lead to different conclusions.
Table 5. 2 Evaluation of dif ferent probe designs

19
L
p
0
60
0
193.
'. 0.
.'.0; 0
'O. tO
ia.
'O.
0
OO CV
;P,
o
'oj
0
~.O lA
Q Ch
I
H
~O g
"o Cf
0
0
I
Xl
.Go
Q '0: 4W
0 0
O-: r
,0 CQ
rd
b,,O 8
M 0
8
0 rn
0 0 N
t VU
0
0 8A
4
M QJ
KV
QM
oo 0
0g N
0
~s! Noixvnzaz
192
ik 'Hid3O
0Q Q0 0
e. 95
Eo
Ib ib
Ii
h.
CO CL
cf
+v!~
o 0
~ UJ CU 'U
W EE
LL I-
CO
ib ib
hJ ~0
O
O
0 ~O
K
O
I- W
0 C3
LLJ
00
LL
00 00 0 CI 0
cu rf- 4 C! 0 eV
II II II
kk NOI J.VA 333

l93
x
m
0
Z
ILI
f- co
lh
R< 0
a
~ cu
Z
S
Z
uP
K
bk
Z 0
0>
0
IJ
V!
I- 4
0
0
~ cu
zE
Ch
Ci
IJJ
~0
04
X 0
CV
O
0
0 CV
19'
LIMIT PRESSURE, P> kg/gm or TSF!

68 IO t2
20
60
80
IOO
I 20
Fig.
5.7
Limit
Pressure
Measurem
atthe
Saugus Site
197
cq Peak! /c< Ultimate! FROM P- LOG AV/V!
20
60
BO
IOO
l20
Fig.
5.8
Ratio
of
Peak
toUltimate
by
Strengths
Measur
Pressuremeter at the Saugus Site
198
0.54
0.50
0.46
0.42
0.38
0.34
0,30
04 0.8 24 8 IO 20
VERTICAL, EFFECTIVE STRESS kp/cm !
Fig. 5.9 Typical Compressibility of the Upper and

Lower Boston Blue Clay at the Saugus Site
CRSC tests!
199 OO
0
OO
0 CO CP AJ 0
0 0 OO 0
~P'/ "T = 2 3HOSS38d 380d SS30X3 03ZllVWHON
200
Vl
IL
X
00
ZC
~ O
4I
Z
O Vl
X 4I
8
Z
Vl4 X
O EJ al
Iu VJ
I OX
Z
IL
O
4I
la
00
4.
ILI
O
Z
ln
OZ
ID IP
IU IU
I-
nl
Z0 4I
O
40
Vl VJ W
Z0 4
I-
00 0
O rn
-J
X
J-
IJJ4 0
I- 4I
It ln
O
4
OZ
la F4
II5
~ D. QI
III
Q~
0 0, V
4J
Vl Z0 0 4J
CI Q CJ
X
ZO
Vf
IJ
CJ
0
Z
XO
4I
CI
W0
Q,~
IJI 0 Vl 4I
V.
4 IIJ
X Ill U ln
0
X
K
a.
0O
Z O al In n.
IU
0
Z IQ IU D D
OX VV
O
O ICI 00 0
0
4. IL
IU O 4I
O
Z OZ VI OZ Q! W
O O
Vl 4 Pl
Vl O ID VI
4 4I IIJ VJ IV
It
VlJV 4J 0
O
Z IV WN
X 4I
IU a IJ
lr
4t Z 4
VJ 0 0
4 Vl t D 0 0
VJ 0
4I
Z JVD rV V Q
CJ
0 34 ln» IV 4
4
I- 40 U C
O al VJ
V» 4 a e
IJ VI
I OI~ IIV0
D Q
O IU
Z IL VIy CIVJIJ 40
II 0 II
V.Il'
I VJ
Vl VJ 4 A 0I
Vl
ca ID Vt Al 0 0 CD ID ct DI 0
0 0O O O -' O O 00 O
"7/DVv n 38ASS38d 380d SS33X3 G3ZljlPACCON
201
00
O
0
CO
'LD
OO
0 00
'0
S4
f4
g
0~
V
4X
PiU
.~ 0
n$
Cl MD
o 5
0 I
W Q. 3
X
0 Pl
I- 0
D0
R
r5 0
0 f4
WG
OA
0
g
0W
0
rd g
50
KU
O 0! LO CV O
OO OO 0
'~V/ "9 " 38ASS38d 380d SS33X3 032110lhlHON
202
Fig. 5.13 Predicted Prof',j.e of ch in BBC Sauqus,

Station 246! 18 Mid-Height, 20% Dissioation
2
C
Ll
Fig. 5.14 Predicted Profile of ch in BBC Sauqus, Stat.

246!: 18 Mid-Heiqht, 40% Dissipation
204
l3 'HJ 830
Fig. 5.15 PredictedProfile of ch in BBC Saugus

Stat. 246!: 18 Mid-Height, 50% Dissipation
205
b
AJ
Fig. 5.16 PredictedProfile of ch in BBC Sauqus,Stat.

246!: 18' Mid-Height, 60% Dissioation
206
Fig. 5.17 Predicted Profile of ch in aaC Saugus,

Stat. 246!: 18' Mid-Height, 80'% Dissipation
207
ld Hl 330
Fig. 5.l8 Predicte~ T.'.rofi-l. of ch in SIC Saugus,

Stat. 246!: l8 tip; 20% dissipation
208
ld 'HJ J3G
Fig. 5.l9 Predicted Profile of c> in BBC Sauqus, Stat.

246!: l8' tip, 40% dissipation
209
L1 m
Fig. 5.20 Predicted Profile of ch in BBC Sauqus

Stat. 246!: l8' tip; 50%, dissipation
Fig. 5.21 Predicted Profile of ch in BBC Saugus, Stat.
Fig. 5. 22 Predicted Prof ile of c> in BBC Saugus
Stat. 246!: l8' tip, 80% dissipation
212
I3 'Hld30
Fig. 5.23 Predicted Profile of ch in HHC Rauaus, Stat.

213
li 'HJ J30
Fig. 5.24 Predicted Profile of c> in BBC Saugus, Stat.

246!: 60 tip, 40% Dissipation
214
Fig. 5.25 Predicted Profile of c> in BBC Saugus, Stat,

215
Ci
Fig. S.26 Predicted Profile of ch in BBC Saugus, Stat. 246!:

60' tip, 60% dissipation
2C
CD
id Hid30
Fig. 5. 27 Predicted Profile of c> in BBC Saugus, Stat. 246!:

60' tip, 80% dissipation
217
100
0
40
Z
IL
ILI
O 80
80
100
0
ZO
40
60
100
0.01 O.I I .0 10.0
COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION, cm~/sec
Fig. 5.28 Summaryof pre<3.icted ch probe! profile in

Boston Blue Clay, Saugus site
218
r4
O
0
IJ U
~P
III W0
EP
E
0
Z
8
OO
W8
4P
0 0
ZU
0
4 48
UJ
LI.
b. 6
LJ
O
8 OJ
%U
0
8
0 W
RA
O
0R
00
U Kl
OO OO
Q7
lk HLd30
219 e0
0 CP
0!
L4I
j
0 0Q.
Z'
UJ
4U
L4
O0
0
0
00 00 00 0
g! ! 0
'HLd3a
220 O
CP
0
0 CO
4J
tK
hJ
Q.
4.
o
0 UJ
U 4.
UJ
o
0
0
0
0
221
c NC! icy probe! RR probe!
IQ IO Io' IQ' IO IQ"

IQQ IOO
Ill
0
IQ IO
E
I
IQ IO
10
IQ IO
IO' IQ IO IO IO IO'
kq ! co probe I, ere RR probeI
Fig. 5.32 Backfigured compressibility of the lower

Boston Blue Clay fror diSSipatian analySeS
222
c NC! /ck probe! R R probe'!
10 10 10 10 10 2 10 '
100 100
0
10 10
IX
I I
10 10
1
ly
1+ 10 10
LP
10' 10
10 ' I P-6 10 I0 I02 I O.I
ky/ck probe!, cm RR probe!
Fig. 5.33 Backfigured compressibility of the upper

Boston Blue Clay from dissipation analyses
223
CHAPTER 6
RECOMMENDED INTERP RETAT I ON METHOD
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides recommended procedures to the
geotechnical engineer in order to estimate profiles of the
coefficients of consolidation and permeability in fine
grained saturated soils from dissipation records of pore
pressures after interruption of deep steady cone penetra-
tion. Important practical aspects related to the prepara-
tion, performance and interpretation of dissipation tests
are reviewed. The proposed method is them applied to a
varved clay deposit and results are compared to existing
laboratory data.
6.2 PREDICTION METHOD
The prediction method is based on linear uncoupled
consolidation analyses Chapter 4! using the initial
normalized excess pore pressure distribution for normally
consolidated Boston Blue Clay Chapter 3!. Results of
these analyses are given in Fig. 6.1 and Table 6.1 for
three types of probes*: 18'-cone with porous stone at
the tip; 18'-cone with the stone at mid-cone; and 60
cone with the stone at the tip.
The method also applies to probes where the porous stone

is located on the piezometer shaft. However, because of the
long dissipation time required to reach reasonable dissipation
levels, these probes are not practically attractive.
224
6.2.l Normalized Dissi ation Curves
The first step in the prediction method consists of
normalizing dissipation records and plotting u vs. log
uu
0
u ~ l!
u ~ u
i0
where u is the normalized excess pore pressure at time t!,
u the static or in situ! pore pressure, u. the initial

0
or penetration! pore pressure at t.=0 and, u, the pore

pressure recorded at time t. In general, the normalized
excess pore pressure, u, decreases monotonically from l.0
at t=0! to 0 t !.
6.2.2 Choice of Records
An important step in predicting reliable profiles is

to identify and eliminate unusual dissipation records caused
by high soil variability or irrrproper performance of the

piezometer probe. This operation requires engineering judge-
ment and some experience. Unusual records are characterized
by:
a! A much higher or much lower! initial pore pressure,
u., that may be easily detected in a plot of penetration

3.
pore pressure versus depth;
b! A fluctuation or an increase in pore pressure or u!
for a significant, period of time more than 10 sec, say!
after penetration stops.

225
6 2.3 A licabilit of Predictions
When dissipation tests are first conducted at a new
site, it is important to check that the prediction method
is applicable, i.e., check the validity of linear uncoupled

analyses and the initial distribution of the normalized
excess pore pressure used. This can be achieved graph-
ica.lly by comparing the measured normalized dissipation

u vs. log t! curves to the recommended curves of u vs.
2
log T T=cht/R , R=shaft radius! in Fig. 6.l. The measured.
dissipation curve u vs. log t! is plotted to the same
scale of u vs. log T and translated horizontally with re-
spect to the predicted curve while maintaining equality
of u! until the best agreement is achieved. According to

linear uncoupled analyses, the horizontal translation re-
flects changes in ch whereas the shape of the dissipation

curve depends on the initial excess pore pressure distribu-
tion around the probe. Therefore, a good agreement between
the measured and recommended normalized dissipation curves
provides a strong indication* of the applicability of the

prediction method to the soil at hand.
Chapter 3 shows that dissipation curves are very

sensitive to the initial distribution of excess pore
pressures.
226
6.2.4 Evaluation of ch probe!
At a given degree of consolidation, the predicted
horizontal coefficient of consolidation ch probe! is

obtained from the expression
RT
ch probe!
where R is the radius of the cone shaft, t is the measured
time to reach this degree of consolidation; and, T is the

time factor. Table 5.l provides values of T for different
probe types at various degrees of consolidation.

An analytical method* to check the validity of the
prediction method consists of determining ch at different
dissipation stages, i.e., different u. Large differences
betweench at various degrees of consolidation indicate an
inadequate initial distribution of excess pore pressure or
significant coupling, or creep behavior.
The estimated values of ch probe! at 50'4dissipation

can be used in foundation problems involving horizontal
water flow due to unloading or reloading of clays above the
maximum past pressure. For problems involving vertical

water flow in the overconsolidated range, the vertical
*Equivalent to the graphical method described in

Section 6.2.3.
227
coefficient of consolidation, c probe!, can be estimated

v
from the expression:
k
c probe! = k ch probe! . 3!
h
where kvand kh are the vertical and horizontal coefficients

of permeability, respectively. Reliable estimates of the
in situ anisotropy of clays as expressed. by the ratio k /k

v
is difficult to determine in the laboratory because of the
effects of sample size sample disturbance,...etc. and is
the subject of controversy Rowe, 1972; Casagrande and
Poulos, 1969!. In situ tests to determine kh/k v are almost

non-existent. Table 6.2 provides rough estimates of kh/kv
for different clays.
6.2.5 Prediction of kh probe!
Approximate estimates of the horizontal coefficient
of consolidation, kh probe!, can be obtained from the

expression:
W
kh probe! = ~ ~RRprobe! . ch probe! . 4!
vo
~ .. 2
where a vo
is the initial vertical effective stress kg/cm !;
-3 3
Ywis the unit weight of water =10 kg/cm !; and, RR probe!
is the recompression ratio during early stages of consolida-
tion around the probe {50% dissipation, say!.

228
Results in both the upper and lower Boston Blue Clays
indicate that:
-2
the average RR probe! = l0 . 5!
and generally 0. 5xl0 < RR probe! < 2xl0 . 6!
6.2.6 Prediction of c NC!

V
For foundation clays consolidated in the normally con-
solidated range, estimates of the coefficients of consolida-
tion can be obtained from ch probe! by means of the expres-

sions:
ch NC! CR
~ch probe! . 7!
for horizontal water flow, and
k
RR rpbe! V
. 8!
v NCR 3ch h
for vertical water flow.
The compression ratio CR is the average slope of the
strain vs. log effective stress plot in the appropriate

effective stress range expected during consolidation of
the foundation clay. Values of CR should be obtained from
good quality samples carefully tested in the laboratory.

Table 6.2 provides rough estimates of CR based on empirical
correlations with index properties of various clays'

229
6.2.7 Assimilation of RR robe! data in different soils
Figure 6.2 can be used to check estimates of kh/ch probe!

and cv NC!/ch probe} based on Eqs. 6.4 and 6.8, respectively.
Xt can also prove convenient in rapidly assessing the effect of
uncertainties in RR probe!, CR, and khjk V . More importantly,

however, Fig. 6.2 provides a systematic method of assimilating
RR probe! data in different soils when measurements or esti-
mates! of kh, kv, CR, and cv NC! are available see Pigs. 5.31
and S. 32! .
230
6.3 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.3.1 Performance of the Piezometer Probe
One of the essential factors affecting the quality,
and hence the reliability of dissipation records is the
design and deairing of probes.
A good design must lead to a rigid system capable of
providing a very rapid response with a minimum inflow of

water into the system. In addition, it should enable the
user to easily assemble, disassemble, deair and maintain

the probe deaired until in situ tests are performed.
A deairing technique at least, as careful as currently
adopted at M.I.T. see Chapter 2! is strongly recommended.

Crude deairing in the field is not acceptable. Checking of
the response before field testing is important. This can

be achieved by moving the probe quickly up and down in a
bucket of water. Discard the probe if any sluggish tendency
is detected because, in the soil, access to water is more
difficult and hence the response will be even slower. A
better judgement on response can be made by examining records

of pore pressures during cone penetration and their subsequent,
dissipation.
Improper response leads to the following features in the

records: a! smooth vs sharp! changes of pore pressures
during penetration; b! a prolonged rise in pore pressures

231
af ter penetration has stopped; and c! a slow increase in
pore pressures when penetration resumes. If one of these
features is observed, the test should be stopped and a new
piezometer installed.
6.3.2 Static Pore Pressure
The evaluation of the normalized excess pore pressure,
u, requires an estimate of the static or in situ! pore
pressure, u 0, in the soil prior to penetration Eq. 6.l!.
The results in Fig. 4.l2 show that, an error in the estimated
u 0, causes a significant change in the normalized dissipation
curve* and thus leads to errors in ch probe! .

Reliable measurements of u can, at best, be performed
0
at selected depths by
a! leaving the piezometer probe in the ground to achieve
total dissipation. In clays, this may require days at
each depth and hence cause severe delays in exploration
and. interpretation of results;
b! installing semi-permanent piezometers such as
Casagrande or GEONOR M206! to monitor u over extended

0
periods of time without interrupting cone penetration
testing, and;
c! recording the pore pressure during penetration in a
"clean" sand layer where the penetration pore pressure
usually deviates very slightly from u see Fig. 2.5!.

0
*Theeffect is first negligible andthen increaseswith

time
232
Therefore, estimates of u0for predicting eh{probe!

require interpolation of measurements at selected depths.
The profile of penetration pore pressures can provide valuable
information to identify and select key elevations
where u measurements are more likely to detect "unusual"

0
situations {artesian pressure, under-consolidated clay,...etc.!.

6.3.3 Dissipation Time
Steady cone penetration is usually conducted in depth

increments determined by the length of the pushing rods
typically 5 f t or l m! . Installation of a rod takes about.
one minute when pore pressure dissipation can be routinely
recorded at no additional cost to the testing program, In
typical onshore testing, an additional minute or two of

waiting will not cause serious delays.*
In 3 minutes, lean overconsolidated clays can reach
40 to 60% consolidation and hence provide meaningful results.
On the other hand, soft plastic clays might achieve only l0

to 20% consolidation in 3 minutes. Experience in BHC indicates
that, at these low dissipation levels, estimates of ch are not

very reliable and involve significant scatter see Chapter 5!.
Therefore, longer dissipation times say 30 min to achieve
50% consolidation! are required in impervious clays at least
at selected depths in order to calibrate results obtained at
lower consolidation levels.
*In offshore work, the movementof the drilling vessel

can represent a major problem in obtaining reliable dissipa-
tion measurements.
233
6.4 APPLICATION OF THE PREDICTION METHOD TO
A VARVED CLAY DEPOSIT
In 1977, M.I.T. conducted cone penetration and pore
pressure measurements in a Connecticut Valley Varved Clay
CVVC! on the campus of the University of Massachusetts in
Amherst, Massachusetts*. The soil conditions at the site are
presented in Fig. 6. 3 as obtained from a typical sampling
and laboratory testing program. Fig. 6. 4 shows the undrained
shear strength of the clay, s, as determined by the Geonor!

u
field vane test and the SHANSEP procedure Ladd and Foott, 1974!.
The SHANBEP strengths are based on plane strain compression
PSC! and direct simple shear DSS! test results and the
estimated stress history OCR = a /0

VI11 v0
! in Fig. 6. 3,
Furthermore, Fig. 6.5 presents the cone resistance, q

c
from two standard FUGRO cones 0' angle pushed at 1 to 2
cm/sec.!
Pore pressure measurements were performed at the tip of
60' and 18 cones primarily to determine the pore pressures
during cone penetration. Therefore, most of the dissipation
records are very short, lasting approximately 1/2 to 1 minute
with few exceptions.
This section applies the recommended procedures to estimate
ch probe! from dissipation records and comparespredictions

with laboratory data.
*Refer to Baligh et al. 978! for moredetailed

information on the site.
234
6.4.1 Static Pore Pressure
The static pore pressures, u 0, at the Amherst site

are relatively easy to estimate because of geological con-
sideration and measurements of u obtained in the very
0
pervious layers above 15 ft and below 63 ft depth, approxi-

mately By linear interpolation, the static pore pressure,
u, at a depth z is given by:

0
0. 0285z + 0. 1 .9!
2
in which u is in kg/cm and z in feet.
0
6 4.2 Normalized Dissi ation Records
Appendix B presents normalized dissipation plots
u vs. log t! obtained at various depths with the 18' and

60' cones stone at tip!. Preliminary examination of these
curves shows that dissipation takes place very rapidly above

10-15 ft and below 63 ft, approximately. Tests considered
inadequate for estimating c probe! are identified. in the
summary tables of Appendix B. In these tests, full dis-
sipation takes place in a few seconds and, therefore, can-
not be interpreted reliably.
6.4.3 A alicability of the Prediction Method
Figure 6.6 compares measurements at the tip of a 60'-

cone conducted at. a depth of 37 ft with predictions cor-
responding to ch = 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 cm2 /sec. Clearly,

2
good agreement is achieved for ch = 0.1 cm/sec.
235
Figure 6.7 shows the same results as Fig. 6.6 In
addition, Fig. 6.7 compares measurements at the tip of
an 18'-cone conducted at the same depth with predictions
based on ch = 0.1 cm2 /sec. and the recornrnendedcurves

in Fig. 6.1 R = 1.91 cm! .
Results in Fig. 6.7 indicate that:
a! the measured dissipation curve at the tip of the
18' probe exhibits a slightly steeper slope than the
recommended curve, and;
b! the measured dissipation curve at the tip of the
60 probe is slightly oscillating at early times
t < 10 sec! but is very close to the predicted curve
at later times.
In conclusion, the overall agreement between measurements
and predictions is considered remarkably good* and the recorn-
mended method of predicting ch probe! can thus be used for

CVVC at least in the same layer where the tests in Fig. 6.7
were conducted, i.e., between depths 15 ft and 63 ft!.
6.4.4 Predicted Profile of ch probe!
Figures 6.8 and 6.9 present the estimated profiles of
ch probe! based on measurements of pore pressures obtained

with 18 and 60' conical probes with the stone at the tip!
in CVVC. These data include penetration pore pressure, u.,

j
and profiles of ch probe! evaluated according to the

recommended method in section 6.2.4.
*In view of the very different behavior of Amherst

varved clay compared to Boston Blue Clay for which predictions
were developed.
236
Results in Figs. 6.8 and 6. 9 indicate that:

1! Penetration pore pressures, u,,
1
obtained by the
18' probe Fig. 6. 8! are consistent with the 60
probe Fig. 6. 9! and the cone resistance profiles,
q Fig. 6. 5!;
2! q and u. provide more detailed information on

c 3.
profiling and variability than regular laboratory

tests . Fig. 6. 3! or field vane tests Fig. 6. 4!
In particular, the middle clay between 15 ft and 63
ft. is clearly identified as a very uniform layer with
minor nonhomogeneities at depths 19, 36 and between
50 to 63 ft;
3! most of the ch probe! data are obtained at low

dissipation levels 0%!. In spite of significant
scatter in ch!20, both 18' and 60' probesidentify
the middle clay layer [depths 10 or 15! and 63 ft]
as having a much lower consolidation coefficient
about 10 times! than the upper and lower layers;
4! at virtually all depths, ch0 is underpredicted*
by the 18 probe and overpredicted by the 60 probe.
These trends were observed in Boston Blue Clay
Chapter 5! and are compatible with results in Fig. 6.7;

5! at a depth of 37 ft in the middle layer, the dif-
ferencebetweench evaluatedat. 40, 50, 60 and 80%dis-
Compared
to ch at higher dissipation levels.
237
sipation is very small and the values are very close
for both probes ch = O.l cm2 jsec!. Therefore, values

of ch evaluated at 40'4 dissipation are considered more
reliable than ch0,.

6! the solid lines in Figs. 6.Q and 6. 9 obtained by
joining c ! data represent the first estimate of
the ch probe! profile in this deposit.

7! the ch probe! profile is virtually the same for
both cones, and;
8! the increase in ch probe! between 50 and 63 ft

is probably caused by the lack of 40% dissipation
data in the clay. Results at 20% dissipation together
with q cand
3
u. data suggest that the same clay extends
to 63 ft where a sharp change in layering occurs.
6.4.5 Corn arison of Predicted and Measured Permeabilities
Figure 6.10 presents the predicted horizontal permeability
kh probe! based on the profile of ch probe! estimated at 40%

dissipation for the two cones 8' and 60'! accord.ing to
2
Eq. 6. 4 and using the recommended value of RR probe! =10
Eq. 6. 5. Figure 6.10 also shows the results of laboratory
measurements of kh and kVconducted on 4" cubical samples

recovered at three depths Ladd, 1975!.
Clearly, the agreement between k probe! and k Lab!
is very good, thus indicating that

238
-2
1! The recommended val~e of RR probe! =10 back-
figured from results in BBC is reasonably applicable

to CVVC. The swelling ratio for the middle CVVC at
Atrtherst between depth 15 and. 63 ft! determined from

-2
four CRSC tests indicate that: SR=3. 5 +0. 4! x10 at
an OCR=5; and, SR=1. 8 +0. 6! xl0 at an OCR=2. This

means that CVVC is about 1.5 times more compressible
than BBC at an OCR=5 but. close to BBC at. an OCR=2 '
2! Simplifications made to obtain Eq. 6.4 have a
minor effect provided that appropriate values of
RR probe! are selected.
3! Since k is uniform in this deposit whereas both

v
kh lab! andkh probe! increase significantly with

depth, this confirms that dissipation around conical
probes is controlled by horizontal flow see Chapter 4!.
6.4.6 Corn arison of Predicted and Measured Coefficients
of Consolidation in the Virgin Range
Figure 6.ll presents the predicted values of ch NC!

and c NC! based on the profile of ch probe! according to
2
Eqs. 6. 7 and 6. 8, respectively. The value of RR probe! =10
recommendedin Eq. 6.5 was maintained as for kh predictions.
The selected ratios of kh/kv were obtained by interpolation
or extrapolation! of laboratory test results Fig. 6.10! and
are given in Fig. 6.11 . Finally, a reasonable value of the
239
compression ratio CR=0.2 was selected between CR

max
0 ~24 +0. 04! and CR . =0.19 +0.02! determined from CRSC

min
tests.
Figure 6.11 also shows measurements of c NC! from

V
3 2
f ive CRSC tests with an average of l. 45x10 cm /sec.
Comparing the predicted and measured values of c NC!,

v
we note that:
1! A very good agreement is achieved in the middle
CVVC layer between depths 15 and 63 ft especially in

view of the scatter in laboratory test results This
scatter is considered very reasonable compared to
typical c vlaboratory data!; and hence,

-2
2! The selected values of CR=0.2 and RR probe!=10
appear adequate for CVVC.
6.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This chapter provides recommended methods for predicting

the coefficients of consolidation and permeability of saturated
fine grained soils from pore pressure dissipation measurements

after interrupting deep steady penetration.
The prediction method basically consists of evaluating
ch probe! by matching measured and predicted dissipation

records Table 6.1!. The coefficients of consolidation in
the virgin range and the permeability of the soil can then
be estimated from ch probe!.

240
Guidelines for the practicing engineer are provided in

order to: a! identify and eliminate bad records where high
soil variability and/or malfunctioning of the probe lead to
significant errors in the predictions, and; b! verify the
applicability of the prediction method to a new soil.
Important practical aspects of pore pressure dissipation
are reviewed and discussed. Special emphasis is made on the
deairing and rapid response of the probe, the possible errors
in estimating the static in situ! pore pressure, u 0and,

the time required for meaningful dissipation to take place.
The prediction method is then applied to results of

dissipation tests in Connecticut Valley Varved Clay CVVC! at
Amherst, Massachusetts. Two sufficiently long dissipation
records indicate that predictions apply surprisingly well to

CWC in spite of large differences in behavior from BBC. This
is especially important because it means that the pxediction
method developed for BBC can also be applied to other clays.
Profiles of ch probe! estimated according to the pro-

posed method are virtually identical for 18 and 60' cones.
Furthermore, ch probe! profiles are consistent with measure-
ments of cone resistance and penetration pore pressures.
No laboratory or field! tests were conducted by M.I.T.

to provide direct measurement of the overconsolidated horizontaL
coefficient of consolidation in CWC. Therefore, the predicted
241
values of ch probe! cannot, at present, be rigorously

evaluated. However, a compaiison of kh probe! with lab-
oratory measurements of the horizontal permeability in-
dicates very good agreement. Furthermore, the estimates
of cV NC! f rom ch probe! are very close to laboratory

measurements of the coefficient of consolidation in the
normally consolidated virgin! range.

242
W
6 0W
CJ
rQ
G
00
IZ
8
'U
tt 4
G0
U Pw
90
C4 W
g
40
O.H
F
H 4 Gl
O0
0
C4
40 NW
8
80
rJ 0M
5W
lA 0
QO
II H
243
1 Compression Ratio CR from Ladd, 1973!
C
c
CR = = slope of the strain vs. log stress curve
1+e
0
e initial void ratio

0
C virgin compression index = slop of e vs log stress

c
liquid limit
natural water content
C 0.009 ~L% 10%! Terzaghi and Peck 967!

C 0. 54 e 0. 35! Nishida 958!
c 0
C
c
0. 01 to 0. 15 uN%! MPMR958!
C 0.6 e 1! for e< 6
c 00
Kapp 966!
0.85 e 2! for 6< e< 14
00
2. Anisotropic Permeabilit of Clays from Ladd, 1976!
Nature of Clay k /k
1. No evidence of layering 1.2 + 0.2
2. Slight layering, e.g.,

sedimentary clays with 2 to 5
occasional silt dustings
to random lenses
3. Varved clays in north- 10+5

eastern U.S.
Table 6.2 Empirical Correlation and Typical Properties

of Clays
O
o
ID NO 0! 0'
CI 0 0O 0 O O
'~vr~v ~ e sensssaa amos ss3axa asziavw~o~
245
c hlC ! feb probe ! RR probe!
10 10 10' 10' 10-2 I O-I

II00 100
~P
O
10 10
IE
I
10
10
a
10 IO
I 0' 10 107 10 e 10 '
k,/ck probe!, cd RR probe!
Fig. 6.2 Graphical method of estimating kh and c NC!

from ch probe
246
0
cv
0
lo
0
lb
0
0
A~ 6
~ 0
C4 Neo
0
CO
CC C
jwj
O DO 0
tV
0
O OA 0O
'4k! N 0 ILVA313
247
, Eg/cm
0.0 0. 4 0.6 0.8
1.3
40
LJ
50
70
/3
Fig. 6.4 SHAlASKP and field vane strength profiles for

the Atnherst, ><ass. testing site data from
Ladd, l975! .
248
, Lg/ cm
1 0. 20.
60
70
73
Fig. 6.5 Profile of Cone Resistance, q c, in Connecticut

Valley Varved Clay at Amherst, Nass. from
Baligh et al., 1978!
249 0
00
0O
0 CO u! CP 0
OO 00 0
'~v'gnat'= ~ 38ASS38d 380d SS33X3 Q3ZllVWHON
250
0.
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K
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IZ
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0,4
0.2
0,0
I IO IOO IOOQ
TIME sec!
Fig. 6.7 Evaluation of Predicted Dissipation Curves for

l8 and 60' cones assuming c= O.l cm /sec!
Ji
251
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254
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255
CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
! Cone penetration testing provides a superior soil
exploration technique to establish stratification, determine
variability and perform soil identification; especially if
pore pressures generated by cone penetration are measured
in addition to cone resistance Baligh et al., 1980!. The
technique is particularly well suited. for offshore work.
! Due to the complicated nature of cone penetration,
research is needed to interpret test results and hence estimate
engineering properties of the soils for predicting foundation
performance and conducting foundation designs. Past research
at M.I.T. concentrated on estimating the undrained shear
strength of clays Baligh et al., 1978!. This report considers
methods of estimating the consolidation and permeability of
fine grained soils from the pore pressure decay that takes place
after steady cone penetration is interrupted.
! Estimates of the consolidation and/or permeability
characteristics of natural soil deposits is important in most
geotechnical foundation problems see Sec. 1.5!. In on shore
work, existing methods rely on laboratory and/or in situ tests.

256
Offshore, no in situ testing methods are available. The
permeability, k, of natural sand deposits can be estimated

within an order of magnitude .from correlations with grain
size measurements conducted in the laboratory or from in situ
permeability tests onshore!. Laboratory measurements of k

and the coefficient of consolidation, cVor ch, in "structured"
fine grained soils can be several orders of magnitude lower
than field values and thus have limited use in designs. In
relatively structureless clays, the mast experienced engineer

using the best laboratory testing equipment and procedures
can, at best, predict field values of k and cvwithin a
factor of two or three. The average geotechnical engineer
using routine sampling and testing methods can probably estimate
k and c within a factor of five to ten from laboratory measure-
v
ments. Reliable in situ tests in f ine grained soils are
time consuming and require considerable skill and experience

above the current routine average U.S. practice. Under ideal
conditions, useful permeability data can be obtained from in

situ tests. However, direct measurements of the more important
coefficient of consolidation, cv, are not sufficiently reliable
to provide much additional information to laboratory data.

! The coefficients of consolidation and permeability
of fine grained soils can be estimated economically onshore
and offshore by adequately interpreting the pore pressure
dissipation that takes place after cone penetration is inter-
257
rupted. Important questions related to interpretation
include: a! What cone angle provides the most reliable
results; b! Where to measure the pore pressures on the cone
or the shaft behind it?; c! How long should dissipation take

i.e., what degreee of consolidation is required!?; d! What
coefficient of consolidation vertical, horizontal, etc.!
and/or what coefficient of permeability is measured; e! What
is the magnitude of the measured parameters; and, for what

practical application?
! Theoretically, dissipation records are difficult
to interpret because of: a! uncertainties in the initial
excess pore pressure distribution in the soil caused by steady
cone penetration; b! The high-gradients associated with this
distribution; c! the two-dimensional nature of consolidation
around a cone because fluid flow and soil deformations occur
in the horizontal and vertical directions; d! soil anisotropy
and nonlinearity; e! coupling between total stresses and pore
pressures during consolidation, and; f! uncertainties regarding

the level of shearing during consolidation and the creep
characteristics of the soil.
Additional practical difficulties include: a! uncer-
tainties in estimating a meaningful initial reading, u., of

j
pore pressure before dissipation starts. This is due to

258
inherent soil variability and is especially important in

erratic soils where the penetration pore pressure is highly
variable; b! uncertainties in estimating the final static!
pore pressure, u0, after dissipation, since complete dis-
sipation of excess pore pressures requires very long delays
in testing.
! Existing solutions for the dissipation of excess

pore pressures around cones and pile shafts! assume
cylindrical or spherical symmetry. These one-dimensional
solutions are too simplified to yield reliable results for
the dissipation around cones. However, they are attractive
because of their simplicity and the capabilities they offer
to consider more realistic nonlinear soil! behavior and/or
to conduct parametric analyses in order to identify important
factors!.
Randolph et al. l978! evaluate the effects of non-

linearities due to changes in soil stiffness! on the con-
solidation around a cylindrical cavity by means of finite
element solutions using an elastic perfectly-plastic model
and a Cam-Clay model. Results of the analyses indicate
that soil nonlinearities might have some effect. on effective
stresses at the cavity wall depending on the model and soil
parameters but have no noticeable effect on pore pressure
dissipation.
259
! Linear uncoupled one-dimensional consolidation
analyses presented in Chapter 3 indicate that dissipation
results are: a! strongly influenced by the initial excess
pore pressure distribution, and, b! are controlled by the
soil properties in the vicinity of the probe and not the
outer soil. Furthermore, the inner soil is predominantly
subjected to a decrease in volume during consolidation.
8! The initial excess pore pressures, oui, caused

by steady cone penetration are difficult to predict
because of the complicated behavior of soils; the large
strains and the complicated strain paths to which the soil is
subjected; and, the boundary conditions at the cone-soil
interface.
Reliable measurements of,hu., on a penetrating cone

i
or the shaft behind it! require special care in order to
insure a very rapid response time of the measuring probe.
Furthermore, meaningful measurements of the pore pressures in
the soil surrounding a penetrating cone are very difficult
to conduct principally because of the interaction between soil
deformations and the measuring probe See Chapter 3!.
9! Most of the existing methods for modelling cone
penetration and pile installation! utilize one-dimensional
cavity expansion solutions that neglect the two-dimensional
nature of cone penetration and hence cannot predict the
required distribution of initial excess pore pressures.

260
0! Deep cone penetration in clays is an axisymmetric

two-dimensional steady state problem which is essentially
strain-controlled, i.e., strains and deformations in the soil
are primarily imposed by kinematic requirements. For this

type of problem, Baligh 975! proposes an approximate method
of solution called the "strain path method". Levadoux and
Baligh, 1980, apply this method to cone penetration in clays

and estimate the normalized excess pore pressures on the
basis of laboratory test data on normally consolidated Boston
Blue clay. Linear dissipation analyses are not affected

by the absolute value magnitude! of excess pore pressures,
hu., and only require estimates of the normalized excess

1
pore pressures ~u./

j
hu! shh where Au!shh is the shaft excess
pore pressure at a sufficiently large distance behind the
cone.
1! An evaluation of the normalized excess pore pressure
distribution predicted by the strain path method indicates

good agreement with in situ pore pressure measurements.
a! Along the face and the shaft behind 18' and 60'
cones in a BBC deposit having an overconsolidation ratio
1.3 < OCR < 3; and,
b! In the soil surrounding a pile jacked into Champlain

clay.
261
2! The measurements of pore pressures around the jacked

pile in Champlain clay are very similar to a number of other
clays of different types and stress histories. Therefore,
it seems possible that the predicted distributions of hu./ hu!
1. sh
by the strain path method for normally consolidated BBC can

prove satisfactory for dissipation studies in other clays.
3! Chapter 4 presents linear consolidation analyses
to investigate: the effects of cone angle; the location of
the porous stone where pore pressures are measured; the
anisotropy of the soil; the size of the mesh resolution!;

the coupling between pore pressures and total stresses, and;
the uncertainties in the estimated initial and final pore
pressures on prediction of dissipation rates. Using the
normalized excess pore pressure distribution estimated by the

strain path method for normally consolidated BBC Chapter 3!,
results of these analyses indicate that:
a! dissipation rates are significantly dependent on

the location on an l8' cone. Similar analyses for
a 60' cone show that the predicted dissipation along

the conical face varies little with location.
b! At a sufficient distance behind the cone, dissipation

on the shaft is not significantly dependent on the cone
angle and is about one to two orders of magnitude
slower than dissipation at the tip;

262
c! a reduction in the vertical coefficient of consolida-
tion, cV , fromch to O.l ch causeslittle delay in the

uncoupled pore pressure dissipation at 4 selected loca-
tions along the tip and shaft of an 18 piezometer probe

2
provided that the time factor is defined as T = cht/R
This suggests that ch governsconsolidation around
piezometer probes;
d! the effect of linear coupling between total stresses
and pore pressures is small except at early stages of

consolidation especially near the apex of an 18' cone.
This suggests that uncoupled solutions can provide

reasonably accurate predictions away from the apex and
after sufficient dissipation has taken place;
e! accurate prediction of excess pore pressure dissi-

pation requires the use of a fine mesh especially in
the vicinity of the conical tip and;
f! errors in the static and penetration pore pressures
u and u., respectively! can seriously affect the

0 3.
estimated coefficient of consolidation. Matching of
measured and predicted dissipation records at small or

large! degrees of consolidation is recommended if errors
in u or u.! are expected.
0
4! Chapter 5 evaluates linear uncoupled dissipation

predictions by means of pore pressure measurements, at various
locations on probes with different cone angles, after deep
steady penetration in clay is interrupted. Predictions

263
based on the initial d.istribution of excess pore pressures
determined by the strain path method for normally consolidated

BBC are compared to dissipation measurements in the soft
OCR<2! Boston Blue C lay deposit below 60 ft. at the Saugus
site. The comparison indicates that reasonably good
dissipation predictions are achieved at four locations on
an 18' cone and at the tip of a 60' cone when the horizontal
coefficient of consolidation ch = 0.04 cm2 /sec. Additional

results of this comparison show that.:
a! At early dissipation levels u > 0.8!, measurements
fall in a wide band and hence lead to significant
uncertainties scatter! in estimating ch. This is

particularly true when the porous stone is located at
the tip of the cone.
b! At advanced consolidation stages u < 0.6, say!
dissipation tends to proceed slower than predicted'
This is believed to result from soil nonlinearities and,
in particular, the changes in the drained! soil corn-
pressibility during consolidation.
c! The interpretation of d.issipation results obtained
when the porous stone is located at the tip of an 18
cone requires a semi-empirical procedure because of the
difficulty of analyzing the actual cone geometry. In
this procedure the degree of consolidation or u! is
taken as the average of the predicted values at the
apex and mid-height of an ideal cone geometry!.

264
d! Dissipation records obtained on the shaft behind
an l8 cone plot in a narrow band but exhibit a
slightly slower rate of dissipation than predicted.
This could reflect inaccuracies in the initial dis-
tribution of excess pore pressures and/or nonlinear
coupling effects and/or creep effects neglected in

the proposed prediction method! leading to faster
dissipation ahead of the cone. Nore tests conducted
with the porous stone located on the shaft! to high

consolidation levels and tests involving measurements
of total stresses on the cone and the shaft behind it
are necessary before more definite conclusions can be
reached.
5! Profiles of ch probe! in the BBCdeposit. at

Saugus are obtained at different dissipation levels for three
types of conical probes: a! an 18 cone with the stone at

the tip; b! an 18' cone with the stone at mid-height; and
c! a 60' cone with the stone at the tip.
a! At early dissipation stages u = 0.8! the scatter of
the data is so high that reasonable ch profiles cannot

be established. The scatter is particularly high when
the porous stone is located at the tip of the cone and

less severe when the stone is at mid-height.
b! All three probes provide consistent ch probe!

profiles after 50% consolidation + 10%! involving a
very moderate degree of scatter.
265
c! Values of ch estimated at high levels of consolidation

u = 0.2! are slightly lower than obtained at 50% dis-
sipation in the lower clay below 40 ft. and higher in
the upper more pervious clay.
6! A comparison of the predicted profiles of c probe!
at 50'4 dissipation with laboratory and field measurements of
the vertical coefficient of consolidation, c, in BBC indicates

v
that:
a! The predicted variation of ch probe! with depth is

consistent with the trends of c NC! measured in the
v
laboratory in the normally consolidated range and the
profile of c v loading! backfigured by Duncan and by
Davis and Poulos MIT, 1975! on the basis of in situ
pore pressure measurements conducted in the foundation
clay under the 1-95 embankment for a period of 7 years
after construction.
b! The predicted magnitude of c probe! is: a! very
close to c unloading! backfigured by Bromwell and

v
Lambe 968! on the basis of in situ pore pressure
measurements in a very similar BBC deposit due to a
wide excavation; and, b! much higher 0 to 40 times!
than c NC! or c loading! described above.

vv
266
c! Profiles of ch probe! can therefore provide good.

estimates of the coefficient of consolidaiton to be used
in foundation problems involving unloading and possibly

reloading of overconsolidated clays above the maximum
past pressure. On the other hand, problems involving
the compression of clays in the normally consolidated
range require modification of c probe! to account for
the difference in clay compressibility during dissipation
[as expressed by RR probe!] and the compression ratio,
CR, in the normally consolidated range.
7! An approximate method for estimating profiles of
the horizontal coefficient of permeability kh probe! and.
cv NC! from profiles of ch probe! is proposed. In spite
of significant simplifying assumptions, the predicted profiles
of k probe! and cv NC! appear very reasonable when compared
to laboratory test data on BBC.
8! The backfigured compressibility of BBC during

-2
dissipation is approximately given by RR probe! = 10 . This
confirms that, as expected, the clay in the early stages of
dissipation around cones u > 0.5! consolidates under relatively
"small" increments of effective stresses such that the maximum
past pressure is not exceeded and the clay compressibility is low.

267
9! A comparison of the advantages of different types

of probes indicates that the choice of a probe cone
angle and location of porous stone! for a particular job

can only be made after the objectives of the investigation
program have been defined and the most critical parameters

clearly identified.
0! Chapter 6 provides recommended methods for pre-

dicting the coefficients of consolidation and permeability of
saturated fine grained soils from pore pressure dissipation
measurements after interrupting deep steady penetration. The
prediction method basically consists of evaluating c probe!

by matching measured and predicted dissipation records. The
coefficients of consolidation in the virgin range and the
permeability of the soil can then be estimated from ch probe!.

1! Guidelines for the practicing engineer are provided
in order to: a! identify and eliminate bad records where high

soil variability and/or malfunctioning of the probe lead to
significant errors in the predictions, and; b! verify the

applicability of the prediction method to a new soil.
2! Important practical aspects of pore pressure

dissipation are reviewed and discussed. Special emphasis
is made on the deairing and rapid response of the probe, the

possible errors in estimating the static in situ! pore pres-
sure, u and, the time required for meaningful dissipation

0
to take place.
268
3! The prediction method is then applied to results of
dissipation tests in Connecticut Valley Varved Clay CVVC! at

Amherst, Massachusetts. Two sufficiently long dissipation re-
cords indicate that predictions apply surprisingly well to CVVC

in spite of large differences in behavior from BBC. This is es-
pecially important because it means that the prediction method
developed for BBC can also be applied to other clays.

4! Profiles of ch probe! in CVVCestimated according to
the proposed method are virtually identical for l8' and 60'
cones. Furthermore, c probe! profiles are consistent with mea-

surements of cone resistance and penetration pore pressures.
5! No laboratory or field! tests were conducted by MIT

to provide direct measurement of the overconsolidated horizontal
coefficient of consolidation in CVVC. Therefore, the predicted
values of ch probe! cannot be rigorously evaluated. However,a

comparisonof kh probe! with laboratory measurements of the ho-
rizontal permeability indicates very good agreement. Further-
more, the estimates of c NC! from ch probe! are very close to
laboratory measurements of the coefficient of consolidation in
the normally consolidated <virgin! range.
269
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278
APPENDIX A
DISSIPATION DATA IN BOSTON BLUE CLAY:
SAUGUS, MASSACHUSETTS
This appendix presents detailed information on the piezometer

probe field records conductedby MIT at the I-95 embankmentSta-
tion 246! in Saugus, Mass. in 1977 and 1978. Information for each
test consists of:
a! A summary table giving pertinent information for each

depth: The estimated static in situ! pore pressure
u kg/cm2 !,2 the initial pore pressure u. kg/cm !, the
0
maximumpore pressure measured during dissipation
2
u kg/cm !, the maximum! duration of the dissipation
max
test TF sec!, the minimum! normalized excess pore

pressure u at the end of the dissipation test, and,
finally, the estimated coefficient of consolidation
ch probe!
at 20%,40'4,50%,60%,and80%dissipation
b! A profile of penetration pore pressures
c! A profileof ch predictedat differentdissipationlevels
0, 40, 50, 60, and 80%!
d! Normalized dissipation curves [u = Au/Au.3. vs. log time!]
at each testing depth
279
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APPENDIX B
DISSIPATION DATA IN CONNECTICUT VALLEY VARVED CLAY:
AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS
This appendix presents detailed information on the piezometer

probe field records conducted on the campus of the University of
Massachusetts in Amherst, Mass. in 1977. Information for each
test consists of:
a! A summary table giving pertinent information for each

depth: The estimated static in situ! pore pressure
u kg/cm 2 !, the initial pore pressure u. kg/cm 2 !, the
0
max.'mumpore pressure measured during dissipation

2
u kg/cm !, the maximum! duration of the dissipation
max
test TF sec!, the minimum! normalized excess pore
pressure u at the end of the dissipation test, and,

finally, the estimated coefficient of consolidation
ch probe!at 20%,40%,50%,60%,and80%dissipation
b! A profile of penetration pore pressures
c! A profile of ch predicted at different dissipation levels

0, 40, 50, 60, and 80%!
d! Normalized dissipation curves [u = Au/hu i~ vs. log time!]

at each testing depth
353
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a~ ~'

AFTER CONE PENETRATION

Sea Grant College Program

Report No. MITSG 80-.13

Deep quasi-static cone penetration in saturated soils

Relatively new conical piezometers with a very rapid res-

A new economical and consistent method for estimating the

A three-year research program entitled, "In Situ Evaluation

of Geotechnical Properties of Marine Sediments," sponsored pri-

marily by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

by the Constructed Facilities Division at MIT. Matching funds

for this research were provided by FUGRO, Inc., Consulting En-

gineers, and by Instituto Tecnologico Venezolano Del Petroleo.

The objective of this research is to provide the geotech-

nical designer with more reliable methods for estimating in situ

properties of marine sediments for foundation design.

The electric Dutch! cone penetrometer and the conical

piezometer probe represent a new generation of in situ testing

devices which are particularly valuable offshore, by combining

simplicity, consistency, and economy.

Previous efforts at MIT concentrated on:

1. Evaluating the capability of cone penetration in

establishing stratification, determining variability,

and performing soil identification Baligh et al, 1980!,

2. Estimating the undrained shear strength of clays Ba-

ligh et al, 1978; Baligh and Vivatrat, 1979!.

This report investigates the pore pressure decay that takes

place after interrupting cone penetration in order to estimate

The authors are indebted to their MIT colleagues who

RELATED SEA GRANT REPORTS

MIT/Marine Industry Collegium, RISKS AND COSTS FOR OCEAN

MIT/Marine Industry Collegium. TOWARDS IMPROVED TECHNIQUES

Baligh, Mohsen M., vitoon vivatrat and charles c. Ladd.

Chryssostomidis, Marjorie. OFFSHORE PETROLEUM ENGINEERING:

The Sea Grant Marine Resources Information Center

Marine Resources Information Center

ACKNOWLEDGENZNTS ~~~t ~0 ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~4~~~ '~ 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS........... ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~ 5

CHAPTER l: INTRODUCTION.. ~ ..- ~ -. ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ 16

The Need for Soil Classification...

1.2 Coarse Grained Soils...... 17

1.3 Fine Grained Soils................. .-.-- 19

1.3.1 Laboratory Tests..... 19

1.3.2 In Situ Tests.ee.....e.ee.. 21

1.4 Summary: State of Practice.............. 28

Research Objectives.... es ~~~~o 30

1.6 Report Organization............ 31

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND......... ~ . ~ ............. ~ ..... 35

2.1 Conical Piezometers 35

2.2 Typical Records..... 38

2.2.1 Steady Penetration Records............... 38

2.2.2 Dissipation Records 39

2.3 Interpretation of Dissipation Records.... 42

2.3.1 Linear Consolidation.... 44

2.3.2 Nonlinear Soil Behavior. . .. ......-... 46

2.3.3 Soil Remolding.. 47

2 ' 3.4 Soil Anisotropy.......................... 49

2.5 Summary ~4 ~~~~~~~~ tt ~~~~ ~~ 56

CHAPTER 3: INITIAL EXCESS PORE PRESSURES.............. 69

3.1 Difficulties of Estimating Penetration

ACKNOWLEDGENZNTS ~~~t ~0 ~~~~~~~~4~ '~ 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS........... ~ 5

CHAPTER l: INTRODUCTION.. ~ ..- ~ -. ~ ~~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 16

2.5 Summary ~4 ~~~~~~ tt 56

5.2.1 G eology.. ~t ~~s~ e~ ~~~~ t~ ~~ e 151

6.2 Prediction Method.. ~~ 223

REFERENCES................. ~ a 269