Experiment 3

Drying at Constant D rying Conditions

Bryle Kristiann C. Camarote, Nimrod B. Romelo, & Sarah Jane I. Valdon
University of the Philippines Visayas – School of Technology, Miag-ao, Iloilo, 5023

I. Theory

Drying, in general, is the removal of relatively small quantities of water or other liquid from a
solid material or sample in order to reduce the residual content of the liquid to a desired value (McCabe,
Smith, & Harriot, 1993). It also refers to the removal of other organic liquids (benzene or organic
solvents) from solids. As opposed to mechanical processes of extracting moisture from a solid material
such as in presses or centrifugation, thermal drying involves the process of evaporation (Geankoplis,
2003).
Drying is the method widely used to preserve biological materials, specifically foods. Microbes
that can cause spoilage and decay of food normally cannot thrive in the absence of water. When the water
content of a food material is reduced below 5%, microorganisms become inactive and the flavor and
nutrition are usually preserved (Geankoplis, 2003).
There are two major classification of drying, one involving the direct contact between the solid
and the hot gas (usually air), and the other wherein heat is transferred to the solid from an external
medium. Adiabatic dryers or direct dryers are types of dryers that directly exposes the solid to a hot gas.
Nonadiabatic or indirect dryers, on the other hand, are those in which heat is transferred from an external
medium (McCabe, Smith, & Harriot, 1993). Drying processes can be classified as batch or continuous
and further categorized into three according to the physical conditions used to remove the water vapor.
The first category involves adding heat by direct contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure; the
second category is called vacuum drying, where the pressure is reduced to vaporize the water at lower
temperatures and heat is added indirectly by radiation or in contact with a metal wall; in the third
category, freeze drying, water undergoes sublimation from the frozen material (Geankoplis, 2003). The
type of dryer to be used in the experiment is a batch tray dryer (also called shelf, cabinet or compartment
dryers) and belongs to the first category of drying processes. The cabinet dryer Figure 1 illustrates a
schematic diagram of a batch tray dryer.

Figure 1. Batch Tray Dryer (McCabe, Smith, & Harriot, 1993)

 Heated air is circulated by a fan C at 2-5 m/s and passes through the heaters E. The baffles G,
distributes the air uniformly over the stack of trays and the moist air is continuously exhausted through
the exhaust duct B where the makeup inlet air comes in at A (McCabe, Smith, & Harriot, 1993)
In a batch-drying experiment, data are usually obtained as W, total weight of the wet solid (dry
solid plus moisture) at different times t hours in the drying period. This is expressed mathematically by
Geankoplis (2003):
− �
= Eqn. 1
�

Where Xt = moisture content of the solid (kg water/kg dry solid);

W = weight of the wet solid (kg);
Ws = weight of dried solid (kg).

The free moisture content X in kg free water/kg dry solid is calculated for each value of Xt,
mathematically expressed by Geankoplis (2003) as:
= − ∗ Eqn. 2
Where X* = equilibrium moisture content (kg equilibrium moisture/kg dry solid)
determined from the given constant drying condition.
A plot of free moisture content X vs. time t will yield a graph which resembles Figure 2.

Figure 2. Plot of free moisture content vs. time t (Geankoplis, 2003)

To obtain the rate-of-drying curve, ∆X (weight loss) for a ∆t time is calculated. Then, for rate-of-
drying R, an equation by Geankoplis (2003) gives:
�� �
�=− Eqn. 3
� �

Where R = drying rate in kg water/h∙m2;

Ls = kg of dry solid used;
A = surface area exposed (m2).

In Figure 3, the rate-of-drying curve for constant-drying conditions is shown. At zero time the
initial free moisture is shown at point A. In the beginning the solid is usually at cold temperature than its
ultimate temperature, and the evaporation will increase. The transition from point A to B is the region at
which the solid establishes a period steady-state drying. Eventually, at point B, the surface temperature
rises to its equilibrium value. From point B to point C, the rate are constant during this period thus
constant rate-of-drying-period is shown in line BC. At point C, the drying rates starts to decreases thus
line CD in Figure 3 is in the falling-rate period. Drying of different solids under different constant
conditions of drying will often give curves of different shapes in the falling-rate period, but in general
the two major portions of the drying rate-curve--- constant-rate period and falling-rate period---are
present.

Figure 3. Rate-of-drying curve: Drying rate R vs. free moisture content X

(Geankoplis, 2003)

II. Objectives

The experiment aimed to determine the drying of a carrot sample under constant drying
conditions. Specifically, it aimed to:
a. Determine the drying rate of the sample and plot in a drying rate (R) vs time (t) curve.
b. Determine the moisture content of the sample at specified time intervals and plot in a
moisture content (X) vs time(t) curve.
c. Determine the relationship between the drying rate (R) and moisture content (X) and
plot in a R vs X curve.

III. Scope and Limitations

The experiment was conducted at the school of technology, UPV-miagao, using the available
batch cabinet (tray) dryer in the laboratory. The effect of varying drying conditions (temperature and
humidity), the drying rate of other materials, were not covered in the experiment. The experiment was
only concerned in determining the behavior of the drying mechanism of the carrot samples using a tray
dryer. The effect of varying sample dimensions was also considered. Differing sample dimensions can
affect contact area between the hot air and the sample, affecting the drying rate and the time it takes to
reach equilibrium moisture content.
IV. Methodology

A. Materials

 
 
Carrots (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) Chopping board

 
Chicken wire Desiccator

 
Knife Cabinet dryer

 
Ruler Analytical balance

 
Tupperware Evaporating dish
Distilled water Oven dryer

B. Methods

B1. Moisture Content Determination

The laboratory materials were prepared. Carrot samples were washed properly with water
with the peelings removed using a sharp knife. Approximately three grams of carrot sample was
chopped and transferred to a pre-weighed basket made out of chicken wire. Using an analytical
balance, the sliced carrot was weighed and the obtained mass was recorded. The weighed carrot
sample was dried in the oven at temperature 105-108ºC for one hour. After which, the sample was
taken out from the oven and cooled in a desiccator for five minutes to avoid moisture absorption
from the atmosphere. The cooled sample was weighed and placed back to the oven to dried for ten
minutes. To achieve a constant reading of the sample weight, the carrot sample is repeatedly
weighed for a time interval of five minutes.

B.2 Tray Drying

Eight carrot samples of dimensions 2×1×0.25 cm and 2×1×0.5 cm were prepared. These
were placed in a clean tupperware to avoid contamination. The initial weights of the carrot samples
were then measured using an analytical balance. Similarly, mesh baskets made of chicken wire
were weighed in an analytical balance and the gathered data were recorded. Samples from each
specified dimension were then placed into the mesh baskets and were labeled accordingly. Each
carrot sample had a designated mesh basket all throughout the experiment. Next, the tray dryer
was prepared with the assistance from the laboratory technician and was carefully checked if its
heater was properly working. Figure 4 below shows a schematic diagram of the tray dryer.
 Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a tray dryer (Google images, 2017)

The dryer was preheated for 15 minutes at temperature maintained at 50 degrees celsius.
The baskets with the carrot samples were then placed on the tray with only one side of the carrot
sample being exposed to the circulating air inside the dryer. The dryer temperature was maintained
at 50 degrees celsius. A sample was obtained from the dryer every 15 minutes for two hours until
the sample was completely dried. Each sample taken out was not placed back into the dryer once
its mass was already recorded. The carrot sample was then cooled in the desiccator for 5 minutes
and was weighed in an analytical balance.
These steps were repeated until all samples were taken out of the dryer. Finally, the tray
dryer equipment was turned off and was made sure that it was free from any sample leftovers. The
apparatuses were then cleaned and returned to the laboratory technician.

V. Results and Discussion

0.8
Total moisture X, kg H2O/kg wet

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
carrot

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)

2x1x0.25cm carrots 2x1x0.5cm carrots

Figure 5. Moisture content of the carrot samples throughout the drying period

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 Both 2x1x0.25cm and 2x1x0.5cm carrot samples were subjected to a cabinet air dryer at
constant 50 degrees Celsius drying temperature at constant humidity of 0.096 kg H2O/ kg air.
Figure 5 shows the plotted data between the total moisture content of the carrot samples vs time.
The initial moisture content of the carrot sample was determined to be 0.8451 kg H2O per kg wet
carrot sample based upon drying a sample of carrot in an oven and weighed until a constant weight
of the carrot was achieved from repeated oven drying. This moisture content was made as the basis
for calculating the moisture content of the carrot samples in the cabinet dryer. It can be observed
that the decrease in moisture content of the carrot samples is approximately constant up to the 80-
minute time period. This period signifies the vaporization of the free moisture content of the
samples. After 80 minutes the moisture decline in the solid samples subtly decreased. This implied
that the vaporization was mainly controlled by the diffusion of water molecules from the inside
capillaries of the carrot samples to its surface. It can be noted that the curve for the thinner carrot
sample (2x1x0.25cm) was steeper than the other, this implied that a thinner sample is easier to dry
than a thick sample since less thickness is needed for the water molecules to travel to the surface
of the carrot.
A more apparent illustration for the change of the drying behavior or the moisture removal
of the carrot samples is shown in Figure 6, where the data between the drying rate vs time is plotted.

Drying Rate of Carrot Samples vs Time

0.0070
Drying rate R, kg H2O/h-m^2

0.0060
0.0050
0.0040
0.0030
0.0020
0.0010
0.0000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)

2x1x0.25cm 2x1x0.5cm

Figure 6. Drying rate of the carrot samples throughout the drying period

The drying rate of the carrot samples was determined and is observed to decrease through
time. The initial drying rate for the thinner sample was greater compared to the other a thinner
sample means easier diffusion of water molecules from the insides of the carrot samples. However,
both rates approached an almost constant trend signifying the shift from the vaporization of the
free moisture to the bound moisture content of the carrot samples.

To further elaborate the drying behavior of the carrot samples, a relationship curve is
plotted in Figure 7 between the drying rate of the carrot samples versus its respective moisture

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content. It can be observed that a direct relationship exists between the total moisture content and
the drying rate which supports Figure 3 regarding the theoretical relationship of the drying rate vs
moisture content. The greater is the total moisture content of the sample, the greater is its drying
rate.

It is important to note that no critical moisture content of the carrot samples was illustrated
in Figure 5. The time for the experiment given the hot air temperature of 50 deg. Celsius was not
sufficient to reach the critical moisture content and ultimately the equilibrium moisture content for
the samples in the cabinet air dryer.

2.5
Drying rate R, kg H2O/h-m^2

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Total Moisture X, kg H2O/kg wet carrot

2x1x0.25cm 2x1x0.5cm

Figure 7. Drying Rate of Carrot Samples vs Moisture Content

VI. Conclusion

The drying of the carrot samples was dependent on the geometry of the sample and as well
the operating conditions, specifically air humidity and temperature. The change in the decline of
total moisture content of the carrot samples decreases as time increases due to the diffusion of
water out of the sample given constant humidity. The drying rate of the carrot samples decreases
through time since lesser moisture content means lesser water to vaporize and the more difficult it
is for the water to diffuse through the solid sample into the air stream. Thus, the drying rate is
directly proportional to the total moisture content of the carrot samples.

VII. Recommendation

Drying of the carrot samples should be done at higher temperatures (>50 deg C) to achieve
equilibrium moisture content given a limited time for experimentation. Also, the use of an oven
drier instead of the cabinet air dryer maybe advantageous due to its high flexibility to temperature
settings.

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VIII. Appendices

A. Raw Data

Table 1. Constant weighing of the carrot sample

Initial mass of wet sample + evaporating dish = 4.865 g

Trial Mass of dry sample + mesh basket, g
1 2.38
2 2.35
3 2.33

4 2.33
5 2.32

6 2.30
7 2.30

8 2.30 (constant)

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Table 2. Raw data and Calculated data for the moisture content (H2O/C) and the drying rate,
where: m=mass in grams; b=basket; c=carrot; dc=dried carrot; H2O=water

2x1x0.25cm
drying
Time(min) m(b) m(b+c) m(b+dc) H20 C H2O/C DC
rate
15 1.31 1.73 1.66 0.07 0.35 0.64 0.0042 0.70
30 1.58 1.92 1.81 0.11 0.34 0.52 0.0027 0.34
45 1.41 1.95 1.73 0.22 0.54 0.43 0.0032 0.36
60 1.4 1.89 1.62 0.27 0.49 0.29 0.0022 0.24
75 1.81 2.22 1.94 0.28 0.41 0.16 0.0013 0.16
90 1.23 1.66 1.37 0.29 0.43 0.17 0.0011 0.14
105 1.31 1.83 1.46 0.37 0.52 0.13 0.0011 0.14
120 1.53 2.06 1.68 0.38 0.53 0.12 0.0010 0.13
2x1x0.5cm
DC drying
Time(min) m(b) m(b+c) m(b+dc) H20 C H2O/C
rate
15 1.5 2.48 2.38 0.1 0.98 0.74 0.0065 1.96
30 1.65 2.51 2.37 0.14 0.86 0.68 0.0043 0.86
45 1.79 2.77 2.53 0.24 0.98 0.60 0.0044 0.65
60 1.43 2.56 2.19 0.37 1.13 0.51 0.0045 0.56
75 1.72 2.67 2.33 0.34 0.95 0.48 0.0032 0.38
90 1.42 2.34 2.00 0.34 0.92 0.47 0.0026 0.30
105 2.12 3.02 2.62 0.4 0.9 0.40 0.0023 0.25
120 1.82 2.82 2.36 0.46 1.00 0.38 0.0023 0.25

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B. Sample Calculation

Determining the initial moisture content of the carrot sample

Mass of wet sample

mass of wet sample = mass of dish and wet sample – mass of dish
mass of wet sample = 4.86 g – 1.83 g = 3.035 g

Mass of dry sample

mass of dry sample = mass of dish and dry sample – mass of dish
mass of dry sample = 2.30 g – 1.83 g = 0.47 g

Total amount of moisture of carrot sample

total moisture = mass of wet sample – mass of dry sample
total moisture = 3.04 g – 0.47 g = 2.57 g

Initial moisture content

� � ��
Xinitial =
� � � ��

.57
Xinitial = = 0.8451
.0 5

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Determining the moisture content of the samples
Legend: BC =basket with wet carrot; B=basket; BDC=basket with dried carrot; IMC=initial
moisture content
For the 15-minute data: 2x1x0.25cm

�� � = − = . − . = .
�� � � = − = . − . = .

� � � � �� = � −

� . �
�� = . − = .
� . �

Surface area for the 2x1x0.25cm sample

surface area = 2(L x W + L x H + W x H)
surface area = 2(2 x 1 + 2 x 0.25 + 1 x 0.25) = 5.5 cm2

Drying rate R
� ∆
R=-
� ∆

� �
. ( . − . ) � /ℎ / ^
� �
�=
min . ( )

R = 0.004 kgH2O/h-m^2

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C. Photos
Figure 11. Weighing of the sample for equilibrium moisture
content determination

Figure 8. Slicing of carrot sample

Figure 14. Desiccator for cooling of carrot samples

Figure 9. Carrot samples according to their specific

dimensions

Figure 15. Digital dryer temperature indicator

Figure 10. Samples placed in the basket

Figure 16. Tray dryer

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VI. References

McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., & Harriot, P. (1993). Unit operations of chemical engineering.
Chemical Engineering Science (5th ed., Vol. 6). New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
Geankoplis, C. J. (2003). Principles of transport processes and separation processes. (4th
ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Google images. (2017). Tray dryer. Retrieved 04 March 2017
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/103103027/module4/lec1/3.html

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