STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

What is Expertise? Develop Your Abilities to Supervise Strength

The time required to be an expert in any given area has
Training and Conditioning Activities
been estimated at 10,000 hr, or approximately 10 years,
This manual draws a line between those who can design,
of direct practice (3). This manual is for those interested
administer, program, and plan strength training and
in strength training and conditioning but are still in the
conditioning activities, from those who can supervise and
formative stages, in other words – you are not an expert.
implement a program or plan. The knowledge, skills, and
Moreover, it is unlikely you will
abilities needed to design
ever know everything there is to know about strength
a strength training and conditioning program require a
training and conditioning. A look at the number of
higher level of knowledge than is covered in this
variables involved in strength training and conditioning
manual. This manual will prepare you with a small
results in a list of about 50 (e.g., sets, reps, weight,
amount of scientific information so that you can
exercise selection, technique, time of day, temperature,
understand the basics of how strength training
training status, etc.). We calculated the number
and conditioning affects the body, answer basic
of possible combinations of these variables and came up
questions about training, and increase your scientific
with a number so large that no one could possibly study
knowledge about training. The primary objective of this
and know all the combinations in a lifetime of effort. This
manual is to prepare you to identify flaws in exercise
means that strength training and conditioning involves
performance (e.g., posture and technique), fatigue, using
such a vast area of knowledge
too much resistance (or not enough), proper
that much of our job will be to reduce the number of
use of the appropriate metabolic energy system, and
things to know to a manageable level by emphasizing
athlete readiness. As your knowledge and experience
those that are the most important. The important things
grow, you will acquire a “coach’s eye” which allows you to
are the “big ideas” or “big things.” It is vitally important
see flaws in exercise performance almost instinctively.
that you get the “big things” right. The three objectives
You will also develop a sort of “sixth sense” regarding the
above, we believe, are the big things required for a basic
status of your athletes such that you can tell when they
understanding of strength training and conditioning.
are fatigued or lack the safety-related exercise
preparation skills.
Increase Safety Awareness
Clearly, first we must commit to doing no harm as
An Overview of Strength Training and
strength training and conditioning professionals. Like all
athletic activities, injury is a possibility and we must
Conditioning
Basic principles permeate all of strength training and
prepare such that we reduce the likelihood of injury. We
conditioning (refer to the pyramid diagram for an idea of
will cover safety, injury prevention, and risk management
how this manual will attempt to “divide and conquer” the
in the final chapter to ensure you leave this manual with
important basic information you will need to effectively
safety foremost in your mind. Fortunately, injuries in
supervise and direct day-to-day training). For example,
strength training and conditioning are rare but constant
one of the pillars of strength training and conditioning is
vigilance and good judgment are always required (6,7,8).
the idea of progression. Progression refers to the selection
Risk management is a tactic that is used to reduce the
of exercises, loads or resistances, order of exercises, and
likelihood of injuries along with the likelihood of legal
readiness of the athlete that are just right (not too hard,
problems that often accompany injuries. Increasing your
not too easy) for the status of the athlete and the
knowledge and awareness of the risks of injury through
demands of the activity. Another basic principle is that of
strength training and conditioning activities, and the risk
specificity, the body tends to adapt very narrowly to the
of litigation or lawsuits due
nature of the exercise performed.
to poor judgment, we hope will keep athletes healthy and
Finally, even supervision itself comes in different forms,
happy through competent strength training and
and it is important to know the circumstances when a
conditioning decisions. We believe that the first step to
particular form of supervision is ideal. Continuing the
safe performance is thorough and competent training of
idea of a broad overview, let us look at the basic
instructors and coaches.
principles of training and a few definitions (2,4,9).

Training – Training is the process of preparing an

athlete physically, technically, tactically, psychologically,
and theoretically rapidly for the highest levels of
performance (4). Training involves more than simple
growth and maturation and, of course, the highest levels
of performance will be relative to the current status and
genetic gifts of the athlete.

Volume – Volume is the amount of work performed. Sets

and repetitions of an exercise combine to make
volume (1). If you are a runner, volume is the distance
you covered. If you are strength training, volume is
the product of sets x repetitions of an exercise.
Intensity – Intensity is the difficulty of the work. at a desired velocity. If the bar is loaded with a weight that
Intensity is the amount of weight or resistance used in a prevents them from reaching their desired velocity, then
particular exercise (1). If you are a runner, intensity is the specific training adaptation will not be obtained.
running speed. If you are strength training, intensity is
the resistance or weight lifted.

Volume-Load – Volume-load is the combination of

volume and intensity. Volume-load is usually calculated
as sets x repetitions x weight, or resistance used (1).

Frequency – Frequency is simply the number of training

sessions expressed per day, per week, per month, and
so forth (1).

Principles of Training

1. Principle of Individuality
Every individual is unique and will respond differently to
the same training stimulus. Some of these differences can
be influenced by many characteristics; biological age,
training age, gender, body size and shape, past injuries
and many more.

For example, a college athlete makes a copy of his exact

training program and gives it to his little brother who is a
freshman in high school. The younger brother does not
miss a workout, and at the end of the program, he is
disappointed in the results. Though many variables could
play a role in the results, the primary factor is most likely
the large range in biological and training age.

2. Principle of Specificity
Training adaptations for an individual will occur
specifically to the muscle groups trained, the intensity
of the exercise, the metabolic demands of the exercise,
and/or specific movements and activities. In an attempt
to perfect a specific skill or activity,
you must perform that skill or activity with proper body
mechanics to have correct technique.

For example, a 100-m sprinter is not going to train for

an event by running three miles at a low intensity for an
extended period. The sprinter will train by sprinting
short distances at very high intensities.

3. Principle of Overload
In order for an individual to achieve a certain training
adaptation, the body must be stressed by working against
a stimulus or load that is greater than that to which it is
accustomed. Overload, ensures improvement by
challenging changes in resistance, terrain, movement
complexity, and many others.

For example, if an athlete is trying to increase force

production to jump higher, the athlete must train to
increase overall strength
and power. When training with the hang clean at three
sets of five repetitions, the athlete should load the bar
with a weight that will allow them to use great technique
4. Principle of Progression
In order to achieve the desired training adaptations for
a certain activity or skill consistently, the training
stimulus must gradually and constantly increase. This
implies that there is an optimal level and time frame
for the overload to occur. If overload increases too
quickly, poor technique, improper muscle firing
patterns, and injury may result. If overload progresses
too slowly, improvements will be minimal or non-
existent. Rest and recovery must also be included in
the progression, as training hard all the time could
result in chronic fatigue, a decrease in performance and
eventually injury.

For example, at the beginning of the training program,

an athlete may be able to perform three sets of ten
repetitions at 135 lb. At first, this may be a tough task
for the athlete to accomplish, but as the athlete
consistently trains, the task will become easier and the
load must be increased. The next week the load
increases to 145 lb until all ten reps can be completed
with correct technique. The athlete must progressively
overload the muscles to increase performance.

5. Principle of Diminishing Returns

Performance gains are related to the level of training
(training age) of each individual. Athletes that have
never participated in a training program before can
see huge initial performance gains in their program.
On the other hand, athletes that have been lifting for
several years will see smaller gains over longer
periods of time. As an athlete nears their genetic
potential, the gains in
performance will be much harder to obtain. The key is
to continue to show progress in the areas in which they
have weaknesses.

For example, when an athlete first starts a training

program as a freshman in college the athlete’s vertical
jump may improve from 22 in. to 30 in. in the first
year. As the athlete continues to train through the next
three years, their vertical jump performance may
increase from 30 in. to 38. Achieving the eight-inch
improvement in the final three years is much more
significant and difficult than the eight inches in the first
year.

6. Principle of Reversibility
When a training stimulus is taken away from an athlete for
an extended period of time, they will not be able to
maintain a certain level of performance. Over time, the
gains that were achieved will return to the original level.

For example, when an athlete takes the summer off

from training they can expect to become detrained.
The decrease in
performance is directly related to the inactivity of the
muscles that have been atrophied from nonuse (5).
These principles of training will guide your decisions and storing energy. This energy system, which is often broken
determine how you will accomplish the three objectives into fast and slow glycolysis, is also considered anaerobic
listed at the beginning of this chapter. These guidelines because it breaks down carbohydrates to produce ATP.
will help you judge the direction of different training Since it has a higher capacity for storing energy, this
approaches and likely outcomes. Moreover, training system is dominant during activities that last between 30 s
principles simply help reduce the universe of ideas of and 2 – 3 min (1).
which you need to consider. Another aspect of strength
training and conditioning is the utilization of proper
energy systems.

Overview of Energy Systems

The following section will review the energy systems
associated with the production and use of energy within
the body. The most efficient and effective strength
training and conditioning programs are designed with an
understanding of the transfer of energy between all of the
biological energy systems. It is beyond the scope of this
manual to define the specific chemical reactions and
processes within the body that generate and replenish
energy. For more complete information about the energy
systems, please refer to the “Essentials of Strength
Training and Conditioning” (3rd ed.) textbook (1).

Through various reactions within the body, an

intermediate molecule called adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) is generated, which allows for the transfer of
energy from various reactions. This molecule is
classified as a high-energy molecule because it stores
large amounts of energy in its chemical bonds. Through
the breakdown of ATP, the body is able to provide the
necessary energy to perform activities (without an
adequate supply of ATP muscular activity and muscular
growth would not be possible). Since ATP is stored in
such limited quantities within muscle cells, three main
energy systems exist in muscle cells to replenish ATP
and provide the constant energy needed for muscle
action (1).
All of the energy systems are active all of the time;
however, the contribution of one energy system may be
dominant based on the intensity and duration of a
specific activity.

Phosphagen (ATP-PC) System

The phosphagen, or ATP-PC, system uses ATP primarily
for short- term, high-intensity activities (1). This energy
system is considered anaerobic because it does not
require the presence of oxygen
to metabolize energy. However, this energy system does
not generate ATP for immediate use and has a low
capacity for ATP stores. Since the phosphagen system
cannot store large amounts of energy, it is the dominant
energy system for high-intensity activities that last no
longer than 20 – 30 s (1). If an activity
lasts longer than 20 – 30 s, energy supply shifts to the
glycolytic energy system.

Glycolytic System
The glycolytic system has a much higher capacity for
Oxidative System
The oxidative energy system is considered aerobic.
Whereas the phosphagen and glycolytic energy
systems derive energy from carbohydrates for high-
intensity exercise, the oxidative energy system shifts
from carbohydrates to proteins and fats as energy
substrates for prolonged, submaximal exercise. The
oxidative energy system is dominant for activities of
low intensity that last longer than three minutes.

The body shifts between the various energy systems

on a moment-to-moment basis in order to provide the
energy necessary for movement and restoration. The
energy systems respond to training specifically, as
described by the principle of specificity. Since all
energy systems are active all of the time, it is
important to understand and differentiate when each
system is dominant for each specific activity in order
to design efficient and productive training programs
that meet the needs of the activity. For example, a
football lineman should not perform long-distance runs
to train for competition because the demands of
training do not match the demands of the activity.

Conclusion
While you are confronting the large number of
demands that you will face as a relatively new strength
training and conditioning professional, keep in mind
that your primary tasks are safety, vigilant supervision,
and a watchful eye of the implementation of the
designed training program. The watchful eye comes
from using the principles of training as a sort of criteria
gauntlet through which any training decision should
pass. Moreover, you can use the information in this
chapter as a frame or context within which the
following chapters fit.
 Energy Systems

Short Term Energy System

Fast & Slow Glycolysis
100
Dominance of energy system

%
Long Term Energy
System Aerobic

Immediate Energy System

ATP-PC
0%
10 30 ≈1 min >2
s s Duration of Activity min

Figure 1-1. Dominant Energy System Based on Activity Duration Blackwell Science Ltd.; 163-172, 2002.

References
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training and conditioning. (3rd ed.) Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics; 2008.

2. Bompa, TO, and Haff, GG. Periodization.

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2009.

3. Ericsson, KA, Krampe, RT, and Tesch-Römer, C. The

role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of
expert performance. Psychological Review 100:
363-406, 1993.

4. Harre, D. Principles of sports training. Berlin,

German Democratic Republic: Sportverlag;
1982.

5. Hoffman, JR. Physiological aspects of sport

training and performance. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics; 2002.

6. Kraemer, WJ, and Dziados, J. Medical aspects and

administrative concerns in strength training, in:
Strength training for sport. Oxford, England:
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Park Ridge, IL: American Academy of
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8. Patteson-Lombardi, V. Resistance training. In: Caine,

DJ, Caine, CG, and Lindner, KJ (Eds.), Epidemiology
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312-336, 1996.

9. Stone, MH, Pierce, KP, Sands, WA, and Stone,

ME. Weightlifting: Program design. Strength
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