BUILDING MATERIALS

Contents of Bricks: Properties and specifications

BRICK: A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements
in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but
is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can
be joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. Bricks are produced in numerous
classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced
in bulk quantities.

Percentage of Constituents of Brick (Weight Basis)

There are six major ingredients of brick. The general percentage of these ingredients in brick
is given below:

Ingredient Percentage in brick

Silica (SiO2) 55%
Alumina (Al2O3) 30%
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 8%
Magnesia (MgO) 5%
Lime(CaO) 1%
Organic Matter 1%
Chief Ingredients of Brick and Their Functions
Silica (Sand) and Alumina (Clay), these two are the most prominent ingredients in brick
clay. When mixed with water in proper proportions, it gains plasticity. The plastic mass can
be easily molded and dried. It should not go through cracking, shrinkage or warping.

Alumina
Alumina is the main constituent of clay. It acts as a cementing material in raw brick. Brick
clay is plastic due to the presence of alumina. This plasticity ensures that bricks can be
molded. An excess amount of alumina in clay may cause the bricks to shrink, warp or crack on
drying and burning as any other cementing material.

Figure: Clay for Brick formation

Silica
Good quality bricks contain 50-60% silica. It is present in both free and combined form. As
frees sand, it remains mechanically mixed with clay. In combined form, it reacts with alumina
to form aluminosilicates. Silica prevents raw bricks from cracking, shrinking and warping.
The higher the proportion of sand, the more and shapely and uniform in texture will be the
brick. Although, excess silica destroys cohesion between the brick clay particles and makes
brick brittle and weak. The durability of bricks largely depends upon the proper proportion of
silica and alumina.
 Figure: Sand

Lime
Bricks should contain a little amount of finely powdered lime. It enables silica (of a required
portion) to melt at the furnace temperature of 1650oC and binds the particles of brick together
resulting in strong and durable bricks. At about 1100o C, lime acts as a catalyst to elevate the
furnace temperature to 1650oC at which silica fuses. This slightly fused silica works as a
strong cementing material. Excess lime in brick clay will cause vitrification of bricks. It
causes bricks to melt, as more than the required amount of silica will fuse. The bricks then
lose their shape and become disfigured.

Figure: Powdered Lime

Iron Oxide
Bricks contain a small quantity of Iron Oxide. Iron Oxide acts a flux like lime, thus helps
silica to fuse at low temperature. It imparts a red color to bricks upon burning. Iron also
increases the durability and impermeability of the bricks.
 Figure: Iron Oxide powder

Magnesia
A small proportion of magnesium decreases shrinkage and gives a yellow tint to the bricks.
An excess amount of it causes bricks to decay.

Harmful Ingredients of Brick

Lime

Excess lime melts the bricks and disfigures it. If CaCO3 exists (in the purest form, i.e., if it
contains at least 95% CaO) in lime-lump in brick clay, it converts into quicklime on burning.
When these bricks come in contact with water, quicklime slakes and expands. And causes
disintegration of bricks.

Alkalis
Alkalis are mainly salt of Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K). It acts as a flux in the kiln and
causes fusion, warping, and twisting of bricks. Alkalis absorb moisture from the atmosphere
and cause dampness and efflorescence in bricks (because of the presence of hygroscopic
salts, e.g., CaCl2, MgCl2, etc.).

Pebbles, Stones & Gravels

Their presence does not allow thorough mixing of earth, thus the bricks produced are weaker.
Such bricks cannot be broken at the desired section and they break very irregularly.

Figure: Pebbles, Stones, and Gravels

 Iron Pyrites (FeS)
Iron Pyrites causes crystallization and disintegration of bricks while burning. It discolors
bricks in the form of black slag.

Organic Matter

Organic matter in bricks makes bricks porous resulting in low density and weaker bricks.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS:

 Sun-dried bricks
 Burnt clay bricks
 Fly ash bricks
 Concrete bricks
 Engineering bricks
 Calcium silicate bricks
 Eco bricks
Sun-dried bricks:
These are un-burnt bricks made of clay. They are moulded and left under the sun to dry.
Burnt clay bricks: These are made of clay and put into the kiln for burning. They are used for
building walls, foundations, and columns, among others. There are four different types of
burnt clay bricks:
 First class: Quality with excellent edges
 Second class: Ground moulded and a bit irregular in shape
 Third class: Rough-edged and ground moulded, used for temporary construction
 Fourth class: Over-burnt and highly irregular, dark in colour with no water resistance feature

Fly ash bricks:

Also called Self-cementing brick, these bricks contain Class F or Class C fly ash as a part of
the formula.

Concrete bricks:

These bricks are made using solid concrete. The concrete is prepared using sand, coarse
aggregates, water, and cement.

Engineering bricks:

This type of brick offers high compressive strength. They are used for construction where low
porosity, frost resistance, acid resistance, and strength are mandatory.
 Calcium silicate bricks:
Also called sand lime bricks, they are made by mixing fly ash, lime, and sand. It is used for
masonry and ornamental works in different construction projects.
Eco bricks:
Porotherm hollow bricks are suitable walling solutions. They offer significant thermal
insulation and make walls stronger.

PROPERTIES OF BRICKS
1. Physical Properties of Bricks
These properties of bricks include shape, size, color, and density of a brick.

 Shape.
1. The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well defined and sharp edges.
The surface of the bricks is regular and even.
2. These are generally modifications of rectangular shapes.

 Size.
1. The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place to place
in the same country.
2. In India, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm which with mortar
joint gives net dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10 cm.

 Colour.
1. The most common color of building bricks falls under the class RED. It may vary from deep
red to light red to buff and purple.
2. Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas yellow color is often indicative of
under-burning.

 Density.
1. The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used and
the method of brick molding (soft-mud, Stiff-mud, hard-pressed etc.).
2. In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600 kg/cubic meter to 1900 kg/cubic
meter.
2. Mechanical Brick Properties.
 Under this heading of properties of bricks, compressive strength and flexure strength are
included.
 Compressive Strength of Bricks.
1. It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used in
load-bearing walls.
2. The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the clay and
degree of burning. It may vary from 35 kg/cm2 to more than 200 kg/cm2 in
India.
 Flexure Strength.
1. Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are possible in a building. As
such, they should possess sufficient strength against transverse loads.
2. It is specified that the flexural strength of a common building brick shall not be less
than 10 kg/cm2.
3. Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 20 kg/cm2.

 Thermal Properties of Building Bricks.

1. . Besides being hard and strong, ideal bricks should also provide an adequate insulation
against heat, cold and noise.
2. The heat and sound conductivity of bricks vary greatly with their density and porosity.

3. Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a greater rate. They have,
therefore, poor thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities.
4. For this reason, bricks should be so designed that they are light and strong and give
adequate insulation

 Specification of Bricks
A brick is small block of burnt clay with a size that can be held in one hand conveniently.
Brick should be thoroughly burnt, of uniform color, having plane rectangular faces, sharp
straight, right angle edges.

 Standard Modular size of common building brick is 190X90X90 mm

 The size of a Non-Modular brick is 9"X4-3/8"X2-11/16" (229X111X70 mm).But it is

specified as 230X110X70 mm.

 The weight of a brick is about 3 to 4 kg.

Recommended Sizes of Bricks

 Type of Bricks Normal Size (mm) Actual Size (mm)

Modular Bricks 200x100x100 mm 190x90x90 mm

Non -Modular Bricks 229x114x70 mm 230x110x70 mm

Visual Characteristics of Brick

 Good bricks should be burnt thoroughly so that they become hard and durable.

 Satisfactory burning of the bricks is ascertained by hard ringing sound when two
bricks are struck together.

 The bricks should have smooth and rectangular shapes with sharp corners and uniform
colors.

 The bricks should be free from cracks, chips, warp age, large particles of lime and
organic matters.

Water Absorption of Brick

Average water absorption of bricks after 24 hours of immersion in cold water should not be
more than 20% of its own dry weight.

The acceptable water absorption for clay bricks are between 12% and 20%. If you are using
engineering bricks the closer you are to the 12% the better the result will be. When the water
absorption is too low, i.e. below 12%, it may be difficult to obtain a proper bond between the
mortar and the bricks.

Raw Materials for Brick

Sufficient samples of the earth available must be tested to check if the soil is suitable for
composition of bricks and available abundantly in neighborhood.
It is reasonable uniformity of composition in the soil. Mechanical composition of the soil may
preferably confirm the following requirements.

 Clay 20 to 35 %
 Silt 20 to 35%
 Sand 35 to 45 %
 CEMENT

Contents: Cement Types, properties, grades, other types of cement and uses

A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together.
The principal raw materials used in the manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement are:
1. Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales.
2. Calcareous or calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone, chalk and marl which is a
mixture of clay and calcium carbonate.
Gypsum is added to control the “setting of cement”. If not added, the cement will set
immediately after mixing of water leaving no time for concrete placing.
Chemical Composition

Components Percentage of mass

Calcium Oxide (Cao) 66.33
Silica(Sio2) 18.6
Ferric Oxide(Fe2o3) 4.03
Alumina(Al2o3) 3.77
Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 2.67
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.13
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 1.39
Potasium Oxide (K2O) 0.46

Properties of Cement
Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical properties.
Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of good cement
are based on:
 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Strength
 Setting time
 Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)

These physical properties are discussed in details in the following segment. Also, you will
find the test names associated with these physical properties.

Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As
hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is
very important.
Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement
retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free
lime and magnesia.

Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

It is measured by Vicat Test.

In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat Apparatus. The plunger
of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The plunger will
penetrate the cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said to
have a normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.

Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural. Various
factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing
conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading
conditions and age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related. Cement strength
is merely a quality control measure.

The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.

Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test should be
mentioned.

Strength of Cement
Compressive Strength

It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a
compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80
seconds.

Tensile strength

Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it does
not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.

Flexural strength

This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x
160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low
and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45 minutes)

Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

 Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation
is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is
affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness
and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining
the difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these
at 7th and 28th days).

Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes
weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and
prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and
carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of ignition.

Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be
air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying
range of density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement may
be any where from 3150 kg/ m3.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a
specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag
and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon),
bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast
furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the
chemical properties of cement.

1. TricalciumAluminate(C3A)
Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the hydration of
C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration. C3A does not provide any
 more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8% C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)

2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S)

C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the cement’s early
strength gain an initial setting.
3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium silicate in cement
helps the strength gain after one week.
4. Ferrite (C4AF)
Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln
from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute much to the
strength of the cement.
5. Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw material in dry process
plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the cement unsound and expansive, but a
little amount of it can add strength to the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also
causes less CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.
6. Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.
7. Iron oxide/Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is mainly responsible for
the color of the cement.
8. Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine the alkali content
of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in
regulating the setting time of cement. Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in
concrete, can cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground granulated blast furnace slag is
not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an optional limit in
total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by the equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
9. Freelime
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.
10. Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of properties, especially
compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength. Though setting time is
 prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence,
Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement
projects that require high strength.
11. Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid temperatures since alumina
is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting but weakens the cement.
Mechanical Properties of Cement
The primary mechanical properties that determine the performance of concrete include
Compressive Strength: It describes the material’s capacity to withstand compression forces.

Young’s Modulus (Elastic Modulus): It describes the cement’s capacity to withstand persistent
deformation when pressure is applied.

Tensile Strength: It describes the capacity to withstand breaking when exposed to tension
forces.

Poisson’s Ratio: It describes the relationship between a material’s response to an applied force
in one direction (vertically) and a change in dimension in another direction (horizontal).

13 Types of Cement
 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
 Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
 Rapid Hardening Cement
 Quick setting cement
 Low Heat Cement
 Sulphate resisting cement
 Blast Furnace Slag Cement
 High Alumina Cement
 White Cement
 Colored cement
 Air Entraining Cement
 Expansive cement
 Hydrographic cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used.

Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by
mass of calcium silicates, (3 CaO·SiO2, and 2 CaO·SiO2), the remainder consisting of
aluminium- and iron-containing clinker phases and other compounds. The ratio of CaO to
SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The magnesium oxide content (MgO) shall not exceed 5.0%
by mass.

The composition of Ordinary Portland Cement:

 Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)

 Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement

 It is used for general construction purposes.

 It is also used in most of the masonry works.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It reacts with
calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional cementations materials
when it is finely divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:

 OPC clinker
 Gypsum
 Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement

 PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the
seashore, dam construction, etc.
 It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
 As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
 It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.

Rapid Hardening Cement

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content, it
gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening Cement.
It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.

Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement

 Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like the
construction of pavement.
  It also gives high strength.

We have published three articles on rapid hardening cement on our website. In case you want to
learn more about RHC, you can visit the following link.

Quick Setting Cement

Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial setting time is 5
minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The composition of Quick Setting Cement:

 Clinker
 Aluminum sulfate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
 The aluminum sulfate increases the hydration rate of silicate.

Uses of Quick Setting Cement

 It is used in underwater construction.

 It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
 It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
 Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunnelling

Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement which produces low heat of hydration during the setting. Some
chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of hydration.
The chemical composition of low heat cement:

 A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

 A higher percentage (46%) of declaiming silicate (C2S).

Uses of Low Heat Cement

 It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind turbine
plinths.
 It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
Sulphate Resisting Cement

Sulfate resisting cement is used to resist sulfate attacks in concrete. Due to the lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets
reduced.

Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement

 Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3 % g/l
sulfate salts respectively.
 Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers,
concrete surface in the tidal zone, apron, Building near the seacoast.
 Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps,
drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls,
breakwaters, tetrapods, etc.

Blast Furnace Cement

Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag are intergraded to make blast
furnace cement. A maximum of 65 percent of the mixture could be comprised of blast furnace
slag.

Uses of Blast Furnace Cement

 It is highly sulfate resistant

 Frequently used in seawater construction.

High Alumina Cement

High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminum ore) and
ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total amount of
alumina content should not be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of
alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.

Uses of High Alumina Cement

 It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like workshops,
refractory, foundries, etc.
 It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.
White Cement

White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color. Amounts of iron
oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is expensive then OPC so not
economical for ordinary work.

Uses of White Cement

 It is usually used in decorative work.

 It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching
materials, and terrazzo surfaces.

Colored Cement

To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are ground with OPC. Types of pigments are
selected according to the desired color.

Uses of Colored Cement

 Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

Air Entraining Cement

It is seen that entrainment of air or formation of gas bubbles while applying cement increases
resistance to frost action, fire, scaling, and other similar defects. Air-entraining cement is a
special type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete.

It is produced by grinding minute air entertaining materials with clinker by adding some
resinous materials e.g. vinsol resin to ordinary portland cement.

When the water in concrete gets frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When air-
entraining cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for water to expand without
cracking concrete. But this type of cement does not provide high strength in concrete.

Uses of Air-Entraining Cement

 Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
 It also resists the Sulphet attack.
 It is used where the de-icing chemical is used.
Expansive Cement

In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to
overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.

Uses of Expansive cement

 It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.

 It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
 In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.

Hydrophobic Cement

To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are ground with
water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid. These chemicals form a
layer on the cement particle and do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process.
When cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and
start normal hydration with some air-entrainment which increases workability.

Uses of Hydrophobic Cement

 Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams, spillways, or
other submerged structures.
 It is also used in the construction of underground structures like tunnel etc.

Uses of Cement
Following are the different uses of cement in construction works:

1. To prepare cement mortar

2. To prepare cement concrete
3. To build fire proof and thermal proof structures
4. To build hydrographic and frost resistant structures
5. To build chemical proof structures
6. As a grout material
7. To construct Cement concrete roads
8. To manufacture precast members
9. For aesthetic concrete construction
 MORTAR

Contents: Cement mortar: Constituents, Preparation

Mortar is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate and water. When water is
added to the dry mixture of binding material and the inert material, binding material develops
the property that binds not only the inert material but also the surrounding stones and bricks.

TYPES OF MORTAR

 CEMENT MORTAR
 LIME MORTAR
 SURKI MORTAR
 GAUGED MORTAR
 MUD MORTAR

CEMENT MORTAR

Cement mortar composite has wide application in masonry work, plastering,repairing

damaged concrete, patching or filling, rendering, floor leveling, andthe development of precast
products.The composite is composed of binder,sand, water, and fibers with a maximum.size of
fine-grain material of 2 mm. The binder may be cement, mineral with polymeric or chemical
admixtures .
CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT MORTAR:-

Cement mortar should be composed of cement, sand, and water, be well-mixed, and have the
proper consistency to obtain a dense, homogeneous lining that will adhere firmly to the
substances surface. Cement-mortar lining should be applied by spinning, mechanical
placement (line traveling), the pneumatic process (shotcrete or gunite), and hand troweling.

PREPARATION:-

 Selection of Raw Materials

 Proportion of cement mortar
 Mixing of ingredients
1.SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS:-

 The production of cement mortar can be done with a variety of materials, but it is
important to choose the correct ones for the job based on the construction's kind and
intended use.
 Mortar is created using Portland cement. For most construction tasks, ordinary
Portland cement is best. Lime is Sand must be of good quality and devoid of
contaminants like clay, dust, iron oxide, etc. Before combining it with cement, it needs
to be thoroughly cleaned. used to make composite mortars.
 Sand gives concrete strength and resistance to breaking and shrinkage. It gives mortars
bulk, which makes it affordable. It would be not only very expensive but also useless
to use simply cement.

2.PROPORTION OF CEMENT MORTAR:-

The Proportion means the relative quantity of different components to be mixed to make good
mortar, or simply the ratio between different materials.

Following are the proportions of cement mortar which is commonly recommended for
different works:

01. Masonry Construction:-

 For ordinary masonry work with brick/ stone as a structural unit. – 1:3 to 1:6
 Forreinforced brick work – 1:2 to 1:3.
 For all work in moist situations – 1:3
 For Architectural work – 1:6
 For load bearing structures – 1:3 or 1:4

02. Plaster Work:-

 For External Plaster and Ceiling Plaster – 1:4

 Internal Plaster (If sand is not fine i.e. Fineness Modulus> 3) – 1:5
 For Internal Plaster (if fine sand is available) – 1:6

03. Flooring Work:

 Mortar ratio of 1:4 to 1:8 (cement: sand, water to be judgmental), for 5 to 7 times
thickness of verified tiles, should be given as bed between RCC floor and tiles.

04. Pointing Work:

 For pointing work proportion of cement mortar should be 1:1 to 1:3

3. MIXING OF INGREDIENTS:-

 Sand and cement are appropriately combined in a dry environment to create cement
mortar. After that, water is gradually added and combined using a shovel. Clay and
other pollutants should not be present in the water.Either manually (Hand Mixing) or
mechanically mixing cement mortar is an option (Machine Mixing). Hand mixing is
frequently employed in modest projects. When mortar is needed in big amounts and
must be used continuously, mechanical mixing is necessary.
 CONCRETE

Contents: Concrete types:PCC and RCC, Grades of Concrete

Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with
a fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time. Concrete is the second-most-
used substance in the world after water, and is the most widely used building material.

PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE

Plain concrete, also known as plain cement concrete or PCC, is most commonly used for
paving and flooring.
Major ingredients of concrete are:
 Binding materials (like cement, lime, polymer)
 Fine aggregate (sand)
 Coarse aggregate (crushed stone, jelly)
 Water

A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents, workability
agents etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain concrete mixture.

The objective of plain cement concrete alias PCC is to arrange a firm impermeable bed to
RCC in the foundation where the soil is soft and flexible. It is mostly applied over brick flat
soling or devoid of brick flat soling. It is also known as Cement Concrete (CC) or Blinding
Concrete.
RCC

Reinforced concrete, concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two
materials act together in resisting forces. The reinforcing steel—rods, bars, or mesh—
absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete structure.

 Reinforced concrete is used for construction on a large scale, such as bridges, dams, piers,
tall buildings and stadiums. It is most commonly used in domestic construction for the
footings and foundations of smaller everyday dwellings.
 Reinforced concrete (RC), also called reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and
ferroconcrete, is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength
and ductility are compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile
strength or ductility.
NOTE
 Depending upon the proportion of ingredient, strength of concrete varies. It is possible to
determine the proportion of the ingredients for a particular strength by mix design
procedure. In the absence of mix design the ingredients are proportioned as 1:1:2, 1:3/2:3,
1:2:4, 1:3:6 and 1:4:8, which is the ratio of weights of cement sand to coarse aggregate.
 In proportioning of the concrete, it is kept in mind that voids in coarse aggregates are filled
with sand and the voids in sand are filled with cement.
 In terms of strength, naturally, RCC is stronger because the reinforcement helps in load-
carrying capacity. PCC is weaker and is only used for layering surfaces like plastering
work or flooring and most importantly in the layering if excavation to cast footings.
 Concrete Grades

 Proportion of ingredients usually adopted for various works are shown in table below.

Functions of Various Ingredients

Concrete Ingredients
Concrete has been used as a building material for thousands of years. The main ingredients
have been the same, but new admixture technologies allow designers and engineers to finely
tune the final properties of the fully set concrete.

Four Main Ingredients

Concrete is made up of four main ingredients: water, Portland cement, aggregates, and air.
The ratio of the ingredients changes the properties of the final product, which allows the
engineer to design concrete that meets their specific needs. Admixtures are added to adjust the
concrete mixture for specific performance criteria.
 Concrete ingredients: water, cement, aggregate, and air

Water
 The water in the concrete mix should be clean and free of impurities. The amount of
water relative to the amount of cement changes how easily the concrete flows, but also
affects the final strength of the concrete. More water makes for easier flowing
concrete, but also makes for lower strength concrete upon curing.

Portland Cement
 Cement hardens when mixed with water, which binds all of the ingredients together.
Portland cement is the most common cement used and is composed of alumina, silica,
lime, iron, and gypsum. Small amounts of other ingredients are also included.

Aggregates
 The majority of a concrete mixture is made up of both coarse and fine aggregates,
which help increase the strength of the concrete beyond what cement can provide on
its own. Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are used as aggregates. Recycled materials,
including blast furnace slag, glass (mostly for decorative purposes), and ground-up
concrete are starting to be used as concrete aggregates.

Air
 The fourth main ingredient of concrete is entrained air. While it usually isn't
considered an ingredient, the fact is that a concrete mix includes anywhere from 1% to
9% entrained air. Higher quantities of air should be included when the concrete will be
exposed to very cold or freezing conditions.

Admixtures
 Admixtures accomplish a variety of goals. This can be as simple as adding a pigment
to color the concrete. Other admixtures are used for faster curing times in cold
 weather, creating extremely high-strength concrete, or for increasing the flowable
nature of concrete without compromising the strength. Unfortunately, admixtures can
generate unwanted results such as poor adhesion of finish-flooring. For this reason,
many structural engineers and architects are hesitant to use admixtutres. We have an
article that covers a number of different admixtures.

Hydration: A Chemical Reaction

 While the moisture content reduces as the concrete sets, it is important to know that
concrete doesn't "dry." Rather, concrete sets through a chemical reaction called
hydration. This is why concrete can be placed under water.
 The concrete starts to set as soon as water is added to the mix. Therefore, the mix
should be constantly moved to help keep the particles from binding together (thus
rotating concrete trucks.) Most job sites require the concrete to arrive and be placed
within 90 minutes from initial mixing, but admixtures can extend that time.
Green Concrete and Hardened concrete
 Concrete has completely different properties when it is in its plastic stage. Concrete in
its plastic stage is known as also green concrete.
 The properties of green concrete include:

1. Workability
2. Segregation
3. Bleeding

4. Harshness

The properties of hardened concrete include:

1. Strength
2. Resistance to wear
3. Dimensional changes
4. Durability
5. Impermeability
 STEEL

Contents: Use of steel in buildings, types

Steel is an important alloy of iron and carbon. It is highly elastic, ductile, malleable and
weldable. Steel has high tensile and compressive strength and also stands wear and tear much
better.

USE OF STEEL IN BUILDING WORKS:

Steel can be used for various purposes in building works –

1. As structural material in trusses , beams, etc

2. As non-structural material for grills, doors, windows etc
3. In steel ,pipes , tanks etc
4. In sanitary and sewer fittings, rainwater goods etc
5. Corrugated sheets
6. As reinforcement for concrete

STEEL AS A REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE-

Although plain concrete is very strong in compression , it is very weak in tensile

strength .So, steel is being used in concrete reinforcement . It is equally strong in compression
and tension. The steel for reinforcing bars of other forms of round bars varying in diameter
from 5 to 40 mm , sometimes bars of other forms as mentioned above are also used.
Reinforced cement Concrete (RCC) is more rigid, highly durable and fire resistant. It posses
high tensile strength and it is economical in ultimate cost.

TYPES OF STEEL SECTION:

1.Mild Steel-

 It has a carbon content of about 0.23 -0.25% .

 For bars with a diameter of minimum 20mm, a higher value of this carbon content is
acceptable.
 Size ranges from 6mm up to 32mm (6,12,16,20,25 &32mm) depending on length and
diameter.
 The ultimate tensile strength is 250 N/mm^2 & young modulus is 2*10^5 N/mm^2 for
this material.
 Reinforcement in concrete was a typical usage for it window bars , grills & steel gates
are example of this type of materials.
2.HYSD bars-
 High yielding strength deformed bars
 Two types of HYSD bars termed as Fe-415 and Fe-500 tensile strength N/mm62.
 Have ribs on the surface make bond between concrete and steel greater.
 Bars come in diameter 8,10,12,16,20,22,25,28 & 32mm
 The bars are now being used as reinforcement instead of mild steel bar because their
higher strength in tensile & bond is stronger. These are called wind bars.

3.HIGH TENSILE BARS-

 Made with 0.8% carbon and .6% manganese as well as small amount of silicon,
sulphur, phosphorous to make them strong.
 The bars have tensile strength as high as 1400 to 1900 n/m^2 . The young modulus
steel is also same as that of mild steel.
 In prestressed concrete, reinforcing is provided by high tensile bars.

Fig- Types of steel

MARKET FORMS OF STEEL :

1.Angle Section-
Angle section may be of equal legs or unequal legs. Equal angles available in sizes
20mm*20mm*3mm to 200mm*200mm*25mm . The corresponding weights per meter lengths
are .95Kg to 73.60 kg. Unequal angles varies size forms 30mm*20mm*3mm to
200mm*150mm*18mm. Corresponding weights are from 1.10kg to 46.90 kg. Angle sections
are extremely used in structural steel work especially in the construction of steel roof trusses
and filler joist floors.

2.Channel Section –

Channel section consist of a web and two flanges. A channel section is designated by the
height of the web and width of flanges. It varies size from 100mm*45mm to 400mm*100mm .
The corresponding weight per meter length are respectively 5.80 kg to 49.40 kg. The ISI has
classified channel sections as junior channel, light channel and medium channel. It used as
structural members in steel framed structures.

3.Corrugated Sheets –

These are formed by passing steel sheets through grooves. These grooves bend and press steel
sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets. They are usually galvanized and known as
GI sheets. They are usually used in roof covering.

4.Expanded metal –

This form of steel is available in different shapes and sizes. It is prepared from sheets of mild
steel, which are machine cut and drawn out or expanded. These are widely used for
reinforcing concrete in foundation , roads, floors and bridges etc.

5. Flat bars –

These are available in suitable widths varying from 10mm to 400mm with thickness varying
from 3mm to 40mm. They are widely used in construction of steel grillwork for windows and
gates.
6. I sections –

These are known as rolled steel joists and beams. The two flanges connected through a web.
They are available sizes from 75mm*50mm at 6.10kg to 600mm *210mm at 99.50Kg. Beams
are suitable for columns are available in H sections 150mm*100mm to 600mm*250mm size.

7.Plates-
The plate sections of steel varies from 5 to50 mm thickness. They are mainly used for
purposes-
  To connect steel beams for extension of the length
 To serve as tension members of steel roof truss.
 To form a built up sections of steel.

8.Ribbed torsteel beams-

They are varies from 6 to 50 mm size. They are widely use in reinforcement in concrete
structure such as buildings , bridges, roads, irrigation works. These bars have ribs on their
surface and they are produced by controlling twisting.

Fig- Various c/s of steel

9. T-sections –
It consists of flanges and web. They are available from size 20mm*20mm*3mm to
150mm*150mm*10mm size. These sections are widely used as members of steel root truss
and to form built up sections.

Fig- Steel T-Section

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