Grade: 10FER, 10NC

Subject: Caribbean History

Topic: Resistance and Revolt
Subtopic: Major leaders in the Haitian Revolution
1. Define and accurately explain the following terms:
Voodoo, Napoleon, Estates-General
2. Analyze the roles of the following leaders during the First Half of the Haitian Revolution:
a) Boukman Dutty
b) Vincent Oge
c) Jean Francois (Papillion)
d) Jorge Biassou
3. Evaluate the roles of following leaders during the Second Half of the Haitian Revolution:
a) Toussaint L’Overture
b) Henry Christophe
c) Jean-Jacques Dessalines

Major Leaders of the Haitian Revolution

Toussaint L’ouverture

Toussaint was born in St. Domingue in 1743, was a domestic slave who became steward of all
the live tock on his master’s estate- a position usually given to a white man. He had some
medical knowledge and was able to read. L’Overture was a title he gave himself. It meant ‘the
opener of the way’, the man who could break gaps in the enemy lines. Born into slavery on May
20th, 1743 in the French colony of Saint Domingue, L’Ouverture was the eldest son of Gaou
Guinon, an African prince who was captured by slavers. At a time when revisions to the French
Code Noir (Black Code) legalized the harsh treatment of slaves as property, young L’ Overture
instead inspired kindness from those in authority over him. His godfather, the priest Simon
Baptiste, for example, taught him to read and write. Impressed by L’Ouverture, Bayon de
Libertad, the manager of the Breda Plantation on which L’Ouverture was born, allowed him
unlimited access to his personal library. By the time he was twenty, the well-read and tri-lingual
L’Ouverture- he spoke French, Creole, and some Latin- had also gained a reputation as a skilled
horseman and for his knowledge of medicinal plants and herbs. More importantly, L’Ouverture
had secured his freedom from de Libertad even as he continued to manage his former owner’s
household personnel and to act as his coachman. Over the course of the next 18 years,
L’Ouverture settled into life on the Breda Plantation marrying fellow Catholic Suzanne Simon
and parenting two sons, Isaac and Saint-Jean.
He was only 45 years old when he joined the Haitian Revolution, so he had already passed the
average lifespan of a slave. The revolt had been going on for one month, and Toussaint, with his
combination of experience, intelligence and charisma, soon became its key leader.
He eventually established control of the island, using military and economic tactics to gain
power and improve the livelihood of the majority of people. Sadly, he was deported to France
where he died in 1803 without living to see an independent Haiti. He is recognized as the father
of Haiti and a key leader in the overthrow of slavery in the New World.
Toussaint L’Ouverture and the Haitian Revolution
Known to his contemporaries as “The Black Napoleon’’, Toussaint L’Ouverture was a former
slave who rose to become the leader of the only successful slave revolt in modern history, the
Haitian Revolution.

The events of August 22th, 1791, the “Night of Fire” in which slaves revolted by setting fire to
plantation houses and fields and killing whites, convinced the 48 year old L’Ouverture that he
should join the growing insurgency, although not before securing the safety of his wife and
children in the Spanish-controlled eastern half of the island (Santo Domingo) and assuring that
Bayon de Libertad and his wife were safely onboard a ship bound for the United States.

Inspired by French Revolutionary ideology and angered by generations of abuse at the hands of
white planters, the initial slave uprising was quelled within several days, but ongoing fighting
between the slaves, free blacks, and planters continued. Although he was free, L’Ouverture
joined the slave insurgency and quickly developed a reputation first as a capable soldier and
then as military secretary to Georges Biassou, one of the insurgency’s leaders. When the
insurgency’s leadership chose to ally itself with Spain against France, L’Ouverture followed.
Threatened by Spain and Britain’s attempts to control the island, the
French National Convention acted to preserve its colonial rule in 1794 by securing the loyalty of
the black population; France granted citizenship rights and freedom to all blacks within the
empire.

Following France’s decision to emancipate the slaves, L’Ouverture allied with France against
Spain, and from 1794 to 1802, he was the dominant political and military leader in the French
colony. Operating under the self-assumed title of General-inChief of the Army, L’Ouverture led
the French in ousting the British and then in capturing the Spanish controlled half of the island.
By 1801, although Saint Domingue remained ostensibly a French colony, L’Ouverture was
ruling it as an independent state. He drafted a constitution in which he reiterated the 1794
abolition of slavery and appointed himself governor for “the rest of his glorious life.”
L’Ouverture’s actions eventually aroused the ire of Napoleon Bonaparte. In
1802, Napoleon dispatched his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to capture
L’Ouverture and return the island toslavery under French control. Captured and imprisoned at
Fort de Joux in France, L’Ouverture died of pneumonia on April 7,
1803.

Boukman Dutty

Dutty Boukman (Most times referred to as “Boukman Dutty”) was a fearless leader who helped
spark the Haitian Revolution which eventually led to the independent Republic of Haiti. Born in
the region of Senegambia (present-day Senegal and Gambia), transported to Jamaica and then
sold to a plantation in Haiti (called Saint-Domingue at the time), he taught enslaved Africans in
Haiti how to read and understand the power of freedom.
Boukman was a Jamaican-born slave who practiced Vodun (Voodoo), he was sold by his British
masters to a French plantation whose owner put him to work as a slave driver. He later became a
carriage driver and the headman of a planation. He got his name from his English nickname,
Book Man, which he was given because he could read. The enslaved used the cover of vodun
ceremonies to spread their plans across the island. He made successful attacks on the plantations
in 1791, taking the whites and French troops by surprise. Early in the revolution he was captured
by French troops and beheaded.
On August 14, 1791, on a hilltop called Bwa Kayiman in Haiti a self-educated slave who
escaped from Jamaica named Dutty Boukman (Boukman Dutty), led other slaves in a rebellion
against the French. This rebellion is said by many to be the catalyst to the slave uprising that
marked the beginning of the Haïtian Revolution. Dutty Boukman was born in the region of
Senegambia.
Boukman was a key leader of the slave revolt in the Le Cap-Français region in the north of the
colony. He was killed by the French planters and colonial troops on 7 November 1791, just a few
months after the beginning of the uprising. The French then publicly displayed Boukman’s head
in an attempt to dispel the aura of invincibility that Boukman had cultivated.
Vincent Oge

The coloureds, led by Vincent Oge took up arms against the whites and were defeated in 1791 by
the planter forces. Oge and his supporters were executed. Born a free man with African ancestry
in Saint-Domingue (Haiti), Vincent Ogé (1757−1791) challenged notions of societal control and
forced a reconsideration of categories such as “white” and “citizen.” When his prolific wealth as
a ship-owning merchant in the slave and Atlantic trade failed to bring him citizenship, he set out
to reinvent himself as a central figure in Saint-Domingue politics. Here he wears a military suit
he purchased. Ogé campaigned for the rights of the free colored community in Saint-Domingue
while upholding the institution of slavery for others. His actions established him as the first great
martyr of the Haitian Revolution.
Vincent Ogé was a member of the free colored planter class in Saint-Domingue. He traveled to
Paris, France during the French Revolution and fought alongside Julien Raimond for the rights of
the island’s free colored people. His activism led to his execution in 1791.
Vincent Ogé Jeune (the Younger) was born circa 1755 in Dondon parish in Saint-Domingue,
(present-day Haiti). He was born to Jacques Ogé, a white man, and Angélique Ossé, a mulatta.
He grew up in a wealthy family that had inherited a coffee plantation. At a young age, he was
sent to Bordeaux, France to be the apprentice of a goldsmith. This allowed him to build his
fortune as a merchant and returned to Saint-Domingue where he soon became part of the higher
ranks of society as one of the wealthiest free colored planter of Saint-Domingue.
In Paris, September 1789, Ogé started working with a small group of free colored artisans and
servants: the Colons Américains (American Colonists). Together, they wrote a cahier de
doléances (book of grievances) concerning the French colonies, addressed to the National
Assembly. Among other things, this text demanded the representation of free blacks in the
government, the possibility of being part of the justice system and the military, the right to
education and, most of all, for black and white people to be treated equally. This petition was
rejected by the French National Assembly. Vincent Ogé was later a member of the Société
d’Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of Blacks) in Paris, which fought for the rights of black
people.
After further petitioning, in March 28 of 1790, the National Assembly in Paris ratified a decree
which, although it did not mention people of color, granted colonies the right to form a local
Assembly, and allowed all free people of the colony to be part of this local government.
However, much to the disappointment of Ogé and other activists, this decree was never fully
enforced.
In October 1790, Ogé returned to his hometown and with the help of Jean-Baptiste Chavanne,
started gathering fellow people of color who were likewise eager to enforce justice. In a letter to
the Assembly in Le Cap, he warned that he was ready to take up arms if the March 1790 decree
was not enforced. Ogé and Chavanne were met with no response, except from the comte Peinier,
governor of the colony, who demanded that they stopped their activism. Ogé, Chavanne, and
their followers, who were now wanted by the colonial army, fought back before eventually
fleeing to the Spanish part of the island. In November 1790, they were caught and sent back to
Le Cap, where both Ogé and Chavanne were eventually executed by the wheel in the city’s
public square in February 1791.
Vincent Ogé’s execution led to rising tensions between white people and people of color in
Saint-Domingue. Although he was not an abolitionist, his activism and the violence of his
execution are most definitely linked to the slave uprisingthat became the Haitian Revolution in
August 1791, as well as the extension of voting rights to free colored people by the National
Assembly in Paris that same year.

Jean Francois (Papillion)

He was a fugitive from the north, who became a Maroon long before the revolt began. He took
the title Grand Admiral of France and General-in-Chief, and had a habit of wearing elaborate
costumes covered with stripes, braid and medals. He was one of the main leaders of the black
insurrections up to 1795 and fought on behalf of the Spanish loyalists for a short time. He later
migrated to Spain where he died.
Rivalry between Jean-François and Biassou
Both black generals had confronted each other from the early days of the slave revolution. First,
after Boukman Duty’s death, they disagreed on the military ranks they wanted to attribute to
themselves, though Jean-François ended up letting Biassou call himself 'Viceroy of the
conquered territories', whereas he became commander-in-chief of the insurgents, Grand Admiral
and Knight of the Order of Saint Louis. Second, some weeks later Biassou was so alarmed by
Jean-François' evident wish to become the sole commander of the black insurgent army that he
asked for Joaquín García’s help to stop General Papillion’s ascent to power. But after those first
confrontations, both officers decided to set their rivalry aside momentarily to fight for their own
cause and, later on, for Spain's cause. Actually, when Jean-François pronounced his oath of
loyalty to the Spanish King in early May 1793, he did so in his name and in the name of Biassou.
But in the late summer of 1793 problems reappeared within the black troops. By mid-September
1793, Jean-François' troops led by the officers Banby and Macaya conquered the Tannerie fort, a
crucial strategic French possession. Immediately Marshall Michaud, at the service of Biassou,
complained to Banby and Macaya because they had not asked for his permission to attack
Tannerie; both officers answered back that they had not needed his allowance because they were
obeying orders from Jean-François, commander-in-chief of the black auxiliaries. For a response,
Michaud attacked them and stole some weapons from their camp. When Jean-François knew
about those events, he hurried to punish Michaud but the latter fired against him, too.
Initially the Dominican officers saw that confrontation with hope: they preferred that Jean-
François and Biassou were at odds, because they feared that if both black generals joined their
forces, they would attack the Dominican army, whom they outnumbered, and take possession of
Santo Domingo. However, they changed their mind when the French, taking advantage of the
confrontation within the black auxiliary troops, attacked and re-conquered Tannerie. Aware that
the rivalry between Jean-François and Biassou could be catastrophic for Spain's strategic
interests in Hispaniola, the Dominican government made both generals come to an agreement.
Thanks to the mediation of the commander of Dondon, Matías Armona, they met in Dondon in
late November and they decided to unite their forces to serve Spain well. Instead of punishing
Biassou, whose collaboration he needed to carry out Spain's plan in the island, Jean-François
reprised Marshal Biassou, whom he accused of betraying Spain. In addition, Jean-François knew
that some personal advisors, especially Toussaint Bréda, had instigated Biassou against him. For
that reason, he tried to have the latter imprisoned, but he failed.

Jorge Biassou
He was the son of slaves. He was a lieutenant to Jean Francois and 50 years old when he joined
the revolution. He commanded an army of 40,000 slaves and was responsible for the destruction
of numerous plantations and murder of many slave owners. He used to fill his tent with cats,
dead men’s bones and other to inspire superstitious awe in his followers.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

He was born into slavery and was already 40 years old when the revolution began. He later
became Emperor of Haiti or Governor-General for life. Under this title, he was given power to
make laws and choose his successor. He crowned himself as Emperor Jacques I in an elaborate
ceremony.
The role of Jean-Jacques Dessalines in the Haitian Revolution
Jean-Jacques Dessalines was an African-born slave on the plantation of a free Negro when the
slave broke out in 1791. As soon as he had the opportunity, he murdered his master, seized his
property, assumed his name and joined the revolt. At that time, he was 40 years old and unable
to read or write.
Dessalines played a significant role in the slave revolt up to 1804. He became one of
Toussaint’s fearless lieutenants who fought against the French army in 1793 and the Spanish in
Santo Domingo from 1794 to 1795. He was appointed general in 1796 and became the most
famous of the black generals. He fought against the British from 1795 to 1798 and against the
coloureds who wanted to set up their own republic in the south. His black forces mutilated and
murdered over 10 000 coloureds in 1799 and 1800. He was the military governor (1798-1802)
of the area
St. Marc near Port-au-Prince and which he ruled very firmly. He succeeded Toussaint after he
was kidnapped and forcibly taken to France. He, Christophe and other black generals, shocked at
Toussaint’s betrayal by the French, escaped from French service and began fighting again. He
defeated General Rochambeau who succeeded Leclerc in late 1802. In November 1803, he
declared the independence of St. Domingue and on Jauary 1st, 1804, he renounced all
connections with France and renamed St. Domingue, Haiti, which means ‘’Land of the
Mountains’’. He tore the white out of the Tricolour- the French Flag and replaced the letters
‘’R.F.’’ (Republic Français) with the words ‘’Liberty or Death’’. In October 1804, he declared
himself Emperor of Haiti.

The role of Henri Christophe in the Haitian Revolution

Henri Christophe was a military leader in the Haitian Revolution as well as president and later
king of the young nation. Born into slavery in 1767, Christophe was brought to French colonial
Haiti, known as St. Domingue, from St. Kitts. There he worked a wide variety of posts including
sailor, mason, bartender, and billiard marker. Like many slaves and free people of color in St.
Domingue, Christophe was familiar with military matters from a young age, having
accompanied the French expedition to Savannah, Georgia in 1779. By his early twenties,
Christophe was able to purchase his freedom and joined the growing class of free blacks.
Spurred on by the revolution in France, a conflict between the colony’s free factions erupted in
1791 into a full-blown slave revolt lead by Toussaint L’Ouverture. Christophe would side with
the slaves despite his free status and serve as one of L’Ouverture’s most important generals for
most of the conflict, along with the freed slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
By 1802, Christophe had been placed in command of the port town of Le Cap. When a French
expeditionary force under Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc arrived in Le Cap in February of
that year, Christophe led the defense against them before setting fire to the town and retreating
inland where he, like L’Ouverture, conducted a guerilla war in the mountains. Three months
later, Christophe surrendered to Leclerc under the conditions that he would maintain his rank
and that he and his soldiers would be incorporated into the French Army- a deal which would
soon be accepted by most of the Haitian commanders, including L’ Ouverture. The peace did
not last, and when L’Ouverture was deported to France, Christophe rejoined the resistance,
now led by Dessalines.
By 1804, Dessalines declared the nation of Haiti independent with himself as its emperor. Two
years later, however, Dessalines was assassinated when war broke out between his generals.
Christophe held sway in the north and was appointed president of the still young republic in
1806. In 1811, he assumed the title of king. During his reign, Christophe introduced a monetary
system based on gourds
(Predecessor to Haiti’s gourde currency), created a system of nobility, declared Catholicism the
state religion, and established schools and hospitals including a basic school of medicine.
Christophe gained much infamy, however, because of his insistence on the use of corvée labour
to sustain the economy. As he aged, he became more eccentric and brutal as well as unpopular.
He took his own life with a silver bullet in 1820.