UNIT II HINDU TEMPLE

ARCHITECTURE – SOUTHERN INDIA

DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Pallavan style- Rock cut production
Rathas, Shore Temple Mahabalipuram
Chola style-Brihadeeswara temple Tanjore
Pandya style -Evolution and form of the Gopuram
Meenakshi temple Madurai
Srirangam-Complexity in plan due to complexity in ritual
Vijayanagara style – Vitthala temple and Virupaksha temple,
Hampi
& Nayak style- Additions to existing temples
Bhakthi Movement
• Bhakti as a religious concept means devotional surrender to a personally
conceived supreme God for attaining salvation.
• It was in South India between the 7th and the 10th century that bhakti
emerged from a mere religious doctrine into a popular movement based on
religious equality and broad-based social participation.
• The movement which was spearheaded by popular saint-poets reached its
apex in the 10th century after which it began to decline.
• The saiva Nayanar saints and vaisnava Alvar saints of South India spread
the concept of bhakti among different sections of the society irrespective of
caste and creed during the period between the 7th and the 10th century.
Some of these saints hailed from the lower castes and some were women.
• They ignored rituals and traversed the region several times singing, dancing
and advocating bhakti. The Alvar and Nayanar saints used the Tamil language
and not Sanskrit for preaching and composing devotional songs. Thus the
movement could acquire a popular base.
• The South Indian bhakti movement in its heyday succeeded in championing
the cause of religious History of India - equality and consequently, the
Brahmins had to accept the right of the low caste to preach, to have access to
bhakti as a mode of worship and to have access even to the Vedas.
DIFFERENT PHASES IN DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE

The Dravidian style/ Southern style of architecture can be classified into the following periods
1. Pallavan Style 600AD – 900AD
2. Chola Style 900AD – 1150AD
3. Pandya Style 1100AD – 1350AD
4. Vijayanagara Style 1350AD – 1565AD
5. Nayak/Madura Style 1600 AD onwards
The Dravidian Style of architecture can be categorised as a distinct Evolution in Temple
architecture through the various phases
There is a marked evolution in the planning of the temple and the architectural treatment
Complexity in plannning due to the complexity in the rituals arose by the 12 th c. AD
Broadly the classifications would be as follows:
• Pallavan - Rock cut and Structural Temples
• Chola - Development of the Vimana ,
Walled enclosures
Gopurams
• Pandya - Evolution of the Gopuram – number, height, embellishment
High walls for enclosure for security( Protection from invasion)
• Vijayanagara - Addition of Mandapas, Secondary halls and Gopurams
• Nayaks - Temple cities, addition of Gopurams to existing temples
GENESIS OF DRAVIDIAN STYLE UNDER THE PALLAVAS
600 AD – 900 AD
There were two phases of architecture under the Pallavas

1st Phase- Rock cut

•Mahendra Group 610 – 640 AD Mandapas/ Pillared halls
•Mamalla Group 640 – 690 AD Rathas and Mandapas
(Narasimhavarma)
2nd Phase- Structural
•Rajasimha group 690 – 800 AD Temples
•Nandivarman group 800 – 900 AD Temples

Mandapas Rathas

1. Excavation Monolith

2. Open pavilion Shrine/ Temple chariot

3. Simple columned hall with Series of shrines

one or more cellas at the rear in granite

1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD
MANDAPAS

•Pillared halls
•Entirely rock cut
•Buddhist influence shown- Viharas
•Primitive detailing
•The main pillared hall is served by a portico and having 1 or
more cellas deeply recessed in the interior wall
•The exterior is a façade formed of a row of pillars
•The early examples are found at Undavalli, Bhairavakonda,
Trichy
•Columns:
•Sq. shaft where the middle third is chamfered into an
octagon UNDAVALLI
•7’0” ht.
•The dia of the column – 1’0”-2’0”
•Heavy bracket for capital- wooden origin of a beam and
bracket
•Roll moulding added in later examples
•This roll cornice was ornamented at intervals with a motif
– kudu showing buddhist influence from the chaitya arch
MANDAGAPATTU
1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD
MANDAPAS - Mahabalipuram
There were a total of 10 mandapas at Mahabalipuram
Features:
•Similar proportions to earlier Mandapas
•Width 25’
•Height-15’ – 20’ Sculptures depicting
• Depth 25’ Mythological stories
•Pillars height 9’
•Dia-1’- 2’
•Cells rectangular- 5’ -10’ side Krishna Mandapam
•Shallow porticoes

•Architectural treatment and sculptures combining with

architecture.
•Façade contains- roll cornice decorated with KUDUS,
above this a parapet or attic member formed of miniature
shrines, a long one alternating with a short one
•The executor was primarily a sculptor

Basement was so planned and executed to provide a long and

narrow receptacle for water for ablutions
•Pillars are the main contributions of this period
•Beginning of the Pallava order of column
•Eg. Varaha, Krishna, Mahishasuramandapa, Adivaraha Varaha Mandapam
1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD

EVOLUTION OF PALLAVAN ORDER

The early pillars were the rudimentary type of beam and bracket
This was modified to a sophisticated design of the capital and the
shaft
Finally the introduction of an element- lion
This figure was incorporated into the lower portion of the shaft and
later at the capital
This lion symbolised the ruling dynasty – Simhavishnu
Details:
Sq. shaft where the middle third is chamfered into an octagon
7’0” ht.
The dia of the column – 1’0”-2’0”
 PARTS OF DRAVIDIAN ORDER

The principal elements in the façade of

the Mamallapuram group is the lion
pillar which rests on the animals head
The crude block bracket is obvious in
early examples, later gets more refined
and graceful

PALAGAI
IDAIE

KUMBHA

TADI
KALASA

SIMHA-LION

STAMBHAM A natural leonine figure – a deviation from

a grotesque horned lion in the mandapas
Fluted banded shaft- Stambham
Refined necking- Tadi
Melon Capital – Kumbha
Lotus form – Idaie
Wide Abacus - Palagai
EVOLUTION OF PALLAVAN ORDER
1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD
RATHAS - Mahabalipuram

•Seven pagodas exist, reproduced from wooden examples

•Beam heads, rafters, purlins, all transferred into rock
•Exteriors are completed and interiors are incomplete
•Unknown purpose of execution
•Small Structures a maximum 42’ long 35’ wide 40’ high
•Derived from the chaitya hall and viharas N
•Acted as a prototype for later temples
1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD
RATHAS - Mahabalipuram
Draupadi Ratha:
Smallest among the group dedicated to Durga
Simplest and the most finished
A cell or Pansala square in plan
The shape of the roof – concave pyramidal roof-
indicates it was a copy of the thatched structure –
portable shrine
The base is supported by figures of animals, a lion
alternating with an elephant
The corner ridges were decorated with delicate carvings
with volutes
There are niches containing high relief carvings of the
Durga
Arjuna Ratha:
Stepped pyramid structure decorate dwith
Kudus
The square details at the cornes are termed
as Stupis and the oblong ones in the façade
Shalis
Square in plan 5m
High relief sculptures on external walls
between pilasters
1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD
RATHAS - Mahabalipuram
Bhima Ratha:
Reproduces the Chaitya mode
Keel or Barrel vaulted roof with
a Chaitya Gable end
The structure is 2 stories high
The front portico consists of 4
columns
Prototype for the Gopuram of
later temples with the oblong
plan, diminishing stories, keel
roof with pinnacles and gable
end
The gable end of the roof is ornamented
with a central symbol similar to the stupa
Depicts a prayer hall with curved barge
boards taking the place of the vaulted roof.
Decorative brackets simulate the ribs of
the vault
Sahadeva Ratha:
Reproduces the basilican plan with an apsidal end
and a barrel vault roof
Faces the south, 3 stories high
1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD
RATHAS - Mahabalipuram
Stupi
Dharmaraja Ratha:
Dedicated to Shiva Shala
Largest of the 5 rathas
Square in plan 10m
Kudu
Consists of 3 stories the last of which is
13m high
No internal space other than galleries with
columns at the entrance
It is a large scale version of Arjuna Ratha
with a larger no. of miniature edifices
carved in the roof
There are 12 square Stupis at the
corners and 24 Shalas on the sides- kudu
Ganesh Ratha:
In elevation it has 2 parts
Dedicated to Shiva
Square portion with pillared verandah
below Lion ornamenting a pier in the façade
Pyramidical shikara/tower formed by 2 Lion pillars in the portico
converted cells
Aedicules on either side with carved
Strongly moulded stylobate ( Base) sculptures
Lion pillared porticos
3 stories with the keel roof
Turreted roof
Prototype for the Gopuram
1ST PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 610 – 690 AD
RELIEF - Mahabalipuram
2ND PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 690 - 900 AD
STRUCTURAL TEMPLES
SHORE TEMPLE - Mahabalipuram
•The Shore Temple was constructed in 700 AD by Narasimha
Varma II Rajasimha
•Constructed of dressed Granite
•The complex consists of 2 shrines dedicated to Shiva and 1
shrine dedicated to Vishnu
•Located near the shore of Mamallapuram the temple was
constructed with the intention of the cella facing the east so that
the first rays of the sun would illuminate the shrine
•Among the breakers stood a stone pillar to act as a light house
•This concept led to the different arrangement of the parts in the
layout •Planning:
•The placement of the cella in the east left no
space for the mandapas, forecourts and gateway
•These were hence placed in the rear of the
shrine
N
•The central structure is surrounded by a massive
enclosure wall, with the entry on the western side
of the courtyard
•The layout was further complicated by the
addition of 2 shrines added asymmetrically on the
west
2ND PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 690 - 900 AD
SHORE TEMPLE - Mahabalipuram
The addition of the shrine on the west with the smaller spire
gives the impression that it is the main entrance
The 2 supplementary shrines have converted the Shore
temple into an unconventional double towered monument
Verticality of the temple accentuated with a slender monolithic
stupi
The central building seems to be a development off the
Rathas with a difference in the treatment
Details:
•Square lower storey
•Pyramidal tower in diminishing tiers
•Change in the shape of the tower seeming to rid of the vihara
•Rhythmic, buoyant composition than the rathas giving the temple a
lightness and soaring quality
•Appearance of a pilaster- rampant lion as a relief found wherever a
structural form with an ornament was required
•The lion pillar with the Dravidian capital projects at every angle and is
also introduced at intervals around the lower part of the entire structure
•As the style progressed the leogriff motif is frequently used
•Identifying symbol of the Pallavan period
2ND PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 690 - 900 AD
SHORE TEMPLE - Mahabalipuram
•Surrounded by an outer rectangular enclosure
•Water Chambers:
•Portions of the ground floor of the enclosure
consisted of a system of shallow cisterns which
could be flooded on certain occasions
•The space could hence be resolved into a water
temple
•Some of the conduits and receptacles can be
traced
•The water was fed into the system by means of
canal and conveyed by sluices
•Overflow was carried through the rear of the
shrine to the sea
•Enclosure:
•Surrounding wall had a parapet and
coping with figures of kneeling bulls
•Bold projecting lion pilasters on
exterior wall
•Entrance through a richly ornamented
doorway on the western side
•Leading to a corridor on one side
•Rectangular Mandapa whose
foundations remain
2ND PHASE OF PALLAVAN ARCHITECTURE – 690 - 900 AD
SHORE TEMPLE - Mahabalipuram

•Halfway along the corridor

was a pillared arcade containing
an altar probably for Naga
worship as all the courts and
passages around could be filled
with water
•Series of carved panels on the
side walls on mythology
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE – 900 - 1150
AD
 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE – 900 - 1150 AD

The capital of the Chola dynasty was the city of Thanjavur from 836 –
1267 AD
The great temple of Thanjavur was founded by Rajaraja I
The Cholas ruled the Deccan and emerged victorious among many other
kingdoms such as Pallavas, Pandyas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas
They advanced as far as Bengal, Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra and had
trade links as far as Indonesia
Their military and economic power was reflected in the grand architectural
productions under this period at Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram,
Dharasuram and Tribhuvanam Kambahareswara Temple-Tribhuvanam
800px-Gangaikonda_CholaPuram Dharasuram Temple

(Kumbakonam) 1178-1218
Airavateswarar Temple, Darasuram c. 1200 C.E.

Gangaikondacholapuram Temple Airateswara Temple-Darasuram

1014-1044 AD 1146-1173 AD
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE – 900 - 1150 AD
Early Temples Typical Features:
•The temples are of modest proportions
•Built entirely of stone
•Egs. At Pudukottai- Sundareswara at Tirukattalai,
Vijayalaya at Nartamalai
•These show the Dravidian style in its formative stages
•Use of well dressed granite
•Pallavan influence observed in the vimana - similar to the rathas
•Similarities to the Chalukyan in shape of the domical finial of the
shikhara, which is similar to egs. at Patadakkal
•Treatment- simplification of the exteriors compared to the Pallavas
with elimination of the details
•Absence of the lion motif and pillar
•The capital is modified to by addition of a neck moulding
padmabandham and the pot kalasa. The Palagai is expanded to
combine the Idaie underneath
Koranganatha Temple – Trichy
•Pillared hall or mandapa with an attached Vimana
•50’ length totally, Mandapa 25’ x 20’, Vimana 25’ square
•Ht. of 50’ with the cornice of the mandapa at 16’
•A small hall with 4 pillars makes the interior with a vestibule and
passage leading to the cella 12’ square
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
The Brihadeeswara Temple at Tanjavur was
constructed around 1000 AD
The largest, highest and most ambitious project at its
time – a landmark in the evolution of South Indian
Architecture
Superb architectural treatment and Proportions
The main structure is 180’ long above which is the
tower 190’ high
Planning:
•Dedicated to Shiva
•Surrounded by 2 walled precincts
•The first one measures 270m x 140 m consisting of a high wall running along the banks of
the river Kaveri
•The 2nd wall consists of a portico with a double row of pillars, measures 150m x 75m
•The Temple is entered through
•The perimeter wall forms a rectangular cloister which could be divided into 2 squares
•The center of the 1st square contains the Nandi Pavilion and the 2 nd contains the Cella
•Over the cella is the main Gopuram 60m high and 15m at its base
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

Plan
•The Garbagriha is a mere 5m square surrounded by a thick wall with a narrow corridor N
•Axial planning
•The main cella is preceded by 2 hypostyle halls and a narrow vestibule
•Entered through a pillared portico on the west
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
Components of Vimana:
The main Vimana is a huge solid block on the western end consisting of 3
parts:
1. Square vertical base Vertical base:
2. Tall tapering body
Square of 82’ rising to a ht. of 50’
3. Domical finial
The square vertical base rises for 2
stories to accommodate the Linga which
was increased in ht.
An upper gallery was hence added
creating a 2nd storey, with the 2 levels of
the tower receiving the same treatment Pyramidal portion:

13 diminishing stories until

the width of the apex is 1/3
base
Cupola:
On the square platform
stands the cupola, the
inward curve of the neck
breaking the rigid outlines
of the composition
 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
Architectural treatment:
Vertical face:
The wall is divided into 2 stories by means of an
overhanging cornice which is the only horizontal
member
Contains pilasters and niches with sculptures
In the middle of each recess is a figure subject Pyramidal roof:
The mastery of the sculptors is seen in the The surfaces are adorned with the
Dvarapalas which stand guard at the gate horizontal lines of the diminishing tiers
The entire periphery of the temple base consists of The Cupola at the summit is
mythical animals – lions contrasted with the minged niches on
arph11

all the 4 sides

CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

The double portico of 450 m perimeter running all around the structure contains 252
lingas in black stone arranged under corbelled vaults carried on 400 pillars all around

The wall behind the portico is beautifully painted

CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
The first Gopuram is the Keralaanthagan
Gopuram
Five storied structure
30m high giving access to the 1st of the 2
rectangular precincts
Contains sculpture enhanced with stucco,
painted in vivid colours
The second Gopuram is the Rajaraja
Gopuram
3 storied structure

A 4 columned vestibule seperates the cella

from the Mandapa
Square in plan with 6 bays of columns each
Preceded by a rectangular mandapa
Before this is a 24 columned porch accessed
by 3 staircases
Strict axial arrangement disrupted by
additions later
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeshwara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram

❑ The temple was located at the center of the Gangaikondacholapuram city

and occupies around 6 acres of land.
❑ There seems to be 2 Praharams surrounding the Srivimana, most of the
wall is destructed and the Granite rocks where used to construct the
Lower Anicut during the British rule.
 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeshwara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram

❑ The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet and raises 20 feet above the
ground level.
❑ The 3 lower stages houses many beautiful masterpiece sculptures of chola
period including the Laxmi (goddess of wealth), Gana Saraswathi (goddess of
knowledge), Ardhanareeswarar ( Shiva and Sakthi in equal but in one form),
Shiva blessing Chandigeswarar along with Parvathi.
❑ There are many shrines inside this temple found on the 2nd praharam
(circumventing path), Mahisasuramardhini shrine, Amman shrine,
Chandigeswarar shrine, Ganapathy shrine etc., There was Nataraja Mandapam
now totally destroyed and only the remains were found.
 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeshwara Temple at
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
❑ The plan is larger than tanjore big temple,
340’x 110’ having the main entrance on the
east.
❑ The main entrance gives access to the
assembly hall , a relatively low building 175’ x
95’ and containing 150 pillars.
❑ Between this pillared hall and the
sanctuary is a vestibule running at right
angles to the axis of the building and
leading to the north and south doorways.
❑ both are deeply recessed and approached
from outside by flight of steps.
❑ two rows of massive square piers , 8 in all
cross the vestibule connecting it to the
garbhagriha.
❑ the temple building itself occupies the
middle of an immense wall enclosure
designed partly for defensive purposes as
there is substantial bastion at the south
east & smaller one on the west.
 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE
Brihadeeshwara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram

❑ Vi mana measures150’ from ground

❑ Entire temple is in east west axis
• A western historian who studied
gangaikondachlapuram compared the
structural difference of this srivimana with
that of rajaraja-I's brihadisvara temple at
thanjavur and mentioned that this srivimana
is of feminine structure and the tanjore
srivimana as masculine in nature.
• The main difference that is obvious is this
srivimana is 8 sided (octagonal) in structure
and thanjavur srivimana has 4 sided
(quadragonal) in structure.
• The kalasam is 7’ height
 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE FEATURES
• architectural features
– niches of some depth with an entablature and flanked by semi
pilasters, in the vimana
– these niches occupy west, north and eastern sides of vimana

common features between cholas & pandyas - yali

• Yali – often sculpted into pillars
• It may be portrayed as part lion, part elephant and part horse, and in
similar shapes. Also, it has been sometimes described as a leogryph (part
lion and part griffin/gryphon), with some bird-like features.
• frequently repeated string course containing a row of gryphon (eagle head
& lion body) heads
• common features between cholas & pallavas
– corbels having roll moldings and median bands
– makara toranas crown the niches
PANDYA ARCHITECTURE – 1100 – 1350 AD
The Genesis of the Gopurams of Dravidian Style
PANDYA ARCHITECTURE – 1100 – 1350 AD
The Genesis of the Gopurams of Dravidian Style
After the Cholas- architecture was at its peak with the concentration being
on the Vimana
Changes during the Pandya period:
• Vimana ceased to be the centre of concentration
• The supplementary and outlying portions were developed
• Reasons were sentimental- do not touch God
• Walls were built/Pylons were the centre of concentration for
architecture
• Became the main feature of South Indian Temples
• Derivation of the Cow gate- City gate- Temple gate- Gopuram
Considerable political changes were taking place. The most threatening force
from the north were threatening the south.
Image10

This threat made the Pandya rulers hurriedly throw up makeshift battlements
around their cities and the heart of their towns -the temples. This called for
modifying the Temple to a Fortress which was unacceptable
To change the outer covering, i.e. the form of the temple itself would be
nothing short of sacrilege.
The solution was hence to raise the gates of the fortress to the level of
architecture. This was the genesis of the famous gopurams, or entrance
gateways of the temple cities of the south.
The typical south Indian city came to be surrounded by a ring of walls
because of the need for defense, and then population growth.
This led to a number of interesting solutions in city planning and the most
visible architectural feature of this expansion was the Gopuram.
PANDYA ARCHITECTURE – 1100 – 1350 AD
The Genesis of the Gopurams of Dravidian Style

•The temple consisted of a series of concentric walls enclosing open

courtyards or Prakarams, approached through high watch towers
•The walls were purely utilitarian with no aesthetic value
•The tall gateways were given embellishment
Typical features of the Gopuram:
•Oblong in plan
•Tapering tower of 100-150’ ht.
•Entered by a rectangular doorway in the center of the long side
•Similar to the Egyptian Propylons
•Sloping or battered sides
•The lowest 2 stories of the tower are vertical, of solid stone masonry
providing a stable structure for the super structure
•The superstructure was composed of brick and plaster
•Superstructure :
•Pyramidal in shape
•Diminishing tiers
•The angle of slope from the vertical is 25˚
•Width of the apex was ½ of the base
•Flat summit with an elongated roof with gable ends
•Barrel vault roof
PANDYA ARCHITECTURE – 1100 – 1350 AD
The Genesis of the Gopurams of Dravidian Style
Differences between Vimana and Gopuram:
The 2 main forms in the Temple are distinguished by the top story in each
Gopuram Vimana
It is the entrance gateway to the It is the structure rising above
temple. garbhagriha.
Oblong in plan and has a vaulted Square in plan and has a rounded
roof, derived from keel roof of cupola for the finial, derived
Buddhist Chaitya Hall. from Buddhist Vihara.
Type 1
There existed two types as to the form of the Gopuram with respect to the
appearance and the surface treatment
First type:
Straight sloping sides
Firm and rigid contours
Geometric form where the treatment is architectural
Pillars and pilasters were used
Second type: more ornate
Curved and concave sides
Creating an upward sweep
Surface treatment is of Florid nature
Figure subjects predominate
Every portion is plastered thick with images
The roof is spectacular with cornuted gables
The ridge line breaks into a row of tall pinnacles forming a climax to the
Type 2
fretted and pullulating mass below
PANDYA ARCHITECTURE – 1100 – 1350 AD
The Genesis of the Gopurams of Dravidian Style
Surface Decoration:
Most of the Pandya Gopurams are of the architectural type simple and
conventional due to the early period of evolution
Dravidian Order:
Pillars and capital saw two changes
The Idaie or flower motif was given a scalloped edge- foliated and
exquisite appearance
Alteration of the Bracket overhanging the bracket into a moulded
pendent or a drop
The Palagai was altered in proportion
Abacus 2” thick, 4’ 6” feet dia

Temple Planning:
Expansion of the Dravidian temple like that of a tree trunk
First the temple in the centre
Concentric walls and gopurams added at a later date
The smaller gopurams are hence towards the centre with the taller ones
at the periphery
Each concentric ring shows the developmental stages
Example- Jambukeswara temple Trichy- SundaraPandiya Gopuram
built in 1250, Chidambaram, Tiruvannamalai, Kumbakonam
The eastern gateway at Chidambaram is most characteristic of the
period
Gopuram on Eastern side of the inner enclosure at Tiruvannamlai – 1300 AD
MEENAKSHI SUNDARESWAR TEMPLE – MADURAI
The Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple (twin temples) is one
of the biggest temples in India.
The original temple built by Kulasekara Pandyan was in ruins.
Then later additions were made by Viswanath Naik and
Tirumalai Nayakar.
The Aadi, Chittirai, Maasi, and Veli streets surround the
temple.
Both temples are adorned with exquisite carvings & sculptures
and gold plated vimanams.
3s

•The temple has 2 main sanctuaries

dedicated to Shiva and his consort
Meenakshi
•The temple is hence a temple within a
temple
•The outer wall is almost a square
measuring
850’ x 725’ with 4 large gateways towards
the center of the 4 sides
Planning:
The main Gopuram leads one to the pillared
avenue 200’ x 100’
This leads to the smaller Gopuram forming the
eastern entrance to the 2nd Prakaram
The 2nd Prakaram is a rectangular enclosure 420’
x 310’ having 4 gopurams in the center of each wall
All the Gopurams are smaller than the previous
one as is the case with all temples
Within this is another court 250’ x 156’ with one
entrance on the E
The most elaborate part of the temple and the
most intricate grouping of pillars is found outside
this entrance
The sacred shrine is located inside the last
entrance
MEENAKSHI SUNDARESWAR TEMPLE – MADURAI

The Sanctum Sanctorum – Shiva:

•The shrine consists of 3 components
•Assembly hall
•Vestibule
•Cella
•The cella is surmounted by a shikhara which penetrates through the
flat roof seen from outside rising like a golden crown
•The courts, corridors, halls making up the enclosures have
colonnades of pillars arranged in long lines or groups forming diverse
vistas in all directions
Sanctuary of Meenakshi:
•The other sanctuary of the temple is dedicated to Meenakshi –
•Enclosure on the S side of the temple at the rear
•Half size reproduction having one compartment within the other
•225’ x 150’ entered by 2 Gopurams the one on the W being larger
then the E
•Rising above the flat roof is the cupola
MEENAKSHI SUNDARESWAR TEMPLE –
Pool of Golden Lilies:
•Lies in front of the Meenakshi shrine
•Rectangular 165’ x 120’
•Surrounded by steps and a pillared portico on all 4 sides
•The great mass of the S Gopuram is seen in the background over
150’ high and reflected on its surface
•In the middle is a tall brass lamp column.
•The reflection of the granite pillars in the colonnade adds beauty
From the NE corner of the tank in the outer
enclosure is a Gopuram marking the processional
passage to the shrine indicating an independent
entrance
There are totally 11 Gopurams the 4 outer ones
being , over 150’ high
Mandapa:
•Court of 1000 Pillars was added in 1560 on the
NE of the outer Prakaram
•Faces south alongside a wide pillared approach of
the main entrance
•The interior consists of a central aisle with a double
row of columns
•Behind the colonnades forming the aisle are row
MEENAKSHI SUNDARESWAR TEMPLE –
•Outside the main enclosure in axial allignment with the E
Gopuram is the Vasantha or Pudu Mandapam – Tirumalai
Nayak’s Choultry
•Parallelogram 330’ x 105’ built for 7 years
•Reception hall or temporary place for the deity during
festivals
•Central nave and 2 aisles with 4 rows of pillars elaborately
carved giving a wonderful perspective of the interiors
•In the center is a separate group of columns with
14s

sculptured shafts with 10 life size statues of the Nayak

house and Tirumalai the builder of the mandapam
SRIRANGAM TEMPLE near Trichirapalli–
Largest temple complex in southern India. Dedicated to the reclining form of
Vishnu. Dates: 11th-17th C. Built by Cholas (11th C.), Pandyas and Hoysalas
(13th C.), Vijayanagars (16th C.), and Nayaks (17th C)
SRIRANGAM TEMPLE near Trichirapalli–

1. The largest of the South Indian temples is that of Srirangam near Trichinopoly.
The outermost wall is a rectangle of 2880 feet by 2475 feet enclosing an area of
over a quarter of a square mile.

2. The temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. An unusual feature in the plan is that it
is laid out from north to south instead of the almost invariable orientation from east
to west.

3. Totally, there are 21 gopurams large, small or unfinished and 13 of which may be
seen following the axial line of the temple from one point of view.

4. Within the outer enclosure, there are six other prakarams, making seven
concentric enclosures with the shrine in the centre.

5. The three outer courts, the latest to be added are not of any special
architectural significance.
SRIRANGAM TEMPLE near Trichirapalli–
6. The architectural portion of the temple begins at the fourth court, the outer wall
of which measures 1235 feet by 849 feet, with a gopuram in the middle of three of
its sides, on the north, south, and east, that on the east being the finest and largest
of the scheme.

7. Near this eastern Gopuram, and within the fourth enclosure in its northeastern
angle is the hall of thousand pillars, a flat roofed rectangular structure measuring
500 feet by 160 feet.

8. Arranged in rows within the hall of thousand pillars are over 900 carved granite
monoliths, all leading up to a shrine at the far end.

9. The next or third enclosure measures 767 feet by 503 feet, with a gopuram on
its north and south sides, the latter being the principal entrance, as it opens on to a
fine-pillared hall known as the Garuda mandapam.
SRIRANGAM TEMPLE near Trichirapalli–
SRIRANGAM TEMPLE near Trichirapalli–
11. At the side of the pillared hall is a covered tank, the surya pushkarani, and at the
opposite or northern end is another tank horseshoe in shape called the
chandrapushkarani, the two comprising the “Pool of the Sun” and the “Pool of the
Moon” respectively.

12. The second enclosure is also entered by gateways on its north and south sides,
and measures 426 feet by 295 feet. It is a covered court occupied mainly by pillared
pavilions, with a long processional pillared passage on its western side.

13. Within this is the first or innermost enclosure, having its entrance on the south
side, and its sides being 240 feet by 181 feet, while the object it contains is the
sanctuary and its cella.

14. The sanctuary is a square compartment, and the room around the cella is also
rectangular, but the actual chamber within is circular.
Vijayanagara Style1350AD – 1565AD
Vijayanagara Style1350AD – 1565AD
•Vijayanagara architecture was a notable building idiom that developed during
the rule of the imperial Hindu Vijayanagar Empire. The empire ruled South
India, from their regal capital at Vijayanagara, on the banks of
the Tungabhadra River in modern Karnataka, India. The empire built temples,
monuments, palaces and other structures across South India, with a largest
concentration in its capital.

•Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and

civic architecture, as can the associated sculptures and paintings.

•The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya,

Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when
these empires ruled and is characterized by a return to the simplistic and serene
art of the past.

•During the Vijayanagar period the local hard granite was preferred in
the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a
few reliefs and sculptures. While the use of granite reduced the density of
sculptured works, granite was a more durable material for the temple structure.
Vitthala Temple, Vijayanagara
•The temple is located in the north eastern part of Hampi, near the banks of the
Tungabhadra River.

•The renowned Vittala Temple dates back to the 15th century. It was built during
the reign of King Devaraya II (1422 – 1446 A.D.), one of the rulers of the
Vijayanagara Empire. Several portions of the temple were expanded and
enhanced during the reign of Krishnadevaraya(1509 – 1529 A.D.), the most
famous ruler of the Vijayanagara dynasty. He played a significant role in giving the
monument its present look.

•It is dedicated to Lord Vitthala, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu.

•It has traits and features that are characteristic of typical south Indian temple
architecture. It’s elaborate and artistic carvings and magnificent architecture is
unmatched by any other structure found in Hampi.

•The temple complex is a sprawling area that is surrounded by high compound

walls and three towering gateways. The temple complex has many halls, shrines and
pavilions located inside it.
Vitthala Temple, Vijayanagara
•Notable structures
are :
•the shrine of the
Goddess (also
known as Devi
shrine),
•Maha Mantapa or
main hall (also known
as Sabha Mantapa
or congregation hall),
•Ranga Mantapa,
•Kalyana Mantapa
(marriage hall),
•Utsava Mantapa
(festival hall), and
•the famous Stone
Chariot.
Vitthala Temple, Vijayanagara
Maha Mantapa: The Maha Mantapa or main hall of the Vittala Temple is
situated in the inner courtyard of the temple complex.
•It is a structure of immense beauty and is situated on a highly ornate base. The
base is decorated with carvings of warriors, horses, swans and several other
ornamental designs.
•The steps on the eastern side of the Maha Mantapa are decorated with
elephant balustrade. There are forty pillars lining the facade of the temple.
•Each of these pillars has a height of 10 feet.
The central part of the Maha Mantapa has sixteen intricately decorated pillars
having beautiful sculptures of Narasimha and Yali.
•These set of sixteen pillars forms a rectangular court. The ceiling of the Maha
Mantapa is a richly designed structure.
Vitthala Temple, Vijayanagara

Stone Chariot: The Vittala Temple Complex has the richly sculpted Stone Chariot,
which is considered to be the most stunning architecture of the Vijayanagara kingdom. The
Stone Chariot or Ratha stands in the courtyard of temple. The shrine is dedicated to
Garuda.
The Musical Pillars of the Ranga Mantapa:
•The Ranga Mantapa is one of the main attractions of the Vittala Temple. The
large mantapa is renowned for its 56 musical pillars.
•The musical notes are emanated when the pillars are tapped gently.
•There are a set of main pillars and several sets of minor pillars inside the Mantapa.
•Each main pillar provides support to the ceiling of the Ranga Mantapa. The main
pillars are designed as musical instruments.
•Every main pillar is surrounded by 7 minor pillars. These 7 pillars emit 7 different
musical notes from the representative musical instruments.
•The notes emanating from these pillars vary in sound quality depending on
whether the instrument is a percussion, string or wind instrument.
•The cluster of musical pillars inside the Vittala Temple complex was carved out of
huge single pieces of resonant stone.
•The emission of musical notes from stone pillars was a mystery that fascinated
many people down the centuries.
Virupaksha Temple, Vijayanagara
•Virupaksha Temple is dedicated to lord Shiva. This temple was constructed
in Lakkana Dandesha’s assistance who was a commander under King Deva
Raya II
•It started off as a little shrine and later developed into a huge complex during
the Vijayanagara rule. There is evidence that indicates additions were made to
Virupaksha temple during the later years of the Hoysala and Chalukyan
sovereignty.

•Hampi, capital of the Vijayanagara empire, sits on the banks of

the Tungabhadra River. Virupaksha Temple is the main center of pilgrimage at
Hampi, and had been considered the most sacred sanctuary over the centuries.
It is intact among the surrounding ruins and is still used in worship .
Virupaksha Temple, Vijayanagara

GOPURAM –
•Among all the gateways, the eastern gateway is the greatest. It is nine-tiered and 50
meters in length. It is well built and has some previous structures.
•It poses an imposing elevation, with the charateristics pyramidal tower divided into
diminishing pilastered storeys and topped by a barrel vault shala roofs with gilded kalasha
pinnacles.
•The framework is of brick and includes a gravel base giving way to the court outside.
This court contains various sub-sanctums. The inner eastern gopuram is graced with
three storeys while the northern gopuram has five storeys.
•The Kanakagiri gopuram towards the north takes the tourists to a little enclosure
with supplementary Sanctums and eventually to the river Tungabhadra.
Virupaksha Temple, Vijayanagara

•The temple has

a shrine or the
holy place of
worship,
•a hall with a
number of pillars

•3 antechambers
•There are
courtyards,
•a pillared
monastery,
•few small
shrines
•entrance ways
surrounding the
temple
 NAYAK ARCHITECTURE – 1600 AD onwards
Evolution of the Temple- Complexity in Plan due to Complexity in
Ritual
NAYAK ARCHITECTURE – 1600 AD onwards
Evolution of the Temple- Complexity in Plan due to Complexity in Ritual

The muslims started moving south which led to the shifting of the capital south at Madurai
The architecture flourished principally under the rule of Tirumalai Nayak 1623 – 1659
The Madura Style as it is also known as was a revival of the Pandya style of architecture

The expansion of the temples corresponded to the expansion of the temple ritual :
• The forms and ceremonies became more elaborate leading to the arrangement of buildings for the
activities
• The increase in the structural form was due to the wider powers given to the deity

Planning of the temple:

Deity :
• The cella or Garbagriha was dark, symbolic of the return to the womb experience in temples
• The inner portions of the temples were hence strictly reserved for the sacred habitation of the
god
• On certain occasions the deity is led in procession to take part in festivals, for which purpose
temples utilised the outer precincts
• To hence satisfy the requirements of these rituals the temple resolves itself to 2 main primary
formations
• 2 main parts of the temple:
• Inner covered sacred part
• Outer, open, more public less sanctified part
NAYAK ARCHITECTURE – 1600 AD onwards
Evolution of the Temple- Complexity in Plan due to Complexity in Ritual

INNER AREAS :
• Consisted of flat roofed courts, one enclosed within the other
• This normally covered a fairly large rectangular space
• Within the inner of the 2 courts is the sanctum, the cupolas of which covered in gilt
projects out through the flat roofs acting as the focal center
• There is a guarded seclusion to the inner area
OUTER AREAS:
• Concentric series of open courtyards known as ‘Prakarams’
• Enclosed within high walls, open to sky as they are too large to be roofed
• Provide space for secular buildings connected with the ceremonies

EXPANSION OR GROWTH OF TEMPLES:

1. Inner Areas or Cella: Wholly covered and sancrosanct

• The Cella and the Portico form the sanctum – origin of temple
• Cella was enclosed within another flat roofed hall to protect the original sanctuary and
to emphasize the sacredness
• Pillared aisles were added entrance through a small gopuram in front on the east
• Later the covered court was enclosed within a similar structure, division of the concentric
corridors by means of pillars and pavilions
• 2 entrances on the E and W with a larger gopuram than the previous enclosure
NAYAK ARCHITECTURE – 1600 AD onwards
Evolution of the Temple- Complexity in Plan due to Complexity in Ritual

2. Outer Areas:
• The entire composition was enclosed within a rectangle by means of a high wall
• The remaining space was left to provide a wide open courtyard or Prakaram
• The enclosure was entered by Gopurams, one on the E and W
• The Gopuram on the E was the principal doorway and largest
• Various structures were erected inside - pillared halls or Mandapas and subsidiary shrines
• Semi religious buildings such as granaries, store rooms for ceremonial supplies
• Later concentric rectangles were added contained within higher enclosing walls leaving
another open space between the inner and the outer perimeters
• 4 entrances adorned the four walls in the center at the cardinal points
• Each consisted of a Gopuram larger than the previous one within the outermost enclosure
2 large important structures were built- Thousand Pillared Hypostyle hall and a Square
Tank of water for ablutions, lined with steps and surrounded by an arcade
• This formed the basis for temple layouts but layer temples were sometimes
disproportionately enlarged – Srirangam which has 7 concentric rectangular enclosures the
whole resembling a town.
Concept of Temples:
Spiritual nor Architectural
The Gopurams induce a feeling of awe and majesty, leading to progressive halls, smaller and
dimmer than the previous, till the mystery of the Cella or darkened shrine to feel the
presence of God
NAYAK ARCHITECTURE – 1600 AD onwards
Evolution of the Temple- Complexity in Plan due to Complexity in Ritual

Elements of Temple:
1. Gopuram in the exterior
• Characteristic of the southern style
• Most of them are 1st class Gopurams –
• 150’ high to 200’
• 16 stories
• central doorway 25’ high on longer side
• Forms a corridor through the gopuram
• Rooms on either side for guardian and the door keeper
• One of these rooms has a staircase to reach the gopuram with a wide landing at each
storey leading to the summit

External treatment
• Ht. of Gopuram emphasized by vertical lines
• Each storey has a perpendicular projection
• In-between each storey diminishing tiers, forming horizontal lines
• Horizontal portion sometimes had figures- which were life size.
NAYAK ARCHITECTURE – 1600 AD onwards
Evolution of the Temple- Complexity in Plan due to Complexity in Ritual
2. Pillars or Colonnades in the interiors
• Moderate ht. of 12’
• Presence of a 1000 pillared hall eg. At Madurai

4 kinds of pillars –
1. Square moulded patterned - simplest
one enlarged to a square pier normally with
radiating brackets
2. Rampant dragon -Most common type 1000
pillared hall Superstructures are cleverly
composed above the dragon pillars, Gryphon
(YALI) bracket, capital or beam
3. Deity
4. Portrait of the donor or family
The third and fourth are similar, bigger than life
size and attached to the shafts
No structural significance, held by attachments to
the shaft
Some cases provide additive support as seen at
Meenakshi Temple Madurai.
All of theses support massive structures which are
complicated .
Crouching dragons and foliated brackets
predominate
HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE – 1050 - 1300 AD
OR LATER CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE
HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE – 1050 - 1300 AD
OR LATER CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE

• Earlier in the second millennium, in a large area of the Deccan, a type of temple
Architecture was developed sufficiently distinctive in character to be regarded as a
separate style.
• The Chalukyans who ruled till then were overthrown by the Hoysalas, an
enterprising and virile race and it was under the rule of this later dynasty, and mainly
within their dominions that the maturity of the style took place.
• For 250 years therefore, from the 11th to the 13th century, a very large number of
temples were erected, which in the view of the relatively limited period and the
restricted size o this region imply a condition of almost unprecedented architectural
activity; so much so that the art of the building in this mode developed into a definitely
significant movement.
• One of the major differences where bought about about by the radical change in the
nature of the building material used by the Mysore craftsman. The chalukyan –
hoysala builders resorted to a stone of much finer grain – a greenish or bluish-black
chloritic schist. It is a close textures stone, very tractable under the chisel, and
specially suited to the preparation of the minute carving which became pronounced
characteristics of the later style.
• Structures in Mysore – typical Chalukyan or Hoysala style. (80 of 100 temples)
• Structures located outside this country – influences of Dravidian overlapping.
HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE – 1050 - 1300 AD
OR LATER CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE

• Distinctive Charaters:
1. The configuration of the building and the shape of the plan
• The common system of single cell with pillared hall - is multiplied as double
temples and frequently are triple, quadruple and quintuple.
• Plan laid out in points rather than right angle lines, resulting in start shaped plan.
• Example – stellate or asthabhadra plan.
• Typical Hoysala temple structure stands on a high platform, which is wider,
leaving a platform all around the temple. This serves as a pradakshina patha.

2. The treatment of the wall surfaces

• General effect – horizontality predominates
• Walls of vimana – divided into 3 horizontal divisions
• Walls of pillared hall - 2 horizontal divisions
• Both connected by a wide continuous cornice.
• Carved plinth Borders – procession of elephants,
signifies strength and stability
Then a border of horsemen, denoting speed
With a band of spiral foliage and sunface,
Next in order, at the level of eye, frieze depicting a
succession of scenes from the great epics.
HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE – 1050 - 1300 AD
OR LATER CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE

• Distinctive Charaters:
3. The formation of the tower, or, Shikhara
• Key note of the style
• Creates a fluted effect on the towre above
• Resolves the whole into an orderly succession of tiers, diminishing into the finial.
4. The design of the pillars or the “order”
• Development of dravidian style
• Capital of expanding moulding
• Four square brackets above.
HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE – 1050 - 1300 AD
OR LATER CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE

Chennakesava Temple, Belur

HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE – 1050 - 1300 AD
OR LATER CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE

Chennakesava Temple, Belur

The Chennakeshava Temple, also referred to
as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur, is a 12th-century Hindu
temple in the Hassan district of Karnataka state, India. It was commissioned by
King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE, on the banks of the Yagachi River in Belur also
called Velapura, an early Hoysala Empire capital. The temple was built over three
generations and took 103 years to finish. The temple is a ekakuta vimana design
(single shrine) of 10.5 m by 10.5 m size. It combines elements of North Indian Nagara
and South Indian Karnata style architecture.[4] The temple stands on an open and
wide platform designed to be a circumambulatory path around the sanctum. The
temple and platform were without walls and the platform surrounded an
open mantapa, following the contour of the temple. A visitor would have been able to
see the ornate pillars of the open mantapa from the platform.[30] Later walls and stone
screens were added, creating an enclosed vestibule and mantapa, providing security
but creating too much dark to appreciate the artwork inside. The vestibule connects
the circumambulatory platform to the mandapa (hall). There is intricate and abundant
artwork both on the outside and inside the temple.[31]
The temple has a simple Hoysala plan and features one sanctum. The building
material used in the Chennakesava temple is chloritic schist, more commonly known
as soapstone. It is soft when quarried and allows artists to more easily carve details.
Over time the material hardens
HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE – 1050 - 1300 AD
OR LATER CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE

Hoysaleshwara Temple, Halebedu

The Hoysaleshwara Temple in Halebid is even larger and again very unique in
its architecture. Here the architect planned two identical temples parallel to each
other and connected them together at their transepts. The raised plinth of this
temple is filled with rows of sensuous sculpture in the form celestial dancers, a
variety of animals, vegetation and many other objects. Percy Brown contrasted
the Halebid Temple with Parthenon as two extremes of the architectural art of
the world. While the Parthenon has the cold purity of form, the Halebid Temple
explodes in warm complexity of its sculptural architechtonics. It is definitely the
finest example of Hoysala temple architecture.

One of the temples houses the Vishnuvardhana Hoysaleshwar Linga and the
other temple across the common broad “Navaranga” transept houses the
Shanthaleshwara Linga. The Nandi Mandapa is located in its typical place at
the entrance in front of the temple. Behind this Mandapa is the shrine dedicated
to Surya, the sun god and has an impressive almost seven feet high idol. The
temple doorways are also very intricately carved. There are narrations of
episodes from the ancient Hindu epics Ramayana, Mahabharatha and
Bhagwata in rows of carvings on the outer walls. Kedareshwara Tilt under the
patronage of Ketaladevi, the queen of Ballala II.