Feminizing Men

Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
VOL. 26 (1) MAR. 2018

About the Journal

Overview
Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities (JSSH) is the official journal of Universiti Putra Malaysia
published by UPM Press. It is an open-access online scientific journal which is free of charge. It publishes
the scientific outputs. It neither accepts nor commissions third party content.
Recognized internationally as the leading peer-reviewed interdisciplinary journal devoted to the

publication of original papers, it serves as a forum for practical approaches to improving quality in issues
pertaining to social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities.
JSSH is a quarterly (March, June, September and December) periodical that considers for publication
original articles as per its scope. The journal publishes in English and it is open to authors around the
world regardless of the nationality.
The Journal is available world-wide.
Aims and scope

Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities aims to develop as a pioneer journal for the social
sciences with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to the social and behavioural sciences as well as
the humanities.
Areas relevant to the scope of the journal include Social Sciences—Accounting, anthropology,
Archaeology and history, Architecture and habitat, Consumer and family economics, Economics,
Education, Finance, Geography, Law, Management studies, Media and communication studies, Political
sciences and public policy, Population studies, Psychology, Sociology, Technology management, Tourism;
Humanities—Arts and culture, Dance, Historical and civilisation studies, Language and Linguistics,
Literature, Music, Philosophy, Religious studies, Sports.
History
Pertanika was founded in 1978. A decision was made in 1992 to streamline Pertanika into three journals
as Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science, Journal of Science & Technology, and Journal of Social
Sciences & Humanities to meet the need for specialised journals in areas of study aligned with the
interdisciplinary strengths of the university.
After almost 25 years, as an interdisciplinary Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, the revamped
journal focuses on research in social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in
the Asia Pacific region.
Goal of Pertanika
Our goal is to bring the highest quality research to the widest possible audience.
Quality
We aim for excellence, sustained by a responsible and professional approach to journal publishing.
Submissions are guaranteed to receive a decision within 14 weeks. The elapsed time from submission
to publication for the articles averages 5-6 months.
Abstracting and indexing of Pertanika

Pertanika is almost 40 years old; this accumulated knowledge has resulted in Pertanika JSSH being
abstracted and indexed in SCOPUS (Elsevier), Thomson (ISI) Web of Knowledge [BIOSIS & CAB Abstracts],
EBSCO & EBSCOhost, DOAJ, Cabell’s Directories, Google Scholar, MyAIS, ISC & Rubriq (Journal Guide).
Future vision
We are continuously improving access to our journal archives, content, and research services. We have
the drive to realise exciting new horizons that will benefit not only the academic community, but society
itself.
Citing journal articles

The abbreviation for Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities is Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Hum.
Publication policy
Pertanika policy prohibits an author from submitting the same manuscript for concurrent consideration
by two or more publications. It prohibits as well publication of any manuscript that has already been
published either in whole or substantial part elsewhere. It also does not permit publication of manuscript
that has been published in full in Proceedings.
Code of Ethics
The Pertanika Journals and Universiti Putra Malaysia takes seriously the responsibility of all of its
journal publications to reflect the highest in publication ethics. Thus all journals and journal editors are
expected to abide by the Journal’s codes of ethics. Refer to Pertanika’s Code of Ethics for full details, or
visit the Journal’s web link at http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/code_of_ethics.php

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
An ISSN is an 8-digit code used to identify periodicals such as journals of all kinds and on all media–print
and electronic. All Pertanika journals have ISSN as well as an e-ISSN.
Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities: ISSN 0128-7702 (Print); ISSN 2231-8534 (Online).
Lag time
A decision on acceptance or rejection of a manuscript is reached in 3 to 4 months (average 14 weeks).
The elapsed time from submission to publication for the articles averages 5-6 months.
Authorship
Authors are not permitted to add or remove any names from the authorship provided at the time of
initial submission without the consent of the Journal’s Chief Executive Editor.
Manuscript preparation
Refer to Pertanika’s Instructions to Authors at the back of this journal.
Most scientific papers are prepared according to a format called IMRAD. The term represents the first
letters of the words Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, And, Discussion. IMRAD is simply
a more ‘defined’ version of the “IBC” [Introduction, Body, Conclusion] format used for all academic
writing. IMRAD indicates a pattern or format rather than a complete list of headings or components of
research papers; the missing parts of a paper are: Title, Authors, Keywords, Abstract, Conclusions, and
References. Additionally, some papers include Acknowledgments and Appendices.
The Introduction explains the scope and objective of the study in the light of current knowledge on the
subject; the Materials and Methods describes how the study was conducted; the Results section reports
what was found in the study; and the Discussion section explains meaning and significance of the results
and provides suggestions for future directions of research. The manuscript must be prepared according
to the Journal’s Instructions to Authors.
Editorial process
Authors are notified with an acknowledgement containing a Manuscript ID on receipt of a manuscript,
and upon the editorial decision regarding publication.
Pertanika follows a double-blind peer-review process. Manuscripts deemed suitable for publication
are usually sent to reviewers. Authors are encouraged to suggest names of at least three potential
reviewers at the time of submission of their manuscript to Pertanika, but the editors will make the final
choice. The editors are not, however, bound by these suggestions.
Notification of the editorial decision is usually provided within ten to fourteen weeks from the receipt
of manuscript. Publication of solicited manuscripts is not guaranteed. In most cases, manuscripts are
accepted conditionally, pending an author’s revision of the material.
As articles are double-blind reviewed, material that might identify authorship of the paper should be
placed only on page 2 as described in the first-4 page format in Pertanika’s Instructions to Authors
given at the back of this journal.
The Journal’s peer-review

In the peer-review process, three referees independently evaluate the scientific quality of the submitted
manuscripts.
Peer reviewers are experts chosen by journal editors to provide written assessment of the strengths and
weaknesses of written research, with the aim of improving the reporting of research and identifying the
most appropriate and highest quality material for the journal.
Operating and review process

What happens to a manuscript once it is submitted to Pertanika? Typically, there are seven steps to the
editorial review process:
1. The Journal’s chief executive editor and the editorial board examine the paper to determine
whether it is appropriate for the journal and should be reviewed. If not appropriate, the
manuscript is rejected outright and the author is informed.
2. The chief executive editor sends the article-identifying information having been removed, to
three reviewers. Typically, one of these is from the Journal’s editorial board. Others are
specialists in the subject matter represented by the article. The chief executive editor asks
them to complete the review in three weeks.
Comments to authors are about the appropriateness and adequacy of the theoretical or
conceptual framework, literature review, method, results and discussion, and conclusions.
Reviewers often include suggestions for strengthening of the manuscript. Comments to the
editor are in the nature of the significance of the work and its potential contribution to the
literature.
3. The chief executive editor, in consultation with the editor-in-chief, examines the reviews and
decides whether to reject the manuscript, invite the author(s) to revise and resubmit the
manuscript, or seek additional reviews. Final acceptance or rejection rests with the Edito-
in-Chief, who reserves the right to refuse any material for publication. In rare instances,
the manuscript is accepted with almost no revision. Almost without exception, reviewers’
comments (to the author) are forwarded to the author. If a revision is indicated, the editor
provides guidelines for attending to the reviewers’ suggestions and perhaps additional advice
about revising the manuscript.
4. The authors decide whether and how to address the reviewers’ comments and criticisms and
the editor’s concerns. The authors return a revised version of the paper to the chief executive
editor along with specific information describing how they have answered’ the concerns
of the reviewers and the editor, usually in a tabular form. The author(s) may also submit
a rebuttal if there is a need especially when the author disagrees with certain comments
provided by reviewer(s).
5. The chief executive editor sends the revised paper out for re-review. Typically, at least one of
the original reviewers will be asked to examine the article.
6. When the reviewers have completed their work, the chief executive editor in consultation
with the editorial board and the editor-in-chief examine their comments and decide whether
the paper is ready to be published, needs another round of revisions, or should be rejected.
7. If the decision is to accept, an acceptance letter is sent to all the author(s), the paper is sent to
the Press. The article should appear in print in approximately three months.
The Publisher ensures that the paper adheres to the correct style (in-text citations, the
reference list, and tables are typical areas of concern, clarity, and grammar). The authors are
asked to respond to any minor queries by the Publisher. Following these corrections, page
proofs are mailed to the corresponding authors for their final approval. At this point, only
essential changes are accepted. Finally, the article appears in the pages of the Journal and is
posted on-line.

JSSH
AN INTERNATIONAL PEER-REVIEWED JOURNAL
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF EDITORIAL BOARD
Mohd. Shahwahid Hj. Othman 2017-2019
Economics, Natural Resource & Abdul Mansur M. Masih Gong-Soog Hong Patricia Matusky
Economics, Consumer and Family Music, Ethnomusicology, Malay and
Environmental Economics, Economics Economics, Econometrics, Finance,
Sciences, The Ohio State University, USA. Indonesian language, Literature and
King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Valuation Minerals, Saudi Arabia. Culture, Grand Valley State University,
Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan USA.
Alan Maley Music, Ethnomusicology, Borneo and
CHIEF EXECUTIVE EDITOR English Language Studies, Teaching of Papua New Guinea Studies, Universiti Rohany Nasir
English Language and Literature, Leeds Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia. Psychology-Career counseling,
Nayan Deep S. Kanwal Metropolitan University, UK. Counseling for Adolescents and Adults,
James R. Stock Marriage and Family counseling,
Environmental Issues – Landscape Management Studies, Marketing,
Ali Reza Kaldi Counseling industry and Organization,
Plant Modelling Applications Medical Sociology, Sociology of Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Development Ageing, Gerontology, Quantitative Method, University of South Malaysia.
Florida, USA.
UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS University of Social Welfare and
Samsinar Md.Sidin
Rehabilitation, Tehran, Iran.
COMMITTEE Jayakaran Mukundan Management Studies, Marketing,
Aminah Ahmad English Language Studies, Teaching Consumer Behaviour, Universiti Putra
Chair Sociology, Gender and Development, English as a Second Language (TESL), Malaysia, Malaysia.
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. English Language Studies, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Shameem Rafik-Galea
EDITORIAL STAFF Bee-Hoon Tan English Language Studies, Linguistics,
Journal Officers: English Language Studies and Applied Jayum A. Jawan Applied Linguistics, Language and
Linguistics, with Special Research Interest Sociology, Politics and Government, Communication, Universiti Putra
Kanagamalar Silvarajoo, ScholarOne in e-learning and Learning Support, Civilization Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Malaysia, Malaysia.
Tee Syin-Ying, ScholarOne Shamsher Mohamad
Brian Tomlinson Jonathan Newton Ramadili Mohd
Editorial Assistants: English Language Studies, The Classroom-based Second Language Finance, Corporate Governance, The
Evaluation, Adaptation and Acquisition, Language Teaching
Zulinaardawati Kamarudin Methodology, the Interface of Culture
Global University of Islamic Finance
Development, Leeds Metropolitan (INCEIF) Malaysia.
Florence Jiyom University, UK. and Language in Language Teaching and
Unni Fairuz Hanapi Learning, and Language/Communication Stephen J. Hall
Deanna L. Sharpe Training and Material Design for the English Language Studies, Linguist,
Rahimah Razali Economics, Consumer and Family Multicultural Workplace, Victoria Teacher Educator, TESOL, Sunway
Economics, Personal Finance, The University of Wellington, New Zealand. University College, Malaysia.
COPY EDITORS University of Missouri, Columbia, USA.
Marcus Bion GRIFFIN Stephen J. Thoma
Doreen Dillah Dessy Irawati Human Ecology, Anthropology, Tropical Phsycology, Educational Psychology, The
International Business Management, Agriculture, Fisheries, Cultural Learning University of Alabama, USA.
Crescentia Morais Strategic Management, Economic Solutions, USA.
Pooja Terasha Stanslas Geography, Globalization and Swee-Heng Chan
Development Studies, Industrial Mary Susan Philip English Language Studies, Universiti
Dynamics and Knowledge Transfer, English Language Theatre in Malaysia Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.
PRODUCTION STAFF Radboud University, the Netherlands and Singapore; Postcolonial Theatre,
Pre-press Officers: and EduPRIME the consulting, the University of Malaya, Malaysia. Turiman Suandi
Netherlands. Psychology, Youth Development and
Kanagamalar Silvarajoo Muzafar Shah Habibullah Volunteerism, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Nur Farrah Dila Ismail Elias @ Ilias Salleh Economics, Monetary Economics, Malaysia.
Architectural Science, Sustainable Banking, Macroeconomics, Universiti
Layout & Typeset: Tropical Design, Thermal Comfort, Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Victor T. King
Anthropology / Southeast Asian Studies
Lilian Loh Kian Lin Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
White Rose East Asia Centre, University
Malaysia.
of Leeds, UK.
WEBMASTER
Mohd Nazri Othman INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD
2017-2019
PUBLICITY & PRESS RELEASE
Magdalene Pokar (ResearchSEA) Barbara Wejnert Handoyo Puji Widodo Pal Ahluwalia
Political Sociologist: Gender Studies, English Language Studies, ESP, Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research and
Florence Jiyom Macro Political and Social Changes, Language Curriculum-Materials Design Innovation), African Studies, Social and
University at Buffalo, SUNY, USA. and Development, and Language Cultural Theory, Post-colonial Theory,
Methodology, Politeknik Negeri Jember,
EDITORIAL OFFICE Carolyn Graham East Java-Indonesia.
Division of Education, Arts & Social
Sciences, University of Portsmouth,
JOURNAL DIVISION Music, Jazz Chants, United Kingdom.
Harvard University, USA. John R. Schermerhorn Jr.
Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I) Management Studies, Management and Phillip Jones
1st Floor, IDEA Tower II David Nunan Organizational Behaviour, International Architectural Science, Sustainability in
UPM-MTDC Technology Centre Vice-President: Academic, Anaheim Business, Ohio University, USA. the Built Environment, Welsh School of
Universiti Putra Malaysia University, California, English Language Architecture, Cardiff University, UK.
43400 Serdang, Selangor Malaysia. Studies, Linguist, TESOL, University of Kent Matthews
Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Economics, Banking and Finance, Rance P. L. Lee
Gen Enq.: +603 8947 1622 | 1616 Modelling and Forecasting the Macro Sociology, The Chinese University of
E-mail: [email protected] Faith Trent AM FACE Economy, Cardiff Business School, UK. Hong Kong.
Education: Curriculum development,
URL: www.journals-jd.upm.edu.my Lehman B. Fletcher
Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. Royal D. Colle
Economics, Agricultural Development, Communication, Cornell University, USA.
PUBLISHER Gary N. Mclean Policy Analysis and Planning, Iowa State
Executive Director, International Human University, USA. Shonda Buchanan
Kamariah Mohd Saidin Resource Development Programs, Interim Chair, American Literature,
UPM Press EAHR, Human Resource Development Mark P. Orbe Hampton University, USA.
for National, Community and Social Communication, Interpersonal
Universiti Putra Malaysia Development, International Human Communication, Communication and Vijay K. Bhatia
43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Resource Development, Organizational Diversity, Intercultural Communication, Education: Genre Analysis and
Tel: +603 8946 8855, 8946 8854 Development, Texas A&M University, Western Michigan University, USA. Professional Communication, City
Fax: +603 8941 6172 USA. University of Hong Kong
Mohamed ARIFF
E-mail: [email protected] Graham Thurgood Economics, Finance, Capital Market,
URL: http://penerbit.upm.edu.my English Language Studies, General Islamic Finance, Fiscal Policy, Bond
Linguistics, Discourse and Syntax, University, Australia.
California State University, Chico., USA.
ABSTRACTING/INDEXING
Pertanika is now over 40 years old; this accumulated knowledge has resulted the journals being indexed in abstracted in SCOPUS
(Elsevier), Thomson (ISI) Web of Knowledge [ESCI, BIOSIS & CAB Abstracts], EBSCO & EBSCOhost, ERA, DOAJ, AGRICOLA (National
Agric. Library, USA), Cabell’s Directories, Google Scholar, MyAIS, Islamic World Science Citation Center (ISC), ASEAN Citation Index
(ACI) & Rubriq (Journal Guide).
The publisher of Pertanika will not be responsible for the statements made by the authors in any articles published in the journal. Under no circumstances will the publisher of this publication be liable for any loss or damage caused by your
reliance on the advice, opinion or information obtained either explicitly or implied through the contents of this publication.
All rights of reproduction are reserved in respect of all papers, articles, illustrations, etc., published in Pertanika. Pertanika provides free access to the full text of research articles for anyone, web-wide. It does not charge either its authors or
author-institution for refereeing/publishing outgoing articles or user-institution for accessing incoming articles.
No material published in Pertanika may be reproduced or stored on microfilm or in electronic, optical or magnetic form without the written authorization of the Publisher.
Copyright © 2017-18 Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. All Rights Reserved.
Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 26 (1) Mar. 2018
Contents
Foreword i
Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Articles
The Influence of Religiosity on Safety Behavior of Workers: A Proposed Framework 1
Mahmud, M. and Yusof, S. M.
Common Issues and Challenges of Breast Cancer Awareness in Malaysia: A 21
Contemporary Scenario
Mohamed Samsudeen Sajahan and Azizah Omar
Psychological and Social Factors of Depression Recovery: A Narrative Review 41
Jin Kuan Kok, Kai-Shuen Pheh and Gaik Lan Hor
Regular Articles
Factors Influencing Juveniles’ Perception of the Police in Karachi, Pakistan 59
Abdullah Khoso, Pasand Ali Khoso and Ghulam Mujtab Khushk
The Resistance of Local Wisdom Towards Radicalism: The Study of the Tarekat 75
Community of West Sumatra, Indonesia
Welhendri Azwar
Identification of Gender of the Author of a Written Text using Topic-Independent 103
Features
Tatiana Litvinova, Pavel Seredin, Olga Litvinova and Olga Zagorovskaya
The Characteristics of Entrepreneurs with Successful and Sustainable Small 113
Businesses in Northeastern Thailand
Nath Amornpinyo
Debunking the Myth of Money as Motivator in a Multigenerational Workforce 129
Lee Su Teng, Sharmila Jayasingam and Khairuddin Naim Mohd Zain
The Effect of Self-Transcription and Expert Scaffolding on the Accuracy of Oral 149
Production of EFL Learners
Shirin Abadikhah and Masoome Valipour
Recent Challenges for the Enforcement of Wildlife Laws in East Malaysia 167
Mariani Ariffin
Smartphone Usage Capabilities among Younger and Elderly Users 181
Raywadee Sakdulyatham, Somjaree Preeyanont, Rajalida Lipikorn and
Rewadee Watakakosol
Students’ Perspective on the Impact of English Teacher Development Programs on 199
Teaching Quality in Indonesia
Azkiyah, S. N., Doolaard, S., Creemers, Bert P. M. and Van der Werf, M. P. C.
(Greetje)
Orang Asli Student Icons: An Innovative Teaching Method for Orang Asli Students 219
Rohaida Nordin, Muhamad Sayuti Hassan @ Yahya and Ibrahim Danjuma
Impact of Commuter Families on Adolescent Development: An Evaluation of the 239
Adolescent from Peninsular Malaysia
Siaw Yan-Li, Samsilah Roslan, Maria Chong Abdullah and Haslinda Abdullah
The Influence of Demographic Profile on Work Life Balance of Women Employees in 259
Tannery Industry – An Empirical Study
S. Prithi and A. Vasumathi
Rape Talks Louder Than Guns Feminising Men via Wartime Rape in Judith 285
Thompson’s Palace of the End
Elaff Ganim Salih, Hardev Kaur, Ida Baizura Bahar and Mohamad Fleih Hassan
The Nature of ‘Nature Tourism’: Exploring the Role of Images and Imagination in 299
Ecotourism
Kalpita Bhar Paul
Gender Differences in Behaviourally Fractionated Omitted Stimulus Reaction Time 317
Task using Visual, Auditory and Somatosensory Stimuli
Hernández O. H., Alfonso-ArguelloJ. I. and Hernández-Sánchez J. A.
Effect of Phase-based Instruction Using Geometer’s Sketchpad on Geometric 329
Thinking Regarding Angles
Poh Geik Tieng and Leong Kwan Eu
Overcoming The Shadow and Achieving Individuation through a Hero’s Journey in 345
Tunku Halim’s “A Sister’s Tale”
John Helvy Akam and Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya
Integration of Values and Culture in Malay Folklore Animation 359
Normaliza Abd Rahim, Awang Azman Awang Pawi and Nik Rafidah Nik
Muhamad Affendi
Iranian Medical Students’ Perception about Classroom Participation in General English 375
Course and its Grading Criteria
Laleh Khojasteh, Nasrin Shokrpour and Reza Kafipour
The Shadow Worlds that Run Parallel to the Real World: Deleuzian Time-Images and 397
Virtualities in Paul Auster’ Sunset Park
Nasser Maleki and Moein Moradi
Assessing Cyberloafing Behaviour among University Students: A Validation of the 409
Cyberloafing Scale
Koay, Kian-Yeik
Effectiveness of ToyBox Intervention to Reduce Sedentary Behaviour among Pre- 425
school Children: A Case in Malaysia
Hon, K. Y., Chua, B. S. and Hashmi, S. I.
To Go, or Not to Go: The Palestinian Realities of Exile in the Works of Sahar 441
Khalifeh
Priyanka and Shashikantha Koudur
The Curious Incidence of Individual Empowerment 453
Taraneh Houshyar and Bahee Hadaegh
An Economic Valuation of Urban Green Spaces in Kuala Lumpur City 469
Nur Syafiqah, A. S., A. S. Abdul-Rahim, Mohd Johari, M. Y. and Tanaka, K.
Preliminary Assessment and Prioritisation of Demand Management Strategies for 491
Reducing Train Overcrowding
Nor Diana Mohd Mahudin
SMEs Development and ASEAN Economic Integration: An Analysis of Singapore and 507
Malaysia
Thanawat Pimoljinda and Ritthikorn Siriprasertchok
The Impact of School Context on the Construction of Female Mathematic Teachers’ 519
Professional Identity in a South African Primary School
GM Steyn
Export Tax Policy in Indonesia: The Impacts on Competitiveness and Price 535
Integration of Cocoa Products
Abdul Muis Hasibuan and Apri Laila Sayekti
A Path Analysis of the Relationship between Job Stress and Care for Ageing Parents 553
in Thailand: A Case Study of Thai Migrant Workers
Kaewanuchit C. and Kanwal, N. D. S.
Kahoot! It: Gamification in Higher Education 565
Debbita Tan Ai Lin, Ganapathy, M. and Manjet Kaur
Short Communication
Tourists with Dementia – A Unique Challenge for the Tourism Industry 583
Blanka Klímová
Foreword
Welcome to the First Issue 2018 of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (JSSH)!
JSSH is an open-access journal for the Social Sciences and Humanities that is published
by Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. It is independently owned and managed by the
university and run on a non-profit basis for the benefit of the world-wide social science
community.
This issue contains 35 articles, of which three are review articles, one is a short
communication and 31 are regular research articles. The authors of these articles come
from different countries, namely, Malaysia, Pakistan, Netherlands, Russia, Nigeria,
Thailand, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Japan, South Africa, the Czech Republic and Iran.
The first review article in this issue discusses the influence of religiosity on safety
behaviour of workers through a proposed framework (Mahmud, M. and Yusof, S. M.)
while the second is on common issues and challenges of breast cancer awareness in
Malaysia, focused on the contemporary scenario (Mohamed Samsudeen Sajahan and
Azizah Omar). The last review is a narrative review article that discusses psychological
and social factors of depression recovery (Jin Kuan Kok, Kai-Shuen Pheh and Gaik Lan
Hor). The short communication in this issue reports briefly on tourists with dementia, a
condition that poses a unique challenge for the tourism industry (Blanka Klímová).
The regular articles cover a wide range of topics. The first is on factors influencing
juveniles’ perception of the police in Karachi, Pakistan (Abdullah Khoso, Pasand Ali Khoso
and Ghulam Mujtab Khushk). The following articles look at: the resistance of local wisdom
towards radicalism in a study of the Tarekat community of West Sumatra, Indonesia
(Welhendri Azwar); the identification of the gender of the author of a written text using
topic-independent features (Tatiana Litvinova, Pavel Seredin, Olga Litvinova and Olga
Zagorovskaya); the characteristics of entrepreneurs with successful and sustainable small
businesses in northeastern Thailand (Nath Amornpinyo); debunking the myth of money
as a motivator in a multigenerational workforce (Lee Su Teng, Sharmila Jayasingam and
Khairuddin Naim Mohd Zain); the effect of self-transcription and expert scaffolding on
the accuracy of the oral production of EFL learners (Shirin Abadikhah and Masoome
Valipour); recent challenges for the enforcement of wildlife laws in east Malaysia (Mariani
Ariffin); smartphone usage capabilities among younger and elderly users (Raywadee
Sakdulyatham, Somjaree Preeyanont, Rajalida Lipikorn and Rewadee Watakakosol);
students’ perspective on the impact of English teacher development programmes on
teaching quality in Indonesia (Azkiyah, S. N., Doolaard, S., Creemers, Bert P. M. and Van
der Werf, M. P. C. (Greetje)); Orang Asli student icons as an innovative teaching method
for Orang Asli students (Rohaida Nordin, Muhamad Sayuti Hassan @ Yahya and Ibrahim
Danjuma); impact of commuter families on adolescent development, focussing on an
evaluation of the adolescent from Peninsular Malaysia (Siaw Yan-Li, Samsilah Roslan,
Maria Chong Abdullah and Haslinda Abdullah); an empirical study on the influence of
demographic profile on work-life balance of women employees in the tannery industry (S.
Prithi and A. Vasumathi); wartime rape in Judith Thompson’s Palace of the End (Elaff Ganim
Salih, Hardev Kaur, Ida Baizura Bahar and Mohamad Fleih Hassan); the role of images
and the imagination in the nature of ‘nature tourism’ in an exploration of ecotourism
(Kalpita Bhar Paul); gender differences in behaviourally fractionated omitted stimulus
reaction time tasks using visual, auditory and somatosensory stimuli (Hernández O. H.,
Alfonso-ArguelloJ. I. and Hernández-Sánchez J. A.); the effect of phase-based instruction
using a geometer sketchpad on geometric thinking regarding angles (Poh Geik Tieng and
Leong Kwan Eu); overcoming shadow worlds and achieving individuation through a hero’s
journey in Tunku Halim’s “A Sister’s Tale” (John Helvy Akam and Wan Roselezam Wan
Yahya); the integration of values and culture in Malay folklore animation (Normaliza Abd
Rahim, Awang Azman Awang Pawi and Nik Rafidah Nik Muhammad Affendi); Iranian
medical students’ perception of classroom participation in a general English course
and its grading criteria (Laleh Khojasteh, Nasrin Shokrpour and Reza Kafipour); the
shadow worlds that run parallel to the real world: Deleuzian time-IMA and virtualities
in Paul Auster’s Sunset Park (Nasser Maleki and Moein Moradi); assessing cyberloafing
behaviour among university students in a validation of the cyberloafing scale (Koay, Kian-
Yeik); the effectiveness of toybox intervention to reduce sedentary behaviour among
pre-school children, looking specifically at a case in Malaysia (Hon, K. Y., Chua, B. S. and
Hashmi, S. I.); the Palestinian realities of exile in the works of Sahar Khalifeh (Priyanka
and Shashikantha Koudur); the curious incidence of individual empowerment (Taraneh
Houshyar and Bahee Hadaegh); an economic valuation of urban green spaces in Kuala
Lumpur city (Nur Syafiqah, A. S., A. S. Abdul-Rahim, Mohd Johari, M. Y. and Tanaka,
K.); the preliminary assessment and prioritisation of demand management strategies for
reducing train overcrowding (Nor Diana Mohd Mahudin); SME development and ASEAN
economic integration in an analysis of Singapore and Malaysia (Thanawat Pimoljinda
and Ritthikorn Siriprasertchok); the impact of the school context on the construction
of female mathematic teachers’ professional identity in a South African primary school
(GM Steyn); export tax policy in Indonesia and its impacts on competitiveness and price
integration of cocoa products (Abdul Muis Hasibuan and Apri Laila Sayekti); a path
analysis of the relationship between job stress and care for ageing parents in Thailand,
focussing on a case study of Thai migrant workers (Kaewanuchit C. and Kanwal, N. D. S.);
and “Kahoot!”, an educational computer game for use in higher education (Tan, D. A. L.,
Ganapathy, M. and Manjet Kaur).
I anticipate that you will find the evidence presented in this issue to be intriguing, thought-
provoking and useful in reaching new milestones. Please recommend the journal to your
colleagues and students to make this endeavour meaningful.
I would also like to express my gratitude to all the contributors who have made this
issue possible, as well as the authors, reviewers and editors for their professional
contribution. Last but not least, the editorial assistance of the journal division staff is
also fully appreciated.
JSSH is currently accepting manuscripts for upcoming issues based on original qualitative
or quantitative research that opens new areas of inquiry and investigation.
Chief Executive Editor

Nayan Deep S. KANWAL, FRSA, ABIM, AMIS, Ph.D.
[email protected]
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Review Article
The Influence of Religiosity on Safety Behavior of Workers: A

Proposed Framework
Mahmud, M.* and Yusof, S. M.
UTM Razak School of Engineering and Advanced Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 54100 UTM,
Jalan Semarak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
There has been a growing body of studies on religion and human safety behaviour in recent
years. However, psychologists seem to be more inclined to pairing religiosity and non-
occupational risky behaviour (such as smoking, substance abuse, drinking and driving) in
their studies, while safety scientists have hardly explored the influence of religiosity on
occupational safety behaviour such as taking shortcuts or breaking the rules. To close this
gap, this paper suggests that empirical studies should be conducted to explore possible
associations between religiosity and safety behaviour at the workplace. To facilitate such
studies, a conceptual framework is proposed based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour
(TPB). This paper explains the rationale of choosing TPB. While TPB postulates that
both the behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control explain the behaviour,
it is interesting to examine the effect of religiosity on occupational behaviour. Examining
religiosity as a new construct in occupational safety behaviour studies can help trigger the
interest of other religious scholars, psychologists and safety scientists to use religiosity
as a construct more rigorously in their future studies on safety to address the gap. Such
studies can also help formulate or enhance safety interventions, since these human-related
incidents and accidents seem endemic in high-risk industries.
Keywords: Occupational safety behaviour, religiosity,

Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 14 May 2015 INTRODUCTION
Accepted: 30 November 2017
E-mail addresses: In any high-risk industry, safety is of

[email protected] (Mahmud, M.),
[email protected] (Yusof, S. M.)
paramount importance. After the Piper
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Alpha incident in 1988 where 167 offshore accident causation theories or models
workers died, researchers conducted many developed by safety experts to examine
studies to understand the causes of industrial factors that contribute to accidents. Some
accidents. Reason (1999) reported that the focus on employees’ actions (behaviour)
Institute of Nuclear Power Operations in or inaction that causes accidents. Others
the United States of America found that concentrate on the responsibilities (actions
accidents were contributed by human and inaction) of the management that
performance (52%) and design deficiencies contribute to accidents. It is crucial for
(33%). As designs are being constantly safety professionals to understand these
improved and deficiencies supplemented accident causation theories so that accurate
using highly sophisticated and safety-based information about organisational safety
technology, most of the design concerns problems can be used to develop effective
are now coming under control. However, safety interventions or programmes to
accidents or disasters continue to happen, prevent or reduce accidents in the workplace.
although the most modern technology This paper briefly examines some of the
is used. So, if technology cannot reduce most popular accident causation theories
accidents, then what can? This question that focus on safety behaviour.
has been plaguing safety scientists for
decades, triggering voluminous studies on Heinrich’s Domino Theory
workplace safety. This has led to studies
This domino theory developed by Heinrich
on the behaviour of workers and the
in the late 1920s is considered the first
underpinning factors that might contribute
accident causation theory ever formulated
to incidents and accidents. Heinrich claimed
(Friend & Kohn, 2005). Heinrich’s Domino
that 88% of workplace accidents were the
Theory outlines five factors about accidents
result of unsafe behaviour (Manuele, 2011).
that are represented by individual principles
While this high percentage has been fiercely
or ‘dominoes’:
contested by some scholars, the human
factor in accidents at the workplace is still 1. Negative character traits leading a
a concern. person to behave in an unsafe manner
can be inherited or acquired as a result
ACCIDENT CAUSATION THEORIES of the social environment.
Even though the high percentage of 2. Negative character traits are why
human (unsafe behaviour) contribution to individuals behave in an unsafe manner
accidents can be disputed, it is Heinrich’s and why hazardous conditions exist.
studies on the “human factor” that has 3. Unsafe acts committed by individuals
resulted in the first scientific approach and mechanical or physical hazards are
to accident prevention. There are many the direct cause of accidents.
2 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

Religiosity and Safety Behavior Framework
4. Falls and the impact of moving objects or maintenance, normal tool or

typically cause accidents resulting in equipment wear and tear, and/or
injury. abnormal tool usage.
5. Typical injuries resulting from accidents 3. Immediate causes – This refers to unsafe
include lacerations and fractures. acts and unsafe conditions.
The five factors can be pictured as a series 4. Incident or undesired event
of dominoes standing on one edge; when 5. People-Property-Loss – This refers to
one falls, the disturbance causes the next the adverse results of accidents such
piece to fall, and that causes the next to as property damage and human injury.
fall, thus triggering a chain reaction that Like Heinrich’s theory, the Bird and
ends with every piece having fallen. Since Loftus Domino Theory also postulates
each factor is dependent on the preceding that accidents are preventable if unsafe
factor, when one factor, such as employees’ behaviour is prevented and unsafe
unsafe behaviour or unsafe conditions conditions are averted.
in the workplace are averted, then the
chain reaction is stopped, thus preventing
Human Factors Theory
accidents and injuries (Friend & Kohn,
2005). The Human Factors Theory postulates that
accidents are caused by human error, which
is the result of three factors:
Bird and Loftus’ Domino Theory
1) Overload, which represents excessive
Bird and Loftus (1976) developed an
burdens or responsibilities placed on a
updated domino theory that includes the
worker,
between workers and the management. This
theory uses five dominoes to represent the 2) Inappropriate activities, which refer to
five events that are associated in accidents: activities that are new or unfamiliar to
the worker, and
1. Lack of management control – This
refers to the functions of a manager 3) Inappropriate response, which occurs
such as planning, organising, leading when a worker does not take corrective
and controlling. action when he sees a hazard or when a
worker removes a protective system in
2. Basic cause – This refers to two groups:
order to increase productivity (Friend &
a. Personal factors such as lack of Kohn, 2005).
knowledge or skill, improper
motivation, and/or physical or
Swiss Cheese Model
mental problems, and
Unlike Heinrich’s Domino Theory, which
b. Job factors such as inadequate
is considered the traditional approach to
work standards, inadequate design
accident causation, the Swiss Cheese Model,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 3

developed by Reason (1999), is classified OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

under the modern approach of accident BEHAVIOUR STUDIES
causation. According to this theory, the There is a vast body of studies on human
factors causing accidents can be visualised error, human behaviour, human attitude
as slices of cheese, having many holes; and human personality conducted by
however, unlike in cheese, the ‘holes’ in scientists and psychologists in the attempt
accidents i.e. the factors causing accidents to understand the human factors that lead
are continuously shifting their position. to accidents. For example, Mearns, Flin,
The holes represent the faults or failures Gordon and Flemming (1997) studied
and their presence in any of the slices does the organisational and human factors that
not normally cause accidents. Accidents affected safety in onshore and offshore
happen when all the slices of cheese line up installations. A few years later, a study was
to allow a trajectory path for the hazards to conducted to examine the impact of safety
pass through so that they come in contact climate on safety behaviour of workers in
with the victims. The holes (faults) in the organisations (Neal, Griffin, & Hart, 2000).
slices are caused by two elements, namely Other studies on safety behaviour in the
active failures and latent conditions. Active literature included safe lifting behaviour
failures are the unsafe behaviour of people by Johnson and Hall (2005); safety climate
who are in direct contact with the system prediction of unsafe behaviour by Fogarty
of work and are in the form of slips, lapses, and Shaw (2010); safety behaviour in
fumbles, mistakes and procedural violations petrochemical plants by Salleh (2010),
(Reason, 1999), while latent conditions and; safety motivation impact on safety
refer to the inevitable “resident pathogens” behaviour by Ibrahim (2012).
that lie dormant within the system (Reason, Despite the volume of safety behaviour
1999). They will lie dormant until some studies in the literature, not all the issues
enabling conditions such as error or the raised by these studies have been settled.
unsafe behaviour of workers triggers it For example, Cooper and Phillips (2004)
(Woods, Johannesen, Cook, & Sarter, 1994). claimed that researchers struggled over
These accident causation theories the last 25 years searching for empirical
emphasise that safety behaviour of workers evidence on safety climate and safety
is one of the major contributors to accidents. performance relationship. In addition,
Therefore, to reduce accidents at the Salleh (2010) suggested that while the
workplace, the root causes of lack of safety study of human safety behaviour has
behaviour need to be examined in order been conducted for decades, the solutions
to increase safe behaviour and reduce or remained “scattered and scarce”. In
stop unsafe behaviour. Accident causation addressing these issues, Cooper and Phillips
theories are central in driving study into (2004) proposed that many more studies
safety and human behaviour. are needed, and they should use a range

of safety performance outcome variables to accidents in the workplace was broken

instead of depending mainly on self-report down further into deficient procedures or
instruments. Thus, to look into and further documentation (43%); lack of knowledge or
understand the complexities of safety training (18%); failure to follow procedures
behaviour, it is proposed that more safety (16%); deficient planning or scheduling
behaviour studies should be conducted (10%); miscommunication (6%); deficient
from various perspectives such as religion. supervision (3%); policy problems (2%) and
For example, in a study on Christianity, others (2%). The data indicated that most
Islam and Traditional African Religion root causes came from either maintenance
groups in Ghana, Gyekye and Haybatollahi activities or bad decisions taken by the
(2012) measured the influence of religion management.
on safety behaviour of the workers in the
workplace. They found that Christian RELIGIOSITY STUDIES
workers indulged in safer behaviour than
As seen in Section 3, there is an abundance
their colleagues from the Islamic and the
of safety behaviour studies exploring
traditional African religious groups. The
factors affecting safety behaviour. However,
Muslim and Traditionalist workers were also
religiosity is hardly studied in the realm of
found to be more fatalistic in their attitudes
safety or safety behaviour. Research into
than the Christian workers.
religiosity and behaviour is considered
Accidents or disasters continue to
“worthwhile” (Creel, 2007) as many people
happen in many advanced countries such
worldwide are pervasively engaged in the
as The United States of America and the
practice of religion. For example, in a survey
United Kingdom in spite of the latest
by The Religion Monitor, Pickel (2013)
technology and sophisticated systems used
found the percentage of people who claimed
in their high-risk industries such as oil and
to be “very,” “fairly” or “moderately”
gas, nuclear and construction. The use of
religious is considerably high: Turkey
sophisticated engineering is no guarantee
(82%), Brazil (74%), India (70%) and the
that accidents will be averted. This finding
USA (67%).
is consistent with that of most studies in
Mokhlis (2006) defined religiosity (also
the literature that human factors contribute
called religious commitment) as “the degree
more to the occurrence of accidents in the
to which beliefs in specific religious values
workplace than do technological factors.
and ideals are espoused and practiced by
For example, the Institute of Nuclear Power
an individual” (p. ii). On the other hand,
Operations (INPO) in the United States of
the World Health Organisation (WHO)
America found that 52% of the significant
(1998), firstly defined religion as “belief in
events reported in 1983 and 1984 were
the existence of a supernatural ruling power,
caused by human performance (Reason,
the creator and controller of the universe,
1999). This 52% of human contribution
who has given to man a spiritual nature

which continues to exist after the death of study, which proposes a framework that
the body” (p. 7). However, WHO (1998) could be used to fill the gap while at the
did not define religiosity but religiousness same time giving a better understanding
instead; religiousness refers to the extent to of how religiosity among workers affects
which an individual believes in, follows and their behaviour with regards to safety in the
practises a religion. workplace.
There is a plethora of studies in the According to Khan (2007), there have
literature that support the growing body been no studies that examined the influence
of studies on religion or religiosity and of religiosity on risk factors associated with
human behaviour. Some aspects of human workplace safety. However, many studies
behaviour widely studied by psychologists looked at the influence of religiosity on
and researchers in relation to religion and general risk (Chapman & Denholm, 2001;
religiosity are health behaviour (Creel, 2007; Miller, 2000). Since there is a link between
Kutcher, Bragger, Srednicki, & Masco, religiosity and risk in general, it is logical to
2010; Dodor, 2012), consumer behaviour assume that religiosity might also influence
(Mokhlis, 2006; Lau, Choe, & Tan, 2011), safety behaviour in the workplace. Due to
business ethical and unethical behaviour this gap in religiosity and safety behaviour
(Ademir & Egilmez, 2010), sexual risk knowledge, Khan (2007) conducted a study
behaviour (Campbell, 2008; Haglund on the influence of religiosity on workers’
& Fehring, 2009), prosocial behaviour safety perception and safety behaviour.
(compliant, public, anonymous, dire,
emotional and altruistic) (Hardy & Carlo, BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE MODELS
2005), HIV risky behaviour (Trinitapoli As explained in Section 2, accident causation
& Regnerus, 2006; Sanchez, 2012) and theories are developed to help safety
risk behaviour such as smoking, drinking, scholars understand factors that contribute
speeding and seat-belt use (Cazzell, 2009; to accidents. One factor that is mentioned
Sinha, Cnaan, & Gelles, 2007). consistently in those studies is the unsafe
Although many studies found that act. In order to stop or change any unsafe
religiosity can predict risky behaviour in acts or behaviour, the factors contributing
non-occupational settings such as drinking, to unsafe acts need to be understood first.
driving and substance abuse, presently there Safety scholars have in fact found many
is hardly any research into religiosity and useful behavioural theories developed by
occupational safety behaviour. For example, behaviour psychologists to help investigate
in an initial review of 27 behaviour- factors affecting safety behaviour.
religiosity studies to date, only one by For decades, theoretical models of
Khan (2007) actually involved religiosity behavioural change, such as Health Belief
and safety behaviour in the workplace. It Model (HBM), Social Cognitive Theory
is this gap in knowledge that inspired this (SCT), Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA),

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and behaviour and subjective norm, in turn
Transtheoretical model (TTM) have been predict the intention to perform (or not to
applied in a wide range of behaviour perform) the behaviour. Attitude is defined
studies. This paper briefly reviews four as a product of belief about consequences
of the major theories of behaviour or/and and evaluation of the importance of
behavioural change that may be relevant to consequences, while subjective norm is
the development of effective intervention in defined as the person’s normative beliefs
health and safety behaviour from mainstream about perceived social pressure from
psychology. Based on evidence from the significant others (Rutter & Quine, 2002).
literature, the most appropriate model was
selected for this study. Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)
One major drawback of TRA is that its
Health Belief Model (HBM) predictive power is poor when dealing with
The Health Belief Model (HBM), developed people who perceive that they have little
by Hochbaum in the 1950s, marked the control over their behaviour or attitude.
start of structured and theory-based studies Due to this drawback, Ajzen (1991) added
in health behaviour (Creel, 2007). The a construct to the Theory of Reasoned
HBM proposes that people will perform Action (TRA) and called it the Theory of
preventive behaviour if they perceive a Planned Behaviour (TPB). This construct
threat to their health. Such preventive is termed as perceived behavioural control,
behaviour depends on various factors such which represents the perception of people
as: perceived susceptibility, perceived on the ease or difficulty of performing the
severity, perceived benefits, perceived behaviour (Gielen & Sleet, 2003). In brief,
barriers and cues to action (Rutter & Quine, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)
2002). For better understanding of health proposes that a combination of attitude,
behaviour, Rosenstock, Strecher and Becker subjective norm and behavioural intention
(1988) suggested that an expanded Health could predict one’s behaviour.
Belief Model, which includes perceived
self-efficacy, be used in related research as Transtheoretical model (TTM)
an additional variable.
The outcomes of the three models discussed
so far i.e. the Health Belief Model (HBM),
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), can
states that a person’s intention to perform a all be considered as lying on a continuum
behaviour is the best predictor of behaviour (Rutter & Quine, 2002). In these models, to
(Ajzen, 1991). Two factors, attitude towards change a person’s behaviour up or down the

continuum, an act of intervention to change These findings form the basis of selecting
the person’s belief about the particular the most appropriate model for this study;
behaviour is required. Meanwhile, in the this is discussed next.
Transtheoretical model (TTM), the outcome
can be categorised into five stages (Rutter SELECTING THE MODEL FOR THIS
& Quine, 2002) as proposed in this model: STUDY, THE THEORY OF PLANNED
BEHAVIOUR (TPB)
1) Pre-contemplative – Not thinking to
Overall, all the previously reviewed health
change
and safety models are capable of explaining
2) Contemplative – Aware and thinking to the factors affecting a wide range of human
change behaviour. However, of the four models
3) Preparation – Preparing to make a examined, the Theory of Planned Behaviour
change (TPB) is considered the most pertinent
4) Action – Making the change and in building a religiosity-safety behaviour
maintaining it for a short period conceptual framework for this study.
5) Maintenance – Maintaining the change The preference of the Theory of Planned
in behaviour (Gielen & Sleet, 2003). Behaviour (TPB) over other models is due
to a number of reasons. First, the Theory of
Taylor, Bury, Campling, Carter, Garfied, Planned Behaviour (TPB) is a popular and
Newbould and Rennie (2006) claimed influential model. For instance, in a meta-
that TTM is considered a popular health analysis of Internet-based intervention,
behaviour change model, despite the Webb, Joseph, Yardley and Michie (2010)
complexities of its structure. found that the three most commonly used
There are a plethora of findings on the theories were the Social Cognitive Theory
features and applications of each of the (SCT), the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM)
above four models. For instance, Creel and the Theory of Reasoned Action/Planned
(2007) found that many of the behaviour Behaviour (TRA/TPB). Apparently, Webb et
models and constructs overlap each other al. (2010) found that, of the three theories,
and that their predictive powers vary widely, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)
while Taylor et al. (2006) found that each was the most influential. In another study,
model had its own unique characteristics. Rivis and Sheeran (2003) also suggested
For example, the HBM’s “perceived threat” that TPB was the most influential model
construct is different from that of TRA, TPB for explaining social and health behaviour.
and TTM (Taylor et al., 2006). In another Second, the Theory of Planned
finding, Ajzen (1998) concluded that the Behaviour (TPB) has greater predictive
HBM is mostly confined to health behaviour strength than most of the other behavioural
investigation, while the application of TRA change models. For instance, Taylor et al.
and TPB are mostly for general behaviour. (2006) concluded in a meta-analysis that

the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and there are not many TPB-based studies
the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) that involve the religiosity variable. In
had superior predictive power compared to one study involving religiosity, Ajzen and
the HBM. Klobas (2013) found that TPB was capable
Third, the Theory of Planned Behaviour of explaining factors that could influence
(TPB) is a widely accepted tool in many the decision to have a child. However, the
occupational safety behaviour (safe study tested religiosity as one of the many
behaviour and unsafe behaviour) studies, background factors such as nationality,
indicating a consensus of TPB utility. For general life values, attitude to childlessness
example, in a safe-lifting behaviour study, and personality characteristics as well as
Johnson and Hall (2005) analysed the demographic variables such as age, parity,
results of the study using structural equation housing conditions, income and education.
modelling and found that the Theory of Despite the background role played by this
Planned Behaviour was capable of predicting religiosity construct, this study conducted
safe-lifting behaviour. They further proposed by Ajzen and Klobas (2013) serves as
that the Theory of Planned Behaviour was an empirical support for the utility of
also applicable in understanding other a behaviour-and-religiosity conceptual
safety-related behaviour. In another study framework.
that used the Theory of Planned Behaviour In contrast to the role of religiosity in
as the basis of its framework, Salleh (2010) the above study, Alam (2012) proved in his
showed that safety commitment, safety study on 300 Muslim consumers in Malaysia
motivation, employees’ conscientiousness that religiosity could also be used as one of
and employees’ competency positively the main variables in TPB application. In
predicted safety behaviour. The viability his study, Alam (2012) found that religiosity
of TPB as a supportive framework for a had a significant and positive influence
safety behaviour study has been illustrated on the intention to buy a house using the
further by a study which posited that safety Islamic financing method. Therefore, based
motivation, safety training and safety on this finding, it is proposed in this study
climate are positively and significantly that religiosity plays a role in behavioural
related to safety behaviour (Ibrahim, 2012). safety intention. This proposition led to the
Fourth, the religiosity construct of formulation of the religiosity and safety
this study is more suited to the Theory of behaviour conceptual framework based on
Planned Behaviour (TPB). It was found TPB.
that religiosity has potential influence on
intention and behaviour. While there are THE THEORY OF PLANNED
countless studies employing the Theory BEHAVIOUR (TPB)
of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in various The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)
behaviour domains as depicted above, was introduced by Ajzen in 1985 and is

now one of the most popular models used control to explain the internal and external
in predicting human social behaviour. constraints on behaviour, and called it the
Ajzen (2011) claimed that using the Google Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). The
Scholar search engine, it had been found main components of TPB are attitudes,
that the number of citations of this work subjective norms, perceived behavioural
had increased from 22 in 1985 to 4550 in control, intentions and behaviour (Ajzen,
2010. The Theory of Reasoned Action was 1991, 2011). The main principle of TPB
the earlier model developed by Fishbein and is that an individual’s behaviour is a
Ajzen as an intention theory in determining direct function of behaviour intention and
volitional behaviour. Due to its limitation, perceived behavioural control. The main
Ajzen (1991) included a perceived behaviour constructs are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991)
Attitude would produce negative outcomes (Ajzen,

Ajzen (1991) defined attitude as the degree 1991). According to Fazio (2007), attitude
to which a person has a favourable or can form from emotional reactions to an
unfavourable evaluation of behaviour. object, past behaviour and experiences with
According to TPB, attitude denotes the object, or some combination of these
the positive or negative assessments of sources. The expectancy-value model of
behaviour and its consequences. For attitudes suggests that attitudes develop
example, people would tend to develop from the beliefs that people hold about the
favourable attitudes towards behaviour object of the attitude. These beliefs that are
that they believe would bring favourable expected to influence attitudes towards the
consequences, while forming unfavourable behaviour are called behavioural beliefs
attitudes towards behaviour that they feel (Ajzen, 1991).

Subjective Norms Behavioural Intention

According to TPB, subjective norms refers Intention is instrumental in influencing
to the perceived social pressure to perform behaviour in both TRA and TPB. Intention
or not to perform the behaviour. This social reflects the degree of seriousness and
predictor relates to how people important willingness of a person to carry out a certain
to the person view the behaviour. For behaviour. The stronger the intention to
example, the disapproval or approval of execute behaviour, the more likely that the
certain behaviour by family members, behaviour is going to be executed. According
friends or co-workers may lead to perceived to the TPB, behaviour to be performed
social pressure to perform or not to perform depends not only on the motivation or
the behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005). intention to perform it but also to a certain
Subjective norms can be measured by degree on non-motivational elements such
asking respondents to rate the extent to as time, money and skill (Ajzen, 1991). For
which important others would approve example, a person’s intention to purchase
or disapprove of their performing a given a sports car would not turn into purchasing
behaviour. behaviour if the cost of the car were beyond
his or her financial capability. The cost of the
Perceived Behaviour Control car would be the controlling factor, while
the decision to buy or not to buy would be
Perceived behaviour control is the third
the motivational factor. If the person had
determinant of intention and it refers to the
enough money or resources and had the
perceived ease or difficulty of executing a
intention of buying the sports car, then he or
certain behaviour. Perceived behavioural
she would succeed in purchasing it.
control is considered a central factor in
TPB. It differentiates TPB from the Theory
of Reasoned Action (TRA). Generally, the Behaviour
greater the three determinants, the attitude, TPB provides a useful conceptual
the subjective norm and the perceived framework for understanding the diversities
behavioral control, the stronger the intention and complexities of human social behaviour.
to execute the behaviour. However, the According to TPB, performance of a certain
importance of attitude, subjective norm behaviour is dependent on intention and
and perceived behavioral control may vary perceived behavioural control. For accurate
across different behaviours. In one situation, prediction of behaviour, both intention and
perceived behavioural control and intention perceived behavioural control must be
can effectively predict behaviour. However, related to that behaviour. For example, if
in another situation, it is not surprising we measured the ‘intention to donate’ or
if only one of them is required to predict ‘intention to help the Red Cross’ to predict
behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). the behaviour of ‘donating money to the

Red Cross’, then the prediction would not et al., 2006). Further, it was noted that
be accurate. The correct measure would be among the 12 health-related behaviour
‘intention to donate to the Red Cross’ as it models examined, TPB was the only one
reflects the desired behaviour. Similarly, that was validated and had variables which
perceived behavioural control must be covered behaviour motivation, intention and
specific to the behaviour to be predicted enacting (Armitage & Arden, 2002; Hrubes
(Ajzen, 1991). et al., 2001; Armitage & Conner, 2001).
Nonetheless, the TPB is not without
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS issues or limitation. For example, Bandura
OF THE THEORY OF PLANNED (1992) argued that self-efficacy does not
BEHAVIOUR (TPB)
equate to perceived behavioural control
The main strength of the TPB is that it can concept, which Ajzen (1991) claimed are
explain non-volitional (non-voluntary) both compatible constructs. However,
behaviour, which cannot be explained by McCaul et al. (1993) showed that self-
the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). To efficacy does not contribute much to the
explain behaviour, be it voluntary or non- effectiveness of TPB, which actually
voluntary behaviour, a concept of perceived resolved the concern. Johnson and Hall
ease or difficulty of executing the behaviour (2005) reported that some studies had
is added (Ajzen, 1991). This concept is encountered problems when measuring
known as perceived behavioural control. In beliefs related to TPB, but the problems
voluntary behaviour, behavioural intention were addressed by excluding them from
can reflect the behaviour, whereas in non- the studies. Despite the few limitations
voluntary behaviour, perceived behavioural mentioned, TPB remains popular with
control is considered a stronger factor than researchers.
intention in predicting the behaviour (Ajzen,
1991). The perceived behavioural control is PROPOSED FRAMEWORK: THE
likened to a concept proposed by Bandura EXTENDED THEORY OF PLANNED
(1982) called perceived self-efficacy which BEHAVIOUR (TPB)
“is concerned with judgments of how well The proposed framework consisting of
one can execute courses of action required five TPB constructs and one additional
to deal with prospective situations” (p. 122). religiosity construct are discussed below.
Another strong point of TPB is that it The diagram of the extended TPB model for
has greater predictive strength than most the religiosity-occupational safety behaviour
other behavioural change models (Taylor framework is shown in Figure 2.

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F=::=B CF9L5AD@9Q"=BH9B8HC of a
workplace is an example
week,” is a 9B7CIF5;9
typical item toKCF?9FG
:9@@CK measure subjective
safetyG5:9@M
HC KCF? B9LH K99?R norm (Fogarty
=G 5 HMD=75@ &HCShaw,
=H9A A95GIF92010).
attitude. Based on5HH=HI89
G5:9HM TPB, safety
5G98attitude
CB -)isG5:9HM A typical
the 5HH=HI89 item
=G H<9 :=FGHsuch as “Most
89H9FA=B5BH people
C: H<9 G5:9HM who
first determinant of C:
=BH9BH=CB the5safety
KCF?9Fintention
HC D9F:CFAof are important
a 69<5J=CIF
G5:9 to me
9B9F5@@M support69@=9:
69<5J=CIF5@ me in56CIH
working
worker to perform
79FH5=B safe behaviour.
5HHF=6IH9G Generally,
C: 5B C6>97H safely,” is used to measure the
7CA6=B9G AI@H=D@=75H=J9@M K=H< H<9 9J5@I5H=CB C: H<9 subjective
belief about certain attributes of norms for safety behaviour prediction.
behavioural5HHF=6IH9GGI7<5GH<97CGH=B7IFF98=B9L97IH=B;G5:9HM69<5J=CIFHCGHF9B;H<9BG5:9HM
an object combines multiplicatively
5HH=HI89>N9B with Subjective norms depend on normative
the evaluation beliefs, which refer to the likelihood that
of the attributes such as the
cost incurred in executing safety behaviour important individuals or groups approve
to strengthen safety attitude (Ajzen, 1991). or disapprove of performing a certain
behaviour
and the person’s motivation
to comply with the referent. However,
Subjective Norms
Armitage and Conner (2001) showed that
‘Subjective norms refer to the overall subjective norms as a whole is a weak
perceived social pressure derived from the predictor of behavioural intention.

Perceived Behaviour Control Safety Behaviour

According to Fogarty and Shaw (2010), Occupational safety behaviour is defined
perceived behavioral control refers to the as behaviour required to promote safety at
inability to perform work according to the workplace and behaviour that does not
rules and procedures because of forces affect the worker’s safety directly but helps
that are beyond the individual’s control. to build conditions that promote safety (Neil
Fogarty and Shaw (2010) suggested that & Griffin, 2006). For example, the item, “I
workplace pressures could be considered don’t take chances in getting a job done,”
an example of perceived behaviour control exemplify the safety behaviour measurement.
in the workplace context. Items such As posited by TPB, the execution of safety
as “I am confident that I would follow behaviour is dependent on safety intention
safety procedures during the presence and perceived behavioural control. However,
of my supervisor,” typifies a perceived it is possible that any one of them is capable
behaviour control measure. To obtain of predicting safety behaviour (Ajzen,
the perceived behaviour control, control 1991). As discussed earlier, safety behaviour
belief is multiplied by perceived power is one of the prevalent factors in accident
of the control factor to facilitate or inhibit causation theories. To understand the
performance of the behaviour. Control factors influencing safety behaviour, TPB
belief may refer to past experience with the is frequently used in studies. However, the
behaviour or factors that increase or reduce influence of religiosity on safety behaviour
the perceived difficulty of performing the is hardly explored. Thus religiosity as
safety behaviour. a construct is added to TPB to offer a
conceptual framework for safety scholars
Behavioural Intention for collecting more empirical evidence
on the safety behaviour and religiosity
As posited by TPB, behavioural intention is
relationship.
central to performing behaviour. Intention
is defined in TPB by Ajzen (1991) as the
amount of effort one is willing to exert to Religiosity
attain a goal. Therefore, safety intention Mokhlis (2006) defined religiosity as
refers to a person’s plan or intention to “the degree to which beliefs in specific
perform safe behaviour. For example, the religious values and ideals are espoused
item, “I intend to encourage fellow workers and practiced by an individual.” Items such
to work safely next week,” is used to gauge as “I offer prayer five times daily,” are a
the worker’s safety intention. religiosity measurement. Religion is the

most significant identity of a person and it of behavioural intention, along with safety
governs his behavior and lifestyle. In fact, attitude, subjective norm and perceived
almost every individual is affiliated to a behavioural control.
certain religion and makes decisions based
on religious teaching, beliefs or values. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Depending on the individual’s level of Given the fact that many proponents of
religiosity, his or her attitude and behaviour TPB have successfully applied in their
are normally shaped by this set of beliefs studies all the constructs proposed in this
and values (Ghouri et al., 2016). With the study such as religiosity, safety attitude,
incredible number of application of 28 times perceived behaviour control and safety
in 1985 to 4550 in 2010 (Ajzen, 2011), TPB behavioural intention in predicting various
is considered one of the popular theories testable behaviour on different populations,
for studying human behaviour. As religion this paper concludes that TPB is the suitable
influences and dictates one’s daily thoughts framework for this study.
and behaviour, it is only fitting to study The main proposition of this study is
religiosity and safety behaviour using TPB. that Muslim workers’ religiosity will have
A few studies proposed an extended a positive relationship with occupational
model of TPB as their religiosity construct. safety behaviour. While the researcher plans
For example, Ho et al. (2008) found to apply the proposed conceptual framework
in a religiosity study using TPB that in testing the proposition on the safety
religiosity was positively related to Internet behaviour of Muslim shipyard workers
engagement in online religious activities. As in Malaysia, other researchers elsewhere
noted earlier, Alam (2012) also found that are also encouraged to test it on different
religiosity was significantly and positively affiliates.
related to behavioural intention using a Wi t h a n e s t i m a t e d 2 6 4 m i l l i o n
similar extended framework of TPB, with occupational accidents and 350,000
religiosity as an added determinant of fatalities occurring yearly around the globe
intention. The above studies by Ho et al. (Hamalainen, Takala, & Saarela, 2006), it is
(2008) and Alam (2012) on Internet surfing hard to ignore the pressing need to address
behaviour and purchasing behaviour showed accidents at the workplace. Apparently, with
consistency in incorporating religiosity as many countries claiming to be religious such
the determinant of behavioural intention as Turkey (82%), Brazil (74%), India (70%)
in TPB. Therefore, it appears appropriate and the USA (67%), it is hard to ignore the
to propose religiosity as the additional possible influence of religiosity on safety
determinant of safety intention to predict behaviour (Pickel, 2013). In an effort
safety behaviour in the extended version to decrease accidents in the workplace,
of TPB. In this proposed framework, this paper proposed a religiosity-based
religiosity is added as the fourth determinant framework that could help researchers in

conducting further empirical studies on Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2005). The influence of
safety behaviour of the workers. The studies attitudes on behavior. In D. Albarracin, B. T.
Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook
could help researchers to understand human
of attitudes (pp. 173–221). Mawah, NJ: Erlbaum.
safety behaviour better before intervention
can be taken to reduce unsafe behaviour. Ajzen, I., & Klobas, J. (2013). Fertility intentions:
An approach based on the theory of planned
Future work involves using this
behavior. Demographic Research, 29(8), 203–
conceptual framework to investigate the
232. doi: 10.4054/DemRes.2013.29.8
safety behaviour of Muslim shipyard
Alam, S. S., Janor, H., Zanariah, Che Wel, C. A., &
workers in Malaysia. In order to investigate
Ahsan, M. N. (2012). Is religiosity an important
Muslim religiosity, an Islamic religiosity
factor in influencing the intention to undertake
scale will be used. Researchers can use the Islamic home financing in Klang Valley? World
proposed framework on different affiliates Applied Sciences Journal, 19(7), 1030–1041.
with related religiosity scales. It is believed doi: 10.5829/idosi.wasj.2012.19.07.392
that this framework could enhance the Armitage, C. J., & Arden, M. A. (2002). Exploring
understanding of safety behaviour of discontinuity patterns in the transtheoretical
different religious affiliations throughout model: An application of the theory of planned
the world. behavior. British Journal of Health Psychology,
7(1), 89–103.
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Review Article
Common Issues and Challenges of Breast Cancer Awareness in

Malaysia: A Contemporary Scenario
Mohamed Samsudeen Sajahan1,2* and Azizah Omar2
1
Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, University Teknologi MARA, 08400 UiTM, Merbok,
Sungai Petani, Kedah, Malaysia
2
School of Management, University Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of the paper is to systematically review the common issues and challenges
inhibiting breast cancer awareness in Malaysia. Drawing upon journals and database search
dealing with breast cancer awareness in Malaysia, 38 articles were retrieved and then
analysed using the content analysis method. Issues related to public health management
of breast cancer pandemic in Malaysia, its effects and the fundamental principles used
in developing and designing cancer control programmes, screening management as well
as challenges faced by authorised agencies in promoting breast cancer awareness were
studied. Methodology included identification of research streams, and the categorisation of
reviewed articles into five main pillars, namely (a) thematic issue/problem statement in the
articles; (b) target population; (c) applied methodologies; (d) measurement of dependent
variables, and (e) findings that discuss the emerging issue and challenges in promoting
breast cancer awareness in Malaysia. It is hoped that the knowledge gained will serve as a
significant foundation in designing public health awareness campaigns to cultivate, instil
early detection behaviour and ameliorate promotion efforts among public health authorities
in Malaysia.
Keywords: Breast cancer awareness, Breast Self-

Examination (BSE), health campaign, Clinical Breast
Examination (CBE), early detection, mammogram
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: screening
Received: 14 February 2017
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Mohamed Samsudeen Sajahan),
[email protected] (Azizah Omar)
*Corresponding author

INTRODUCTION Breast cancer is identified as the

Over the years, the pandemic of cancer most common cancer associated to a high
cases around the world has become a incidence rate of mortality among women
thought-provoking issue in public health globally (Maznah, Sofea, & Awang, 2011;
management (Youlden, Cramb, Yip, & Jemal et al., 2011; Freedman & Partridge,
Baade, 2014; Zelle & Baltussen, 2013; 2013). Various existing studies in the
American Cancer Society, 2010). The literature have recognised breast cancer as
burden of health expenditure on individual the most prevalent, frequently diagnosed
as well as public healthcare agencies due to cancer and common cause of mortality
cancer-related diseases is forecast to grow among women worldwide (Pisani et al.,
at an alarming rate worldwide in the future 2002; Zeeb et al., 2002; Parkin et al., 2005;
(World Cancer Report, 2008), especially Eidson et al., 1994; Jemal et al., 2005;
among lower- and middle-income countries Anderson et al., 2006; Groot et al., 2006).
(Boyle & Levin, 2008; Sloan & Gelband, This has been confirmed by the International
2007). The number of new cancer cases is Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
expected to rise to 16.8 million worldwide in their latest press release statement
by 2020 and subsequently to 27 million by (December 12, 2013) that breast cancer has
the year 2030 (Beaulieu, Bloom, Bloom, & caused 522,000 deaths worldwide and 1.7
Stein, 2009). Findings from the American million women were diagnosed with breast
Cancer Society (ACS) reported that the total cancer in 2012 (WHO, 2013).
economic impact of premature death and The initiative to combat the global breast
disability due to cancer worldwide in 2008 cancer pandemic worldwide encapsulates
was USD895 billion. The top three types comprehensive control programmes
of cancer contributing towards the global that involve prevention, early detection,
impact are lung cancer (i.e.USD188 billion), diagnosis and treatment and rehabilitation
colon/rectum cancer (i.e.USD99 billion) and and palliative care (WHO, 2015). Concisely,
breast cancer (i.e.USD88 billion) (American the fundamental principle in prevention and
Cancer Society, 2010). The latest report early detection lies in the effort of promoting
issued by GLOBOCAN (2012) on cancer breast cancer awareness that includes
variation between the genders globally preventing cancers (eliminating; minimising
indicates that lung cancer, prostate cancer, exposure to the risk factor associated to
colorectal cancer and stomach cancer are the cancer) and detecting cases (early detection
most common types of cancer among males, control strategies) to reduce mortality. Apart
while breast cancer, colorectal cancer, lung from prevention, the detection control
cancer and cervical cancer were identified strategy comprises mammography, clinical
as the common cases of cancer associated breast examination (CBE) and breast self-
with women (GLOBOCAN 2012). examination (BSE). An annual mammogram

Breast Cancer Awareness in Malaysia: A Contemporary Scenario
screening is recommended for woman deaths due to breast cancer are avoidable
aged 40 and above. CBE practice needs with early detection and optimal access
to be performed once every three years to treatment (Hamudin, 2014). From the
among women in their 20s up to age 39 overall total number of mortality, 647 cases
and every year for women 40 years old of mortality could be prevented if detected
and above. On the other hand, the BSE is at the early stage due to advancement
promoted as a crucial and important method of breast cancer treatment and cures.
in improving the breast cancer outcome However, it was reported that the initiative
and in fact remains as fundamental breast by the National Population and Family
cancer control strategy among nations Development Board (LPPKN) to promote
with limited resources such as low- and early detection of breast cancer screening
middle-income countries (WHO, 2015; via introduction of a free mammogram
Ginsburg, 2013). Early detection via the subsidy programme received poor response
BSE aided by screening can contribute from Malaysian women. Statistical evidence
towards reducing mortality by providing from the Women, Family and Community
more opportunities for treatment choices Development Ministry depicts that despite
if breast cancer is found at the early stage huge funding from the government to
(Allen, Van Groningen, Barksdale, & educate the public, in particular, women,
McCarthy, 2010). Despite the lack of mutual on breast cancer awareness, the engagement
consensus on the recommendation for BSE, from the target population is still relatively
numerous societies and associations such low. For instance, the free mammogram
as the American Cancer Society, American programme, which has been offered since
College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 2007, received a total of RM54.2 million in
American Medical Association, Susan allocation under the 2013 budget but only
G. Komen Foundation and the National 1.5% out of 14.8 million women in the
Comprehensive Cancer Network still country have participated in the programme
recommend the BSE as a tool for detecting (Hamudin, 2014). This clearly indicates
breast cancer (Allen et al., 2010). It is that while the Malaysian government has
postulated that early diagnosis and success invested a vast amount of money, women
of the screening initiative will result in have been slow to respond. This situation
substantial improvement in health (Loh & should not be neglected as it involves public
Chew, 2011). funding, the time and expertise of healthcare
In Malaysia, the incidence of breast policy-makers and expenditure, all of which
cancer records a steady increment among are an economic burden to the country.
all races starting from age 30 to the peak Motivated by this development, this
age of 50 to 59, with the majority of women paper aimed to conduct a systematic analysis
diagnosed with breast cancer at the critical on past journal articles to categorise and
level aged between 40 and 60 (Hamudin, position the academic scenario, review
2014). It is proposed that 50% (1,299) of the common issues, challenges and
methodological pitfalls as well to identify breast cancer and 2500 cases of mortality
the gaps and provide direction for future in 2012. The most common cases of cancer
research into breast cancer awareness among females are breast, cervix uteri and
management in Malaysia. We conducted colorectum cancer. The highest number
content analysis of 38 articles related of deaths among women in Malaysia is
to breast cancer in Malaysia retrieved caused by breast cancer (2500 deaths), lung
from EBSCO, Emerald, ProQuest, SAGE, cancer (1300 deaths) and colorectum cancer
Science Direct, Springer and the Taylor & (1000 deaths). Comparison of breast cancer
Francis database. This paper begins with a incidence and mortality among women
brief overview of breast cancer incidence in Southeast Asia indicated that Malaysia
and screening management in Malaysia is among the top 10 countries listed, with
before providing details on the methodology high incidence and mortality rates. The
applied and a descriptive discussion on Age Standardised Ratio (ASR) of breast
the articles. The paper concludes with an cancer mortality in Malaysia is the highest
agendum for future research related to at 38.7 per 100,000 population, while the
the identified issues and challenges facing ASR of breast cancer incidence is higher
breast cancer awareness in Malaysia. than for countries such as Thailand (29.3),
Myanmar (22.1), Cambodia (19.3) and Laos
BREAST CANCER INCIDENCE AND (19) (GLOBOCAN, 2012). It is estimated
SCREENING MANAGEMENT IN that by 2030 the new cases of breast cancer
MALAYSIA
in Malaysia could be as high as 9248 cases
Breast cancer is the most common cancer with 4546 deaths due to breast cancer
among Malaysian women from all ethnic (GLOBOCAN, 2012). Comparatively,
groups (Lim & Halimah, 2008). Data the number of new breast cancer cases is
retrieved from the International Agency expected to increase to 28% by the year
for Research on Cancer (IARC) database 2020 and further increase to 76% by the year
(GLOBOCAN) indicate that Malaysia 2030 (Table 1).
is estimated to have 5400 new cases of
Table 1
Prediction of number of new cases and breast cancer deaths in the years 2012, 2020 and 2030 in Malaysia
Year Incidence (Number) Increase (%) Mortality (Number) Increase (%)

2012 5410 - 2572 -
2020 6977 28 3386 31
2030 9248 70 4546 76
Source: Adopted from GLOBOCAN, 2012

The establishment of breast cancer (free of charge) at all public hospitals in

prevention management in Malaysia is Malaysia (Maznah et al., 2011b) and on a
mainly anchored towards promoting early subsidised rate (initiated by the Ministry
detection of breast cancer and screening of Women, Family and Development in
practice with the aim of reducing the 2007) at private clinics and hospitals. Until
number of incidence and deaths (Ministry the year 2013, the Malaysian government
of Health Malaysia, 1995). The rationale through the Ministry of Women, Family
of substantial nationwide efforts that and Development allocated a total of
emphasise on early detection of breast RM54.2 billion for a mammogram subsidy
cancer and screening practice is in line programme particularly among citizens
with the mission of the Malaysian National with a monthly income of below RM5000
Cancer Institute to promote breast cancer (Hamidun, 2014). Meanwhile, with regards
awareness to help the government to curb to BSE, as stipulated in the Ministry of
further escalation of breast cancer mortality, Health’s “Clinical Practice Guidelines
which in turn would enhance the cost on Management of Breast Cancer”, the
effective management of breast cancer. In practice of BSE is recommended to educate
Malaysia, the implementation of screening and promote self-health responsibility
and management of breast cancer through (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2010).
BSE, CBE and mammogram screening is In Malaysia, breast cancer prevention
guided by the Malaysian Health Ministry’s management is anchored by the Ministry of
“Clinical Practice Guidelines” (CPG: Health, non-profit organisations and private
Management of Breast Cancer [2nd ed.], companies (as a part of their corporate social
November 2010). Mammogram screening is responsibility).
recommended for women aged 50 years old
and above, while women aged 40 and above METHODOLOGY
are encouraged to pursue CBE annually This section describes the method applied
and women aged 20 to 39 are encouraged in the paper. As the first step, a structured
to perform CBE once every three years. review of articles dealing with common
Women are encouraged BSE on a monthly issues and challenges facing breast cancer
basis regardless of their age. awareness in Malaysia was completed. The
Maznah, Sofea and Awang (2011) search and identification of articles related
indicated that screening practice in to breast cancer awareness were conducted
Malaysia provide an opportunity for tests through a keyword search that included
and examination to detect disease not only but was not limited to these words and
in people who have cancer indications phrases: breast cancer campaign, awareness,
but also in those who do not have any BSE, mammogram, CBE, early detection,
symptoms. Mammogram screening services breast cancer, breast screening, practice
are offered on a voluntary basis at no cost and barriers in breast cancer screening.

A total of 38 articles related to breast applied methodologies, outcome and

cancer in Malaysia published in EBSCO, dependent variable measurement and
Emerald, ProQuest, SAGE, Science Direct, determinant of Breast Cancer Awareness in
Springer and the Taylor & Francis database Malaysia. Lastly, the findings were used to
search engines
thematic issues fit the review
underlying the goal of this
problem address
statement, the gaps
sample in the review,
of respondents, generate a
applied
paper and were selected and analysed. research agendum
methodologies, outcome and dependent variable measurement and determinant of and present avenues for
InBreast
particular,
Cancer latent content
Awareness analysis Lastly,
in Malaysia. (i.e. further research
the findings in addressing
were used to address issues
the and
process of interpretation of content) within challenges facing breast cancer awareness
gaps in the review, generate a research agendum and present avenues for further
the qualitative summative content analysis in Malaysia.
research in addressing issues and challenges facing breast cancer awareness in
approach was utilised in this study to Prior to conducting the content analysis,
Malaysia.
describe the findings. The review goal of the articles were categorized into four
this paper was
Prior to to synthesise
conducting thethe content
content of different
analysis, the articlesstreams of research
were categorized into in
fourorder to
journal
differentarticles
streamsmainly to provide
of research in-depth
in order systemise
to systemise the identified
the identified articlesarticles that were
that were
discussion on thematic issues underlying the relevant
relevant to breast cancer awareness as illustrated in Figure 1. to breast cancer awareness as
problem statement, sample of respondents, illustrated in Figure 1.
Research Paper (n=31)
Total number of articles on General (n=4)

Breast Cancer Awareness
in Malaysia (n=38)
Commentary (n=2)
Mini Review (n=1)
Figure
Figure 1. 1. Research
Research streams
streams on breast
on breast cancercancer awareness
awareness campaign
campaign in Malaysia.
in Malaysia
The research
The research papers
papers on on breastcancer
breast cancer awareness consisted
Rosmawati, of articles
2010); related of
perception to breast
awareness
evaluation consisted of articles
of breast cancer related(Hadi,
awareness to cancer
Hassali,(Hadi, Hassali,
Shafie, Shafie,
& Awaisu, & Awaisu,
2010);
evaluation
awareness of breast
and cancer
practise of awareness (Hadi, 2010);
screening procedure knowledge
(including BSE andrelated to risk factors,
mammography)
Hassali, Shafie, & Awaisu, 2010); awareness symptoms and practice of BSE (Mehrnoosh,
(Kanaga, Nithiya, & Noor Shatirah, 2011; Loh & Chew, 2011; Sami Abdo et al., 2011;
and practise of screening procedure Muhamad, Rosliza, Irmi, & Salmiah, 2011;
Abdullah, Abd, Rampal, & Al-Sadat, 2011; Rosmawati, 2010); perception of breast
(including BSE and mammography) Nor Afiah et al., 2011; Norsa’adah, Rusli,
cancer (Hadi,
(Kanaga, Hassali,
Nithiya, & NoorShafie, & Awaisu,
Shatirah, 2011;2010); knowledge
Imran, & Winn, related to risk
2005; factors,
Parisa, Mirnalini,
symptoms
Loh & Chew,and2011;
practice
SamiofAbdoBSE et(Mehrnoosh,
al., 2011; Muhamad,
Nor Afiah, Rosliza,
& Hejar, Irmi,
2008b;& Laila,
Salmiah,
Khaldoon,
Abdullah,
2011; NorAbd, Rampal,
Afiah et al., &2011;
Al-Sadat, 2011; Rusli,
Norsa’adah, Zuraidah,
Imran,&&Ahmed,
Winn, 2011; Loh, Packer,
2005; Parisa,
Mirnalini, Nor Afiah, & Hejar, 2008; Laila, Khaldoon, Zuraidah, & Ahmed, 2011;
26Loh, Packer, Yip, & Passmore, 2009;

Pertanika Pathmawathi,
J. Soc. Oranye,
Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): Azimah, Nur Aishah, &
21 - 40 (2018)
Nora, 2013); patients’ perception of cancer screening and early diagnosis (Maryam et
al., 2013); practice and barriers towards BSE (Redhwan Ahmed, Dhekra Hamoud,
9
Yip, & Passmore, 2009; Pathmawathi, control programmes in Malaysia (Maznah et

Oranye, Azimah, Nur Aishah, & Nora, al., 2011b); and evaluation of early detection
2013); patients’ perception of cancer and breast cancer treatment educational
screening and early diagnosis (Maryam et outreach programme message acceptance
al., 2013); practice and barriers towards (Nur, Yip, Mohamed, Ng, & Farizah, 2007).
BSE (Redhwan Ahmed, Dhekra Hamoud, As for the mini review articles, the core
Yuri, Chen, & Ali, 2011; Al-Dubai et concern was epidemiology of breast cancer
al., 2012); practice and barriers towards in Malaysia (Yip, Nur, & Ibraham, 2006).
mammography (Al-Naggar & Bobryshev, Articles in the general stream were more
2012) rural women’s knowledge of breast concerned with providing an overview of the
cancer and screening methods (Maznah, cancer spectrum in Malaysia Hisham & Yip,
Eng, Nur, & Nyuk, 2013); magnitude of 2003, 2004; Lim, 2002, 2003). The common
diagnosis delay of breast cancer and its issue highlighted in this stream was the
associated factors (Norsa’adah, Rampal, seriousness of the breast cancer pandemic
Rahmah, Naing, & Biswal, 2011); factors as one of the leading causes of death among
associated with BSE practice (Redhwan, Malaysian women. These articles also
Yuri, & Karim, 2012; Chee, Rashidah, unanimously suggested the importance of
Khadijah, & Intan, 2003; Maznah, Ng, promoting early detection and screening
Sadat, Ismail, & Bulgiba, 2011a); influence as the fundamental approach in combating
of sociodemographic factors on breast breast cancer along with the pertinent role
cancer delayed presentation (Sumarni et al., of cancer treatment (facilities), palliation,
2013); predictors of breast cancer screening rehabilitation (Lim, 2002, 2033) training
(Maznah, Eng, Nur, Ranjit, & Lim, 2012); and networking between the public and
validation of Champion’s Health Belief the non-governmental sector (Lim, 2002)
Model (CHBMS) among Malaysian women in defining and refining the breast cancer
(Parisa, Mirnalini, Mohd Nasir, Hejar, & strategy in the country.
Nor Afiah, 2008a); experience of Malaysian
women with breast cancer (Azlina, Imi CONTENT ANALYSIS FINDINGS
Sairi, Zainal, Zulkifli, & Soon, 2013); This section highlights and describes
causes of breast cancer and comparison the contents analysis findings conducted
among three races in Malaysia (Shadiya, on academic articles related to breast
Gogilawani, Akbariah, & Saidatul, 2012); cancer awareness in Malaysia. The detailed
and lifestyle and its association with breast information on the descriptive findings
cancer (Rozanim, Shamsul Azhar, & Noor of these articles includes (1) thematic
Hidayah, 2006). issues underlying the problem statement;
The commentary articles focused (2) samples of respondents; (3) applied
on assessing the implementation and methodology; (4) outcome and dependent
implications of breast cancer prevention and

variable measurement; and (5) determinants of breast cancer among Malaysian women.
of breast cancer awareness in Malaysia. Numerous articles in the review highlighted
the alarming situation related to late stage
Thematic Issues Underlying Problem breast cancer presentation in the country
Statement (Yip & Ibrahim, 2006; Abdullah, Abd,
Rampal, & Al-Sadat, 2011; Zarihah et al,
Age standardised ratio (ASR), peak age,
2003; Hisham & Yip, 2003, 2004). As
delayed presentation of breast cancer,
reported in the “Third National Cancer
risk factors and negative socio-cultural
Registry Report” (2008), 30% to 40% of
perception. The content analysis of 38
Malaysian women presented at later stages
articles examined found the higher Age
(Stage 3 and 4) of breast cancer compared
Standardised Ratio (ASR) and discussion on
to their counterparts in other developing
late peak age of breast cancer presentation
countries (usually at Stage 1 and 2) (Yip
in Malaysia in comparison to other Asian
& Ibrahim, 2006; Abdullah et al., 2011).
countries to be the main thematic issue
Findings from preliminary work on stages
underlying the problem statement. Data
of breast cancer diagnosis undertaken by the
from Malaysia’s National Cancer Registry
Penang Cancer Registry (which is a regional
(2006) were presented to support the
cancer register) during the period 1994-1998
evidence that one in every 19 Malaysian
reported that only 15.8% comprised Stage
women have the possibility of developing
1 breast cancer cases, while 46.9% were
breast cancer in their lifetime. The ASR for
Stage 2 cases, 22.2% were Stage 3 cases
Malaysian women was at 39.3 per 100,000
and 15.5% were Stage 4 cases (Zarihah et
of the population, which was much higher
al, 2003). Another study conducted between
than for other Asian countries such as
1998 and 2001 at Hospital Kuala Lumpur
Beijing (24.6), Hiroshima (36.6), Chennai
(HKL) testified that 50 to 60% of breast
(23.9) and Seoul (20.8) (Lim & Halimah,
cancer cases were presented at Stage 3 or
2008; Zainal & Nor Saleha, 2006). The
4 and only 5.2% were diagnosed during
discussion also depicted the variation in
mammogram screening (Hisham & Yip,
the breast cancer incidence rates among the
2003, 2004).
three main ethnic groups in Malaysia. The
Next, the review revealed that the
ASR was highest at 59.9 per 100,000 of the
peak age for breast cancer presentation in
population for Malaysian Chinese women
Malaysia was in the range of 40-49 years
and 54.2 per 100,000 of the population for
(Najwa et al., 2013). Apart from this,
Malaysian Indian women and the lowest
data from the University Malaya Medical
at 34.9 per 100,000 of the population for
Centre reported that the number of newly
Malaysian Malay women (Lim & Halimah,
diagnosed breast cancer cases had increased
2008).
from 60 to 330, of which 50% occurred at
The articles also described serious
the age of below 50 years old (between
implication of delayed or late presentation

40-49) since the establishment of breast Target Groups

cancer in 1993 until 2004 (Yip et al., 2006). The target audience on breast cancer
The largest group was Malaysian Malays awareness studies in Malaysia covered a
(48%), followed by Malaysian Chinese wide range of the population, including
(35%) and Malaysian Indians (17%). In students (Hadi et al., 2010a; Redhwan
fact, some of the articles reviewed also Ahmed et al., 2011; Mehrnoosh et al., 2011),
associated the peak age of breast cancer teachers (Parisa et a., 2008a), female staff at
with the much younger age of 40-49 among public universities (Nor Afiah et al., 2011;
Malaysian women compared to 50 to 59 Maznah et al., 2011a), production workers
in Western countries, where woman faced in electronic factories (Chee et al., 2003),
rapid changes in lifestyle resulting from general samples of various ethnic groups
industrialisation, a sedentary lifestyle and of women (rural and urban) (Hadi et al.,
consumption of unhealthy food (Rozanim, 2010b; Maznah et al., 2013; Redhwan et
Shamsul Azhar, & Noor Hidayah, 2006; al., 2012; Maznah et al., 2012; Norsa’adah
Shadiya, Gogilawani, Akbariah, & Saidatul, et al., 2005; Kanaga et al., 2011; Sami
2012). Abdo et al., 2011; Al-Dubai et al., 2012;
Apart from this, another significant Al-Naggar & Bobryshev, 2012; Rosmawati,
theme confronting breast cancer awareness 2010) as well as among women diagnosed
in Malaysia was the issue of negative with breast cancer and breast cancer patients
socio-cultural perception. It was reported (Maryam et al., 2013; Norsa’adah et al.,
that socio-cultural perception of breast 2011; Sumarni et al., 2013; Azlina et al.,
cancer among Malaysians was an important 2013; Loh & Chew, 2011; Laila et al., 2011;
contributor to the presentation of breast Rozanim et al., 2006), among hospital
cancer at the advanced stage in Malaysia personnel (Abdullah et al., 2011) and
(Hisham & Yip, 2003). Among the socio- women with a positive family history of
cultural factors that projected breast cancer breast cancer (Pathmawathi et al., 2013).
in a negative light was a strong belief in Overall, the selection of the target segment
traditional medicine, negative perception of respondents to breast cancer awareness
of the disease, poor education, poverty, could be grouped into three main categories,
fear and denial (Hisham & Yip, 2004). It namely student, breast cancer patients and
is suggested that improvised public health specific interest groups.
education and communication can inhibit The student population accounted
such socio-cultural perception among for three studies (n=3). The selection
Malaysian women to create awareness on of respondents comprised all races of
health-seeking behaviour. students from public and private universities

i.e. Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), high risk groups such as women with a
University Putra Malaysia (UPM) and positive family history of breast cancer and
the Management and Science University the most influential group, as they could act
(MSU) (Hadi et al., 2010a; Mehrnoosh et as advocators for breast cancer knowledge
al., 2011; Redhwan Ahmed et al., 2011). and awareness, comprising teachers and
Student respondents ranged in age from 15 staff at public universities and hospitals. It
to 44 years old comprising different levels was postulated that the selection of specific
of education including undergraduate to segments of the population compared to
post graduate. The most frequent variables the general population would enhance
assessed among the student segment were researcher knowledge on the challenges to
related to breast cancer general knowledge, providing services regarding breast cancer
risk factors, symptoms, availability of awareness and screening programmes (Nor
screening examinations, perception of Afiah et al., 2011).
management and breast cancer treatment
and also BSE practice. Applied Methodology
Studies on breast cancer awareness also
Out of the total of 38 articles reviewed,
focused on exploration related to breast
the majority opted for the cross-sectional
cancer patients histologically confirmed
design of study. The cross-sectional study
as having breast cancer in medical centres.
has become the dominant approach used
These studies typically explored factors
by many social scientists for evaluating
associated with delayed presentation of
knowledge of breast cancer risk factors,
breast cancer, perceived health belief
symptoms and methods of screening.
(benefit, barriers, cues to action, risk), a
Of the 19 cross-sectional design studies
fatalistic view of cancer, experience and
(n=19), four (n=4) used the face-to-face
illness transition process, self-discovery
interview using a validated questionnaire,
of symptoms and seeking-treatment
while 15 (n=15) used the self-administered
behaviour. The identification and selection
questionnaire. As for the sampling methods,
of respondents was concentrated at centres
four studies (n=4) used convenient sampling,
that provided oncology services such as the
five (n=5) used systematic sampling, another
Penang General Hospital, Kuala Lumpur
four (n=4) used simple random sampling,
Hospital, Radiotherapy and Oncology
two used cluster sampling and one used
Clinic in Kuala Lumpur and Kelantan Public
multi-stage random sampling, while the last
Hospital.
used purposive sampling.
Apart from this, the review also found
Relatively, only a small portion of
that the researchers were more interested
the studies used qualitative methodology
in gathering specific knowledge on breast
to collect information on perception of
cancer from very specific categories of
cancer screening and early diagnosis. The
respondents. Among the categories were
qualitative approach was used for collecting

in-depth information from cancer patients performed to examine baseline knowledge

(Maryam et al., 2013; Azlina et al., 2013), (Loh et al., 2009) among the women.
surgical outpatients and the oncology clinics
at the public hospitals in Penang, Kuala Outcome and Dependent Variables
Lumpur and Kelantan. In both studies, the Measurement
semi-structured interview was conducted to
The findings portrayed a multitude of
capture the major themes of awareness of
dependent variables used to measure breast
breast cancer, perceived benefit, barriers to
cancer awareness in Malaysia. Awareness
cancer screening, cues to action, uncertainty
accounted for the highest percentage
about the experience of illness, transition
of measured dependent variables. The
process and fatalistic belief regarding breast
measurement deployed on assessing
cancer (Maryam et al., 2013; Azlina et al.,
awareness included risk factors for breast
2013).
cancer, source of information, perception
The review also found three (n=3)
of risk, family history of breast cancer
studies that employed the matched case-
and perception of treatment. Besides
control study approach at the referral
assessing awareness, a few of the studies
hospital in Kelantan (Norsa’adah et al.,
also attempted to identify the relationship
2005), the Penang General Hospital (Laila
between knowledge of breast cancer
et al., 2011) and the Breast Clinic Hospital,
risk, screening and symptoms of breast
Kuala Lumpur (Rozanim et al., 2006). Only
cancer on the practice of BSE, CBE and
one study used the pre-intervention study
mammography (Mehrnoosh et al., 2011;
setting to determine factors associated with
Maznah et al., 2013).
the acceptance of breast cancer screening
Apart from awareness, perception of
among the general population (Maznah et
cancer screening accounted as the second
al., 2012). One pre-test and post-test survey
highest dependent variable identified in
were conducted by Loh and Chew (2011),
the studies of breast cancer awareness in
and the findings indicate that self-reported
Malaysia. The perception measurement
monthly BSE practices had increased from
included health belief (benefit, risk and
17% at pre-test to 67% at post-test. In this
barrier) and perception towards treatment
research, a mixed method explanatory
and outcomes. Meanwhile, the independent
study was conducted among 707 samples
variables included demography, family
of hospital personnel to determine the factor
history, factors associated with delay
and barriers associated with mammography
diagnosis; screening behaviour, source of
screening. Only one study was conducted
information on breast cancer and breast
to understand the health disparity on health
cancer screening, lifestyle and its association
literacy. A secondary analysis of data
with breast cancer and barriers to screening
collected during the clinical trial among
behaviour.
newly breast cancer-diagnosed women was

The self-reported practise of BSE, knowledge of breast cancer, the practice of

CBE and mammography (i.e. whether the BSE and recommendation to take advantage
individual had ever performed screening of CBE (Hadi et al., 2010a; Mehrnoosh
and frequency of screening) were denoted et al., 2011). Overall, the results indicates
as the main outcome measurements. The that there was a deficit of knowledge of
outcome measurements were reported via risk factors, signs and symptoms and a
quantitative and qualitative surveys through low response rate to the practice of BSE.
the semi-structured interview, face-to-face Redhwan Ahmed et al. (2011) found that
interview and questionnaire. Meanwhile, fear of being diagnosed with breast cancer,
in the qualitative exploration studies, the lack of knowledge and not having symptoms
measurement of outcome was presented were the main barriers for not practising BSE
in the form of thematic content analysis among university students. Intensifying the
comprehension. The main method used breast cancer awareness campaign to focus
to collect the measurement outcome in on the importance of early detection and
qualitative study was the interview. reporting of any abnormalities to the health
authorities are suggested as a solution to
Determinant of Breast Cancer overcoming inadequate knowledge and
Awareness in Malaysia awareness among university students.
Studies of breast cancer patients
The analysed articles disclosed that various
discovered that a negative attitude towards
factors were capable of determining
treatment, dependence on alternative
or influencing the effectiveness of the
therapy, false-negative diagnostic tests,
breast cancer awareness promotion effort
breast ulcers, non-cancer interpretation
in Malaysia. Based on the systematic
and palpable axillary lymph nodes played
review of the articles, the knowledge of
an important role in delayed presentation
breast cancer, perception of breast cancer
and eventually to delayed diagnosis in
management and treatment outcome were
Malaysia (Norsa’adah et al., 2011). Another
found to be important predictors of breast
study conducted among patients diagnosed
cancer awareness in several studies (Hadi
with primary breast cancer established that
et al., 2010a, 2010b). Individuals who
divorced/widowed women and women who
viewed themselves as knowledgeable about
have never performed BSE were more likely
breast cancer risk factors and aware of the
to delay breast cancer presentation to health
importance of early detection are more
authorities (Sumarni et al., 2013). Therefore,
likely to actively initiate the screening
it is suggested that breast cancer awareness
practice compared with those who perceived
campaigns should incorporate the call for
themselves as not knowledgeable and
early diagnosis and treatment (before the
unaware.
tumour enlarges, spreads to the lymph nodes
Apart from this, the results also found
and is classified as being in metastasis stage)
that university students had inadequate

together with the educational promotion sources (2.1%). Meanwhile, the priority
of early detection. In a separate study by on preferred sources of information on
Norsa’adah et al. (2005) on risk factors breast cancer screening were the health
and association with breast cancer among team (71.4%), health education brochures
147 histologically confirmed breast cancer (54.8%), the mass media (50.3%), the
patients, risk factors such as null-parity, Internet (49.4%), health promotion activities
obesity, the use of contraceptive pills and (47.3%), books (34%), friends (21.7%),
family history were significantly associated family members (9.6%) and other sources
with breast cancer. Thus, it is suggested that (0.9%). Given the fact that the health team
the importance of having an ideal BMI, and health education brochures are the top
bearing children and caution among women two preferred choices of information source
with a family history of breast cancer on among the respondents, it is suggested that
the use of contraceptive pills should be appropriate measures be mobilised to plan
integrated in promoting risk factors. and disseminate information to the public.
A study on pre-intervention community Studies on the relevancy of advocating
survey conducted by Maznah et al. BSE as part of breast cancer awareness
(2012) established that women who had a screening found that BSE practice needs
previous experience of attending CBE had to be instilled as part of information
a strong influence in promoting BSE and dissemination to encourage women to be
mammogram. Furthermore, the findings aware of the health of their breasts and be
also posited that relatively, women who able to identify any changes before reporting
received strong support from their husband to health authorities (Chee et al., 2003).
were more likely to attend CBE compared Furthermore, Maznah, Ng, et al. (2011)
with women who had an unsupportive proposed that BSE was still a relevant
husband. Thus, the promotion of breast screening tool as findings indicated that 85%
cancer awareness in Malaysia is urged to of breast lumps were detected by respondents
change in approach of promoting CBE themselves while conducting the BSE. It is
from opportunistic screening to more suggested that BSE practice is capable of
active, regular CBE practice as well as to increasing the chances of detecting breast
include awareness activities among male abnormality, leading to earlier breast cancer
respondents. Nor Afiah et al. (2011) found discovery. According to Loh and Chew
that the mass media were the major source (2011), although the effectiveness of BSE
of information on breast cancer screening practice still remains unsolved (i.e. to lower
(92.2%), followed by health promotion mortality and increase of anxiety), the
activities and health education brochures results of educational interventional studies
(73.8%), books (69.6%), the Internet provided evidence that 80% of breast cancer
(66.9%), friends (64.8%), the health team survivors had self-detected their lumps.
(58.7%), family members (35.2%) and other

The findings from qualitative studies cancer among young women in Malaysia.
using the in-depth interview found that The findings indicated that there is an urgent
there was significant interaction between need to develop continuous and effective
health belief determinants such as personal health communication on breast health
susceptibility, perceived barriers (financial awareness campaigns among the present
constraint; lack of knowledge), perceived generations of young women in Malaysia
benefit (lack of trust in screening and (Hadi et al., 2010a; Mehrnoosh et al., 2011;
negative results) and negative behaviour Redhwan Ahmed et al., 2011). Increasing
towards cancer screening in terms of breast cancer knowledge concerning the risk
screening behaviour (Maryam et al., 2013). factors associated with breast cancer and the
Perhaps the most common finding in the importance of early detection and cultivating
literature on qualitative studies on cancer an attitude of reporting any unusual breast
communication was the inadequacy and changes to the health authorities will
misconception of breast cancer awareness, definitely help to reduce the mortality rate
treatment and the future of breast cancer and health expenditure and build a healthy
patients (Azlina et al., 2013; Maryam et nation. Moreover, in the context of cultural
al., 2013). issues and breast cancer awareness, it is
suggested that more in-depth research is
DISCUSSION ON GAPS AND required to synthesise understanding of
AVENUES FOR FURTHER avoidance and ignorance of early detection
RESEARCH
methods. More in-depth information should
This section leads a discussion on the be obtained through qualitative studies
gaps in the review and avenues for further on the issue of BSE practice avoidance
investigation to cultivate, instil and (Mehrnoosh et al., 2011). Besides this,
ameliorate the promotion of breast cancer Loh and Chew (2011) proposed that there
awareness in Malaysia. was also a need to gain more in-depth
This article has attempted to analyse the investigation to understand the indicators of
common issues and challenges portrayed health disparity on breast cancer screening
in past studies on breast cancer awareness among different age, socioeconomic and
in Malaysia. The systematic review of past educational backgrounds as well as among
literature indicated inadequate knowledge different ethnicities in Malaysia.
of breast cancer and lack of practice of Apart from this, it was also found that
BSE among young Malaysian women were little attention was given to the utilisation
the most common issues inhibiting the of theory and models as a foundation in
success of public health intervention health the literature on breast cancer awareness
programmes. Thus, the great challenge is research in Malaysia. Out of 31 research
to efforts to enhance health communication papers on breast cancer awareness, only
channels in creating awareness of breast three (n=3) provided a theoretical or health

behaviour model as the foundation of the and the variables to be integrated in

study (Parisa et al, 2008a; Pathmawathi disseminating health promotion messages
et al., 2013; Maryam et al., 2013). Among (Maryam et al., 2013). Special attention
them was the adapted and modified version should be given to understanding the
of the Champion Health Belief Model impact of breast cancer illness and cultural
Scale (Champion, 1993) of the Health influence on the survivorship plan among
Belief Model. This model was used as the breast cancer patients for development of
foundation for developing data collection an appropriate education and supportive
instruments (questionnaire) (Parisa et al., programme (Azlina et al., 2013).
2008a; Pathmawathi et al., 2013). The In the context of breast cancer awareness
dimensions of the Champion Health Belief among women from diverse geographical
Model includes the perceived barrier, locations (urban and rural), it is suggested
susceptibility, benefit, health motivation that different approaches and efforts are
(including general health, fear of breast required to address the different sets of
cancer, fear of long-term effects of breast influencing factors (Maznah et al., 2013).
cancer, lack of confidence and preventive Studies by Kanaga et al. (2011) and Maznah
health practice). The study by Parisa et et al. (2013) confirmed that awareness of
al. (2008a) ascertained that the translated early detection is higher among women
version of the Champion Health Belief in urban areas compared with women in
Model Scale was a valid and reliable tool rural areas. Several factors including social
for measuring health beliefs that influenced status, level of education and knowledge
breast cancer screening (i.e. BSE, CBE and differences among women in urban and rural
mammography) behaviour among Malaysian areas are associated with different levels
women. Thus, there is a need for further of awareness. According to Kanaga et al.
systematic study with appropriate attention (2011), there is an urgent need to intensify
on the use of the theory or health-decision breast cancer awareness and enlarge the
model. It is important to note that the use availability of screening centres in rural
of theory and model can make a difference areas.
in developing a strong foundation of the Another important issue highlighted
research framework, which gives greater related to the study on breast cancer
possibilities in measuring the outcomes of awareness in Malaysia was the increasing
any health intervention programmes. breast cancer incidence rate among young
The findings also indicate the need for women. According to Kanaga et al. (2011),
future studies to address the relation of the the pattern of breast cancer occurrence
barriers to screening patterns with other in Malaysia showed that women at a
health belief variables such as perceived very young age, compared with Western
benefits, cues to action and susceptibility to societies, were affected; this involved
allowing prediction of screening behaviour the factor of menopause and its impact

on cancer incidence. Numerous studies ACS. (2010). The global economic cost of cancer.
have suggested that a tailored health American Cancer Society Retrieved March 9,
2015, from http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/
educational intervention is required to
content/@internationalaffairs/documents/
increase awareness among young women
document/acspc-026203.pdf
(Redhwn Ahmed, Low, & Zaleha, 2010;
Al-Dubai, S. A., Qureshi, A. M., Saif-Ali, R.,
Sami Abdo et al., 2011). Thus, the challenge
Ganasegeran, K., Alwan, M. R., & Hadi, J. I.
for health authorities and the related
(2011). Awareness and knowledge of breast
agencies in Malaysia is to draft and execute cancer and mammography among a group
massive nationwide health promotion of Malaysian women in Shah Alam. Asian
campaigns among the younger generations Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 12(10),
of Malaysian women by networking with 2531–2538.
schools and higher educational institutions. Al-Dubai, S. A. R., Ganasegeran, K., Alabsi, A. M.,
Among possible strategies that could Manaf, M. R. A., Ijaz, S., & Kassim, S. (2012).
be explored are the promotion of breast Exploration of barriers to breast self-examination
cancer activities by incorporating health among urban women in Shah Alam, Malaysia:
A cross-sectional study. Asian Pacific Journal of
communication channels such as social
Cancer Prevention, 13(4), 1627–1632.
networking applications and sites that
are synonymous and relevant to younger Al-Naggar, R. A., & Bobryshev, Y. V. (2012). Practice
and barriers of mammography among Malaysian
generations.
women in the general population. Asian Pacific
Journal of Cancer Prevention, 13(8), 3595–3600.
CONCLUSION
Allen, T. L., Van Groningen, B. J., Barksdale, D.
In conclusion, it is hoped that this paper has J., & McCarthy, R. (2010). The breast self-
shed some useful insights into the issues examination controversy: What providers and
and challenges on breast cancer awareness patients should know. The Journal for Nurse
research in Malaysia and particularly Practitioners, 6(6), 444–451.
among those scholars who are interested Anderson, B. O., Shyyan, R., Eniu, A., Smith, R.
in understanding the fundamental situation A., Yip, C. H., Bese, N. S., ... & Carlson, R.
of breast cancer awareness not only within W. (2006). Breast cancer in limited-resource
countries: An overview of the Breast Health
the Malaysian context but also in the field
Global Initiative 2005 Guidelines. Breast
of health promotion campaigns.
Journal, 12(Suppl. 1), S3–S15.
Azlina, Y., Imi Sairi, A. H., Zainal, M., Zulkifli,

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Review Article
Psychological and Social Factors of Depression Recovery: A

Narrative Review
Jin Kuan Kok, Kai-Shuen Pheh* and Gaik Lan Hor
Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Arts and Social Science,
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Universiti, 31900 UTAR, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Biomedical advancement has significantly contributed towards depression recovery but
there are still populations who are affected, with limited access to health services. There
is lack of attention paid to psychosocial factors that are helpful in depression recovery.
This narrative review aims to examine the psychosocial factors in depression recovery
through qualitative studies. Keyword searches were conducted using EBSCOHost, JSTOR,
PsycARTICLES, PubMed, SAGE Journals and Scopus databases. Qualitative studies (n =
15) on psychosocial factors in depression recovery were identified. Review of the studies
revealed the impact of psychological and social factors in the view of oneself and identity
transformation throughout depression recovery and acceptance of self-initiated help-seeking
behaviour that facilitated transformation of ill-self to better-self. The three main conclusions
drawn from the review are (a) hope, optimism, resilience and self-efficacy; (b) working on
oneself; and (c) social factors available for re-constructing of selves and functional lives.
Enhancement and inclusion of psychosocial factors are needed in mental health policy.
Future studies are suggested to focus on the ways of strengthening psychosocial factors at
individual and community levels.
Keywords: Depression, narrative review, psychosocial, recovery, factors
ARTICLE INFO INTRODUCTION

Article history:
Received: 03 April 2016 Depressive disorders are common mental
Accepted: 11 August 2017
disorders that have become some of the
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Jin Kuan Kok), leading causes of disability worldwide,
[email protected] (Kai-Shuen Pheh),
[email protected] (Gaik Lan Hor)
accounting for 9.6% of global years lived

with disability (Ferrari et al., 2013). In The review and literature on risk factors
addition, studies have found that sub- that are associated with depression are
threshold depression increased excess readily available (Dobson & Dozois, 2008;
mortality and significantly reduced the Galambos, Leadbeater, & Barker, 2004;
individuals’ quality of life (Cuijpers et al., Roh, Burnette, Lee, Lee, & Easton, 2016).
2013; Goldney, Fisher, Dal Grande, & Taylor, However, there is less attention paid to the
2004). The rapid emergence of depression psychosocial aspects of depression recovery.
has prompted researchers and practitioners Recently, two systematic reviews found that
in conceptualising the intervention of and positive identity, self-esteem, high sense of
recovery from depression in patients. The coherence, and social support from friends
advancement of biomedical sciences has and family members are protective factors
contributed significantly to depression against depression among minority youth
recovery since the 1950s, and a large (Cornejo, 2016; Hall, in press). Nevertheless,
body of well-established clinical trials and reviews on past quantitative studies that
reviews on the efficacy of pharmacological emphasised determining relationship and
therapies for depression is available its magnitude between depression and
(Boulenger, Loft, & Olsen, 2014; Brunoni psychosocial variables have overlooked
et al., 2013). Similarly, considerable efforts the individuals’ subjective experiences of
have evidenced the efficacy of psychosocial how these variables were helpful for them
intervention, including a wide range of (Kok, 2017). This review attempts to fill that
psychotherapeutic approaches (Franklin, gap by offering a narrative review on the
Carson, & Welch, 2015; Swartz, Grote, psychosocial factors of depression recovery
& Graham, 2014). In fact, depression is through the voice of lived experience.
actually a very treatable medical condition. Despite the commonality of depression and
Despite the established treatment the importance of this topic to mental health
options, there is significant variation in care professionals and policy makers, there
terms of availability and access to mental is only a small volume of literature available
health treatment across the globe, where on these subjects, which is rather context-
the countries with lower income have specific and heterogeneous.
very limited access to services (World
Health Organization, 2015). In line with METHODS
the public health approach, in the absence A narrative literature review approach was
of mental health specialists, there is a used for this study. A narrative-synthesis
need to identify the helpful psychosocial approach was used to find answers for
factors and the appropriate actions to be the central research question, which is,
taken by affected individuals to facilitate “What are the psychological and social
the recovery of depression (Jorm, 2012). factors of depression recovery?”. The

Psychosocial Factors of Depression Recovery
selected published qualitative studies components of our research questions were

were used because the recovery process included (psychology, social, depression
from depression sufferers is qualitative in recovery); second, other keywords that
nature and findings from the qualitative could comprehensively retrieve data were
studies revealed detailed and rich subjective used. Initially, the keyword “personality
experience that were able to provide trait” was used, however, it was found
rich descriptions to answer the research that personality traits might not lead to
questions. The narrative literature approach recovery, so, it was replaced with “inner
resembles meta-synthesis on a smaller scale strength”, which would include motivation
(focusing on qualitative studies, rather than and awareness, which might be helpful in
quantitative studies) for examining and the recovery. In the process of researching
providing an overview on current qualitative through the search engines, the keyword
research in a systematic way. The main aim “reciprocal relationship” was included as the
for using a narrative synthesis approach is term “reciprocal” entails close relationships,
to explore, summarise, and synthesise the such as family support and close friends,
past literature (Campbell et al., 2003) on and is a more comprehensive term for
the process of recovery from depression, relationships that could affect recovery.
specifically on the psychological and social Besides, the keyword “facilitating” was
aspects. used for expanding purposes in the hope of
retrieving other factors and resources that
Databases and Screening Process can facilitate depression recovery. Multiple
methods of search were employed. Besides
A comprehensive search was conducted
automated searching, filtering was done,
using six databases, namely EBSCOHost,
citations and references were followed and
J S TO R , P s y c A RT I C L E S , P u b M e d ,
hand searched to collect literature relevant
SAGE Journals, and Scopus. The search
to the study.
was done on research articles that were
The articles that met the following
published between 2001 and 2016, and
criteria were included in this review: (a)
that described the process of recovery
the study examined the recovery process
from depression, with specific contribution
from depression through psychological
from psychological and social factors. The
and/or social aspects; (b) the studies were
keywords that were used in the search were:
published between 2001 and 2016, (c) the
(a) depression recovery; (b) psychosocial
study design employed only qualitative
factors; (c) psychological factors; (d) social
methodology; (d) the study was peer-
factors; (e) facilitating factors; (f) social
reviewed; (e) the study was in journal
support; (g) reciprocal relationships; and
article form; and (f) the study examined
(h) inner strength. These keywords were
the recovery process from mental disorders
used based on two criteria: first, relevant

through psychological and/or social factors. use; (d) the study was only in abstract, or
This review focused on the period between in dissertation or thesis, newspapers, or
2001 to 2016 because the epidemic and experimental report forms; (e) the text was
burden of disease of depression has been not written in English; or (f) the papers were
reported to have significantly increased in presented in conference proceedings without
the new millennium (Andersen, Thielen, subsequent publications in any academic
Bech, Nygaard, & Diderichsen, 2011; journals. Manual filtering was carried out
Greenberg at a., 2003; Thomas & Morris, to exclude articles that did not meet the
2003), and the recovery of depression has inclusion criteria. Understandably, the
been emphasised during this period. Due to recovery of people who suffered solely from
the scarcity of published studies that focused depression was very different as compared
specifically on psychosocial factors during to the recovery of those who suffered
the process of recovery from depression, from disease-invoked depression, trauma-
the authors manually added studies on related depression, comorbid depression,
process of recovery from mental disorders. and depression with substance use. These
The authors then handpicked studies that inclusion and exclusion criteria were
included depression in their study context determined to reduce heterogeneity of the
and investigated the psychosocial factors studies.
in the recovery of mental disorders. For The initial search resulted in more than
example, when the authors came across 2000 titles. After eliminating cases with
studies that had titles using the term “mental comorbidity conditions, the researchers
disorder” instead of “depression”, the were left with 1095 titles. Three researchers
authors read the text. If the studies involved (two with postgraduate qualifications in
depression in their sample, the authors counselling or clinical psychology, and a
included them in this review. postgraduate student of psychology) were
On the other hand, articles were involved in the screening and discussion
excluded if: (a) the study investigated process. When abstracts failed to provide
solely biomedical aspects in the process sufficient information, the texts were read
of recovery from depression; (b) the in full. Discussions were held when there
study solely investigated the effects of were disagreements.
psychological intervention in the process As shown in Table 1, the studies
of recovery from depression, as the included in this review consisted of 13
current study focuses only on individuals’ qualitative studies (1, 3-10, 12-13-15) and
psychosocial factors; (c) the study examined two literature reviews (2, 11). There was
depression in the context of other medical only one study in which the discussion
conditions such as chronic diseases, trauma, involved cultural differences (1). One
comorbid mental disorders, or substance study specifically discussed the experience

of depression among male athletes (3), with the help of health professionals from
one study investigated women’s accounts healthcare or clinical settings (7, 8, 9, 12,
of depression recovery (6), and one study 13, 15), as well as through advertisement in
explored adolescents’ depression (10). The public settings such as libraries, or through
recruitment of participants was conducted e-newsletters and flyers (1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 15).
Table 1
Summary of reviewed studies
No. Author(s), Title Aim Methodology Findings

Year
1 Brijnath, 2015 Applying To explore the Semi-structured Findings showed
the CHIME conceptualisation interviews & importance of
recovery of depression thematic analysis hope, optimism,
framework recovery from two positive thinking,
in two culturally diverse n = 58 empowerment and
culturally groups through connectedness for
diverse application 30 Anglo- depression recovery
Australian of CHIME Australians (10 but both groups
communities: (connectedness, men, 20 women),28 experienced stigma
Qualitative hope and optimism Indian-Australians and struggle in
results about the future, (13 men, 15 women obtaining social
identity, meaning with mild depressive support.
in life and symptoms) Through spirituality,
empowerment) Indian-Australians
Age: 18 years old found greater
and above meaning in life while
Anglo-Australians
found meaning in
illness itself.
2 Cruwys, Depression To review the Qualitative: Findings showed
Haslem, and social role of social Literature review that greater
Dingle, identity: An connectedness in Clinical depression number of social
Haslam, & integrative the development included episode of identities signify
Jetten, 2014 review of depression major depression greater amount of
resources and social
connectedness that
enabled greater
resilience towards
risk of depression

Table 1 (continue)

Year
3 Doherty, To explore To explore how Qualitative: Findings revealed
Hannigan, & the elite male athletes Semi-structured athletes’ depression
Campbell, experience experience interviews & recovery involved
2016 of depression depression during interpretive thematicsocial support,
during the their sporting analysis acceptance,
careers of careers emotional
elite male n = 8 Caucasian expression,
athletes male current/ former motivation
elite athletes with and identity
clinical depression transformation.
Age: n/a
4 Dunn, The To enrich current Qualitative: Findings found
Wewiorski, & meaning and literature by Semi-structured participants
Rogers, 2008 importance examining interviews using benefited from paid
of individuals’ work Grounded Theory employment that
employment perceptions and its provided personal
to people effect on mental n = 23 meaning, self-
in recovery illness recovery esteem, financial
from serious 11 males, 12 females stability and
mental with various mental promoted recovery.
illness: disorders, including
Results of a major depressive
qualitative disorder
study
Age: 27-59 years
5 Kok & Lai, Not myself To examine Qualitative: Findings showed
2016 and the the personal Grounded theory depression as an
connected depression uncontrollable and
self: Cases experience among n = 12 isolating experience.
of youth young people in Recovery from
depression Malaysia 6 males, 6 females depression
and recovery with atypical and requires social
in Malaysia mild depression connectedness.
6 Lafrance & Constructing To investigate Qualitative: Findings showed

Stoppard, a non- women’s Semi-structured construction
2006 depressed accounts of their interviews & of recovery
self: experiences discourse analysis through personal
Women’s of depression transformation
accounts recovery through n = 15 females with in context of
of recovery discourse analysis self-reported history overlapping versions
from of depression of self-identity,
depression letting go chores,
Age: 22-66 years rejecting demands
and self-care.

Table 1 (continue)

Year
7 Mancini, Making sense To investigate the Qualitative: Findings showed
Hardiman, & of it all: adults’ accounts Semi-structured supportive
Lawson, 2005 Consumer of recovery from interviews using relationships,
providers’ serious psychiatric grounded theory meaningful
theories disability activities and
about factors n = 15 participants effective traditional
facilitating with various mental and alternative
and impeding disorders, including treatments facilitated
recovery major depressive recovery by
from disorder transforming ill-self
psychiatric to a sense of well-
disabilities Age = 40-55 years being.
8 Millner et al., Exploring the To explore and Qualitative: Findings showed
2015 work lives compare the work discovery-oriented the importance of
of adults perceptions of qualitative research achieving work
with serious younger and older methodology motivation, personal
mental adults with serious modified version accomplishments
illness from mental illness of consensual and self-efficacy in
a vocational and to examine qualitative research achieving recovery
psychology the relevance (CQR) methodology from mental illness.
perspective of vocational
psychology theory n = 76 working
in this population adults with serious
mental illness
including major
depressive disorder
Age: 19-66 years

9 Mizock, Acceptance To examine the Qualitative: Findings revealed
Russinova, & of mental multifaceted Semi-structured five components
Millner, 2013 illness: Core construct of interviews using in the core
components acceptance of grounded theory characteristics
of a mental illness of acceptance of
multifaceted n = 30 mental illness,
construct namely identity,
15 women, 15 men cognitive, emotional,
with various mental behavioral and
disorders, including relational.
major depressive
disorder
Age: 19-72 years

Table 1 (continue)

Year
10 Simonds, Adolescents To explore and Qualitative: Findings showed
Pons, Stone, with understand Semi-structured youths’ experiences
Warren, & anxiety and the youths’ interviews & of depression
John, 2014 depression: experiences thematic analysis and anxiety as a
Is social of anxiety and process of loss of
recovery depression n = 9 adolescents; self (withdrawal),
relevant? 7 girls, 2 boys renegotiating the
with anxiety or self (social re-
depressive disorders engagement) and
anticipation of
Age: 14-16 years future self (hope
for symptom
eradication).
11 Thoits, 2011 Resisting To further Qualitative: Findings found
the stigma discuss the types Literature review that willingness to
of mental of resistance resist stigmatisation
illness in stigma, the People with various enhanced self-
labeling literature mental disorders, esteem and sense of
and the resistant including major personal control.
condition depressive disorder
Age: n/a
12 Van Grieken, Patients’ To examine the Qualitative: Findings revealed
Kirkenier, perspective perspectives Concept mapping effective self-
Koeter, on self- towards self- management
Nabitz, & management management n = 20; 9 men, 11 strategies involved
Schene, 2013 in the in depression women with major proactive attitude,
recovery recovery among depressive disorder daily life strategies
from patients. and rules,
depression Age: 25-57 years explanation of
disease to others,
social engagement,
attention to oneself
and sharing of
experiences with
fellow sufferers.
13 Villagi et al., Self- To explore the Qualitative: Findings
2015 management variety of self- Semi-structured showed effective
strategies management interview & strategies for
in recovery strategies used thematic analysis recovery included
from mood by people in social support,
and anxiety recovering from n = 50; 24 men, 26 empowerment, social
disorders affective disorder women with various re-engagement,
mental disorders, healthy lifestyles,
including major support from mental
depressive disorder health professionals
and use of
Age: 46-55 years alternative treatment.

Table 1 (continue)

Year
14 Wisdom, ‘Stealing To investigate Qualitative: Findings showed
Bruce, Saedi, me from identity-related Thematic analysis of the importance of
Weis, & myself’: themes through persona account hope and identity
Green, 2008 Identity and examination of transformation in
recovery published self- n = 45; people with fostering recovery
in personal narratives of various mental from mental illness.
accounts individuals with disorders, including
of mental serious mental major depressive
illness illness and their disorder
family members
Age: n/a
15 Wong, Rethinking To explore how Qualitative: Findings showed
Stanton, & social people who Semi-structured competencies
Sands, 2014 inclusion: recovered from interviews & in establishing
Experiences mental illness modified Grounded connectedness
of persons understand Theory through sense
in recovery and define of affinity and
from mental relationships with n = 20; 11 males, 9 community
illness communities females with various citizenship
in attempt of mental disorders, facilitated recovery
examining the including major from mental illness.
dimensions of depressive disorder
social inclusion
Age: 32-65 years
Note: n = Number of participants; n/a = not available
Table 2
Psychological and social factors identified from reviewed studies
Themes of Studies Reviewed Themes of Studies Reviewed

Psychological Social Factors
Factors
Hope and/or Brijnath (2015); Wisdom, Social identity Cruwys, Haslem, Dingle,
optimism Bruce, Saedi, Weis, & Green and inclusion Haslam & Jetten (2014); Wong,
(2008); Villagi et al. (2015); Stanton, & Sands (2014)
Mizock, Russinova, & Millner
(2013); Thoits (2011)
Acceptance Mizock, Russinova, & Millner Supportive Doherty, Hannigan, &
(2013) relationship Campbell (2016); Kok & Lai
(2016); Mancini, Hardiman, &
Lawson (2005); Villagi et al.
(2015)

Table 2 (continue)
Themes of Studies Reviewed Themes of Studies Reviewed

Psychological Social Factors
Factors
Self-empowerment Doherty, Hannigan & Sense of Van Grieken et al. (2013);
− personal Campbell (2016); Dunn, belongingness Cruwys et al., 2014; Wong et
accomplishments Wewiorski, & Rogers (2008); and al. (2014)
− self-management Lafrance & Stoppard (2006); connectedness
Millner et al. (2015); Thoits
(2011); Van Grieken et al.
(2013); Villagi et al. (2015);
Van Grieken et al. (2013)
Self-esteem and Millner et al. (2015); Social Van Grieken et al. (2013); Kok
sense of mastery Thoits (2011); relationships & Lai (2016)
Dunn et al. (2008)
Resistance to Thoits (2011) Social re- Van Grieken et al. (2013);
stigma engagement Wong et al. (2014); Mancini,
Hardiman, & Lawson (2005);
Villagi et al. (2015)
The psychosocial factors that were factors. These two themes (psychological
identified from the studies in this review and social factors) provided insights into
are summarised in Table 2. Data analysis how the participants in previous studies
protocol involved the process of integrating recovered, and are essential factors in the
and summarising the main outcomes of recovery process.
the studies included (Perestelo-Perez,
2013). A thematic data analysis process RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
was adopted to analyse the findings of the
Psychological Factors
previous studies under two broad themes,
namely psychological and social factors for Among the fifteen studies, ten of them (1,
depression. Through a process of induction, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14) had samples
similar outcomes with similar unit meanings who described their journey of depression
sentences and phases were identified to form recovery using terms such as hope, optimism,
categories and finally form more abstract self-control, self-enhancement, self-efficacy,
themes that were relevant to answer the self-improvement, self-discovery, self-
research questions. The term “resistance to care, personal control, sense of mastery,
stigma” reflects a psychological strength empowerment, and resistance to stigma.
to resist stigmatisation, thus it enhances Hope is the most crucial element in drawing
self-esteem (Thoits, 2011). Therefore, it people with depression closer towards
was classified under psychological factors. treatment, while empowerment is another
Similarly, the phrases, “social identity”, and important aspect through which people with
“connectedness” were categorised as social depression gained self-worth, motivation,

and confidence in moving forward to severe mental illness patients as an effective

recovery. coping strategy. These five studies (1, 9, 11,
Brijnath (2015) and Wisdom, Bruce, 13, 14) had a common similarity in findings,
Saedi, Weis, and Green (2008) examined where the participants had hope for the
the aspect of hope in depression recovery, future or a sense of hope for future selves.
while Mizock, Russinova, and Millner Seven articles discussed empowerment,
(2013) discussed the multifaceted constructs namely Doherty, Hannigan, and Campbell
on acceptance of mental illness. On the (2016), Dunn, Wewiorski, and Rogers
other hand, Villagi et al.(2015) examined (2008), Lafrance and Stoppard (2006),
the strategies that were used for depression Millner et al. (2015), Thoits (2011), Van
recovery by asking 24 men and 26 women Grieken et al. (2013), and Villagi et al.
participants in Canada, aged 18 and above (2015). The aspect of empowerment
to describe their respective strategies. It was discussions can be broadly categorised into
found that 42% of them had experienced two dimensions, which are empowerment of
depression before. From the above four oneself through personal accomplishments,
studies (1, 9, 13, 14), it was found that and self-management or self-care.
hope or optimism was the main motivator Furthermore, personal accomplishments
for depressed patients to self-help or that raised self-esteem and sense of mastery
seek help and to continue undergoing were essential in depression recovery
treatment, as they held the belief that they (Millner et al., 2015). Thoits (2011) has
would eventually recover from depression. also highlighted the debilitating effects of
Hope involved positive thinking, belief in low self-esteem due to stigmatisation on
recovery, and embracing the aspirations for the prognosis of recovery from depression.
future self (Brijnath, 2015) or the positive In order to cope with stigmatisation, Thoits
attributes of old self (Wisdom et al., 2008). (2011) distinguished two types of resistance
As reported by Mizock et al. (2013), “I could towards stigma, namely deflecting and
experience certain things that would bring confronting. He identified resistance as
me happiness. The hope of that, that could an important factor in the recovery of
happen, gets me through the day, honestly” depression as it will be helpful in gaining
(p.101). self-esteem and increasing self-control.
Furthermore, some of those who When individuals are stigma-resistant,
suffered from depression utilised downward they will be able to dismiss the threat
social comparison with those who suffered that was imposed on their self. Stigma of
more severe depression to achieve higher mental illness in general, and depression in
levels of optimism, by seeing how things particular is very common. Thoits (2011)
had improved (Villagi et al., 2015). Thoits listed other coping strategies that effectively
(2011) confirmed the comparison with more manage symptoms in the recovery process,

such as avoidance, associating with people themes that were later categorised into
who do not stereotype, and comparison with social, existential, functional, physical, and
less well-to-do patients. clinical contexts. Self-care (3, 6) and self-
Moreover, engaging in employment management strategies such as setting small
provides people with depression a sense of goals were used to gain greater control and
mastery, as well as greater access to both responsibilities over self and the recovery
psychological and social resources. Dunn process (Villagi et al., 2015).
et al. (2008) identified the ability to engage In these seven studies (3, 4, 6, 8,
in paid work (employment) as central to 11, 12, 13), the researchers found that
recovery as it fostered pride and self-esteem. empowerment was gained through personal
On the other hand, self-management accomplishments such as heightened self-
was used to enhance the empowerment esteem. Self-care through self-management
within individuals who were suffering strategies acts as a guide for depressed people
from depression. Van Grieken et al. (2013) to find their unique ways to fight against
and Villagi et al. (2015) conducted studies depression. The combination of personal
with the aim of examining the various self- accomplishments and self-management
management strategies that were utilised by strategies provided the empowerment that is
patients diagnosed with depression, aged needed as a strong resource for motivation,
18 years and above in reducing depressive confidence, and the building of a proactive
symptoms. In another study by Van Grieken attitude for better recovery prognosis.
et al. (2013), 50 self-management strategies
that were used by participants in their Social Factors
recovery process from depression were
Among the 15 studies that the researchers
grouped into eight clusters, which consisted
reviewed, eight studies (2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13,
of a proactive attitude towards depression
15) had respondents who described their
and treatment, daily life strategies and
journey of depression recovery through
rules, explanation of the disease to others,
social factors such as social meaning, social
remaining socially engaged, engaging
recovery, peer relationships, social activities,
in activities, having structured attention
reciprocal relationships, connectedness,
to oneself, and maintaining contact with
social relationships, social capital, social
fellow sufferers and others. A proactive
networks, belonging, community, social
attitude towards recovery empowered the
identity, and social re-engagement. Social
depressed individuals to seek treatment for
resources act as a foundation for depressed
their own mental illness, thus increasing
people to gain courage to step into society
their prognosis in recovery (Van Grieken
once again, while social-re-engagement was
et al., 2013). Similarly, a study by Villagi
an important catalyst in depression recovery.
et al. (2015) identified 60 self-management
The researchers, Cruwys, Haslem,
strategies which were compiled into fifteen
Dingle, Haslam, and Jetten (2014), and

Wong, Stanton, and Sands (2014) examined Lai (2016) identified the facilitating effect
the facilitating effects of social identity of psychosocial support, which acts as an
and inclusion on depression recovery. important element in depression recovery.
A study by Van Grieken et al. (2013) Van Grieken et al. (2013), and Wong et
confirmed the importance of socialising with al. (2014) discussed the importance of social
people and contact with fellow sufferers re-engagement on depression recovery.
in order to initiate the recovery process It was found that social re-engagement
from depression. Depressed people gained not only acted as a catalyst for depression
connectedness with the world through recovery, but also provided social meaning
interactions with friends and family (Kok to individuals’ lives. This might be due
& Lai, 2016). As shown in the study by to the fact that depressed people gained
Cruwys et al. (2014), social support can also connectedness, self-worth, and a sense of
be obtained by establishing social identities belonging in the community through social
that provide purpose to life, encourage the re-engagement. Van Grieken et al. (2013)
gain in social support, and embrace the depicted that by re-engaging in activities
sense of belonging in deterring depression. that were regarded as entertaining and
Through its capacity for generating a sense meaningful, depressed people were able to
of belonging and connectedness, social gain back their responsibilities and sense of
identities facilitated the flow of social control over their own lives. Furthermore,
influence in deterring self-criticism and some individuals with depression re-
self-harm, where self-criticism and self- engaged in the society through participation
harm could jeopardise the prognosis for in community activities that advocated for
depression (Cruwys et al., 2014). Similarly, causes (Wong et al., 2014).
another study conducted by Wong et al. The authors found that psychological
(2014) examined the dimensions of social factors and social factors impacted the
inclusion through the exploration of the individuals’ views of themselves during
mental illness recovery experiences of 20 depression recovery. When the individual
participants, heterogeneous in psychiatric accepted himself or herself, this self-
diagnoses, gender, sexual orientation and acceptance initiated the help-seeking
gender identity, and living environments. process, which then led to the identity
It was found that connectedness and transformation that is critical for depression
citizenship were gained through social recovery. Psychological factors and social
inclusion in mental health communities factors both acted as catalysts in facilitating
that fostered reciprocity in the sharing of the identity transformation process, from
experiences and feelings. Social support ill self to better self. This in turn, further
from significant others served as a turning facilitated the recovery process from
point in depression development, from depression. However, the definition of
manifestation to recovery (Doherty, recovery was found to be varied. Villagi
Hannigan, & Campbell, 2016). Kok and et. al (2015) distinguished two categories
of recovery in mental health conditions, are able to facilitate personal recovery,

namely clinical recovery and personal and is thus helpful in reducing depressive
recovery. The former refers to reduction symptoms. This study highlights the
of symptoms, and the latter looks at the importance of social connectedness, which
change of attitudes, values, goals, or roles, is in accordance with Jose and Lim’s (2014)
even in the presence of mental illness. This view that being connected with other human
view of different definitions was echoed beings is effective in reducing depressive
by Simonds, Pon, Stone, Warren, and John symptoms. Recent studies emphasise online
(2014), as they also hold that recovery might social support, which is helpful to provide
mean a complete symptomatic recovery for social connectedness (Nimrod, 2013; Rice
some people, while for others, recovery et al., 2014). The role of this virtual social
could be a process of regaining mental support can be further investigated among
well-being, or living meaningfully in the the young people in this internet-savvy era.
presence of symptoms. In fact, mental health
and mental illness should be understood IMPLICATIONS
in a continuum, instead of in a binary To the best of the authors’ knowledge,
category, with or without illness. Recovering this is the first review of its kind that
from depression is a process of a gradual specifically focuses on psychosocial factors
transition from the effects of ‘illness’ to a in the recovery of depressive disorders.
healthy life. This meaningful life component The findings of this review provide a
identified by Simonds et al. (2014) can fundamental overview of the current state
neither be categorised under psychological of knowledge in the area, and informs future
nor social factors. Perhaps meaningfulness studies. All the studies included in this
in life belongs to both psychological review are qualitative in nature, covering a
and social aspects. Research identifies variety of population. This approach allows
meaningfulness in life to be obtained by the review to be more comprehensive, in-
engaging in meaningful activities in a social depth and contextualised.
context with strong relational components Clinically, psychosocial interventions
(Kok, Goh, & Gan 2015). After conducting have already been relatively well integrated
this study, the researchers believe that we into current mental health care systems.
need to provide a more supportive and less This review may further inform mental
judgmental (with less stigma) environment health professionals about the facilitative
so that depressed people can derive some psychosocial factors in the journey of
hope from social interaction, to help them recovery from depression. In fact, many of
overcome depression. these psychosocial factors are modifiable
The findings of the present study are also and can be enhanced by evidence-based
supported by other studies. Villagi (2015) psychosocial intervention. The expansion
holds that self-management strategies and enhancement of these favourable factors

must be included in the mental health care periods of literature (for example, studies
plans of individuals with depression. since the 1900s), to observe if there are
changes in emerging themes over time.
LIMITATIONS
There are several noteworthy limitations CONCLUSION
to this review. First, while qualitative The studies that employed a qualitative
studies enabled in-depth exploration of approach on psychosocial factors of
the experience of and the recovery from depression recovery within the time frame
depression, the common limitations that of this review have limitations in terms
these studies shared were their small sample of scope and population. In this review, a
size and possible biases. In addition, the range of psychological and social factors
heterogeneous nature of the studies included was identified. It is acknowledged that the
in this review does not allow meta-synthesis findings of studies that have been reviewed
of data and results. The studies varied in in this paper were influenced by the socio
terms of participants’ diagnoses and severity demographic settings in which the studies
of depressive disorders. Specifically, people were conducted. Three main conclusions
who suffer major depressive disorder have a can be drawn from the studies included in
different recovery journey from those who this review: (1) hope, optimism, resilience,
live with persistent depressive disorder. and self-efficacy, which are termed positive
Also, other psychopathological factors, psychology capital by Luthans and Youssef
such as age of depression onset, duration (2004), are vital for the recovery of
of living with depression, presence or depression; (2) empowerment of oneself,
absence of other psychiatric co-morbidity, which includes self-care, self-improvement,
may significantly influence the experience self-control, and self-discovery, appears
of recovery. Furthermore, majority of to be another core psychological factor
the studies included in this review were that may facilitate recovery of depression;
conducted within Western countries, which (3) various social factors may provide
may have a certain extent of cultural bias. platforms for individuals with depression to
There is an established base of re-construct themselves and functional lives.
research employing quantitative analyses Although these conclusions were developed
of psychosocial factors that are associated from a small body of qualitative literature,
with recovery of depression. However, undisputably, protective psychosocial
it was beyond the scope of the current factors have direct beneficial effects on the
review to assess quantitative findings. It is recovery of depression. This preliminary
recommended that future reviews evaluate narrative review proposes that it may be
quantitative studies using a meta-analysis valuable to further investigate the interplay
approach in this area. It would also be useful of these psychosocial factors. To take
for future reviews to cover more extended advantage of the findings from this review,

future studies may also focus on the best Cornejo, M. S. (2016). Risk and protective factors
practices that strengthen these facilitative for depression among Asian American
college students: A systematic literature
psychosocial factors at the individual,
review. (Unpublished Master’s thesis). Boston
community, and societal levels.
University. Retrieved from https://open.bu.edu/
handle/2144/16771
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Factors Influencing Juveniles’ Perception of the Police in

Karachi, Pakistan
Abdullah Khoso1*, Pasand Ali Khoso2 and Ghulam Mujtab Khushk3,4
1
Gender Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 UM, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
2
Department of Sociology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sindh, Jamshoro-76080, Sindh, Pakistan
3
Department of Social and Development Sciences, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Department of Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agricultural Social Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University,
70060 Tandojam, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this study is to explore the role of juveniles’ personal observation
and their poverty status in influencing their perception of the police. The article draws on
detailed informal interviews with 34 male juveniles on probation in Karachi. This study
found that besides family members, friends and the media, juveniles’ personal observation
of the police’s negative activities in their neighbourhood and vicinities was the leading
factor influencing their perception of the police. All 34 juveniles have seen the police
engaging in negative activities (being involved in crime) in their vicinity. In addition, the
juveniles’ poor socioeconomic status was found to be an important factor in shaping their
negative perception although it was not as significant as the police’s practice of criminalising
the poor. It was also found that the majority of the juveniles were tortured; these juveniles
claimed that they were innocent and were falsely implicated in false cases by the police.
These vicarious encounters reinvigorated
their pre-established negative perception
of the police. The article concludes that
personal observation plays a major role in
shaping juveniles’ perception of the police
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: in Karachi.
Received: 13 May 2015
Keywords: Criminalisation of poor, juvenile justice,
E-mail addresses:
[email protected];
perception of police, socialisation, violence, Pakistan
[email protected] (Abdullah Khoso),
[email protected] (Pasand Ali Khoso),
[email protected] (Ghulam Mujtab Khushk)

INTRODUCTION 2009; Sajid, 2009). However, they do not

In Pakistan, there is no empirical evidence offer any information about the juveniles’
to show juveniles’1 perception of the police, perception of the police.
but there is evidence of the general public’s In many countries, much attention has
perception of them. An ideal example been paid to the negative approach of the
would be a study by Akhtar, Rafiq, Asif police in dealing with the public that has
and Saeed (2012) on the quality of services eroded the trust of young people in the
being provided by the police in the Punjab police, making them less likely to turn to
province of Pakistan. A total of 360 people the police for help (Goodrich, Anderson, &
were selected for the interview through LaMotte, 2014). Therefore, it is important
a generic survey approach (Akhtar et al., to investigate juveniles’ perception of the
2012) but none of the interviewees was a police. Knowledge and understanding of
juvenile or child. A similar type of survey their perception of the police are important
was conducted by Jackson, Asif, Bradford for practitioners, policy-makers and
and Zakar (2014) with 400 adults in Lahore, communities (Romain & Hassell, 2014;
Pakistan, to investigate a link between Flexon, Lurigio, & Greenleaf, 2009) as
four areas of personal experience of police their perception “can influence the degree
corruption, their perception of the fairness and type of interaction people have with the
and effectiveness of the police and their police and the degree of support provided
beliefs about the legitimacy of the police. to the police” (Khondaker, Lambert, & Wu,
However, some attempt in the field of 2013).
juvenile justice has been made to understand The literature variously reports
different aspects of the connection between determinants of juveniles’ perception of
the law (theory) and actual practice, and the police. Among the most significant
this also includes details on the interaction determining factors are demographic
between the police and juveniles (Iqbal, characteristics (race, gender and age),
crime-related variables (victimisation
and perception of neighbourhood crime)
1
According to Section 2 (c) of the United and police conduct variables (personal
Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the and vicarious encounters) (Hurst, 2007).
Administration of Juvenile Justice (“The
Geistman and Smith (2007) asserted that
Beijing Rules”), 1985, “A juvenile offender
is a child or young person who is alleged to American youths’ attitudes towards the
have committed or who has been found to police are inferences of an intricate set of
have committed an offence” (OHCHR, 1985). personal characteristics, social environment
In Section 2 (b) of the Juvenile Justice System
and personal experience.
Ordinance (2000) of Pakistan, a juvenile is a
child who has not attained the age of eighteen Juveniles who do not have direct
years at the time of commission of an offence interaction with the police may form
against which he or she is accused or alleged perception of the police based on information
(Khoso, 2017).

Juveniles’ Perception of the Police
from their friends, family and relatives who of the police and socioeconomic status
have had contact with the police. The theory (Sampson & Bartusch, 1998; Brown &
of socialisation pays much attention on Benedict, 2002; Hagan, Shedd, & Payne,
sources such as family, the neighbourhood, 2005; Avdija, 2010; Brunson & Weitzer,
friends and media, stating that these sources 2011). However, past research remains
have different levels of impact on the unable to offer the views of juveniles who
formation of juveniles’ perception of the are currently passing through the criminal
police, as most of the young boys and girls justice system. The literature shows that
spend more time with their peers in the the influencing factors are related to four
neighbourhood and schools than with their main overlapping categories: demography
parents at homes (Brick, Taylor, & Esbensen, and neighbourhood, prior police contact,
2009; Janeksela, 1999). Additional research vicarious experience and socialisation.
has suggested that the media, including However, in the fields of socialisation and
music and song lyrics, offer an interesting demography, two important factors have not
source for further investigation in the field of been taken into consideration very much.
socialisation of juveniles and the formation These are: (1) Personal observation of
of their perception of the police (Shank, juveniles prior to contact with the police; and
1996; Bowler & Zawilski, 2007). (2) Poverty with no or minimal education.
Demographic characteristics such Therefore, this current research sought to
as race, sex, gender and age have been explore the role of the personal observation
considered the most influential in shaping of juveniles and their socioeconomic
juveniles’ perception of the police (Brown status as these factors are assumed to have
& Benedict, 2007), and much attention influenced their perception of the police
is paid on the investigation of white and either negatively or positively.
black juveniles (Nihart, Lersch, Sellers, &
Mieczkowski, 2005; Geistman & Smith, The Current Study
2007). The studies showed that vicarious
With delinquency becoming a bigger
(or maltreatment by the police) experience
problem in societies, research into this
of juveniles with the police results in
area, as highlighted above, has also been
negative perception of juveniles of the
growing, focussing on the factors that
police (Romain & Hassell, 2014; Flexon et
help to shape or form juveniles’ (out of the
al., 2009; Hurst, McDermott, & Thomas,
criminal justice system) perception of the
2005). If they have had bad experiences
police. However, these studies lack evidence
with the police in the past, juveniles are
of juveniles’ prior personal observation
expected to form a negative attitude towards
of police activities in their surroundings.
the police (Hurst, 2007).
Their observation repeat stories they have
The findings of past studies indicate that
heard from parents, relatives, friends and
there is a relationship between perception
media reporting or representation. Most

of the evidence recorded in past research able to locate some of the addresses but the
is based on interviews with youths who families had moved to other places. With no
were not in contact with the law at the success in finding those children based on
time of the interviews. Additionally, the their addresses, the researcher sought help
juveniles’ socioeconomic status was not from the RPD.
given full weightage in these studies. Most The RPD helped to arrange interviews
importantly, the literature lacks facts on with 34 juvenile inmates, eight of whom
perception of the police by juveniles who were interviewed in the district Malir Court,
are currently passing through the criminal in the office of a probation officer, while 26
justice system, particularly such evidence juveniles were interviewed in the City Courts
from developing countries like Pakistan. Karachi, in the office of a probation officer.
The current study, thus, attempted to study At that time, according to the Assistant
what juveniles have seen and observed Director RPD, only 40 juveniles were
about police activities in their communities, under the custody of the RPD in Karachi
as well as the role of their economic status City. Some of these boys had come to mark
in forming their perception of the police, their monthly attendance in the probation
especially in the context of the police’s officers’ office but the majority were called
vicarious treatment in the Pakistani city in by the probation officers to meet with
of Karachi. Therefore, this article is a first the researcher. It took the researcher about
and brief attempt to highlight Pakistani eight days to meet them at different times,
juveniles’ perception of the police. with each interview taking a minimum of
one hour; however, some interviews took
MATERIAL, CONTEXT AND longer than two hours to talk about different
METHODS aspects of the youths’ life in the police
The findings of this study are based on station. This article focusses only on the
detailed informal interviews conducted treatment they received from the police and
with 34 juveniles on probation with the their perception of the police, as well as the
Reclamation and Probation Department factors that shaped their perception of the
(RPD) of Sindh. Prior to interviewing the 34 police, lock-up cells, courts and prisons.
juveniles, addresses and phone numbers of The researcher manually jotted down the
30 former juvenile inmates were collected young boys’ answers about their sufferings
from the Youth Offenders Industrial School in the criminal justice system of Pakistan on
Karachi. It took many days to search a writing pad using a pen. In the analysis,
for their whereabouts in extremely poor each boy (interviewee) was given a case
localities based on the given addresses in number from 1 to 34 in the same sequence
the megacity of Karachi. The researcher was they were interviewed.

RESULTS garment factory, one was a plumber, one was

a waiter at a restaurant, two were workers
Ages and Families’ Source of
at a welding workshop and two were tailor
Livelihoods
masters working at two different shops.
Table 1 Four of the boys were orphans who lived
Juveniles’ families’ sources of livelihoods
with their mothers and relatives, while the
No of Source of livelihood of their fathers final two used to collect garbage and sleep
juveniles
on the streets.
15 Daily wage labourers
2 Rickshaw (a three-wheel small
vehicle) drivers Charges
1 Peon
Most of the boys were charged on offences
2 Fishermen
that were bailable in light of the Juvenile
1 Business – Recycling of garbage
Justice System Ordinance’s (JJSO),
2 Mechanics at motor workshops
1 Overlock operator in a garment 2000, section 10, since all the offences
factory carried a sentence of less than 10 years of
1 Plumber imprisonment. Out of the 34, five of the boys
1 Waiter at a restaurant had to be released immediately by the police
2 Workers at a welding workshop
as they were underage (below 15 years
2 Tailor masters, working at two
different shops
old); the JJSO provides immediate bail for
4 Orphans who lived with their children under 15 years of age.
mothers and relatives; two of them
used to collect garbage and sleep on
the streets Falsely Implicated
Twelve boys stated that they had been
involved in unlawful activities, while 22
Five of the interviewees were aged between
claimed that they were not involved in any
13 and 15 years, while the other 29 boys were
crime or unlawful act but had been falsely
between 16 and 18 years. Except for four of
implicated by the police and other parties
them, all the others stated that their fathers
in crimes they had not committed. One of
were the main bread earner of the family,
the boys shared that his fault was pillion
but the men did extremely low paying work
riding but the police made out the case as
and belonged to the poor working class.
assault on the police. Another boy said that
Fifteen of the boys shared that their fathers
he had committed no offence, and his only
were daily wage labourers in Karachi, two
crime had been sitting with problematic
were rickshaw (a three-wheel small vehicle)
juvenile offenders in the neighbourhood. He
drivers, one was a peon, two were fishermen,
did not know if his friends had previously
one had a small-scale business recycling
committed any offences; he had been
garbage, two were mechanics at a motor
charged with the crime even though his
workshop, one was an overlock operator in a

friends had repeatedly informed the police know only two languages, money or torture”
officials that he was innocent. (Case 19). Another boy also shared view,
which was also negative, “I did not know
The Only Language the Police Know Is that they really beat humans like people
That of Money and Torture used to beat animals. They treated us like
dogs” (Case 17). A similar view was shared
Out of the 34 boys, four said that they had
by another boy, who said that he had been
not been physically tortured by the police
beaten very badly and in one encounter, had
but they claimed that they had been harassed
been threatened with death (Case 28).
and mentally tortured, while the 30 other
boys said that they had been physically and
mentally tortured by the police. All the boys Juveniles’ Personal Observation
had been kept in police lock-ups with adults When these boys were asked how they
and 20 boys had been tortured severely. One had learnt even before their arrest that the
of the young boys had even been tortured to police were bad, the majority claimed that
the extent that he had been unable to stand their perception was based on personal
and walk. Looking at his severe condition, observation of the negative activities of
the judge had not allowed his remand in the police; however, only nine boys shared
police custody. All the boys stated that this personal observation of negative police
they had been handcuffed while in police activities. The first interviewee offered a
custody, including when they were in front general image of the police in Karachi. He
of the judge and had been dragged from the said, “You ask everyone on the street about
police station to the courtroom together with the police, they will say one thing, ‘The
adults who had been accused. police are bad’” (Case 1). According to a 16-
One of the boys claimed, “The police year old interviewee who had spent seven
did not physically torture me, but I saw days in the police lock-up, he was not the
many poor boys and men beaten by them only one who knew it; everyone in Karachi
for money” (Case 2). Another boy shared, knew that the police were bad. The police
“I was beaten most of the time at the police caught young boys without any reason and
station” (Case 6). Another boy added that created problems for poor people. He said
he had been physically tortured by police that the name ‘police’ had come to signify
personnel through kicking, the use of fists, ‘fear’ because “Everyone knows that they
rolls and plastic pipes for beating and being beat a lot and no one can stop them. Before
turned upside down (Case 11). As a result of my arrest I knew about them because they
severe police torture, some of the boys had had arrested my friends and people in my
a negative view of the police. For instance, neighbourhood. They were beaten for no
one boy disclosed that, “They only know to crime” (Case 30).
torture and kill” (Case 16), while another Another boy offered more or less the
boy supported this view, stating that “They same view but offered specific information.

He shared that he knew bad things about the everything from us.” He added, “Before my
police because he had seen the police beating arrest, many times I personally saw them
people on the roads. He further stated that looting people on the road. One day on our
the police always set up roadblocks. He main road, which was a one-minute walking
stated, ‘Whenever I walked by that road I distance, the police tried to stop two young
felt a shiver in my body because of those boys on a motorbike. However, they did
policemen, no one told me the police are not stop, so the police started firing at them
bad. I saw that most of the time they were causing them to be badly injured. These
doing bad things to people. They took boys had no pistol or anything illegal with
peoples’ money from their pockets; I saw them” (Case 9).
them doing it at police pickets’ (Case 7). Another boy shared his observation, “I
A young boy was arrested for keeping was very young. I did not know who the
an illegal pistol and a stolen mobile. He police were. I saw people protesting on
confessed that he was involved in mobile the main road for no water supply to their
snatching and that he had had a pistol area and the police were beating them. I
with him at the time. Before he joined asked my father as I was curious about who
the company of bad boys, he had already those people were who were beating the
known about the police as a corrupt gang protesters. My father told me the men were
of people who did not respect anyone. policemen’ (Case 13). A 17-year-old boy
According to him, “People joined the police shared that he and his friends were snatching
force to make money and lived a powerful mobile phones and that they were carrying
life in their vicinities.” He added, “In my pistols. They were arrested right after
neighbourhood most of the boys wanted to snatching a mobile phone. The police kept
join the police force. I also wanted to join them only for two days in police lock-up at
it because we wanted to make money and the Police Station in the Defence area, and
live a good life. I see some policemen in our they were tortured by only one policeman.
neighbourhood leading a very good life and He shared that he knew as a fact that ‘police’
people are scared of them” (Case 3). This meant power and money. Therefore, he
boy indicated that the police were perceived wanted to join the police because it is easy
as corrupt, and he had personally witnessed to become rich by joining the police force.
some of their corrupt acts while observing He shared, “I have seen a police constable in
them in his neighbourhood. my neighbourhood. He was extremely poor
A 13-year-old boy claimed that he had but within three years he bought his own car
been charged for theft and had spent four and made a house. I always saw him with
days in the police lock-up. He said, ‘The criminal people who used to sell narcotics”
police are not good. I was always afraid (Case 14).
of them. I did not consider that the police Slightly different observations were
could protect us but they would take away shared by a 15-year-old boy who had spent

seven days in police lock-up although he said that they had heard negative stories
had committed no crime. According to him, about the police from their neighbours and
he already had knowledge of the police’s friends, respectively.
bad behaviour towards people, mainly
young people, and he had seen some of Everyone knows that the Police are Bad
their negative activities being committed in
Although it was the first time the interviewees
his aunt’s neighbourhood. He said, “Once
had personal experience of police violence
I was visiting my aunt’s house, I noticed
and abuse as victims, they declared that even
noise on the ground floor. I went downstairs
before their arrest they very much knew
and noticed that a policeman had caught
about the negative image of the police. One
two young boys, and he was slapping and
of the boys shared that he already knew
dragging them. These boys were in their
the police were a corrupt gang of people
college uniforms, they had just returned
(Case 3). Another boy shared that before
from the college. I heard the police were
his arrest he knew that the police were
saying that they had stolen a motorbike’
dangerous (Case 10). Yet another claimed
(Case 16). Another boy stated that at the
that “Everyone in the city [Karachi] knows
time of his arrest, he was scared that he
about the negative role of police... if they
would also be treated in the same way like
become good, all bad people will be good”
a boy in his neighbourhood, of whom he
(Case 21). These statements implied that
said, “He was beaten so badly that he was
all who were arrested and then interviewed
admitted in hospital for many days. The
would be likely to say that the police were
police did the same to me. I was beaten and
bad. Another boy said that he already knew
threatened to be killed in an encounter, but
before his arrest that the police were “Bad
I was not hospitalised” (Case 28).
people and I was caught by bad people, and
everyone knows that police are bad because
Other Sources in Shaping Perception of they have power to arrest anyone, put him
the Police in lock-up, and send him to jail” (Case 23).
Nine participants also disclosed different Other boys had similar negative views about
mixed sources of information about the the police.
negative image of the police, mentioning These incidents clearly indicated that
multiple media sources that included private the police’s image in Karachi City was not
news channels (Geo and Express), dramas good. The police were known in negative
(they did not mention which dramas in terms such as, “They are corrupt,” “Servants
particular), newspapers (mainly Urdu) and of rich people,” “They are criminals,” “They
Indian films. Five boys mentioned family do not respect anyone,” “Police means
members and relatives as some of the problem started,” “The police is the name
sources of information and stories of the of fear because they only beat and always
negative activities of police, and eight boys threaten to kill.”

Violence Reinforces Negative Image another boy, who stated, “Everyone in the
An additional finding of the research was city [Karachi] knows about the negative role
that rampant violence had reinforced the of the police”.
negative image of the police. Knowledge
acquired through different sources about Treatment of the Poor
the bad or negative image of the police All of young interviewees belonged to the
accompanied by personal observation of lower rungs of the socioeconomic class
police behaviour while in custody had (Table 1) as their families were lowly paid.
reinforced the negative image of the police While mentioning their sufferings at the
held by these 34 boys. Out of 34, 12 claimed hands of the police due to class, one boy
that they were innocent; theoretically, a said, “I have experienced how bad the
person whether innocent or not, if caught police treat poor people” (Case 1). Another
and tortured by the police, is justified in his interviewee suggested that poor boys are
view of the police being negative (Romain beaten for money, stating, “I saw many
& Hassell, 2014; Flexon et al., 2009). The poor boys and men being beaten by them
courts had yet to decide if these boys were for money” (Case 2). Another boy said,
innocent; however, all of them (except for “The police never cared about poor people”
four) claimed that they were physically (Case 6).
tortured by the police and that they had Some boys directly mentioned the
seen many other poor people being tortured value of money and power, and that there
during their many days in custody at the was a lesser value for those who did not
police station. For obvious reasons, their have money. One boy informed, “They
negative view of the police would certainly catch, beat, insult and disrespect only poor
grow stronger and be reaffirmed in their people” (Case 7). Another boy said that
minds. “The police badly treat all poor people at the
When they were asked to give their police station but do nothing to rich people
opinion about the police after they had been because rich people gave them money and
treated badly, all of them stated that it had have power as they belonged to political
become more negative. One of the boys parties” (Case 8). Another boy added that
said, “I will believe everyone in this city but “The police do not arrest strong people or
I will never believe in the goodness of the those who have political support; they would
police” (Case 17). Some of the boys related arrest only weak and helpless people” (Case
their stories with those of other people in 11). There were also other negative views
Karachi City, such as, “You ask everyone in the same context. One juvenile said that
on the street about the police, they will “They do not listen to poor people. They just
say the police are bad. I have experienced beat. If you give them money, they would
how badly the police treat poor people” not touch you” (Case 15). “They are servants
(Case 1). A similar view was expressed by of rich people” (Case 17). “They only arrest

innocent and poor people” (Case 18). “They details under heading ‘Falsely Implicated’).
are enemies of poor people” (case 20 and The 22 boys were, according to the facts as
22). “They block roads and arrest poor stated by them, innocent, and even if they
people” (Case 25). “They create problems were not, they deserved better treatment
for poor people” (Case 30). “For them, the as outlined in the Juvenile Justice System
poor are not humans” (Case 33). Ordinance (JJSO) and the United Nations
The study found that in the view of the Conventions on the Rights of the Child.
boys, there was a common practice of the Even the remaining 12 boys who confessed
criminalisation of the poor by the police. In that they had committed offences ought
many of the boys’ views (with reference to not to have been treated inhumanely but
Cases 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15, 18, 20, 22, 25, according to provisions enshrined in the
30 and 33), the police caught poor people, law. Since they had already been through the
while some of the boys (with reference to harsh criminal justice system of Pakistan,
Cases, 8, 14, 17 and 24) said that the police there was no reason to disbelieve them. The
did not catch rich people. The source of point is, however, why were these innocent
income of these boys’ families suggested boys falsely implicated? What happened
that the boys belonged to extremely poor to the boys is not merely acts of violence,
families (Table 1), which to some extent, torture and abuse at the hands of the police
justified their view that criminalisation of against 34 boys but the exploitation and
poor boys is a common practice in the city. victimisation of thousands of children whom
they represented, in addition to the poor and
DISCUSSION the working class (Yale Law School, 2014;
Khoso & Yew, 2015).
The views of all 34 boys offered an immense
In South Asia, Pakistan is one of the
account of the deplorable state of human
countries where torture and abuse of children
rights of children (below 18 years of
in police lock-ups, and also the use of harsh,
age) in police stations in Karachi. It also
abusive or obscene language is reported
shows that implication in false cases and
to be common (UNICEF, 2006). The
criminalisation of poor are interlinked and
United Nations Committee on the Rights
also deeply rooted in the criminal justice
of the Child in its Concluding Observations
system of Pakistan, which is believed
revealed deep concerns about reports of
to serve the interests of people who are
torture and ill-treatment of children by
economically and politically strong. These
police officers in detention facilities in
factors need to be discussed from the
Pakistan (United Nations, 2009). From 2011
perspective of Pakistani structural criminal
to 2013, 224 police officials were reported
violence. This would not be necessary if
by the media to be involved in child sexual
the 22 boys, out of the total of 34, were
abuse cases, 10 of which were reported
lying or claiming to be innocent (see more
to have occurred in policemen’s personal

residential quarters and 18 in police stations rural and urban areas of Pakistan, the police
(Sahil, 2011, 2012, & 2013). work to serve the interests of the feudal
Why would the Pakistani police torture and capitalist elite. The elite have a strong
the detained? It was found that torture influence on the police and what goes on in
is considered an acceptable practice in police stations, commonly known as thana,
Pakistani culture. “Pakistan is a country with meaning police station. Thana culture in
high incidence of intra-family violence” Pakistan has come to refer to how the poor
(Mansoor, 2010). The state allows for the seem to be implicated by the police in false
torturing of citizens through its criminal cases (Ali, 2015).
justice system, which in turn justifies torture Thana culture has given authority and
within families. Consequently, Pakistani power to the police to illegally detain the
society has become more violent and innocent and the poor without having to
intolerant, and this seems to be allowing a give any reasons or on false grounds. Thana
foothold for a rise in cases of honour killing culture (or culture of torture or violence)
(South Asians for Human Rights, 2011). is essentially a product of colonial law,
Pakistani society is infested with extremism, stemming from the Police Act of 1861.
intolerance and violent behaviour. As a After independence in 1947 from the
routine matter, children across the country British colonisers, Pakistan adopted and
are battered, beaten, hit, slapped and spanked continued the Police Act 1861, allowing
by their guardians and teachers. In 2011, a the harsh treatment of criminals that was
media channel showed the police officials framed and regulated under colonial law
in one of the cities in Pakistan flogging a to continue and not be superseded by child
16-year-old boy in public on charges of protection law such as the Juvenile Justice
stealing a mobile phone. A senior police System Ordinance (JJSO). In the Police
officer commented that this kind of open Act, the police served as the enforcement
punishment creates “fear of the police arm of state bureaucracy, controlling people
among the public, and believe me, 80% of through ‘repression and fear’. Perito and
the crime is controlled in this way” (Khoso, Parvez (2014) believed that “Thana culture
2011). primarily serves the interests of the political
Many police officials of low rank elite, the wealthy, and those who demand
use the criminalisation of the poor and special treatment.” They also added that
helpless as a show of good performance to the majority of Pakistanis “fear the police
impress their bosses. Since the police remain and seek their assistance as a last resort.
unable to access, identify and catch actual Widespread corruption, high-handedness
offenders, they implicate disadvantaged and abusive behaviour have soared in
children in crimes committed by others police-community relations” (Perito &
(Khoso & Yew, 2015) to avoid pressure Parvez, 2014). Abbas (2011) believed that in
from their superiors. In addition, in the the eyes of the public, Pakistan’s police are

corrupt, incompetent and brutal; therefore, image of an institution that is meant to be

“justice is elusive, insecurity is rampant, responsible and which was established to
and ordinary citizens are the victims of this protect citizens, both adults and children.
system. Even internal police assessments The interviewees had heard, watched, seen
acknowledge the police force’s lack of and observed instances that portrayed the
credibility in the public eye”. police in a negative light, but their views
It would appear that, based on the and perception became stronger, or were
above discussion, the views and perception reinforced, after their personal experience
of these 34 boys affirm the pre-established of being tortured, degraded and treated
violent and negative image of the police inhumanely (Norman, 2009).
in Karachi, perhaps even in the whole of The interviewees’ perception of the
Pakistan. All 34 boys categorically stated police was formed along extremely negative
that they already knew that the police were terms by the media and their parents,
bad, and after their interaction with the friends and neighbours, but their personal
police, their negative views of the police observation of the police was a strong
were reinforced. “The police are bad,” was influencing factor in shaping their views
a common evaluation of the police among and perception of the police. The statements
the interviewees. they made in the interviews suggested that
The police played a major role in their negative views about the police have
constructing the negative perception of become firmly imprinted on their minds
themselves that is now generally portrayed forever.
by the media and society (family members, The police were themselves responsible
relatives, friends, neighbours); this seemed for the construction of this negative image in
to be confirmed by the interviewees, who the perception of the interviewees. In terms
had been the unfortunate victims of police of observation, one route of construction
brutality. The interviewees’ personal of such a negative perception of the police
encounter with the police, including their was the police’s own behaviour of indulging
being falsely implicated in criminal acts in acts such as blocking roads, taking
and the physical and mental torture they money and taking bribes, all of which
were subjected to reinforced their negative were mentioned by the juveniles in their
perception/image of the police. Therefore, personal observation. At the same time, the
the point is not that juveniles or children media and socialisation also contributed to
have a negative perception of the police after the formation of this negative perception.
a bad personal encounter with the police However, it is not clear whether the media
(Romain & Hassell, 2014; Stewart, Morris, or socialisation reaffirmed the juveniles’
& Weir, 2014; Brick et al., 2009; Dowler & personal observation about the police’s
Zawilski, 2007) but that society as a whole negative activities. This research was also
contributes to the construction of such an not able to discover which factors were the

first to influence the juveniles’ perception and perceive the police, who are gatekeepers
of the police i.e. whether their personal of the criminal justice system in developing
observation first influenced their perception countries like Pakistan. The findings of this
of the police or information shared by family study will enlighten policy-makers and
members, friends, relatives and the media administrators on how the criminal justice
as part of their socialisation was the first. system can protect the human rights of
This area requires further investigation. children in police custody. In order to protect
However, as far as the police’s vicarious children from violence and abuse in the
behaviour is concerned, this study revealed criminal justice system, merely passing laws
that the negative treatment of the juveniles is insufficient, and rigorous institutional
in custody at police stations strengthened efforts are required to change the attitude
their negative perception of the police. of policemen towards children.
CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study found several strong as well This research would not have been conducted
as weak factors that influenced juveniles’ without the support of Ghulam Madni
perception of the police. Parents, relatives, Memon (Judicial Magistrate in Sindh)
friends and the media were somehow and Manzoor Hussain, Assistant Director,
meagre factors; personal observation was Reclamation and Probation Department,
the most important factor in socialising Sindh, who helped the researcher to connect
juveniles’ perception of the police. Besides and set up interviews with the juveniles.
low socioeconomic status, criminalisation
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The Resistance of Local Wisdom Towards Radicalism: The

Study of the Tarekat Community of West Sumatra, Indonesia
Welhendri Azwar
Department of Islamic Community Development, Faculty of Da’wah and Communication,
The State Islamic University of Imam Bonjol Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
In West Sumatra, radicalism does not develop and even tends to decease because of the
self-defense system of the local society, in the form of the religious and socio-cultural
system that arises from the doctrine, values and teachings of Islam practised by the Tarekat
community. The study aims to understand the conceptual world of the Tarekat community
faith towards radicalism and to explain the struggle of radical idealism in the midst of
the dynamics of the religious Tarekat culture in West Sumatra. This research uses the
descriptive-phenomenological approach. Focus group discussion was first conducted with
the teachers (mursyid) and members of the Tarekat congregation followed by in-depth
interviews with the teachers and members of the congregation. Observation was made to
examine the socio-cultural conditions of the Tarekat community surrounding their activities
in relation to their religious teachings and ideals. This study found that firstly, the fusion of
Tarekat teachings with the Minangkabau culture was not conducive to the rise of radical
idealism in West Sumatra; secondly, the resilience of Tarekat religious culture and the
local wisdom of the Minangkabau prevented radicalism from taking root in the Tarekat
community, thus reducing conflict, and; thirdly, the opposition of the Tarekat to radicalism
seen in its practice of dakwah culture, has shaped its lifestyle and response to the world.
Keywords: Resistance, local wisdom, Tarekat community, radicalism
INTRODUCTION
The escalation of violence due to radicalism
ARTICLE INFO and its growing intensity has made radicalism
Article history: a hot topic of discussion locally, nationally
Received: 01 August 2016
Accepted: 30 November 2017 and internationally. Whether carried out
E-mail address: by individuals or groups of society, acts
[email protected] (Welhendri Azwar)

Welhendri Azwar
of violence resulting from radical ideas The emergence of Tarekat groups as a

derived from religious teachings is causing religious institution in Islamic society is a
consternation around the world. It is not manifestation of the dynamism of Islamic
surprising, then, that suspicions arise that teaching. The presence of the Tarekat
religious educational institutions, especially group in the history of Islamic civilisation,
traditional ones, such as pesantren (Islamic according to Azra (2007), “contributes to
boarding school) in Java, the surau 1 or the process of urban society formation, and
meunasah in Minangkabau, are suspected plays an important role in spreading the
to be cells for the development of radical idea of Islamic renewal to various Islamic
behaviour. For Muslims, this generalisation worlds, including to the archipelago” (p.
is a stigma that impedes efforts to deal with 145). The movement became known as
social unrest and social problems that should neo-Sufism, a movement that attempted
instead be addressed carefully and wisely. to reconcile Sufi and the Sharia teaching.
In the context of Minangkabau culture, Certain rituals in religious practice are
the surau religious education institution, typical of Tarekat groups, and this identity is
socio-historically, is the birthplace and an interesting phenomenon in the dynamics
development of many charismatic Muslim of Islamic societies.
scholars who have been able to create a In the Indonesian archipelago,
calm, peaceful and dynamic environment by Tarekat not only plays a role in the initial
emphasizing the importance of integration Islamisation process; it also contributes
or social cohesion. to various social, cultural, political and
economic processes within urban society.
The strength of the group’s network is based
1
Surau is the oldest educational institution on the collective piety and obedience to the
in Minangkabau; even before Islam entered
teachers (mursyid), which allows them to
Minangkabau, surau already existed. With the
coming of Islam, surau became Islamised but develop a stable institutional network and
retained its name. The surau in Minangkabau to play a role in social reform and change,
culture is a great tradition of the Indonesian both structurally and culturally (Azra, 2007,
religious institution. Surau is a religious
p. 147).
institution of society that acts as a prominent
Islamic teaching centre and the starting point Tarekat culture in West Sumatra is built
of Islamisation in Minangkabau. As a Tarekat on two main pillars, namely Islam and adat
centre, the surau is also e a Minangkabau (custom) Minangkabau. These two pillars
fortress against the negative influence of
shape the attitude and behaviour of the
modernisation. Surau is not just a place to
study religion, learn to read al-Quràn or learn people. The important implications of this
adab; it is also a place the centre of scholarship compounding can be seen in the peaceful
in Muslim communities; here, Muslims study coexistence of humanist-inclusive, well-
their holy book and learn to debate on matters
mannered and civilised people with socialist
of religion and science (Azwar, 2015, pp. 293–
308). ideas and activities (Azwar, 2015, p. 153).

The Resistance of Local Wisdom towards Radicalism
Therefore, it is difficult for radicalism to society is characterised by the reversal

develop in Minangkabau society because of values, and this is a direct threat upon
it is blocked by cultural and religious community, integration and togetherness
mechanisms. It would be interesting to study (Sztompka, 2007, p. 330).
how Tarekat teaching, which is the basis of In the context of religious movements,
the local wisdom of West Sumatera, blocks radicalism, anarchism or violence has
radicalism. How does Tarekat teaching tended to increase or at least emerge and
fortify the people of West Sumatra from then disappear in recent years. The rise
developing radical understanding? of radicalism and radical movements is
rooted in the fact that there are growing
LITERATURE REVIEW interpretations, understanding, streams,
denominations and even sects within (intra)
Religious Understanding and
one particular religion. In Muslim societies,
Radicalism
religious radicalism is derived largely from
Radicalism is the expression of extreme literal, piecemeal and ad hoc religious
beliefs that are often expressed through understanding of certain verses of the
aggressive and violent behaviour and Qur’an. Such understanding barely leaves
provocative speech. As a movement, it seeks room for accommodation and compromise
to overthrow an existing order whose beliefs with moderate Muslim groups, and therefore
are considered a watered down version it threatens the mainstream of the ummah
of what they should be. Radicalist groups or society.
engage in and encourage extreme and Religious radicalism in Islam can
violent acts to extablish their own beliefs, also originate from false readings of
which they proclaim are the true, correct and Islamic history combined with excessive
accurate version. Radicalist religious groups idealisation of a particular period of Islam.
stretch religious teachings, giving them an This is seen in the views and movements
emotional stance that leads to violence and of the Salafi, especially in the very radical
anarchism. Typically, radicalism is the act beliefs of Wahabiyyah, which appeared in
of violent change by manipulating religious the Arabian peninsula in the late 18th century
doctrine and using religious symbols. The and continues to develop today. The main
word ‘radical’ is often used to indicate total theme of this Salafi group is the purification
rejection of all conditions. of Islam, and the focus is on cleansing Islam
The various complexities of life are of beliefs and practices that the group see
a powerful impetus for the emergence of as bid’ah or heresy. Such cleansing is often
radical movements. Modern societies have done through violent means.
given rise to an impersonal gesellschaft, Religious radicalism can also gain
what Riesman (1961) called a “lonely additional impetus from the political, social
crowd”, resulting from a deep sense of and economic deprivation that may persist
alienation in the modern psyche. Modern

Welhendri Azwar
in society. At the same time, disorientation, the emergence of a radical attitude. In his
socio-cultural dislocation and the excesses of analysis, all existing religions, if they were
globalisation, among other social pressures, to become exclusive and close the door to
are additional factors important to the dialogue, will lead to justification of radical
emergence of radical groups. These radical or terror acts. The growing tendency is to
groups often take the form of a cult that is take verses to justify the group’s ideology,
exclusive, closed and centred on someone such as mati syahid or martyrdom” (pp. 27–
who is viewed as charismatic. Groups with 34). The same idea was expressed by Alwi
certain eschatological dogmas even view the Shihab (2003) in his book Islam Inclusive;
world as nearing its end and the apocalypse, he stated, “In fact the narrowing of the space
and proclaim that it is time to repent through of interpretation of religion that is bestowed
their leaders and group. Such doctrines, with upon human kinds will actually inhibit
their particular eschatological slant, then diversity in the direction of perfection.
draw reactions from mainstream religions, Religion is basically giving sufficient space
and this can lead to social conflict. for adherents to express Islam according to
In the context of radicalism in the the social context surrounding it” (p. 12).
name of Islam in Indonesia, according In its history and development, Islam
to Azra (2011), the root of the problem in Indonesia was influenced by many
begins with a fragmentary and ad hoc experiences. Indonesian Islam is also
understanding of the verses of the Qur’an inseparable from the interests of various
that barely provides accommodation space parties, both local and transnational. In this
and compromise with other moderate context, according to eminent historian,
mainstream Muslim groups. In this context, Ricklefs (2006), cultural and religious
a narrow understanding of religion tends to transitions in Indonesia contributed to the
be rigid and potentially false. Moreover, present religious dynamics in Indonesia.
what exactly this understanding is is not On the other hand, Azra (1999) saw
openly discussed. Religious sentiment such radicalism in the name of religion or as a
as religious solidarity based on perceived purely social phenomenon, as a deviant
oppression or emotional factors are played movement. In recent years, radicalism,
up as causes for radicalism. In essence, anarchism or religious violence exhibited by
radicalism is a theological problem, as it is a radical Muslim groups has been increasing,
religious movement that tries to completely not only towards other religions, such as
overhaul an existing social order through Christianity, but also within the religion,
violence. towards moderate Muslim groups.
Juergensmeyer in his book Terror in the Like idealism, Islamic radicalism
Mind of God quoted Pranowo (2011), who cannot be separated from fundamentalism
asserted that “the factor of understanding or revivalism because both are rooted in
of religion that is not right also resulted in the same spiritual movement. The flow of

Islamic radicalism was begun by radical in language means ‘path, state and flow of
Islamic groups both local and transnational. certain lines’ (Luis Maklub, 1973). Ahmad
Bellah (2009) stated that Islamic teaching Warson (1984) added that Tarekat also
was too modern for its time so it was means kaedah or usluub (‘system’), what is
difficult to understand by the world at that noble in people (syariif al-qaum). The same
time, even by Muslims themselves after the definition was proposed by Elias Authan and
Prophet Muhammad SAW. The tendency Edwar Elias, that Tarekat is a way, method
towards radicalism and religious militancy and system of belief (Said 2007; Azwar,
can also be explained as a reaction against 2015, p. 178; Amar, 1980, p. 11).
the disorientation of values brought about by Aboebakar Atjeh (1993) argued that
modernisation. Modernisation disrupted life “the Tarekat is the way, the guidance in
and brought about drastic change, not only performing a worship in accordance with
in advanced industrial countries, but also in the teachings determined and exemplified by
developing countries. the Prophet, and done by friends and tabi’in,
from generation to generation, to the teacher,
Religious Beliefs of the Tarekat continuously like a chain sequence” (p. 67).
Community The congregation attempts to approach God
based on what the Qur’an and Sunnah teach.
A major religion, such as Islam, Christianity,
Thus, the Tarekat relies on the teachings
Hinduism or Buddhism, will manifest
of Islam. Sayyed Husein Nasr said of the
itself in the ideology and behaviour of its
Tarekat congregation that it “is the heart
followers in different ways throughout
of the teachings of Islam, though hidden
history and from place to place. An
from view, it becomes the inner source of
appropriate environment and understanding
life and the center that governs all Islamic
of religious doctrine will emerge from time
religious activities” (Azwar, 2015, p. 179).
to time as a special movement of religious
The use of the term Tarekat in the sense of
behaviour. One variation of religious life
Sufism is the result of the development of
in Islam was the emergence of the Tarekat
the semantic meaning of the word itself, as
movement pioneered by the Sufis.
is the case with the word Shari’at used for
Religious experience can be classified
Islamic law (Madjid, 1995, p. 257).
into two major types, esoteric and exoteric.
The Tarekat differentiate between
Esoteric experience is concerned with the
the terms Shari’ah, tariqat, haqiqat and
aspect of the bathiniyah (essence), while
ma’rifat. According to them, Shari’ah
exoteric experience emphasises outward
improves the deeds of the body or physical
or formal religious concerns (shari’at).
deeds, thariqat improves the deeds of the
The Tarekat congregation emphasises the
heart and soul, haqiqat is the practice of the
depth of inner experience while accepting
mystical secrets and ma’rifat is the ultimate
diversity. The word ‘Tarekat’ is derived from
goal, which is to know the nature of Allah
the Arabic tariiqah (plural, tharaaiq) which

Welhendri Azwar
SWT (the Most Glorified, the Most High) establishing the value of ‘congregation’,
in substance, nature and deed (Atjeh, 1993, which prioritises the common interest
p. 395–404). Ma’rifat is the appreciation above the interests of individuals, serving to
of the absolute oneness of God s.w.t. in the strengthen the legitimacy of the validity of
form of the universe and in His own being. values and social systems; and (4) teaching
This understanding brings together the simplicity, nature of life and the value
meaning of tawakkal and tawhid, referring of optimism, while at the same time not
to total surrender of the individual to Allah encouraging consumptive and capitalistic
SWT, releasing him or her from absolute behaviour such as explained in Weber’s
dependence on anything other than Allah Protestant Ethics, but rather, teaching on the
SWT. People who have reached the stage of importance of the effort to change based on
ma’rifat are called wali, and are believed to the value of inner tranquility, as contained
have supernatural abilities called karamah. in the doctrine of barakah (p. 261–262).
In the Sufi tradition, there is a postulate The four functions of the Tarekat
that says “man ‘arafa nafsahu faqad’ mentioned above can be observed from
arafa rabbahu,” meaning “one who knows the thinking and behaviour of the jama’ah
himself or herself can easily know his or (congregation). Social relationships are
her God”. Thus, self-knowledge is the route based on the senses, and not just on the
to knowing God. Congeniality provides intellect. That is, people are taught to balance
for a deeper meaning in approaching the between their senses and thinking in all
teachings of Islam. The congregation actions and deeds. This is the main purpose
emphasises sincerity, piety, patience and of the teaching and practice of Tarekat,
submission to Allah SWT. Some teachers namely, to train people in experiencing
such as those who teach on fiqh, kalam and and applying Godliness, brotherhood and
fuqahak do not focus on these aspects and friendship, among other things. In these
often regard the Tarekat as a misleading circumstances, the Tarekat forms a humanist
practice. perspective for the individual, guiding them
Azwar (2015) explained that the in releasing their fitrah (natural tendency).
Tarekat congregation focused on four social The birth of mutual respect and good
functions, namely (1) providing emotional manners rather than an individualistic,
support for the failures and uncertainties of materialistic attitude is the aim of Tarekat
life; (2) offering transcendental connection culture, and this is what characterises
through ritual worship ceremonies that can Tarekat groups.
provide an emotional basis as a frame of In West Sumatra, especially among
reference for attitude and action, including the Minangkabau, the meeting between
in an atmosphere of conflict, disagreement sense and thought is known as raso jo
and disagreements that promote stability, pareso, and is a frame of reference in
general security and the social system; (3) social relationships. The Minangkabau

hold firm to adat (custom) and Islam. The Sumatra. Inspired by the older religious
blend of adat and Islam creates a unique movement, they also remain in contact
indigenous lifestyle that keeps attracting with radical religious groups. Contact with
the attention of social scientists and people radical religious groups is made possible
in general. The Minangkabau are known because of religious education. Increasing
for their matrilineal system of hierarchy opportunities for locals to pursue religious
and inheritance and the unique balance of education in the Middle East has led also to
power between men and women. Today, exposure to other religious movements and
these customs have become blended in their ideas, which are the brought back to
with the traditions and teachings of Islam, the local community.
making the Minangkabau a dynamic society. West Sumatra, since the advent of the
The dynamic blend of adat and Islam has Paderi (Padre) movement, has become the
given rise to the new wisdom practised most popular area for exploring Salafi-
by the Minangkabau. Their philosophy of style Islamic teaching (Bolland, 1985, p.
alam takambang jadi guru (natural law as 123; Wahid, 2009, p. 29) through the hajj
the teacher of life) is their interpretation of performed in Saudi Arabia; the hajj journey
the teachings of Islam, namely sunnatullah, exposes locals to the array of religious
as expressed through their unique culture. ideas propagated in the Middle East. After
Indonesia’s independence in the 20th century,
Radicalism and Its Movement in West the organisation was mobilised by M. Natsir.
Sumatera Many West Sumatrans were sent to Suadi
Arabia and the Middle East to learn about
Radicalism in West Sumatra originated
Islam. Those who returned continue to teach
from a purification movement of teachings
salafi ideology in West Sumatra in an effort
and religious practices (Islam) conducted
to spread transnational ideology (Noer,
by young men who had just returned from
1987, p. 59).
studying in Saudi Arabia and Egypt. These
Radical Islam in West Sumatra appears
young men, referred to as ‘The Youth
to have emerged after the ‘New Order’
Group’, were influenced by the Wahabi
government collapsed. Transnational
movement started by Muhammad bin
models, such as Hizb ut-Tahrir and Salafi,
Abdul Wahab. However, Wahabiism was
are motivated by Shari’ah (nizam al-Islam)
inconsistent with the teachings of Islam as
as practised by the Islamic caliphate. The
practised by the Minangkabau. The group
Islamic Defenders Front (FPI) established
that chose to defend the local practice of
amar ma’ruf and nahyi munkar to defend
Islam (Islam-Minangkabau) became known
the teachings of Islam, while local Islamic
as the ‘Old Group’.
radical groups such as ‘Paga Nagari’ and the
In today’s context, radicalism and its
Committee of Islamic Sharia Enforcement
different movements, especially the religious
(KPSI) seek to enforce Islamic Shari’ah
ones, exist as organised movements in West

Welhendri Azwar
through the Regional Regulation (Perda). seemed to have left that tradition far behind,
Although there are differences between and groups such as KPSI were determined
radical organisations and other Islamic to return the region to its original stance.
organisations, both share the same goal of Today, Islamic radicalism in West
enforcing Islamic law. Sumatra does not seem to have reached
The Islamic organisation, KPSI, seeks the alarming level of radicalism in other
to reform the practice of Islam through the regions, such as Jakarta, Solo, Poso and
Paderi movement. The Paderi movement in West Java. More specifically, it is said that
West Sumatra was developed in the past. Islamic radicalism is far different from what
KPSI is a local Islamic organisation that the Paderi group had ever intended, and
was born and nurtured in West Sumatra, participation in radicalism in West Sumatra
as documented in the groups records dated remains weak.
2002. It was set up to respond to local
social-religious and political phenomena. RESEARCH METHOD
The effort of Islamic organisations like this This research used the descriptive-
was to win sympathy from the community phenomenological approach to study the
in order to take over leadership of the Tarekat group and its conduciveness for
community (Roy, 2005, p. 94; Abaza, 1993, the growth and development of radicalism
p. 17). KPSI is one of the local organisations in Minangkabau society in West Sumatera.
that is committed to enforcing Islamic According to Nazir (1988), the “Descriptive
Shari’ah. Their struggle is in the spirit of the research method is a study to examine the
Paderi movement and applies the religious problems in society, as well as various
principles of the Paderi movement. phenomena that occur in society in certain
KPSI, established in 2002, stems from situations, including about relationships,
the idea of a number of young people activities, attitudes, views and processes
concerned about the development of West The ongoing effect of a phenomenon” (pp.
Sumatera society and the behaviour of 63–64). Phenomenology, as described by
Muslims who seemed to be drifting farther Alfred Schutz, is “the attempt to interpret
away from sha’riah. Society was beginning and explain the actions and thoughts
to show rampant moral misbehaviour; of society by describing the reality that
gambling and dunkenness were common, appears” real “in the eyes of every person”
whereas originally, the people of West (Holstein & Gubrium, 2009, p. 336). In
Sumatra had adhered to the philosophy this study, research was conducted to
of adat basandi syarak, syarak basandi interpret and explain the social activities of
Kitabullah. While West Sumatra had once the Tarekat of West Sumatra. The various
been known for its religious flavour, it phenomena of Tarekat life are summarised

into constructs and limited categories to its depth of meaning as a subjective reality
enable understanding and interpretation. that is understood and perceived by its
This research used the grounded followers.
research approach, a fact-based research To understand and comprehend the
approach relying on comparative analysis conceptual world of the Tarekat in West
of empirical generalisations in establishing Sumatra, the researcher firstly collected,
concepts and testing and developing theories studied and understood the basic teachings
through data collection and analysis to of the Tarekat through the existing literature
further explain how a phenomenon prevails. including manuscripts held by teachers
Grounded research is based on facts and and congregations (jama’ah). This was
uses comparative analysis. For grounded to comprehend in general the basic
research, data are the source of theories; teachings of the Tarekat that had been
theory is grounded when it is based on data. developed in West Sumatra. Secondly,
The hallmark of grounded research is to the researchers conducted a focus group
use data as the source of theory, not logical discussion (muzakarah) with teachers and
thinking. Data are also the primary source followers (jama’ah) of Tarekat related to
for constructing hypotheses in grounded their knowledge and understanding of the
research (Nazir, 1988, p. 89). teachings. Thirdly, the researcher deepened
This research tried to explain the the in-depth interview on the influence of the
thinking behind the social activities of Tarekat community’s understanding of their
the Tarekat in West Sumatra, and their activities and social behaviour, including
effect on the emergence of radicalism in their response to the development of radical
Minangkabau society in West Sumatra movements. In-depth interviews on the
based on empirical data rather than on character of their teachers (ulama/mursyid)
theories based on deductive logic because were performed in an effort to understand
Tarekat or tasawuf as one embodiment the various social activities and Tarekat
of Islamic teachings contains symbols relationships within the community.
and ways of behaving that can only be The selection of informants was based
understood by those within the community. on the reliability of the informants as the
The descriptive-phenomenological method source of information using the snow-
of observing and understanding the social ball technique by determining the key
activities of the Tarekat can help to explain informants.

Welhendri Azwar
Table 1
Key informants
Name Tarekat Group Research Area

Mahyuddin Tk. Sutan Syattariyah Kota Padang
Zubair Tk. Kuniang Syattariyah Kota Pariaman
Tuanku Syofyan Syattariyah KabupatenPadangPariaman
Awis Karni Husein Naqsyabandiyah Kabupaten Agam
Azwar Dt. Bagindo Naqsyabandiayah Kota Bukittinggi
M. Nur Naqsyabandiyah Kota Payakumbuh
Zedriwarman Naqsyabndiyah Kabupaten 50 Kota
Effendi Sanusi Naqsyabandiyah Kabupaten Pasaman
Tuan Khalifah Abu Bakar Naqsyabandiyah Bonjol, Kabupaten Pasaman
The information obtained from the key Tarekat as a sub-culture of Minangkabau

informants was used as the basis for culture.
determining which other informants could To obtain empirical data on the activities
provide the necessary further information. of the Tarekat, the researcher observed
The selection of key informants based on two areas: the ritual process observed in
depth of knowledge and knowledge of the the surau of the Tarekat and the social
various information required, was also activities observed in the everyday life
based on the consideration of their ability to of the Tarekat. This entailed conducting
provide advice regarding other informants participant observation for one year.
needed for research, thus deepening the However, observation of rituals was allowed
process of collecting information through for only certain rituals.
informants until saturation, which was Data analysis was done in several
decided as information obtained that was stages: First, data were obtained through
no longer new. observation and interviews were
This study also used observation of complemented, compared and verified
circumstances, situations, processes or by cross referring with information from
behaviour of the Tarekat and their social other informants and by consulting books,
activities and their effects on people’s lives. documents and related research results. The
The technique of observation used was data were then classified into categories.
participant observation, that is observation of Second, the categories were sought for their
selected social activities of the Tarekat. The main features to know their equation and
observations were made to take note of the merging. Third, the categories connections
socio-cultural conditions of the community, between the categories were sought in
taking into account the various socio- order to formulate propositions. Fourth,
cultural realities of the people related to the the propositions were linked to one another
religious teachings and understanding of the so as to build a final understanding of

the congregation (jama’ah), and this was in strengthening brotherly relations among
then analysed using related theories that community members. This factor has shaped
ultimately led to a conclusion. the resilience of society against the negative
influences of modernisation, Westernisation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and capitalism that can undermine social
structures.
Religious Culture of the Tarekat
The teachings of the Tarekat play a role
Community as Local Wisdom for the
in strengthening the mindset and intellect
People of West Sumatra
of the Minangkabau. The Minangkabau
The presence of Tarekat groups in West philosophy of learning from natural law, raso
Sumatra is not just a da’wah activity for jo pareso (sense and thought), is compatible
the spread of Islam. Religious activities with Islamic teaching as practised by the
conducted by Tarekat groups also affect the Tarekat as it prioritises the senses or the
socio-cultural systems of society. The Tarekat soul. The rituals of the Tarekat prioritise
group are a functional social movement, as the cleansing of the soul through dhikr,
their presence is not a protest against the corresponding to Minangkabau adat. The
existing social system. The presence of application of Islamic teaching as developed
Tarekat groups strengthens the existing by Tarekat groups through culture, makes
social system of Minangkabau culture. The Tarekat teaching acceptable to Minangkabau
teachings of the Tarekat affect the mind society. The meaning of the philosophy of
and soul of the Minangkabau community. Islamic teaching is more easily understood
This is summed up in the Minangkabau by the people through the approach of
adat philosophy, known as the adat basandi indigenous philosophy embedded in the
syarak, syarak basandi Kitabullah as syarak minds of the people. Therefore, the Tarekat
mangato, adat mamakai (according to activities engaged in mainly by the Tarekat
syarak, the customs apply). The philosophy teachers of the Minangkabau create an
of adat basandi syarak, syarak basandi ideal community, which is then imitated by
Kitabullah is historically the result of the the wider community. They do not reject
dynamic process of Tarekat teaching with the existing order of society, but offer
adat teaching. This is what Durkheim called alternative values for the whole community.
the social fact. Durkheim said that social Sheikh or Tarekat teachers not only take
facts were the beliefs and rules of behaviour care of issues related to religious life; they
instituted by society (Ritzer, 1996, p. 77). also play a role in improving the existing
In religious life, the Tarekat play social system to conform to Islamic teaching.
a role in giving deeper meaning to the Their movement is neither in resistance to
teachings of Islam. This congregation the existing system, nor is it meant to be
places greater emphasis on formation of the a revolutionary movement. It is a cultural
heart, devotion, patience and submission movement established through the system
to God. The Tarekat have also succeeded

Welhendri Azwar
and social structure of the existing society, philosophy of life illustrates the merging
where Tarekat teaching is transformed into of Islam and adat, with each reinforcing
the realities of life. The process is unfolded one another, considering the two to be
slowly, but surely, as Azwar (2015) explains: inseparable. This adat philosophy meant
“the religious understanding of Tarekat that Minangkabau adat was the practice
originating from Tarekat teachings forms of Islam, syarak mangato, adat mamakai
a distinctive value system in the social (according to syarak, the customs apply).
structure of West Sumatera society called This custom-based philosophy manifested
Minangkabau” (p. 155). The religious faith itself in the symbols of the identity of the
of the Tarekat affects their philosophy of life Minangkabau people. One will not be called
and the intellect of the Minangkabau. This and recognised as a Minangkabau if one is
then creates ‘local wisdom’, which gives not Muslim. Therefore, for the indigenous
rise to the principles governing the life of Minangkabau, Islamic teaching is tangible
the people, binding it with doctrine, adat and if it is based on adat.
values that affect the mind and the sense of Zubeir Tuanku Kuniang, a cleric of
society more broadly to create a community Syattariyah Surau Pakandangan, Padang
typical of the Minangkabau. Pariaman, said:
“... the mixture of Islam with custom
Resistance of Local Wisdom to is not the same as the mixing of oil
Radicalism in West Sumatra with water. Oil and water when mixed
Integration of religious beliefs with with one container will still appear to
customary or adat values. Radicalism be separate. The oil will settle down
did not develop in West Sumatra due to and the water floats above the oil.
the strong integration between the Islamic The corresponding statement that
teaching of the Tarekat and Minangkabau exemplifies the blend of Islam and adat
customs, values and philosophy. The robust is like sweet tea water, they combine
process of integration was achieved after each other, whichever is water, which
a long time. The initial process of contact is the sugar is difficult to separate, and
between Islam and the local community was some even likens it like a fingernail with
only surface contact, as the Minangkabau flesh beneath.”
who became Muslims considered Islam
and their culture to be on different planes. The strong relationship between Islam
On the one hand, the people received the and Minangkabau culture that shapes
basic symbols of Islam, but adherence the religious awareness of the people of
to the adat system was still very strong. West Sumatra has led to the presence of
Then, the people began to blend Islam radical groups that want to make changes
and custom, and the two became aua jo because their thinking is not in line with
tabiang, sanda manyanda kaduonyo. This that of the local community. Based on

observation in some areas of West Sumatra, rapidly. For them they seem impose in
a hardline denominational movement to their preaching. A place in the hearts of
purify Islamic teaching does exist. Such a society.”
movement seeks to rid religious practices of
elements that are considered superstitious. Their ideology hits out at the religious
In fact, this has long been happening in traditions of the local society and their
West Sumatra. These hardline religious customs, which they say are incompatible
groups are structured and systematic in with Islamic teaching, and so they are
their operation. For example, in performing challenged by the people, especially
da’wah (tabligh), they might gain entry into the religious and traditional leaders. In
a surau and after some time, take a role in denouncing local custom and religious
society and religious institutions, perhaps practices, these radical groups are criticising
as imam or khatib nagari2 on the mosque the way of life of the Minangkabau, and
and mushalla board. This is to give them therefore, they are rejected. For example,
a foothold in the community from which when these hardline groups mock the
they can spread their aggressive ideology. tradition of maulud3, suluk4, basafa5, ziarah6
However, such movements are not getting a etc., the local people feel that their customs
positive response from the community; they are being insulted. Religious activities to the
are not growing and the number of members Tarekat are not just for the sake of religious
is not increasing. Azwar Dt. Bagindo, the practice; they also contain dimensions of
head of Tarekat Naqsyabandiyyah Surau local cultural tradition. Religious activities
Tangah Rice Field of Bukittinggi, revealed: are not only for practice by the jama’ah,
“... groups that do the da’wah rather but also for the entire society as a whole,
loudly, offering to the people the pure alek nagari7.
teachings of Islam while making a
denunciation of the traditions that 3
The commemoration of the birth of Prophet
exist in the community, including the Muhammad SAW on 12 Rabiul at the beginning
secular activities we undertake. That of the hijriyah year is one of the religious
exist in societies are against the Islamic traditions the Syattariyah Tarekat.
shari’ah. For them society has to change
4
One method of soul/self purification for the
Naqsyabandiyah congregation
5
Ritual of pilgrimage to the grave of Sheikh
Burhanuddin in Ulakan Pariaman every Syafar
month
2
Imam and Katik Nagari are indigenous 6
Tradition of visiting the grave of Tarekat
religious institutions established through the teachers as a form of respect, obedience and
Nagari indigenous community consultation continuation of the commitment to Tarekat
while nagari is the basic unit of settlement teachings
in Minangkabau. A Minangkabau customary 7
The term used by the people of West Sumatra
territory, as well as the lowest government for the social or religious activities that have
structure in West Sumatra that is autonomous. become customary traditions

Welhendri Azwar
Tuanku Sulaiman, a young leader in the function of these customs are still very
Syattariyah Tarekat in Lubuk Alung, Padang influential. However, in Rantau, religious
Pariaman, said: rituals are more prominent because they
“... in my opinion, society in general, are more greatly emphasised. However,
somewhat restless with reciting this variation does not result in partiality or
denouncements and considers the polarisation of the community’s response to
heresy of religious practices of society. hardwing movements. In Pariaman and also
Many people suspect that their ideas and in Pasaman, for example, the community’s
movements aim to divide the community. response to these ideas and movements was
As a young generation of Shattariyah demonstrated by inviting them to follow the
I have never been frontal with the religious rituals commonly practised by the
groups, but I am more encouraging Tarekat. The aim was to provide experience
and motivating the congregation to and understanding about the rituals so that
strengthen faith and increase worship they could see for themselves that the
and amaliah. I also encourage people to religious practices of the Tarekat did not
have noble character and good manners deviate from Islamic teachings.
in social interaction in society. For me The rejection of ideology and radical
this is the meaning of custom basandi movements in West Sumatra are limited
syarak, syarak basandi kitabullah.” to small groups that have no place in
society. This is made possible by the solid
The community response to hardwing integration of Islam and Minangkabau adat
da’wah differs slightly among the various that took place gradually and naturally. In
communities in Luhak and Rantau8 areas. addition, the integration process was not
In the Luhak region, customs are stronger done by violent means but in a persuasive-
because in this region the structure and humanistic way. In this case the Tarekat
certainly provide an important role in
strengthening integration through cultural
8
Minangkabau is divided into the Luhak and flexibility, as expressed in the parable: “Kok
Rantau areas. Luhak is traditionally seen as kanai jilatang, the bio-bio doh ubeknyo”
the region of origin of the Minangkabau. It
consists of three regions, namely Luhak Tanah
(“Do not fight violence with violence, but
Datar, Luhak Agam and Luhak Limapuluhkoto. welcome violence with friendliness). This
These three areas, called Luhak Nan Tigo, are tolerant attitude is the cutural character or
located in the hinterland around Mount Merapi. local wisdom of Minangkabau society, as
The region is also called Darek region. Now
the third luhak is the name of each “district”
stated in their philosophy:
in West Sumatra. While the overseas territory Kandua badantiang-danting
is an extension of the Minangkabau settlement
community during its development. Tagang manjelo-jelo

Lunak ndak dapek di sudu and will as the Absolute Being. The logical
Kareh ndak makam takiak 9 consequence of this view is that God’s
signs can be witnessed in the creation of
The presence of radical ideas and movements the universe and everything in it, including
in West Sumatra is not naturally well humans. Then everything that appears is
developed because Islamic teaching and a surah of essence (Substance of God).
Minangkabau adat system are likened to Wahdatul syuhud is the basis for the ideology
two sides of a coin that cannot be separated. or religious thought of tasawwuf akhlaqi or
Both sides are the payuang panji (protector) tasawuf Sunni.The most influential figure of
as well as the soul of the people. On the one this thought is Imam al-Gazhali.
side are the Tarekat clerics and on the other Historically, congregations have
is adat/niniek mamak10. If one side of the adopted the two concepts according to the
coin is attacked, the other side also feels the needs and situation of the society in which
pain and reacts. they developed. In the initial process of
Islamisation the Tarekat adopted wujudiyah
Flexibility of religious understanding because this concept was better suited to
(Wujudiyah-syuhudiyah). The Tarekat the character of the society encountered i.e.
are guided by the dynamics of wujudiyah- people who retained some belief in animism
syuhudiyah. Wahdatul syuhud 11 is the and dynamism. Later, Tarekat ideology
antithesis of wahdatul wujud12 . Wahdatul shifted to the ideology of the syuhudiyah
syuhud emphasises the transcendent nature because the society encountered could better
of God. This view also suggests that the understand the pure and abstract concepts
universe and everything in it was created of religioun. Thus, it can be said that the
by God as a symbol or sign of God’s power religious understanding of wujudiyah and
syuhudiyah is essentially an open space
for the interpretation and dynamics of
9
This philosophy illustrates that society is
contextual religious thought.
flexible but firm in its principles.
10
Niniek mamak is the collective name for all In terms of the development of the
the leaders of the Minangkabau. The penghulu Tarekat in West Sumatra, wujudiyah was the
or datuak is the traditional leader of a tribe religious starting point presented to the local
based on maternal lineage.
community through syncretism-magic as the
11
Everything that exists (a’yan kharijiyah) is
not him ‘ain Allah and not also mazhhar, but people were still bound then by animism
syuhud, testimony of the existence of God. and dynamism and had not been trained
12
Nature is the mazhhar (manifestation) of God. to comprehend God in abstract terms.
The embodiment of all this is One. Laa ilaaha
Presented in this way by the Tarekat, Islam
illallah means “There is no god but Allah.” The
point is “la maujuda illallah” (nothing exists was eventually understood and accepted by
but God). A collection of Tarekat belief states the local community.
that “the union of beings is with the Khaliq.”

Welhendri Azwar
Subsequently, the shuhudiyah brought Tarekat thought and behaviour influenced

a deeper understanding of God in abstract local society although the people at that
terms. The Tarekat began to teach and time were not classified as a Tarekat
develop the concept of the transcendence congregation. The local community then
of God’s. The local community came to see grew into a culturally broad-minded, open
the distinction between God as creator and and flexible society responding to the
the universe as the created. Nevertheless, the various changes that occurred. However,
universe and all its contents are understood it remained consistent in maintaining its
as evidence of God’s existence and power. moral values, sakali aie gadang, sakali
The local people were also taught the tapian barubah, nan tapian tatap ado. The
attributes of God, summarised as His ‘20 Minangkabau religious mindset is highly
properties’; these are the 20 attributes of contextual, departing from the belief that
God that must be known. The community nature must change. Change is inevitable,
was also given an understanding of the but the essential values of life and humanity
essence of Islam and the obligation to must not change. It is possible to change
perform devotions to God through certain methods, but goals should not change.
practices (riyadhah). The culmination The dynamism of religious thought
of the given exercises was the spiritual remains the character of the Tarekat in
achievement of closeness (taqarrub) with general. Some people believe that the
Allah SWT. Tarekat are an exclusive social group,
The development of Tarekat thought but this is not true. Interaction between
illustrates the dynamism or flexibility of the Tarekat and the local communities
Tarekat in aqidah, which further embodies takes place openly. The Tarekat are in fact
religious behavior, thus forming world active and ever ready to serve the local
views derived from Tarekat teaching. The communities in different ways, especially
Tarekat is able to develop highly contextual in religious matters. However, teaching
thinking. Based on such understanding, the basic concepts of the Tarekat and their
Tarekat is also able to realise religious spiritual exercises (riyadlah) is done in
behaviour (charity) that does not seem rigid, an exclusive way through bay’at, a set of
constantly adjusting the concept of religious special agreements between teachers and
understanding along the lines of social students.
dynamics. Tarekat thought and the social On one occasion, we observed the
action was accepted because the surau, a activities of one Tarekat group in the District
culturally important centre of Minangkabau of Limapuluh Kota in the surau of Buya
social structure and system, was the centre Zedriwarman. When we arrived, a public
for the spread of Tarekat teaching. This is recitation was being held. The jama’ah
why the religious social movement of the were from various regions in District of
Tarekat is called a structural movement. Limapuluh Kota. More than 250 members

of the congregation solemnly followed chaos in society. Second, the Tarekat

the recitation presented by Buya Zed. The always made changes and improvements
teaching atmosphere was pleasant although to the social and religious conditions of
the mosque was very simple, made of wood, society through polite, persuasive and non-
the people sitting on simple woven mats. negative excesses. Third, when a condition
In one corner of the surau, a number of considered a deviation arise, the Tarekat
mosquito nets were installed; here,where simply fixed it through advice, guidance
the salik performed the ritual of suluk. The and training and then handed the matter to
attendees were from various strata of society; Allah SWT.
there were farmers, traders, employees, During an interview with Buya Zed to
students and lecturers from universities. understand the flexibility of the Tarekat in
The recitation lasted for nearly four hours. his thinking, attitude and actions, we learnt
The most interesting part of the event the following, as explained by Buya Zed:
was the last session of the recitation that “... ordinary people think simple,
involved discussion followed by questions knowledgeable people think cause-
and answers. The jama’ah were invited by effect, then people ‘wise think without
Buya Zed to ask questions and to contribute limit. What kind of thinking do you
their opinions on issues related to Tarekat choose? For me of course the way
teachings or daily problems. Interestingly, people think ‘wisely chosen. If you’ve
all questions asked by the community were heard the phrase, “do not return milk
answered in a straightforward, clear and with poisoned water” then I would say
polite manner. “reply a glass of poison with a glass
The mindset, tolerance and flexibility of of milk”. This is the way of thinking,
the Tarekat in dealing with and responding attitudes and actions of the Tarekat. And
to various situations and circumstances this is what should be disseminated to
were also reflected in the main points of the public ... “
thought that surfaced in the Focus Group
Discussion (FGD) fora conducted for Radical groups may have members who are
this study. The FGD was followed by a highly educated and intellectual, but their
discussion led by Tarekat leaders from aggression and intolerance, as Buya Zed
Payakumbuh and Limapuluh Kota Regency. explained, showed them up as rigid and
Three things surfaced during the discussion. narrow-minded. Such groups are bent on
First, the Tarekat maintained the harmony destructive actions. Any group that does not
of the social relations of the community. think as they do is marked for destruction.
Therefore, all thoughts and actions that Their ideas and methods are out of the
could damage the social order had to be present-day context. One example of this
rejected. The Tarekat were never aggressive took place at Masjid Raya Pasie Agam
in dealing with circumstances that caused District, where among the muballiq at that

Welhendri Azwar
time was a hardliner. Dakwah material that done through the development of knowledge
he conveyed hit out at the religious traditions that emphasises the senses. The dichotomy
of the local community. He claimed, for of spirituality-rationality is essentially
example, that tahlil was heretical, praying a manifestation of the human need for
for the dead would never help the dead, esoteric and exoteric values. Although the
including deceased parents andit was not Tarekat seem to emphasise fulfilment of
necessary to use the word ‘Saidina’ when human needs over esoteric values, they
mentioning the name of the Prophet as the do not abandon or ignore exoteric aspects
Prophet had not liked to be praised. The of religion. Spiritual attainment through
resposne to him was negative because his Tarekat must be done by obeying and
teaching was not delivered in a persuasive practising shari’ah.
manner, but in a very confrontational way Socio-historically, the role that Tarekat
that was demeaning and disturbing. played in the fostering and development
of socio-cultural life cannot be ignored.
Spirituality and rationality (raso-pareso). Tarekat teaching has manifested itself in
Maqam ma’rifah is the highest peak in the socio-cultural system. In the context of
one’s spiritual journey using the method of Minangkabau society in West Sumatra, the
thariqah. This view is usually used in the training and development of spiritual and
study of Sunni tasawwuf adopted from the rational life in society can be seen in various
thought of Imam Al-Gazali. Conceptually, symbols and patterns of social action.
ma’rifah is understood as a blend of two Of course, the process of the formation
important dimensions of man, namely, the of social action in Minangkabau society
ability to capture reality through senses is complicated and complex. Clearly,
(dzawq) and the ability to capture reality Minangkabau community is known as a
through rationality (‘aql). Therefore, man spiritual and rational society.
is a spiritual as well as a rational being. If The Minangkabau are guided by
the development of these two potentials is the expression raso dibao naiak, pareso
not balanced, then man will not be able to dibao turun. This phrase means that the
reach perfection. Minangkabau identify sense as the virtue
In Tarekat thinking, especially since the that must be expressed or exalted, while the
development of the idea ofreconciliation intellect is identified as the ability to think
of tasawuf-syari’at, the achievement of or reason appropriately. The movement of
ma’rifah must be done through methods and raso dibao naiak and pareso dibao turun
approaches rooted in the processing of taste will meet at one point, wisdom. These
potency (dzawq) as well as rational thinking two concepts describe the character of
(‘aql). Processing ttaste potential is usually Minangkabau society. Raso represents
done through spiritual exercises (riyadlah), the power of spirituality, while pareso
while training rational thought is usually represents the power of rationality.

The principle of spirituality-rationality of our religion, we are told to deliver a

(raso-pareso) in Minangkabau society message in polite and polite language.
is elaborated in the pattern of thinking, There are manners in society that must
attitude and action. When faced with be taken care of. And I’m sure such
certain situations or conditions or ideas, the dakwahs will not be trash and will get
Minangkabau usually think them over for a rejection from the community. Because
long time and are cautious in responding. in our friendly and pleasant society in
This is illustrated in the following phrases: mind and in language.”
Babuek baiak pado-padoi – babuek
buruak sakali jan Another case was explained by Buya
Awiskarni, head of Madrasah Tarbiyah
Hati-hati nan di ate – kok di bawah nan
Islamiyah, Pasie Agam:
ka ma impok
“... I as a scholar here have indeed
Jarek sarupo jo jarami – ayam jantan
found many such studies. Many of the
babulu musang
lectures delivered to the community
Kok mandi di ilia-ilia – kok bakato di are blasphemous, blaming, and even
bawah-bawah inciting. Sometimes they finish giving
Cadiak anggak – gadang ta jua public anxious lectures. If it’s like that
Bantuak sipuluik – ditanak badarai usually people ask me or ask me to give
a real explanation. Once upon a time I
The above phrases describe the character invited the groups to debate or to zeal by
of Minangkabau society in responding to showing strong references. Apparently
change. When it comes to radical ideas they do not want to attend muzakarah.
and movements in West Sumatra, it is This means that their power of argument
understandable that these are rejected is sometimes not strong, or their studies
naturally. Buya M. Nur Dt. P. Bakuruang, the are still raw. So in my opinion radical
leader of the Naqsyabandiyah congregation teachings will never get support from
in Payakumbuh explained: the community. Their efforts will be in
vain.”
“... in Payakumbuh this there are indeed
pengajian-pengajian held by groups that
The testimony presented by the two Tarekat
wing hard. This is wrong, it’s wrong.
clerics above illustrates the fact that radical
It is customs that do not fit; the deeds
groups die a natural death because of
of society are heresy, all sorts. On the
the strong influence of the character and
matter they live here. For me raso is
thinking of Minangkabau society in West
not on them even though their science
Sumatra. Spiritually, the intelligence of
is high. Someone without attitude and
the community identifies their need for
courtesy make their languages are
raso reflected in kindness and courtesy in
inclined to harass others. In the case

Welhendri Azwar
language and behaviour, which leads to not engage in prohibitions that are laid down
the rejection of distorted or extreme ideas. by the teacher and the pupil should not argue
Rational ideas and radical movements are or ask questions about the teaching and
usually not sourced from extensive and exercises. Thus, the teacher becomes the
profound study, so the arguments they centre of Tarekat groups and the role model
propose are narrow-minded and unable to for the students.
exceed the limits of the pareso power of The Tarekat group structure begins
Minangkabau society. with education in the surau. The surau is a
social institution that serves to strengthen
Teacher-student relationship. Disciplinary the teacher-student relationship in Tarekat
relationships such as the teacher-student groups. The genealogy system hat
relationship within the Tarekat institution determines the authenticity of the Tarekat
can be described as, “The position of the teachings. Historically, the Surau Ulakan
student before the teacher is the same as founded by Sheikh Burhanuddin was the
the position of a man’s corpse in the hand first educational and religious institution
that bathes him.” This expression highlights in Minangkabau. Surau Ulakan has a very
the student’s high level of obedience to big role in the development of Islam in all
his teacher. A teacher may do anything to Minangkabau areas. The Tarekat movement
lead his pupils to spiritual achievement as in the social system of Minangkabau society
taught in the Tarekat ritual. However, in originated from the surau built by a leader,
general, the Tarekat prevents the rise of any a Tuanku or lord who completed his study
individual teacher as a cult figure. Respect of Tarekat. Each lord has his own surau,
and obedience to the teacher are seen as an both as a place of worship and as a place of
absolute requirement for the success of the Tarekat instruction. At present, the surau
student. functions primarily as a place for the practice
Respect and obedience to the teacher is of Tarekat, rather than as an educational
rooted in the bay’ah rituals that are the pre- institution. Every surau in Minangkabau
requisites for prospective students who wish has its own leaning, both in Tarekat practice
to attend Tarekat education and training. and the emphasis of branches of Islamic
Bay’ah rituals are done in certain ways and science. Surau education attern creates
must meet certain terms and conditions. different Islamic study centres in deepening
Usually, each Tarekat institution has several the teachings of Islam in the surau, covering
items of agreement that must be obeyed by worship, mu’amalah and science tools. For
the student in performing the ritual and the example, the surau in Kamang is a centre of
Tarekat exercises. Therefore, it can be said science and nervous studies; Surau Tuangku
that the teacher-student relationship in the Nan Kaciek in Koto Gadang is a centre
Tarekat institution is patterned after one-way for mantiq and ma’ani; Surau Tuangku
communication (top down). Students should Sumaniak is a centre for hadith, tafsir and

faraidh; Surau Tuangku Talang is a centre and upheaval. The surau was born and
for sharaf and Surau Tuangku Salayo is a accepted by the whole community as an
centre for badi’, ma’ani and bayan, while additional institution of life in the nagari
Surau Tuangku Nan Tuo is a centre for or korong. The Tarekat group is adept at
tarbiyah, hadith, tafsir and mantik ma’ani responding to situations and emphasises
(Latief, 1982, p. 76). the doctrine on the effort of inner serenity
The teacher-student structure can be as a servant of God. Psychic training and
seen in every Tarekat ritual event, such as the remembrance are held to remember Allah
activity of the Maulid Rasul, or the basapa SWT so as to maintain the peace of life in
rituals of the Syattariyah congregation. the village.
Observation of the basapa activity revealed Wi t h a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p
the strong relationship between the teacher pattern, Shaykh, the leader or Tuanku in
and his students in the jama’ah Syattariyah. the Minangkabau community is highly
Teachers from different regions bring along respected. He is an influential figure in
their students to the Surau Ulakan; so, society. The charisma of the Tarekat teacher
some groups of Tarekat jama’ah are led by is one of its tools for creating influence in
Tuanku from different regions. The network society. The charisma of the Tarekat teacher
of the surau is seen in the number of surau can be seen in two dimensions. First, in
that stand around the Surau Ulakan. The appearance, the Tarekat teacher is usually
surau are named according to its region of big built and has a loud voice and a sharp
origin, such as Surau Koto Tangah Tilatang eye. Second, he is skilled at teaching, has an
Kamang, Surau Lintau, Surau Bonjol impressive personality and is known to be
Pasaman, Surau Limo Kaum Tanah Datar knowledgeable, pious, morally sound and
and Surau Koto nan Ampek Payakumbuh. generous. The personality of the Tarekat
There are many surau in Tanjung Medan, leader is very important. He is able to draw
the beginning of the pesantren system of followers and retain their trust, loyalty,
a campus of many surau known today. obedience and respect (Crappas, 1993, p.
The number of surau also shows the 179).
dissemination of the teachings of the Tarekat What Weber described as ‘rational-
Syattariyah in each region. This is called legal’ legitimacy can also be found in
the movement of Tarekat group structures. societies that are based on traditional
The movement according to the pattern of and charismatic sources. The charismatic
teacher-student relationships. Azra (1992) leader is not naturally erased because of the
called it the ‘network of scholars’. strengthening of rational-legal legitimacy.
The congregation and the surau are able Rational leadership can create conflict,
to conform to the existing social institutions whereas charismatic leadership can be more
in Minangkabau by not creating opposition robust. Charismatic leaders can change

Welhendri Azwar
the behaviour of society, including that of can play two important roles at once, in the
modern society (Sujuthi, 2001; Robertson, religious system and in the social system.
1995; Jonhson, 1986). The charismatic factor of Tarekat
The Tarekat cleric as a charismatic clerics in West Sumatra is a solid wall that
leader is the main factor of social change is hard for radical ideas and movements
in Minangkabau. Various socio-cultural to penetrate. The following explanation of
changes in Minangkabau society are made Nasrul, a member of a Tarekat congregation,
possible through the influence of charismatic illustrates the power of the religious-
leadership of Tarekat clerics up to this day. emotional relationship between Tarekat
The charismatic strength of the Tarekat teachers and their students:
scholar makes him a highly respected leader, “For us Tarekat students, respect for
not only to his students, but also to the the Tarekat teachers is adab that must
wider community. This can also be seem in be preserved. Following the teachings
modern and educated societies. As Berger that the teacher presented was a form
(1980) argued, the power of charisma can of homage to him. When we ask bay’ah
overhaul and change a very strong social to the teacher, there must be belief and
system. Charisma is the driving force and trust to him. So, for us the development
power that can change the social system of radical group teachings, which seem
of any community. Kojtaraningrat (1991) to combat our existence, will not have
explained that “charisma will remain in much effect. We will not do the same
every society, both traditional societies and thing, fight them with violence anyway.
modern societies. Charismatic leadership If we can, we will discuss. But if not,
has its roots in the culture and history of we leave it to our teacher. It is better for
every society” (p. 47). us to follow our teacher only, because
The charisma of Tarekat teachers is not it has been seen by us the proof of his
only built on spiritual, supernatural-magical charity, and morals. How we will be
powers but also on the teacher’s social roles. able to believe in the radical group,
For example, a Tarekat teacher is usually while they show contrary to the morals
also an adat functionary (penghulu) among of Islam. Because as far as I know,
his people, and some others also fill certain and what I used to accept my teacher’s
positions in traditional structures. Thus, the dance, Islam never imparts the will to
combination of spiritual and/or supernatural anyone, including to the religion of
forces with social roles has its own value for Islam. Moreover, those who impose
Tarekat clergy as leaders of Minangkabau the will to follow their teachings that is
society in West Sumatra. In turn, it can be not necessarily also true.” (Interview,
said that Tarekat scholars in West Sumatra October 2015)

A similar statement was made by CONCLUSION

Abu Bakar Tuanku Saidina, teacher of the The solid blend of adat and Islam in
Naqsyabandiyah Order, Kumpulan Bonjol, West Sumatra is the result of the Tarekat
Pasaman: movement. The growth and development
“... I am here as a teacher of Tarekat and of Islam in Minangkabau and the strong
also as niniek mamak. Both of them I influence of Tarekat in unifying adat and
live with the best. In surau I guided and Islam are caused by several factors. First,
cultivated jama’ah, then in my people Islam contains many aspects of tasauf in its
also nurture kemenakan13. Even in this legal aspects. This means that the process of
Nagari Collection I also often solve Islamisation of Minangkabau adat is done by
community problems. Especially now the ulama or Tarekat teacher. The mystical
that many problems arise in society, aspects embodied in Tarekat teaching
including what you mentioned ... the are due to previous influence by Hindu-
hard streams ... are often reported to Buddhist mysticism and the assimilation
me ... and thank God, people are not of local beliefs. Second, the relationship
quickly affected, they always ask for between teachers and their students in the
my opinion.” Tarekat system facilitates the development
of Islam in Minangkabau. The importance of
These interviews illustrate that radical ideas genealogy combined with duty in cultivating
are not easily developed in Minangkabau jama’ah in its place of origin accelerates
society in West Sumatra because of the the process of spreading Islam through
charisma of ulama leadership and adat the Tarekat in Minangkabau communities.
leadership that is a strong influence on the Third, the personality of the Tarekat teacher
social and cultural life of its people. The is the main attraction to Islam, making it is
most interesting thing is that in certain areas easily accepted by the society. The charisma
of research, especially in the Darek region, of the Tarekat cleric makes him a respected
clerical leadership and adat leadership person. His knowledge and experience also
unite in a charismatic figure, while in make him important in society.
Rantau, although clerical leadership and The influence of Tarekat teachings
adat leadership are not held by onea figure, on the culture of the Minangkabau is
the cooperation between the ulama and the reflected in their thinking, behaviour and
niniek mamak is tight and firm. This defends culture. The Islamic interpretation of
the society from the onslaught of radical life merges local culture and Islam. The
ideas in West Sumatra. natural philosophy of being a teacher is
interpreted as sunnatullah, an example of the
intermingling of Minangkabau philosophy
All children of sisters of a Minangkabau
13
and Islamic values. The relationship of
man; in addition, all tribal members are called
nephews by the penghulu or Datuk of the tribe. Islam and adat in Minangkabau is very

Welhendri Azwar
complex; the Minangkabau people remain personal attributes of the individual. Such
firmly adhered to Islam on the one hand, and individuals win recognition and elicit high
retain their customary system on the other. respect and loyalty among people. People
This shows that Minangkabau society is are readily obedient to a charismatic leader
showing new social wisdom as a result of not because of formalities or tradition, but
the tradition of integration brought about by because of the individual’s personality.
cultural Islamisation. The social movements of Tarekat groups
Social wisdom that grows and develops in Minangkabau, apart from the structural
in the dynamics of West Sumatera is movements, are patterned along the various
guided by the philosophy of adat basandi socio-cultural activities of the community,
syarak, syarak basandi Kitabullah – syarak which have become merged with the
mangato, adat mamakai, which rejects teachings of Islam and Tarekat traditions.
violence and force. The rational-critical These movements are easy for the clerics
attitude of social wisdom combined with and the people to follow as they are familiar
the concept of raso-pareso, reinforced by with them.
the charisma of the ulama, makes new ideas Because the religious culture of
that are conveyed in a negative manner or the Tarekat is inseparable from that of
that have no solid foundation unattractive to Minangkabau culture, radical ideas and
the local community, causing them to reject movements are generally rejected in West
such ideas. Evidently, Tarekat teaching has Sumatra. This resistance prevents social
an effect on the cultural system of the people conflict, causing radicalism to ‘bounce off’
of West Sumatra. Tarekat teaching underlies the community in an ‘elastic’ way. Tarekat
the structural and cultural characteristics culture is a firm blend of Tarekat texts and
of social and behavioural systems of the customary values seen as local wisdom.
community. This is achieved through the The pattern of cultural resistance to
teacher-student relationship structure and radicalism among the Tarekat in West
the network of Tarekat teachers. Sumatra does not take place in sequence.
Tarekat scholars strengthen their Structural and cultural movement happens
position in the leadership structure of simultaneously, following the movement
the Minangkabau community through of religion or da’wah activities. Da’wah
charismatic leadership that prioritises the movements like this are ‘cultural da’wah’,
exemplary and virtuous personality of performed through culture, and at the
each Tarekat cleric. Charismatic leaders same time, creates culture. Da’wah
attract the adherence of their followers on activities create acculturation between
the basis of personal excellence, such as a Islam and Minangkabau culture. It is called
divine mission, heroic acts and rewards that acculturation because the mixing of the two
make them different. Charisma is a force cultures has not eliminated Minangkabau
of personality whose power is based on cultural identity. Instead, it has led to

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Taheran.


Identification of Gender of the Author of a Written Text using

Topic-Independent Features
Tatiana Litvinova1,2*, Pavel Seredin1, Olga Litvinova1 and Olga Zagorovskaya2
Gosudarstvennyi nauchnyi tsentr ‘Kurchatovskii institut’, Moscow, Russia
1
Voronezskij gosudarstvennyj pedagogiceskij universitet, Voronezh, Russia

2
ABSTRACT
Authorship profiling, which is the process of extraction of information about a text’s
author through linguistics analysis, is now gaining momentum as an interdisciplinary
subject. Scholars who employ this technique (i.e. data analysis specialists, linguists,
psychologists) study the identification of demographics, personality traits, education
and the native language of authors of texts, among others. Gender, in this context, is the
most popular variable. Some studies report accuracy as high as 80% or even higher in
identifying the gender of a text’s author. However, there are still many issues that must be
addressed. Firstly, most of the previous research concerns English texts. Secondly, most of
the papers focus on content-based features, which are obviously easily to imitate. Thirdly,
many recent papers in the field make use of machine-learning algorithms with emphasis
on accuracy, not on the differences between male and female writing. The objective of
this paper is to reveal differences in male and female Russian written texts and to design a
mathematical model to identify the gender of authors of texts using only high-frequency
topic-independent text parameters. Special emphasis is made on comparing the obtained
data on the differences in male and female
written texts with those previously obtained
for Russian and other languages. An original
mathematical solution for identification of
author’s gender is set forth.
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Keywords: Authorship profiling, corpus, corpus
Received: 06 August 2016 linguistics, gender attribution, gender identification,
Accepted: 05 December 2017
Russian language, stylometry
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Tatiana Litvinova),
[email protected] (Pavel Seredin),
[email protected] (Olga Litvinova),
[email protected] (Olga Zagorovskaya)

INTRODUCTION features. These forms have not been

For decades, scientists have studied the studied traditionally and other disciplines
differences in writing done by males and like computational linguistics and corpus
females. These studies indicated a number linguistics are only now exploring their
of differences in the style of writing used correlations with social dimensions” (p. 26).
by males and females and highlighted the In some studies (analysing mostly English
possibility of identifying gender using texts) it was found that females presented
written texts. However, these studies also a higher frequency of the use of pronouns
argued that all of the differences were not and negations, whereas males presented
inventory but rather probabilistic, as they a higher frequency of determiners and
manifested themselves in certain features prepositions. This was consistent with the
of language use, both qualitatively and proposal of Biber et al. (1998), that males
quantitatively. In order to identify the gender are more informational, whereas females are
of an author using his/her text, special more involved. Words longer than six letters
methods of analysis are necessary. Mulac and articles were found to be among other
and Lundell (1994) revealed that gender favourite male features (see Nini (2014) for
may be identified with 50% accuracy i.e. a thorough review).
at the level of a random value. Studies Authorship profiling, which is the
concerning the development of methods process of extraction of information
to identify the gender of a text’s author do about text authors through linguistics
not only have a practical importance, for analysis, is now gaining momentum as
instance, in marketing and forensics; indeed, an interdisciplinary subject. Scholars
they also have a theoretical significance who employ this technique, data-mining
as they allow one to identify the cognitive specialists and computer linguists, for
activity of males and females as manifested instance, are dealing with the identification of
in their language use. Indeed, this gives a demographics, personality traits, education
wider insight into human cognitive ability. and the native language of authors of texts,
The analysis of context-independent text with gender being the most popular variable
parameters that are easy to extract by means to identify (Koppel, Argamon, & Shimoni,
of methods of natural language processing 2002; Newman, Groom, Handelman, &
is vital in developing practically applicable Pennebaker, 2008; Argamon, Koppel,
methods of identifying the gender of a text’s Pennebaker, & Schler, 2009). However,
author. there are still many issues that must be
Of course, sociolinguists have acquired addressed (Soler & Wanner, 2014). Most
a lot of information about the differences of the previous research studied texts
in male and female speech, but as Nini written in English, although recently, some
(2014) pointed out, “Little work has been studies have looked at texts written in other
done on relative frequencies of linguistic languages (Rangel et al., 2015; Litvinova
Identification of Text Author Gender
et al., 2016). Scientists are still divided on no attempt to identify the gender of text
what mathematical methods should be used authors.
for this purpose. The main issue is selecting The Russian language has long been
the text parameters to analyse. Content- neglected in authorship profiling studies,
based features are considered the most but lately there have been relevant studies
effective, although it is obvious that they including those dealing with gender
are consciously controlled and therefore, identification of text authors (Litvinova,
can be easily imitated. Studies employing 2014; Litvinova, Seredin, & Litvinova,
style-based parameters such as lexical, 2015; Litvinova et al., 2016; Sboev et al.,
syntactic and character use, for instance, 2016). Note that the main focus has been
do not normally provide explanation of the on the accuracy of the resulting models
correlations between the parameters of the rather than on differences between male and
texts and the gender of their authors. female writing. In this paper, we made it our
We argue that it is of particular objective to identify significant differences
importance to investigate differences at the in qualitative parameters of Russian written
level of frequently used context-independent texts by males and females to further design
text parameters and then to employ the a prognostic model.
parameters correlating with gender to design
prognostic models. It is obvious that a list MATERIALS AND METHOD
of such parameters should be expanded This study utilised a specially designed
and more languages should be employed in and constantly growing corpus of Russian
identifying universal and language-specific written texts, RusPersonality (Litvinova
differences in male and female speech. et al., 2016), which contained, aside from
The current study was performed the texts themselves, rich metadata i.e.
using material from a specially designed information about authors (gender, age,
corpus of texts written in Russian. Russian education, psychological testing data etc.).
sociolinguists have carried out a lot of All the texts of the corpus were written by
research addressing differences in male and respondents according to the researchers’
female speech as well as gender imitation instructions. For this study, we selected
(see Oschepkova (2003) for detailed review). two subcorpora from the corpus: (1) A
It was found that for respondents of different total of 150 texts by 75 respondents (each
social groups (prisoners and university respondent was instructed to write two texts,
students), the following was typical even “Describe a Picture” and “What would I
for gender imitation: males tended to make Spend a Million Dollars On?”); (2) A total of
more mistakes; females made more use of 1,354 texts by 677 respondents (description
negations; lexical diversity was higher in of a picture and a letter to a friend). All of
male texts, and; men used fewer clichés. the texts contained an average of 130-160
However, the authors of these papers made words.
In order to exclude a maximum of Indeed, this allowed us to design

other characteristics that might affect a regression model considering the
the text parameters, we selected a fairly most significant correlations based on
homogeneous group of respondents i.e. multiparameter linear approximation.
of students of large Russian universities However, testing of the quality of the models
aged 19 to 22. Since each respondent was showed that this type of approximation
instructed to write two texts on different yields a low level of accuracy as the
topics, we used two analysis scenarios: In parameters of texts by male and female are
the first, we viewed each text individually usually in overlapping ranges. Therefore,
and in the second, both texts by the same it was decided to use not a multiparameter
author were merged into one. regression model as we did in previous
All the texts were marked using Python studies (Litvinova, 2014; Litvinova, Seredin,
script based on a morphological analyser, & Litvinova, 2015), but to design a few
pymorphy2, and processed using an online regression models instead.
service, istio.com. The text parameters
were only those that were not consciously RESULTS
controlled; finite forms of verbs and other Let us show the suggested approach using
clear indicators of an author’s gender an example of five texts with the parameters
were not considered. The parameters were correlated with the gender of an author with
indicators of lexical diversity of a text and the highest r:
proportions of parts of speech and their
1. TTR (type-token ratio). This is the
correlations (a total of 78 parameters).
most commonly used index of lexical
In order to determine the characteristics
diversity of a text. Given a text t, let
and type of connection between the text
Nt be the number of tokens in t and Vt
parameters and gender of the author, a
be the number of types in t, then the
correlation analysis was performed using
simplest measure for the TTR of the text
the Pearson correlation coefficient (р<0.05).
t is:
Calculations were done using the IBM
SPSS statistics software. We established
[1]
a number of correlations between the text
parameters and the author’s gender (0 –
Note that the measure in Eq. (1) is a
woman, 1 – man). A large number of the
number defined in [0, 1], since for any
parameters of the texts and the gender of
text results 1≤Vt≤Nt. Some interesting
their authors correlated with r=0.25-0.39.
attempts to improve the TTR index have
Further, we selected only the parameters
been proposed in the literature, although
that correlated with the text author’s gender
only a few of these variants possess key
in both subcorpora and in both scenarios
properties that are essential if they are
(‘merged’ and ‘individual’).
to be used in our text comparison, and
these properties are harder to calculate The index was calculated using istio.
(see Caruso et al. (2014) for details). com. The correlation coefficient r=0.39.
The resulting regression equation took
Since the texts in the corpus were of the following form:
different length, we calculated TTR
in the first 100 words of each text. [2]
Indeed, TTR-value is known to depend
on the length of the analysed text and 2. Formality of a text that was calculated
therefore, the comparison of values using the following formula (Nini,
makes sense for the same number of 2014):
tokens (Caruso et al., 2014, p. 139).
[3]
The correlation coefficient r=0.315.
The regression equation was as follows:
[4]
3. Proportion of prepositions and pronoun-like adjectives in a text (r=0.243):
[5]
4. Proportion of the 100 most frequently [7]

used Russian words in a text
(Lyashevskaya & Sharov, 2009), r=- In order to properly estimate the
0.322. obtained result, let us determine the
average arithmetic values from the
The regression equation was as follows: solutions obtained in the five equations:
[6] [8]
5. The index of the functional density Let us assume that a design value in the
based on the ratio of function words to range [0; 0.499] indicates that the author of
content words (r=-0.295). a text is female and in the range [0.500; 1]
shows that the author is male. In order to and personal pronouns (see a detailed review
estimate the suggested approach, we used in Nini, 2014). According to the literature,
a corpus of texts with contributions from this is indicative of profound cognitive
553 individuals (368 women and 185 men, differences in the linguistic profiles of men
while two texts from each respondent were and women: reporting is more important for
considered as one text). Their topic and men, while rapport is more significant for
length were identical to those used to design women. Therefore, texts by men seem more
the regression models. ‘formal’, while those by women seem more
Let us determine the accuracy of the ‘contextual’ (see Heylighen & Dewaele,
approach. Accuracy, in this context, was 2002 for more details). It is interesting to
the ratio of the number of test documents compare this with the paper by Saily, Siirtola
that were correctly predicted to the total and Nevalainen (2011), which shows that
number of test documents. The calculations the prevalence of nouns in texts by men as
suggested that gender was correctly opposed to pronouns in those by women
identified in 65% of the texts written by was common in personal letters written in
females and 63% of the texts written by English from 1415 to 1681. Indeed, this
males. Thus, the accuracy of the approach shows that the above gender differences
was 64%. are universal.
Nini (2014) has shown that “the more
DISCUSSION personal a text becomes, the less likely it
The analysis showed that in texts written in is to show a gender pattern of the rapport/
Russian by men compared to those written report type. In other words, in a register in
by women, the index of lexical diversity and which individuals are already pressed to
the proportion of prepositions and pronoun- be involved and person-centred, there is
like adjectives were higher; in addition, no room for variation between rapport and
the proportion of 100 most frequently report discourse, thus blocking the gender
used Russian words as well as the index of pattern from emerging” (p. 132). However,
functional density was lower. Texts written our analysis has shown that this effect is
by males were found to be more formal than retained in personal texts such as letters to
texts written by females. a friend.
Overall, the data were in good We argue that a higher index of lexical
agreement with the results obtained for diversity in texts by men is due to the
texts written in English. Hence, as noted above differences: In texts by males, there
above, many scientists have argued that are fewer most frequently used words, the
texts by men have on average more nouns majority of which are function words; in
and adjectives as well as prepositions and addition, there are fewer repetitions and
demonstrative and relative pronouns; in more unique vocabulary units occur in a text
contrast, those by women have more verbs at one time. Mikros (2013), who analysed
Greek texts, found that texts written by differences in texts written by male and
men presented less lexical repetition and female authors that would remain even in a
avoidance of standardised lexical patterns gender-imitation scenario.
and a higher percentage of hapax legomena. In addition, rich metadata of the corpus
Mikros also stated that woman used more would allow us to investigate the effect of
function words than men. biological and social gender as independent
These data are in good agreement with variables on text parameters (Chambers,
the results obtained for texts written in 1992) as well as to evaluate the joint impact
Russian (Oschepkova (2003), see above). of these factors and a range of personality
It is interesting that the level of lexical traits, functional cerebral asymmetry profile
diversity and the number of clichés were etc. on linguistic parameters. As correctly
one of the few distinguishing parameters pointed out by Nini, it can be assumed
that were preserved in texts by females and that “the real differences in the linguistic
males of different social groups and even in patterns adopted by people depend on their
gender imitation. personality and/or hormone levels and
that genders are different to the extent that
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK on average different genders are prone to
The present study identified the differences different personality orientations and/or
between texts written in Russian by males hormone levels” (2014, p. 34).
and females using a range of context- We also seek to employ language-
independent parameters by means of a text independent text parameters for gender
corpus that was controlled simultaneously identification of text authors using the
for the author’s gender, age, education, text material of our corpus and freely available
topic, genre and medium. The obtained text corpora in other languages to identify
results were in good agreement with those universal differences in texts written by
from previous studies on Russian and other males and females.
languages. The use of only five linguistic This analysis to be conducted during
parameters as part of the suggested approach further research would allow one to develop
showed that it is possible to identify the a more current and deeper insight into the
gender of text authors with accuracy above way gender is manifested in written texts
the random value. and to develop more accurate methods of
There are plans to use the material identifying the gender of individuals based
of our newly designed Russian Gender on the quantitative parameters of their texts.
Imitation Corpus to check whether the
differences we have identified would be ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
retained in a gender-imitation scenario This research was financially supported by
as well as to carry on searching for more the Russian Science Foundation, project
No 16-18-10050, “Identifying the Gender Lyashevskaya, O., & Sharov, S. (2009). Frequency
and Age of Online Chatters Using Formal dictionary of modern Russian language (on
materials of the Russian national corpus).
Parameters of their Texts”.
Moscow, Russia: Azbukovnik.
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The Characteristics of Entrepreneurs with Successful and

Sustainable Small Businesses in Northeastern Thailand
Nath Amornpinyo
Department of Retail Business Management, Udon Thani Rajabhat University, Udon Thani, Thailand
ABSTRACT
This paper focusses on the characteristics of entrepreneurs with successful and sustainable
small businesses in Northeastern Thailand. It presents a new model and components. This
study aims: (1) To investigate the characteristics of entrepreneurs with successful and
sustainable business; (2) To study the factors influencing success and sustainability; and
(3) To develop a model based on these factors. Both quantitative and qualitative methods
are implemented. The former makes use of in-depth interviews in which the collected
data are analysed using content analysis. The results show that the characteristics of
entrepreneurs who enjoyed sustainable success in operating small businesses could be
categorised under six dimensions: a business spirit, proactiveness, competitive advantage,
sustainability, human capital and firm performance. These factors had 12 components,
namely, business orientation, business intelligence, environmental learning, corporate
social responsibility, flexibility, technological speed, production capability, innovativeness,
opportunity competency, inter-functional coordination, work effort and firm performance.
Quantitative data are gathered using a questionnaire measuring these 12 components. It
was administered to 391 small business entrepreneurs. The data are analysed using the
LISREL Programme to develop a model. The results of the model show a good fit with a
chi-square value of 10.45, p value of 0.98, goodness-of-fit index (GFI) of 1.00, Tucker-
Lewis index (TLI) of 1.00, comparative fit index (CFI) of 1.00, standard root mean square
(SRMR) of 0.01 and a root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) less than
0.01. The findings are discussed. Based on
the characteristics of entrepreneurs with
successful and sustainable small businesses,
ARTICLE INFO the results are a valid measure within a Thai
Article history: context.
Received: 08 September 2016
Keywords: Characteristics, entrepreneur, sustainable
E-mail address:
[email protected] (Nath Amornpinyo) success

Nath Amornpinyo
INTRODUCTION In Thailand, the GDP value of small

IIn the 21 century, sustainability is an
st and medium enterprises (SMEs) in 2015
interesting paradigm of entrepreneurs. was 5,559,534 million baht or 41.1% of
A ‘sufficiency economy’ is a philosophy the country’s GDP. The GDP value of
introduced more than 25 years ago by SMEs expanded by 5.3%, an increase from
His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej 0.4% in the previous year. Considering
of Thailand. This philosophy can be used the GDP value as a function of the size
to manage sustainability in Thailand in of the enterprise, it was found that small
many socioeconomic situations (Naipinit businesses contributed 3,938,842 million
et al., 2013). Fidrmuc and Korhonen (2010) baht to the GDP, an increase of 5.7% from
argued that Asian economies could have the previous year and equivalent to 29.1%
suffered the larger impact in the current of the total GDP (The Office of Small and
slowdown of the world economy than during Medium Enterprises Promotion, 2016).
earlier global downturns. The event has Small business entrepreneurs in Thailand
caused many businesses to collapse. Small usually face many problems. The main
business entrepreneurs have been especially problems are the lack of entrepreneurship and
affected. They had to reduce manufacturing business expertise, high competitiveness,
volumes or they spun off and terminated ineffectiveness and low efficiency in
their businesses. innovation, weak management and lack
The importance of small business of skilled labour (Thai Future Foundation,
entrepreneurs to the economy is defined 2013). Another study found the problems
by the Institute for Small and Medium of small business entrepreneurs were lack
Enterprises Development (2013). In a of financial support, poor management,
state of increasing employment, value- corruption, lack of training and experience,
added activities represent the essence of a poor infrastructure, insufficient profit and
start-up business. These are core activities low demand for products and services
other than manufacturing, a source of (Okpara, 2011). Other major problems
skill development and a strengthening facing small business entrepreneurs in
of the economic system. Businesses that Thailand include shortfalls in knowledge or
are expected to continue in their current information on business opportunities, the
form for the foreseeable future are called approach to wider markets or customers,
‘going concerns’. Intense competition and business planning and technical skills
the changing nature of today’s business (Office of Entrepreneurial Development
environment are the major reasons for Department of Industrial Promotion, 2010).
the small business entrepreneur’s need Hence, improving Thailand’s economy
for sustainability to strengthen Thailand’s requires building up small and sustainable
economic system. businesses. Consequently, this research
Characteristics of Entrepreneurs with Successful and Sustainable Businesses
studied the characteristics of entrepreneurs 2014). It has four aspects: competitors,

operating successful and sustainable small competitiveness, management and sociality.
businesses in Northeastern Thailand. Additionally, business intelligence is a
process of collecting, organising, analysing
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK and presenting information to assist with
The factors affecting small business better decision-making and to increase
performance have been widely explored. competitiveness. It provides the capability
Two theories were used in this research. for persons at all levels of a business
The first was a resource-based view of of analysing information to manage the
the firms (RBV) concentrating on the business, improve performance, seek
various capabilities of entrepreneurs. The opportunities and efficiently operate the
second was a contingency approach that business (Howson, 2007).
depends upon various internal and external
factors to describe the characteristics of Environmental Learning (EL)
a business (Ayinla, 2007). The current Sustainable entrepreneurship can be
research focused on the characteristics of developed by including an environmental
successful entrepreneurs in Thailand and or socially responsible orientation in a
presents a new model with 12 components company (Schaltegger & Wagner, 2011).
as discussed below. Environmental learning is an ability
to respond to changing business needs
Business Orientation (BO) (Hausman, 2005). Most studies have found
Business orientation (BO) is a characteristic that small business entrepreneurs rarely
way of exploring possibilities, state of have an environmental strategy (Schaper,
mind and readiness to successfully operate 2002; Worthington & Patton, 2005).
a business. Business orientation comprises
four components: global, virtual, innovation Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
and collaboration. These factors affect an Baumann-Pauly, Wickert, Spence and
organisation’s prosperity and sustainability Scherer (2013) hypothesised that small firms
or its decline (Lahiri, Pérez-Nordtvedt, & possess several favourable characteristics
Renn, 2008). for promoting internal implementation
of CSR-related practices in core business
Business Intelligence (BI) functions. Corporate social responsibility is
Competitiveness can be defined as the a characteristic of environmental protection,
ability to provide products and services. It is human resources management, health
also the idea of socially responsible business and safety at work, relations with local
that implements the business principles of communities and relations with suppliers
sustainable development (Grabara & Dima, and consumers (Branco & Rodrigues, 2006).
Nath Amornpinyo
Small business entrepreneurs in Thailand innovation to boost production capability.

have demonstrated an increasing awareness Production capability means the capability
of corporate social responsibility in recent to combine inputs to yield appropriate
years (Maignan & Ralston, 2002). outputs. It is achieved when a given level of
output is produced with a minimum bundle
Flexibility (F) of inputs (Baek, 2004). Two factors that
commonly affect the degree of production
Smart (2012) suggested that flexible
capability or production efficiency are
production has been used by a large number
measures of coaching quality and ability and
of detailers, manufacturers and retailers who
measures of other franchise characteristics
face intense competition for customers.
(Kahane, 2005). Productivity is achieved
It has been called an implementation of
once a product is made at minimum cost.
plans to achieve strategic competitiveness
with above-average returns (Ireland &
Hitt, 1999). O’Regan and Ghobadian Innovativeness (I)
(2004) classified flexibility into four styles: Bridge and O’Neill (2012) found that
transformational, transactional, human small firms are an important source of
resource orientation and laissez faire. innovation in products, techniques and
services. Schumpeter (1934) identified
Commercialisation Speed (CS) innovation as the know-how of products,
processes, organisations, markets and
Clausen and Korneliussen (2012) showed
sources of supply. This is a useful starting
that entrepreneurial orientation had a
point for an analysis of the dynamics and
positive effect on the ability to bring
variety of innovative efforts. Research
technology and products quickly to the
into the most successful characteristics of
market. Commercialisation speed means
entrepreneurs indicates that innovativeness
the capability of introducing new products
is developed from human resources, skills
more quickly than one’s competitors
and their continuous development. The
(Zahra & Nielsen, 2002). Commercialised
most important strategy of management
competency helps businesses gain
nowadays is building sustainability from
competitive advantage over their competitors
innovation. So, innovation is a key creative
by reducing costs, improving quality,
force enabling entrepreneurs to adapt to
absorbing new technologies and improving
competition in the long term.
their performance (Chen, 2009).
Opportunity Competency (OC)

Production Capability (PC)
One of the important causes of small
Alegre and Chiva (2013) suggested
business failure is poor business opportunity
that entrepreneurs should enhance their
(Bridge & O’Neill, 2012). Entrepreneurs
organisational learning capability and
with opportunity competency can improve Firm Performance (FP)

their performance, and this results in A successful measurement system should
increasing sales, profits and higher market reflect all performance indicators that are
share. Opportunity competency is a way relevant to an organisation’s existence
to identify threats and business objectives (Hillman & Keim, 2001; Laitinen, 2002;
that are particularly essential to going Amornpinyo, 2016). Financial returns
concerns (Grundvåg & Grønhaug, 2006). and business growth, both in the short
In quickly changing markets, where threats and long term, are principal performance
and opportunities arise very swiftly and measurements (Daily, McDougall, Covin,
unpredictably, one of the opportunity & Dalton, 2002). Amornpinyo (2013)
competencies is the capability to seek noted four basic contributors to business
opportunities and avoid threats. Avoiding sustainability i.e. assessment, communities,
threats is very important to going concerns. families and entrepreneurs.
Inter-Functional Coordination (IFC) Objectives of This Study

Naidoo (2010) found that marketing This study had three objectives. They were:
innovation improved when manufacturing
1) To study common characteristics of
SMEs were competitor-orientated and
entrepreneurs with successful and
had good inter-functional capabilities.
sustainable small businesses
Inter-functional coordination is focus
on customer and competitor orientation, 2) To analyse the characteristics of these
examining the relative associations of each entrepreneurs
with performance (Hult, Hurley, & Knight, 3) To develop a causal relationship
2004). Entrepreneurs who can create multi model to illustrate the success of these
functional teams to achieve inter-functional entrepreneurs.
coordination will acquire opportunities in
the long term. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The qualitative method was used to
Work Exertion (WE) accomplish Objective 1. Quantitative
Lai and Chen (2012) found that work effort measurements were used to accomplish
had a positive effect on job performance Objectives 2 and 3. The study was done in
and satisfaction. Work exertion is the effort two phases as described below.
that employees expend to achieve corporate
goals. The terms, ‘work attempt’, ‘work Phase 1
effort’ and ‘employee’s work effort’ are Unstructured interviews were done, in
synonymous with ‘work exertion’ (Brown which 12 open-ended questions were asked.
& Peterson, 1994).
Nath Amornpinyo
Thirty participants recruited from small 1.1. T h e y a r e s m a l l e n t e r p r i s e s ,

business enterprises were interviewed in according to the Office of Small
this phase. and Medium Enterprises Promotion
1. Three provinces in Northeastern (OSMEP) definition.
Thailand with the highest number 1.2. They are considered successful in
of small business enterprises were their business category.
identified. They are Nakhon Ratchasima 1.3. They have been in operation for at
(N=5020), Khon Kaen (N=5274) and least 10 years.
Ubon Ratchathani (N=4156). These
2. Ten enterprises were selected from each
provinces, respectively, account for
of the 10 largest business categories in
10.83%, 11.42% and 9.00% of the small
each province. The Thailand Standard
businesses operated in the Northeast
Industrial Classification 2-Digit Code
(The Office of SMEs Promotion, 2015).
(TSIC) was used in this process. This
Each of these small businesses met the
identified the 30 enterprise types
following criteria:
presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Enterprises by size and ten largest economic activities
Nakhon Ratchasima Ubon Ratchathani Khon Kaen

Retail trade excluding motor Retail trade excluding motor Retail trade excluding motor
vehicles and motorbikes vehicles and motorbikes vehicles and motorbikes
Wholesale except motor vehicles Wholesale except motor vehicles Wholesale except motor vehicles
and motorbikes and motorbikes and motorbikes
Food and Beverage service Food and Beverage service Food and Beverage service
Wholesale and retail trade, Production of food products Production of food products
Repair of motor vehicles and
motorbikes
Production of food products Textile manufacturing Wholesale and retail trade,
repair of motor vehicles and
motorbikes
Computer and Personal services Garment manufacturing Textile manufacturing
Management activities and Computer and Personal services Computer and Personal services
Support service
Production of non-ferrous Art, Entertainment and Art, Entertainment and
products Recreation Recreation
Garment manufacturing Production of non-ferrous Production of non-ferrous
products products
Textile manufacturing Hotels Garment manufacturing
3. Three key informants from each related prior studies. These were used as
enterprise were recruited for the the questionnaire items in the second phase.
interviews, making a total of 30
key informants recruited. The three Phase 2
informants were recruited based on
Quantitative measurement was implemented
their job: entrepreneur, manager and
in this phase. The Northeast is the region
labourer. So, from each enterprise,
with the largest number of small business
one entrepreneur, one manager and
enterprises in Thailand (25.83%) (The Office
one labourer were interviewed.
of SMEs Promotion, 2015). Therefore, the
The interviews were conducted via
population of this study was 46,187 small
telephone. Each interview was recorded
business entrepreneurs from 15 provinces
and subjected to primary review using
in Northeastern Thailand. These enterprises
triangulation methods i.e. different
were local and self-administrated and had
reviewers, times and locations. Content
been in operation for at least five years.
analysis was conducted, including data
Their employment and fixed assets complied
indexing, looking for keywords and
with the Small and Medium Enterprises
identifying themes and finding units
Promotion Act (Department of Business
of meaning for each variable. Data
Development, Ministry of Commerce,
reduction was then done, followed by
2016). The samples were 397 entrepreneurs
selection of items.
selected using multi-stage stratified random
sampling by province and by enterprise
From this phase, 52 items were identified
categories with a confidence level of 95%.
based on the results of the interviews and
The population and samples for this phase
are presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Population and samples
Enterprises and Economic Activity Population Samples

Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 349 3
Mining and Quarrying 349 3
Manufacturing 4,421 38
Electricity, Gas, Steam and Air Conditioning Supply 116 1
Water Supply, Wastewater and Waste Management and Relevant Activities 349 3
Construction 11,751 101
Wholesale, Retail Trade, Repair of Motor Vehicles and Motorbikes 12,100 104
Transport and Storage 1,861 16
Hotels and Restaurants 1,163 10
News and Information and Communication 2,443 21
Nath Amornpinyo
Table 2 (continue)
Enterprises and Economic Activity Population Samples

Financial Activities and Insurance 1,396 12
Real Estate Activities 2,909 25
Professional, Scientific and Academic Activities 3,025 26
Management Activities and Support Service 1,512 13
Education 465 4
Health and Social Work 233 2
Art, Entertainment and Recreation 1,396 12
Total 46187 397
The research instrument was a questionnaire Suitability of the model was evaluated
from Phase 1. It used a 5-point rating scale. using six indices, which reflected the overall
The questionnaire was tested for its content model fit. These were: (1) the chi-square
validity using the Index of Item Objective statistic; (2) the goodness-of-fit index (GFI);
Congruence (IOC) and for reliability using (3) the comparative fit index (CFI); (4) the
the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient. The IOC Tucker-Lewis index (TLI); (5) the standard
of the questionnaire items was between 0.8 root mean square (SRMR); and (6) the
and 1 and the Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient root mean-square error of approximation
for the questionnaire was 0.919. (RMSEA).
Data were analysed using the Exploratory The model was then presented to direct
Factor Analysis (EFA). Structural Equation stakeholders to gain their opinion and
Modelling (SEM) was developed from suggestions for improvement.
analysis of the results, related theories and
studies. A correlation test was conducted RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
between SEM and empirical data by means of The respondents’ demographic profile
LISREL programming to analyse the causal assembled from the questionnaire is
relationships between the variables. Path presented in Table 3.
Analysis, Regression Analysis (Coefficient
of Determination) and Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) were also done.
Table 3
Respondents’ demographic profile
Number Percentage (%)

Gender Male 255 65.22
Female 136 34.78
Age 30 – 40 years 72 18.41
41 – 50 years 102 26.09
51 years and older 217 55.50
Education Graduate or Undergraduate 278 71.10
Postgraduate 113 28.90
Business duration 5 years or less 12 3.16
6 – 10 years 54 14.21
10 years and longer 314 82.63
Position Chairman 142 36.50
Managing Director 233 59.90
etc. 14 3.60
Employees 15 employees or fewer 171 44.42
16-25 employees 102 26.49
More than 26 employees 112 29.09
The results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin of Bartlett’s Test was significant at a value

Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) less than 0.01 as presented in Table 4.
was 0.67, which was acceptable. The result
Table 4
KMO and Bartlett’s Test
KMO and Bartlett’s Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.670
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 25313.988
df 1326
Sig. 0.000
In the factor analysis, findings from the 1 were considered. The Percentage of
questionnaire were classified into 12 factors Variance Criterion and the Cumulative
using the latent root criterion. Only those Percentage of Total Variance are presented
factors with Eigen values greater than in Table 5.
Nath Amornpinyo
Table 5
Total variance explained
Component Initial Eigen Values Extraction Sums of Squared Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Loadings
Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative
Variance % Variance % Variance %
1 20.121 38.694 38.694 20.121 38.694 38.694 5.534 10.643 10.643
2 3.646 7.011 45.705 3.646 7.011 45.705 4.879 9.383 20.026
3 2.554 4.912 50.617 2.554 4.912 50.617 4.275 8.221 28.247
4 2.395 4.605 55.223 2.395 4.605 55.223 4.250 8.172 36.420
5 2.262 4.351 59.574 2.262 4.351 59.574 3.523 6.775 43.194
6 1.991 3.830 63.403 1.991 3.830 63.403 3.412 6.562 49.756
7 1.673 3.217 66.621 1.673 3.217 66.621 3.019 5.806 55.563
8 1.590 3.057 69.678 1.590 3.057 69.678 2.901 5.578 61.141
9 1.450 2.788 72.466 1.450 2.788 72.466 2.673 5.140 66.281
10 1.409 2.710 75.176 1.409 2.710 75.176 2.406 4.627 70.908
11 1.160 2.231 77.407 1.160 2.231 77.407 2.405 4.625 75.532
12 1.074 2.065 79.472 1.074 2.065 79.472 2.049 3.940 79.472
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
According to a study of relevant research λ=0.71, T-value=14.73) and business

and the interviews in the first phase, 52 intelligence (standardised coefficient –
questions were generated for the second λ = 0 . 7 9 , T- v a l u e = 1 6 . 5 5 ) . T h i s i s a
phase. For the factor analysis, the findings consequence of business orientation being
from the questions were classified into a characteristic of giving precedence to
12 factors based on theories and related seeking ways of increasing the competitive
research studies i.e. business orientation, advantage and growth of the firm (Ireland,
business intelligence, environmental Hitt, & Sirmon, 2003). Business intelligence
learning, corporate social responsibility, combines products, technology and methods
flexibility, technology speed, production to organise key information that management
capability, innovativeness, opportunity needs to improve profit and performance
competency, inter-functional coordination, (Williams & Williams, 2010).
work effort and firm performance. The Proactiveness included environmental
researchers built a causal relationship model learning (standardised coefficient –λ=0.72,
using six dimensions of characteristics i.e. T-value=14.37) and corporate social
business spirit, proactiveness, competitive responsibility (standardised coefficient
advantage, sustainability, human capital and –λ=0.41,T-value=12.45), since both are
firm performance, as detailed below. contingent variables that depend on the
Business spirit comprised business situation and environmental changes
orientation (standardised coefficient – following the concept of contingency
approach (Aragon-Correa & Sharma, processes will encourage a company to

2003). Kreiser et al. (2013) found have a strategic sustainability perspective,
positive and moderate relationships which will support the company’s long-term
between proactiveness, performance and success (Hallstedt et al., 2013).
proactiveness that displayed positive Human capital comprised inter-
U-shaped relationships with SME functional coordination (standardised
performance. coefficient –λ=1.02, T-value=10.18) and
Competitive advantage included work effort (standardised coefficient –
flexibility (standardised coefficient – λ=0.52, T-value=9.07). Inter-functional
λ=0.73, T-value=11.89), technological coordination is the characteristic of
speed (standardised coefficient –λ=0.74, being able to create relationships within
T-value=11.43) and production capability. management teams that have diversity
Flexibility (standardised coefficient – (Auh & Menguc, 2005). Inter-functional
λ=0.71, T-value=9.98) is a characteristic coordination has a crucial role in overall
of an entrepreneur to adapt the roles of all performance in every type of organisation
functions to match the current situation, ( H u l t , S n o w, & K a n d e m i r, 2 0 0 3 ) .
thereby attaining competitive opportunities Work effort is the characteristic of an
(Dreyer & Grønhaug, 2004). Zhou and entrepreneur to awaken the full engagement
Wu (2010) found that a technological of employees to work for success. Barnes
capability impedes innovation. Flexibility and Liao (2012) found that both work effort
positive effects of technological capability (competency at the individual level) and
on exploration and technological capability inter-functional coordination (competency
are associated with innovation. at the organisational level) have significant
Innovativeness (standardised coefficient and positive effects on firm performance.
–λ=1.29, T-value=9.05) and opportunity Consequently, this study created a
competency (standardised coefficient – conceptual model to illustrate the
λ=1.15, T-value=8.75) are components of characteristics of entrepreneurs who operated
sustainability. The ability to create never- successful and sustainable businesses. The
before-seen products and services or new model was analysed. The first model did
procedures or processes to meet customer not fit the data well, and was revised. The
needs is innovativeness (Krisciunas & revision of the model was done using
Greblikaite, 2007). Opportunity competency modification indices (MI) (Byrne, 2013;
is the capability of finding new business Kline, 2005). The hypothesised and revised
breakthroughs, such as new products, model retained all 52 items. The revised
services, technologies or operational model, which had a better fit, is shown in
procedures. Moreover, product innovation Figure 1 and Table 2.
Consequently, this study created a conceptual model to illustrate the
characteristics of entrepreneurs who operated successful and sustainable
businesses. The model was analysed. The first model did not fit the data well, and
was revised. The revision of the model was done using modification indices (MI)
(Byrne, 2013; Kline, 2005). The hypothesised and revised model retained all 52
items. The revised model, which hadNath
a better fit, is shown in Figure 1 and Table 2.
Amornpinyo
Business Spirit 0.59* 1.24* Human Capital 0.28*

Competitive 0.55*
Sustainability Firm Performance
Advantage 0.54*
Proactiveness 0.41*
Figure 1. The results of the revised causality model

* a significance
Note: * a significant level of 0.05level of 0.05
Figure 1. The results of the revised causality model.
Table 6
Results of goodness-of-fit
Table 6 indices of hypothesised and revised measurement model
Results of Goodness-of-Fit
Indices RecommendedIndices of Hypothesised
Hypothesised and Revised
Model Revised Model Measurement
Chi-square
Model 1146.58 10.45
p-value >0.05 0.00 0.88
Indices Recommended Hypothesised Model Revised Model
GFI >0.90 0.72 1.00
TLI
Chi-square >0.90 0.82
1146.58 1.00
10.45
CFI >0.90 0.86 1.00
SRMR <0.05 0.07 0.01
RMSEA <0.05 0.18 0.00
This research established a new construct The model was then evaluated by
of the characteristics of entrepreneurs with 10 stakeholders, including scholars,
successful and sustainable businesses. Most entrepreneurs, managers and labourers.
prior research showed sustainability as The results revealed that the model provided
concepts with no category of components inclusive and in-depth information and the
as variables. These were broad ranges stakeholders supported the model.
of ideas showing how to approach good This research supports and complements
performance. This research revealed the the theory of RBV and the contingency
means to build a model illustrating the approach by establishing antecedent
characteristics of entrepreneurs with variables (business orientation, business
successful and sustainable small businesses. intelligence, environmental learning
Six dimensions of characteristics were and corporate social responsibility) of
found. It is important to consider business competitive advantage. These are necessary
spirit and proactiveness as antecedents of for creating sustainability under the principles
sustainability and competitive advantage of RBV and contingency, whereas the
as a moderator. Additionally, sustainability variables of sustainability (innovativeness
directly affects firm performance and and opportunity competency) encourage
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Debunking the Myth of Money as Motivator in a Multigenerational

Workforce
Lee Su Teng*, Sharmila Jayasingam and Khairuddin Naim Mohd Zain
Department of Business Policy and Strategy, Faculty of Business and Accountancy, University of Malaya,
50603 UM, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Granting an annual increment is the norm in Asian countries. Organisations spend millions
on salaries, hoping for better performance. Undeniably, money is a crucial necessity for
all. However, can it motivate every individual to work harder or to perform better at a job?
Is the thought that everyone is money driven a misguided perception? This question is
becoming increasingly pertinent with every change to workforce demographics as workers
of newer generations come on board. With Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y
working side by side in the same space, workers are no longer a homogenous group. Today’s
workforce is the most diverse in history. Hence, the purpose of this study is to explore
the truth of the perception that money is a motivator for good performance at work and to
discover the actual motivators to work well of each generation. The findings confirm that
money is perceived as the motivator for all the three generations. However, each generation
is also driven by other specific motivators. With a multigenerational workforce, employers
will need to take these motivators into consideration.
Keywords: Baby boomer, Generation X, Generation Y, money, motivator
INTRODUCTION
Salary increments have become the norm in
Asian countries over the years. Employees
have come to expect a yearly increment as
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: an ‘entitlement’ in exchange for services
rendered for the year. This indicates
E-mail addresses: the perception among employees that a
[email protected]; [email protected] (Lee Su Teng), yearly increment is a given regardless
[email protected] (Sharmila Jayasingam),
[email protected] (Khairuddin Naim Mohd Zain) of their performance. The scenario is

further aggravated by the meddling of into actual and perceived motivators of

union workers, particularly in Malaysia. employees to work hard and well. This
A minimum/fixed increment and/or bonus theory hopes to add on to the knowledge
have come to be included in the terms that the person-focused plan should also take
and conditions of a collective agreement into consideration the special characteristics
signed by the employer and the employee. of the generation the person belongs to in
Compared with other countries, among non- addition to the competencies, knowledge
unionised employees, very few, if any, are not and skills the individual possesses.
awarded this ‘entitlement’ in Asian countries
(Joann & Kemba, 2001). Increments are Background
costly to organisations in the long run. In
Salary is viewed as the most important
order to gain a competitive advantage in
factor by both genders with 26.5% of urban
the global economy, organisations can no
Malaysians agreeing to this statement. A
longer pass on costs to customers for fear
JobsCentral survey revealed that the happiest
of losing business to competitors. While
employees earn more than RM10,000 per
organisations are treating salary increment
month (JobsCentral [M] Sdn Bhd, 2012).
as an employee retention tool, millions of
On the flip side, one may ask, “How long
dollars are spent on salaries in the hope of
would anyone stay in a job that involved
improved or better work performance in
just sitting by and doing nothing every
return. However, it does not seem able to
day? Would it be more meaningful to stick
guarantee either better work performance
to one’s current job or switch to a stress-
or company loyalty on the employees’ part.
free job like cleaning the office with no
How far should organisations go and to what
increment?” Dan Ariely, a professor of
extent does money motivate employees to
psychology and behavioural economics
help organisations achieve their goals? This
conducted several experiments and revealed
research attempts to answer these questions,
that there are other non-pay factors that
considering specifically the two questions
matter, such as sense of purpose, visible
below:
results and receiving acknowledgement of
1. Is money the primary motivator of all one’s effort (Lizard, 2014). Salary or money
generations when it comes to work? is indeed important only at the point of
2. What are the true motivators of each accepting a job offer, but it does not seem
generation to perform well at work? to have a lasting effect. This is in line with a
report published by the Senior Professional
This research hopes to contribute to the in Human Resources (SPHR®), which stated
theory of generations and the person- that 88% of employees resign for reasons
focused plan when rewarding employees other than pay but the irony is that 70% of
by examining these questions through a managers think employees leave mainly
different lens i.e. by exploring insights for pay-related reasons (Yazinski, 2009)
Debunking the Myth of Money in a Multigenerational Workforce
despite the various motivational theories, may not work for all groups of workers.
such as Herzberg‘s two-factor theory. Because the work environment today is
Here, it is obvious that the organisation’s highly competitive, organisations think that
perception and the actual preference of employees leave for pay-related matters,
employees are not in line and skewed. as reported by the Senior Professional in
Hence, are organisations focussing on the Human Resources (SPHR ®) (Yazinski,
wrong factor all together? Money may be 2009). Employers need to understand that
an important factor, but how far does it relying solely on salary and bonuses to
motivate the individual? Even if it does motivate employees is an inefficient way
motivate some employees can it be said that of managing employee performance today
money is a motivator for all employees? This (Rakyan & Wang, 2017). Employees now
research hopes to contribute to the theory of are no longer satisfied with the standard
generations and the person-focused plan to programmes that employers believe should
investigate if there are other factors besides work for everyone. Even gender plays a
money that motivate employees to perform role in what motivates people to be self-
better at the workplace today. employed (Allen & Curington, 2014).
Employers cannot shy away from the When it comes to employee management,
business trends that are shaping organisations generic strategies no longer work. It is time
today. The top trends in the workplace for employers to have a plan that caters
are changes in workforce demographic, for the needs of their employees based on
competition, leveraging and economic differences in the cohort generation. This
challenges (Society for Human Resource approach will allow employers to bring out
Management, 2010). Today’s workplace is the best in every employee in order to gain
the most diverse in history, with employees a competitive edge over their rivals.
from various generations working side by To remain competitive, organisations
side to achieve the organisation’s objectives. use numerous strategies to bring out the
This trend will continue for the next 10 best in their human capital. Giving out
years or more (Mencl & Lester, 2014). an annual increment and bonus is the
Workforce diversity also means dealing with norm in most Asian countries in both the
multiple perspectives arising from a vast private and public sectors. In South Asia,
array of backgrounds and life experiences for example, a yearly increment is almost
(Clark, 2017; Lee & Tay, 2012) that each automatic, except where there has been
generation brings to the workplace. Work shoddy work or misconduct (Chew, 1992).
profiles are no longer similar across cohorts; A survey conducted by Hays (2014) in Asia
this fact indicates that different cohorts for example, reported that only 12% of the
of workers may not operate in the same employees did not get a bonus. As for their
manner (Meriac, Woehr, & Banister, 2010); Western counterparts, it is reported that only
therefore, a standard motivation programme 15% in the legal industry in San Francisco
get a bonus (Joann & Kemba, 2001). Yearly Table 1

Malaysian labour market by sector (%)
increments and bonuses sooner or later cut
into the profit margin of an organisation. In Sector 2006 2014
the year 2012, the yearly increment in Asia Agriculture 13.0% 9.3%
ranged from an average of 4.5% to 13.7%, Industry 36.0% 34.7%
and bonuses ranged from an average of Service 51.0% 56.0%
Source: CIA World Factbook (2015)
2.00 to 4.41 months of the regular salary
(HayGroup, 2012). Even the Japanese are
now considering a flexible wage system Theories
(Kuroda, 2006) or a performance-based
Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory, the
wage system (Ogoshi, 2006).
two-factor theory, states that individuals will
However, on the other hand, in order
not be contented with the fulfilment of lower-
to stay competitive, organisations find it
order needs, which in terms of the workplace,
hard to raise the price of their products for
would refer to minimum salary levels, safety
fear of losing customers. To keep prices
and pleasant working conditions. Rather,
low, organisations have to always look into
individuals would look for gratification
operation cost. Compensation is the largest
of higher-level psychological needs,
single expense in any industry, perhaps
which include achievement, recognition,
constituting more than 80% of expenses
responsibility, advancement and the nature
in the service industry (The Bureau of
of the work itself. This appears to parallel
National Affairs, 2012). With reference
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. In
to the Malaysian labour market, Table 1
this research, the motivators, intrinsic
shows that the services sector is the largest
values, were considered as the hygiene
employer of labour, 51% in 2006 and
factors (e.g. status, job security, salary,
56% in 2014. Yet, higher salaries may not
fringe benefits, work conditions, good pay,
guarantee better performance and employee
paid insurance, vacations) that do not give
retention as some do leave for lower-paying
positive satisfaction or lead to a higher level
jobs. As Kohn (1993) put it, rewards
of motivation, though dissatisfaction could
temporarily change what people do without
arise if they were absent. The term ‘hygiene’
creating lasting commitment. Hence, it is
is used in the sense of maintenance factors.
important to look into the role of money
These are extrinsic to the work itself, and
and to leverage on the actual motivators
include aspects such as company policies,
that are shaping today’s multigenerational
supervisory practices and wages/salary.
workforce at a time when economic climate
When it comes to compensation, under
is indeed challenging.
the person-focused plan, companies must
recognise differences between employees mean that this group has difficulty in
by paying individuals according to their balancing work and family life (Dilworth
credentials, knowledge and job performance. & Kingsbury, 2005; Smola & Sutton, 2002).
This plan should also take social background Their preferred style of working is to reach
or the generation the employee belongs consensus through seminars and meetings
to into consideration. Person-focused and to embrace team decision. For them,
pay programmes represent an important having face-to-face communication is
innovation in compensation. Person-focused important; they prefer to walk over to their
pay systems imply that employees must move colleague to get an answer to a question (Yu
away from viewing pay as an entitlement. & Miller, 2005) even though accessibility
Instead, these systems treat compensation to telephone and email, common tools in
as a reward earned for acquiring and every employee’s work station, is readily
implementing job-relevant knowledge available. This explains the lower usage of
and skills. Advocates of person-focused communication gadgets by the Boomers
pay programmes offer two key reasons as compared to Generations X and Y
for firms seeking competitive advantage (Ramasubbu, 2016).
to adopt this form of compensation i.e.
technological innovation and increased Generation X. Generation X, also known
global competition. as X-ers or the 13th Generation, were born
during the years 1965 to 1980 (Glass, 2007).
Generational Differences in the This generation desires to be self-reliant.
Workforce They are renowned for planning one or two
jobs ahead of their current employment in
A generation is an identifiable group based
order to stay ahead. Loyalty to organisation is
on birth year; thus, all persons born in a
not a priority to them. They seek challenging
particular generation would share major life
jobs and the necessary training to acquire
events (Kupperschmidt, 2000). A generation
career security, to which they are loyal
generally covers a period of 20 years
rather than to job security (Kupperschmidt,
(Sayers, 2007). Each generation brings with
2000). They are comfortable and adapt well
it distinct values, attitudes, behaviour and
to change, including career transformation
expectations (Crampton & Hodge, 2007).
(Sayers, 2007).
Baby Boomers. Baby Boomers were born
Generation Y. Generation Y, born during
during the years 1946 to 1964 (Jenkins,
the years 1981 to 2001, is the youngest age
2008) and are the most workaholic among
group in the workplace today. They are also
all workers (Berl, 2006; Carlson, 2004;
called Millennials, the Internet Generation,
Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007). They
Generation Next or the Net Generation
are optimistic by nature and their strong
(Glass, 2007), dot.com generation (Yu &
focus on diligence and achievement may
Miller, 2005), the N-Geners (Tapscott, generations, and looked at the implication
1998) or Generation Me (Becton, Walker, of actions taken by management that would
& Jones-Farmer, 2014). This generation allow human resource professionals to
is independent and entrepreneurial and benefit from the intrinsic differences among
demands immediate feedback (Martin, the three geenerations. Hence, the research
2005). They would rather send a quick email hypotheses are as follows:
than have face-to-face communication, H1: Money is judged as the primary
unlike Baby Boomers, and this may hinder motivator of all generations.
personal relationship with colleagues,
H2: Money is not the actual motivator of
supervisors, direct reports and clients
all generations.
(Glass, 2007). Having high expectations of
themselves and their employers are their
MATERIALS AND METHOD
fundamental trait (Foreman, 2006). Work
should be meaningful to them. They also Face-to-face interviews were carried out,
value freedom in performing tasks (Özçelik, where stratified random sampling was
2015). They prefer fast-track leadership employed for equal representation from
programmes, a clear career path, recognition each generation cohort. Only Malaysians
and rewards based on contributions (Glass, working in the Klang Valley were taken into
2007). Acknowledging the importance of consideration. The Klang Valley was chosen
these traits, one major employer, Citigroup, as it is the location of Kuala Lumpur, the
announced its recruitment plan in 2016 to capital of Malaysia. The youngest informant
reach out to Generation Y by providing considered for this research was 16 years
a rapid path for promotion (Rexrode, of age, the minimum legal age to enter the
2016). To date, Generation Y is the largest Malaysian workforce.
generation in the labour force (Fry, 2015). All the informants were informed of
Each generation has a different set the purpose of the research, the expected
of beliefs, values and attitudes to work. duration of the in-depth interview and their
They have different interactional styles right to withdraw from participation at any
and preferences and may misinterpret point of time before the interview began.
words and actions of employees from other The sampling method for this research
generations. These can result in deviation was reviewed and approved by the Ethics
in behavioural patterns as explained Smola Committee of the University of Malaya. The
and Sutton (2002). These differences among participants were not required to disclose any
the generations can also be translated as identifying information and they were aware
different responses to the same motivator. of the ethical consideration of this research
This research revealed the gap between for anonymity and confidentiality. The
actual the work motivators and the perceived participants were protected, as they were not
work motivators that guide each of the three identified throughout the interview process.
Participation was voluntary. Protecting
informant anonymity is one of the methods to the questions. After a short introduction to
recommended by Podsakoff, Mackenzie, the research, they were asked to describe and
Lee and Podsakoff (2003) to reduce method elaborate on the driving factor that prompted
bias as it reduces the likelihood of informants them to work. They were also probed to
editing their responses to be more socially describe what they believed was the driving
desirable or consistent with what they think factor of their immediate supervisor to
the researcher wants. work, as their supervisor, whom they always
Prior to the actual research, a pilot worked with, might come from a different
test was conducted to ensure that all the generation. The driving factors recorded
questions were comprehensible. A pilot from both perspectives were then crossed
test of 10 informants was first carried out, checked with the generation cohort as the
and three to four informants from each control. To facilitate this, the informants
generation were randomly chosen for the were asked to choose their age range and
interviews. The informants were given their respective supervisor’s age range based
the opportunity to comment on clarity on a generational definition. Each in-depth
and relevancy of the various statements interview took about half an hour.
included in the interview guideline (see the Under demographics, one question
Appendix). Feedback obtained from a pilot asked for year of birth to serve as check-
test allows the researcher a final opportunity and-balance for the generation to which the
to make changes (Robson, 2002) to the informants and their immediate supervisors
interview items. The results of the pilot belonged. They were required to choose
study showed that the questions were clearly a range based on generational definition,
understood by the informants from all the that is, from 1981 to 1995, 1965 to 1980
three generations. These 10 responses were or 1946 to 1964. Other demographic
then included in the actual study. questions included the informants’ highest
As part of a larger study, 70 interviews qualification attained, job level and tenure
were conducted over a period of four in the organisation.
months. Sixty-three of the responses were The current research adapted the
usable; the remaining seven participants content analysis, a widely used method
withdrew from participation. Griffin and for qualitative research, in order to provide
Hauser (1993) suggested that a sample size insight into human interaction and the
of 30 informants for qualitative research relevant variables. Content analysis as a
is acceptable for obtaining a full range or research method is a systematic and objective
nearly full range of possible vital insights. means of describing and quantifying
Out of the 63, 21 were Baby Boomers, 22 phenomena (Krippendorff, 1980). The
were from Generation X and 20 were from objective is to obtain a condensed and
Generation Y. The informants were aware broad description of a phenomenon. Data
that there was no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer obtained were first conceptualised, coded
and categorised into concepts, and then Non-Executive (33%); those who were
categorised into concepts by age group or capable had moved up to at least the position
patterns including immersing oneself in of Assistant Manager. Generation X, being
the data as recommended by Hammersley at the prime working age, was comprised
and Atkinson (1983) to identify possible mainly of Assistant Managers and above
phenomena, inconsistencies and divergent (54%), followed by Executive or Senior
views given by the different generations. Executive (32%) and Non-Executive (14%).
The driving factors were then matched based The trend was reversed for Generation Y, as
on generation. they were still gaining work knowledge and
some had yet to complete their education
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION or wished to further their studies. The data
There were 63 usable responses, yielding concerning employment position reflected
a response rate of 90%. Out of the 63 the career stage of the participants with
respondents, 21 were Baby Boomers, regard to their age and in no way reflect on
22 were Generation X and 20 were their capabilities or the capabilities of the
Generation Y. As society has been placing generation they represented.
more emphasis on education over time, A comparison of tenure in the
individuals from all three generations appear organisation across generations revealed
to be willing to invest time and energy that the Baby Boomers tended to stay longer
into obtaining higher education. The study within an organisation compared with the
showed that educational qualification among other two groups. This trend was in line with
Baby Boomers was quite equally spread out the report by Florida (2009), who showed
compared with the other two generations. that employees under the age of 30 seemed
The Baby Boomers interviewed had attained to change jobs once every one and a half
at least secondary school (24%), a degree years compared with the national average
or professional (24%) and postgraduate of once every three years. One may argue
qualification (24%). They had continued to that it is only natural for Generation Y to
pursue higher education even after starting stay in an organisation for less than a year
work or while working. On the contrary, as they are young and may not have decided
the majority of Generation X had at least a on a career path as yet. However, a closer
degree or professional qualification (41%). look at the sample demographics revealed
Similarly, the majority of Generation Y had that they tended to stay in organisations for
either a pre-university qualification (35%) a period of one to less than three years. The
with the aim to pursue higher education following was from the interview with one
later, or currently held a degree (45%). Generation Y graduate:
When it came to current position held, “I have changed four jobs this year
the majority of the Baby Boomers were and I am looking out now. I cannot
Assistant Managers and above (62%) and stay in the same organisation for so
long. Just do not understand how this to happen, employers need to identify
others do it.” strategies to draw in the full participation
of each generation. They need to bear in
Another Generation Y informant said, mind that certain methods or programmes
“Staying in the same organisation for more may only work for certain generations.
than three years is just not me.” However, if Hence, this study contributes to the human
we were to compare this tendency with the resource literature and practical implications
behaviour of the Baby Boomers when they by examining the work motivators of
were young, it would be clear that it is very each generation. Based on the in-depth
different from their response. Baby Boomers interviews, several interesting findings
tended to stay longer in an organisation. emerged as each generation was found to be
It was common to hear that they changed driven by different work motivators.
jobs fewer than three times in their entire The informants were asked about
working career. Generation Y tended to factors that drove them to perform at work,
change jobs more often than the other two followed by factors that they believed drove
generations (Campione, 2015). If we were their supervisors who may come from a
to look at the data holistically, employee different generation. Supervisors were
turnover is a common phenomenon not considered as they play an important role in
only in the West but also in Asian countries team performance and participants would be
such as Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea expected to have frequent contact with their
and Taiwan, as reported by Chang (1996). supervisors. As expected, informants had a
HayGroup (2012) reported an average preconceived notion that their supervisors
of 13.41% turnover in the Asia region, (regardless of which generation they were
with Malaysia showing the highest figure, from) were driven primarily by money.
16.40%, with no further age breakdown. This may be partly due to the materialistic
This may be due to the fact that Malaysia has world that we are living in today. However,
been experiencing rapid economic growth in actual fact, this was not the case. When
(The World Bank, 2015) but has a shortage informants were asked to state what drove
of skilled workers (The Malaysian Times, them, money was not included in their list,
2015) and a low unemployment rate, ranked with the exception of Generation X. For
fifth lowest in the world (World Finance, the Baby Boomers, this may have been due
2014). Hence, employees do not stay long to their number, which compelled them to
in the same organisation. have to compete for jobs throughout their
Organisations cannot run away from lives; therefore, they were a generation that
generational differences, especially in was easy to please. One interviewee from
today’s diverse workplace. Employers the Baby Boomer generation said, “Having
need to create a work environment that a job itself is a bonus.” In addition, this
brings out the strengths of each cohort. For generation believed that hard work would
help them get ahead of competition. They looked for good teamwork. To illustrate
were believers in lifetime employment; this further, this generation would remain with
is in line with the findings of Ansoorian, an organisation and put in their best effort
Good and Samuelson (2003) and Elsdon and if they had good teamwork. This lessened
Lyer (1999). The attitude of Generation Y, the probability of their looking outside the
on the other hand, may have partly been due organisation for job fulfilment, which is
to having both parents working, leading to important to business leaders as Generation
economic stability in their formative years X are in the prime of working age. On the
(Foreman, 2006). flip side, if teamwork were not managed
well, causing a team member to leave,
Baby Boomers others, especially Generation X employees,
might follow suit. Generation X either
As far as the Baby Boomers were concerned,
works as a team or if they are unhappy,
they were generally self-motivated. They felt
may leave as a team, which may have an
that it was their responsibility to complete
impact on the organisation’s ability to
given tasks. This is in agreement with what
reach its goals. Thus, to retain and motivate
was perceived as being their driving force.
Generation X workers, leaders need to
They felt that work was an anchor, and this
demonstrate good leadership skills. For
resulted in their showing a high degree of
example, encouraging team participation
loyalty to work. Baby Boomers’ supervisors
in the decision-making process would be a
can leverage on this characteristic when
good way to encourage teamwork. Another
assigning work to Baby Boomers. Armed
way to keep track of this would be to look
with experience, what Baby Boomers need is
for turnover trend in a section or department
merely clear deadlines and objectives of the
of an organisation. If the rate is high, it
assigned tasks, which can be communicated
would be best to have an open discussion
through face-to-face discussion, their
to investigate further or include teamwork
preferred work style (Yu & Miller, 2005).
in the generic key performance index (KPI)
for every supervisor as this generation
Generation X tends to engage in teamwork. In short,
While the other two cohorts perceived that employee retention should be a factor in
money was their sole motivator to perform, any supervisor’s KPI. Involving supervisors
Generation X, while acknowledging money in ensuring good teamwork is also in line
as an important motivator, were not solely with the paternalistic management style
driven by money. They also valued good practised in Malaysia. It is a cultural value
teamwork, which the other two generations that expects the supervisor to take care of
may not be familiar with. This means that subordinates under his or her care.
for them to put in more effort, besides When it comes to money, employers
money, members of this generation also should ask Generation X workers directly
how much money or what salary they are interest. If they feel that their needs are not
looking for. This is in line with a study being met, with the support of a readily
conducted by Cheah, Chong, Yeo and available and strong social network, many
Pee (2015) that found compensation and will join Generation X in embracing home-
incentives to be related to commitment based entrepreneurship or self-employment
among Generation X employees. For existing as it will provide them with the challenges,
employees, employers should always look opportunities and flexibility that energise
at the total compensation of each employee them as well as give them the opportunity
and explain it to him/her. If the figure is to explore their passion. Therefore, it is in
workable, the immediate supervisor, with their best interest to identify their passion
Human Resource assistance, should map during the job interview. It is important
out a career plan for the employee based on for supervisors to relate to the supervisee’s
his/her current salary while moving towards passion related to the job and to encourage
his/her ideal salary. The career plan must the supervisee to utilise his/her skills.
be a detailed and workable development In addition to passion, gaining
plan, which includes the employee’s current knowledge is also important to Generation
strength and weaknesses in line with the Y. Bearing this in mind, organisations may
current job requirement. The development consider making available programmes
plan should chart a route for the employee for the upgrading of skills such as MBA
that would move him/her up to the next level programmes, short courses and skills training.
until the ideal salary is attained in a specific As this generation is highly comfortable
timeframe. Mapping out the development with technology (Erickson, 2009), which
plan should include listing the requirements is their second nature, organisations may
for the next level and state clearly to the consider having online-based training to
employee how to move forward i.e. by reduce cost. Online assessment can also be
filling the gaps in the employees’ current carried out to ascertain the effectiveness of
performance dues to weaknesses so that he/ the programme itself. All these efforts are tax
she would be able to perform according to deductible for companies. As there are not
the requirements of the new job. many Generation Y supervisors as yet, the
perceived driving force for the Generation
Generation Y Y supervisor was difficult to ascertain in this
study. Nevertheless, both Baby Boomers and
Generation Y are guided by passion as they
Generation X perceived that Generation Y
see life as being the most important factor.
in general were money- and passion-guided.
So, catering for their needs requires knowing
As far as perception was concerned, money
what their passions are. If they like the job,
was still perceived to be the main driving
they will do it. If they do not, they will leave
force, followed by passion. The research
to search for something that can engage their
findings are summarised in Table 2.
Table 2
Actual motivators and motivators as perceived by others
Generation What Drives You to Perform? What Others Believe Drives You?
Boomers • It is my responsibilities. . • Self-motivated
Self-motivated • Money
Generation X • Money • Money
• Good teamwork
Generation Y • Passion • Money
• Knowledge • Passion (as perceived by Baby
Boomers and Generation X in general)
CONCLUSION briefing with employees on the different

For a long time, managers have had the motivators that each generation values.
misconception that money is the prime This awareness is necessary as people
motivator of employees and have been from different backgrounds view things
using the same retention programme based differently. Employees should never assume
on monetary rewards and incentives for all that what is important to them is important to
employees, only to find that employees are others as well as one man’s trash is another
still leaving their organisations. However, man’s treasure.
there are other factors that employees Not much needs to be done for Baby
look for at the workplace. Hence, the Boomers as they are largely self-motivated.
importance of this research, which attempted They also feel that they are obliged to
to identify specific motivators based on perform. Nevertheless, to boost their
the generational inclination of workers performance further, organisations could
in order to help employers plan more send Baby Boomer workers for training as
effectively for more efficient organisational they might feel that they do not qualify for
performance. Based on the findings, it training as they are approaching retirement
is suggested that organisations should age. One interviewee shared:
apply different strategies when dealing
“I am about to retire, my company
with each generation. Considering the
would not want to care much. I have
multigenerational composition of today’s
not been going for training for the
workforce, employers definitely need to
past five years. My company is only
consider the preferences and motivators of
sending those younger employees
the different generations of workers in their
for training as they have longer
organisations. Management techniques play
time to spend in the organisation.
an important role in commitment within
I understand where my company is
the organisation (Okabe, 2005). Thus, it
coming from. It would be a waste of
would be good for employers to have a short
money to send us out for training.”
Generation X are concerned about personal goals. When both sets of goals are
money and good teamwork. Knowing that fulfilled, employees are likely to stay longer
money is important is good, but employers as self-actualisation has been achieved.
also need a plan. Leaders should ask As shown in Table 3, the largest
Generation X direct questions, especially group within the Malaysian labour force
their attitude and belief concerning money. is Generation Y, followed by Generation
They should find out what Generation X X and lastly, the Baby Boomer generation.
employees feel they should be earning. If Employers can no longer ignore the reality
they have a figure in mind, chart out a clear of a multigenerational workforce. Statistics
career plan for them on how to qualify for from the International Labour Organisation,
that salary with bonuses added and link the findings from this research and the
path to organisational goals. The career generational make-up of an organisation
plan should make clear how the employee are indispensable data for formulating a
can reach that stage. Alternatively, if the management plan to establish and sustain a
employee is eligible for a commission, successful multigenerational organisation.
give him/her the flexibility to decide on the Although it may be rewarding for
ratio for fixed and variable pay. If money employees to get what they want, such short-
is deemed important, employees will term gratification may reduce their intrinsic
work towards it. This will not only boost interest in their work. Once the threshold
the employee’s performance but also the is met, they may become distracted.
organisation’s profit. The same question Nevertheless, the bulk of research shows
should also be taken seriously during the that individuals are given rewards believed
job interview. If the figure falls too far below to be what they desire in the hope that their
the employee’s expectations, he/she will not interest in and commitment to work are
stay long in the organisation. engaged.
Based on the findings, Generation Y is Though the research objectives were
driven by passion and knowledge, which successfully addressed, one limitation
is in line with the literature (Oblinger & of this research was that the majority
Oblinger, 2005). They are the most educated of the informants were from the Klang
group of workers among the three generation Valley. While the location of the capital of
of workers. During the job interview, Malaysia, which hosts many workers from
employers should ask them what their goals all the different states of the country, the
are. If they are hired, have them list down Klang Valley is a modern, urban centre, and
both their personal and professional goals. research deriving its data solely from this
Guide/train their supervisors to work with area is likely to show urban bias. Residents
them on achieving these goals. To have a of urban areas are likely to react to life
healthy working relationship it is necessary differently from rural dwellers.
to enable employees to fulfil both career and
Considering the multigenerational age and year, any differences found are truly
composition of the future workforce of generational differences. Future research
Malaysia, employers definitely need to could consider empirical investigation as this
consider the motivators of these generations allows for a more valid comparison of what
(Lee, 2013). Any performance measurement appeals to different generations and allows
system that seeks to be effective must compilation of a more comprehensive list
include financial and non-financial measures of possible motivators. Comparison across
(Mohamed, Hui, Rahman, & Aziz, 2014). As different cultures should also be carried out.
this research is statistically controlled for
Table 3
Malaysian labour force by age/generation estimates
Age (5-year Generation Estimates 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

age bands)
15-19 Gen Y 519 498 495 535 523
20-24 Gen Y 1,834 1,857 1,861 2,033 2,091
25-29 Gen Y 2,397 2,415 2,436 2,623 2,708
30-34 Gen Y 1,981 2,126 2,245 2,304 2,299
35-39 Some Gen Y/Gen X 1,613 1,678 1,738 1,781 1,815
40-44 Gen X 1,448 1,509 1,540 1,549 1,555
45-49 Gen X 1,286 1,343 1,362 1,374 1,378
50-54 Some Gen X/Baby Boomers 1,040 1,112 1,138 1,147 1,150
55-59 Baby Boomers 651 717 741 783 780
60-64 Baby Boomers 352 380 376 391 368
Total 13,120 13,635 13,932 14,518 14,668
Source: International Labour Organisation Statistics (2017)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Ansoorian, A., Good, P., & Samuelson, D. (2003).

Managing generational differences. Leadership,
This research was partially funded by the
32(5), 34–36.
University of Malaya under the project no.
Becton, J., Walker, H., & Jones-Farmer, A. (2014).
BK033-2014.
Generational differences in workplace behavior.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(3),
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APPENDIX: INTERVIEW GUIDELINE
Objectives:
To identify actual motivators of each generation to develop strategies for performance enhancement.
Scope:
The youngest Malaysian informant was aged 16, the minimum legal age to enter the workforce in Malaysia.
Guidelines for Focus Group
Instruction for Interviewer:

There is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer to the questions. The interview seeks to record perception. Use the
following questions as a guideline and circle those that apply.
Part A: It Is All About You.
1. What drives you to perform at work?
2. What drives your supervisor to perform at work (your perception)?
Part B: Your Background

1. Demographic information: Year of birth (Age)
a. 1946-1964 (Age: 47-65)
b. 1965 1980 (Age: 31-46)
c. 1981-1995 (Age: 16-30)
2. Highest qualification attained
a. Secondary school and below
b. Pre-university level: STPM/A Levels Certificate
c. Diploma/Advanced Diploma
d. Degree/Professional qualification
e. Postgraduate
3. Designation
a. Assistant Manager and above
b. Executive and Senior Executive
c. Non-Executive
4. Tenure in organisation
a. Less than one (1) year
b. One (1) year to less than three (3) years
c. Three (3) years to less than five (5) years
d. Five (5) years to less than ten (10) years
e. Ten (10) years and above
Part C: Background of Your Immediate Supervisor
1. Your supervisor’s year of birth (Age)
a. 1946-1964 (Age: 47-65)
b. 1965-1980 (Age: 31-46)
c. 1981-1995 (Age: 16-30)
Thank you!

The Effect of Self-Transcription and Expert Scaffolding on the

Accuracy of Oral Production of EFL Learners
Shirin Abadikhah* and Masoome Valipour
Department of English Language and Literature, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the effect of self-transcription and expert scaffolding on the accuracy
of oral production of EFL learners. Thirty elementary level and six advanced level EFL
learners from a private language institution in Sari, Iran, participated in this study. The
elementary learners formed two experimental groups that were engaged in self-transcription
(n=10) and self-transcription followed by expert scaffolding (n=10) and one control group
(n=10). Another group of advanced learners (n=6) were invited to participate as the expert
assistants. A picture description task was administered to all the elementary participants as
their pre-test and post-test. Furthermore, their oral performance in all stages of the study
was audio-recorded one at a time. Finally, the participants’ oral performance in the pre-test
and post-test was analysed based on the accuracy rate of five linguistic features (verb form,
preposition, pronoun, subject-verb agreement and vocabulary) and error-free clauses. The
analysis showed that both treatment types of self-transcription with or without scaffolding
had significant effect on improving the accuracy of two linguistic features (preposition
and verb form) and error-free clauses. It can be implied that self-transcribing an oral
production and expert scaffolding can be conducive to noticing the gaps in some linguistic
features, which under normal circumstances
are hard to recall and notice. The findings
of the study provide some pedagogical
implications for employing these techniques
in EFL contexts for improving the overall
accuracy of oral production.
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: Keywords: Expert-novice, oral production,
Received: 07 November 2016
Accepted: 27 November 2017 scaffolding, self-transcription, accuracy, noticing
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Shirin Abadikhah),
[email protected] (Masoome Valipour)

INTRODUCTION to “re-examine their experience freed from

Assigning students to working in pairs the pressure of performing the task itself, so
or small groups in the second language they can notice and reflect on the language
classroom is considered a beneficial teaching used and encountered” (p. 445).
strategy. A great body of research shows that From a theoretical stance, according
learners interacting in small groups or pairs to Schmidt (2001), the emergence of new
use target language more in comparison forms should be preceded by their being
with learners working individually or noticed in the input. The noticing hypothesis
attending teacher-fronted classes (Storch, (Schmidt, 1990) claims that conscious
2001, 2002; Wigglesworth & Storch, 2009). awareness of grammar plays an important
According to Goh (2017), there are some role in second language acquisition because
studies offering insight into how teachers it triggers certain cognitive processes such
can scaffold the learning of speaking skills as searching for the new information or
in the classroom through activities such as consolidating already existing knowledge
task-repetition and pre-task planning. These (Swain, 1995). Considering this hypothesis,
tasks can promote learners’ awareness of self-transcribing of the oral production can
speech processes. She stated that scaffolding make learners consciously aware of the
activities can help “learners in planning problematic areas of their language. Lynch
and organizing speech” and “strengthening (2005) argues that self-transcription can be
oral communication abilities” (Goh, 2017, a productive route to noticing, in which the
p. 248). learners reflect on the formal correctness
One such activity for speaking practice and semantic precision of their own output.
is self-transcription of oral output and Four important gaps can be identified
self- and/or peer-editing of the transcripts. in the previous literature. Firstly, very few
This technique is believed to attract the studies seem to have been conducted on
participants’ attention to linguistic gaps the effectiveness of self-transcription in
in their oral production (Lynch, 2005). the accuracy of oral production (Lynch,
When learners speak on their own during 2001, 2007; Mennim, 2003, 2012; Stillwell
a task, they rarely attend to all aspects of et al., 2009). The findings of some studies
their language (Goh, 2017, p. 248). When have shown that the interaction between
self-transcribing their oral performance, pair members may have a positive effect
they focus on their production and notice on the accuracy of a few grammatical
the possible gaps in their knowledge or features. For instance, Goss, Yang-
performance. According to Stillwell et Hua and Lantolf (1994) compared the
al. (2009), “student self-transcription can performance of students on some grammar
greatly enhance the power of tasks to judgement tasks when completed in pairs
promote language learning” (p. 445). They and individually. They found that there
believe that this technique allows learners were some modest differences in favour of
The Effect of Self-Transcription and Expert Scaffolding
dyads on some grammatical features such by the learners themselves; and (b) self-
as referential pronouns. It is not clear what transcription followed by expert scaffolding
linguistic features are strengthened after during the editing phase of the transcripts.
the completion of a self-transcription task.
Another issue is that pair work, as a form THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
of scaffolding, has been initially embedded One of the underlying theories of this study
into the studies of self-transcription. was Swain’s (1985, 1995) output hypothesis.
In these studies, self-transcription was Swain claimed that learners need to actively
predominantly followed by peer and/or engage in language production in order to
teacher editing of the transcripts; as a result, promote their second-language proficiency.
the participants relied on two different She argued that output can trigger certain
sources of feedback i.e. external feedback cognitive processes that facilitate the
provided by the instructor or peer editor and acquisition of a second language. One of
internal feedback conducted by the learners these processes is the ‘noticing’ or triggering
themselves during the editing and self- function, which is defined as learners’
evaluation of their transcribed oral output. awareness of the discrepancy between their
The question was whether self-transcription, own production and the target language.
by itself and without any external feedback, According to Swain (as cited in Valdebenito,
can promote noticing and learning linguistic 2015), the awareness of the gaps or holes
features. Finally, in the studies of self- in their linguistic knowledge facilitates
transcription, the learners were paired with the detection of errors and re-evaluation of
the similar proficiency-level ones to edit the their assumptions about the target language.
transcripts. To improve collaborative skills This is closely linked to Schmidt’s (1990)
and develop responsibility in social contexts, ‘noticing hypothesis’, which claims that the
some researchers, for instance, Zangoei and emergence of new forms should be preceded
Davoudi (2016) have suggested provision by their being noticed in the input. Schmidt
of scaffolding by higher-proficiency level (2001) argued that “noticing requires of
learners to the lower-level ones. Thus, it the learner a conscious apprehension and
might be interesting to examine the case awareness of input,” and “while there is
with high-proficiency learners, that is, subliminal perception, there is no subliminal
expert-novice learners editing the transcripts learning” (p. 26). The noticing hypothesis
in collaboration. claims that conscious awareness (noticing)
To sum up, the purpose of the current of grammar plays an important role in
study was to examine the effects of self- the process of acquisition. This kind of
transcription and expert scaffolding on the noticing is beneficial for second-language
accuracy of oral production of EFL learners acquisition because it triggers certain
in two types of treatment, that is: (a) self- cognitive processes such as searching
transcription and editing of the transcript for the new information or consolidating
already existing knowledge (Swain, peer-peer interaction, when learners work

1995). Considering these hypotheses, it in small groups or pairs.
is motivating to examine how learners Apart from the pedagogical arguments
notice their linguistic gaps when they are of scaffolding discussed above, Schmidt’s
struggling to describe a set of pictures and (2001) noticing hypothesis can also support
self-transcribe their oral performance. the significance of this study. In other words,
Another theoretical concept underlying self-transcribing of an oral production may
this study is scaffolding, which is understood induce noticing the problems and removing
as the assistance provided to the learner by them in the next performance. According
the teacher or a more knowledgeable peer to the sociocultural theory of learning,
in order to move the learner into the zone scaffolding can provide learners with exactly
of proximal development (Wood, Bruner, the support they need to move forward along
& Ross, 1976). The term scaffolding is their zone of proximal development (ZPDs)
one of the main concepts embedded in the and internalise the information.
sociocultural theory of mind (Vygotsky,
1978). Vygotsky proposed that cognitive LITERATURE REVIEW
development is an inherently social activity Some studies have closely investigated the
involving interaction between people. He nature of group and pair work in the L2
argued that children acquire knowledge and context. For example, Pica and Doughty
gradually internalise it through interaction (1985) compared teacher-fronted classes
with people around them. In this regard, with learner-centred classes. They showed
what has been learnt through interaction that the learners in groups or pairs engaged in
(social property) will transform into negotiation of meaning such as clarification
personal property of the child. In its original request, confirmation checks and repairs.
conception, sociocultural theory proposed These examples of modified interaction
that this kind of interaction is between an are considered as facilitators of second-
expert (e.g. parent, teacher) and a novice language acquisition.
(child). The expert should carefully attune Long and Porter (1985) discussed the
the assistance to suit the novice’s need; in pedagogical arguments for group-work
other words, the expert scaffolds the novice. activities and expressed several reasons
For scaffolding to occur in the language for employing them. They stated that
learning process, students need to work group- work provides L2 learners with
collaboratively. Within the scope of second more opportunities to use and practise
language research, there are some studies language. The next argument raised was
that have shown that such scaffolding can that group work not only increases the
occur not only in teacher-learner interaction amount of student talk, but also improves
(Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994) but also in its quality as well. Wigglesworth and Storch
(2009) showed that learners working in skills of learners. In an after-class session,

pairs performed better on a task than those the participants were asked to listen to an
working on the same task individually. They extract of the audio sound-track of their
concluded that learners are provided with performance and to transcribe it. They
more opportunities to pool their knowledge worked together and negotiated when to
during joint activities. stop or replay the tape. After each member
Studies by Storch (2001, 2002) have of the pair produced two transcripts, they
shown evidence of ‘collective scaffolding’, were asked to agree on a final version. If
a process by which learners pool their making any changes, they were asked to
linguistic resources in order to solve the review, revise and edit the final version. In
language problems they encounter. Donato the next step, one copy of their transcripts
(2004) investigated collaboration in three were reviewed by the teacher, who changed
themes of community, language development any linguistically incorrect point, and finally
and identity. Regarding the first theme the teacher gave them his own reviewed
he argued that working collaboratively, transcript and made them compare it with
students would show greater control of their version. Analysing the extracts of the
the target language; therefore, they would students’ production, Lynch concluded that
work with each other as a collaborative listening and transcribing the oral production
community. Furthermore, he suggested that provided the learners with the opportunity
active participation of the learner is another for explicit feedback, which is believed to be
consequence of collaborative working. a requirement for formal language learning.
Therefore, when working collaboratively, Furthermore, he suggested that this activity
students will volunteer more frequently made students notice their linguistic gaps
and participate more actively. Investigating and engage in reflective self-correction. He
the effect of collaboration on language also mentioned that although the students
development, he elaborated on the power of noticed many errors themselves, the teacher
collaborative dialogue in developing more also provided them with post-task feedback,
accurate language during the composing, particularly in the area of vocabulary.
noticing and recall procedures. Mennim (2003) investigated reactive
Some recent studies (Cooke, 2013; focus on form by focussing his students’
Lynch, 2001, 2007; Mennim, 2003, 2012; attention on their own output. The students
Stillwell et al., 2009) have supported the use were encouraged to reflect on their oral
of student transcription activities to assist output by tape-recording and transcribing
students in reflecting on their language, a rehearsal of their presentation. They
noticing the gaps in their knowledge and scrutinised and corrected the transcript
making their output more sophisticated and before giving it to the teacher, who provided
comprehensible. Lynch (2001) investigated further feedback on the points that they
the impact of self-transcription on the oral had not noticed. The study showed the
effect of this treatment by comparing the grammatical features, although the teacher
transcripts of the students during rehearsal gave greater focus to grammatical features
with a transcript of their oral presentation (68%) than the students (48%). Stillwell
two weeks later. Findings of the study et al. (2009) concluded that student self-
demonstrated that they could recall many transcription seemed to provide valuable
of the corrected forms and reformulations; learning opportunities.
the final presentation showed improvements Cooke (2013) examined learners’
in pronunciation and grammar and in the perceived input and noticing weaknesses
organisation of content. among university students over a ten-week
In his next study, Lynch (2007) compared period. The students’ conversations were
teacher’s transcripts of learners’ performance recorded when they were discussing a series
on paired speaking tasks with the transcripts of topics in groups of five for six minutes.
provided by the learners themselves on their They were required to self-transcribe and
own speaking performance. He reported that reflect upon their spoken performance by
learners who had been active producers of evaluating their speaking skills. The results
their own transcripts achieved a higher rate of the study indicated that transcription
of accuracy in producing English forms than and reflective practice could support the
did the learners who had been passive users development of noticing, a crucial element
of the teacher’s transcribed extracts. in L2 learning.
Stillwell et al. (2009) carried out Mennim (2012) investigated problem-
their study with 20 freshmen students. solving efforts of higher-level learners
The participants made posters based on during negotiation of language form in the
the main points of five film genres and context of a self-transcription exercise. The
then summarised and presented them students first transcribed the recordings of
in response to questions asked by their their own presentation made in the English
classmates. The students worked in pairs classroom. This task was then followed by a
and switched roles to discuss each other’s discussion session in which the learners were
posters while their conversations were required to inspect their own transcripts in
audio recorded. Next, the three-minute groups and attempt to find and correct their
conversation of each member was listened to language problems through collaboration.
and transcribed by both members of the pair. The excerpts of their negotiations and
The pair then worked jointly to identify and discussion demonstrated serious and active
correct mistakes in their spoken language. involvement in the exercise. The exercise
Next, the teacher provided feedback by helped learners recognise various internal
correcting the mistakes in the transcripts and external sources of information on L2
of the students. The analysis showed form. They concluded that self-transcription
that both the teacher’s and the students’ can be regarded as a beneficial way of
corrections were predominantly focused on generating knowledge-building discussion
about language that stimulates learners to were mixed. Some students believed that it
think about their own language use to tackle helped them focus their attention on their
their language problems. strength, weakness and the areas of future
Afsharrad and Sadeghi (2014) assigned improvement while others considered it
a transcription task to beginning learners a troublesome and time-consuming task.
to investigate its effect on their listening Regarding their self-made scoring rubrics,
ability at phoneme level. They asked they mostly felt it was effective. The
students to transcribe a listening section in results of the study suggested that students
their course book after it was played two generally favoured and benefitted from all
to three times. The students’ transcriptions of the tasks related to self-transcription, but
were then checked by themselves and also they needed further explicit instruction on
their classmates as they were read in class. how to use their transcripts.
The findings revealed that transcribing could L i k e w i s e , Va l d e b e n i t o ( 2 0 1 5 )
be considered an aural input enhancement investigated the effect of self-transcribing
device that has a significant effect on on developing the metacognitive skill of
the learners’ phonemic perception. They noticing the gap. In his study, the students
concluded that transcribing attracted were provided with the audio-file of their
learners’ attention to incoming aural stimuli oral performance in the speaking part
and raised their awareness of phonological of a diagnostic test. The learners were
features of English. asked to transcribe a three-minute segment
Skeates and Murphy (2015) investigated of their speech, highlight all the errors
the effect of self-transcription tasks on the they specified, identify the kind of error
oral presentations of the learners. In their (lexical, grammatical, phonological etc.)
study, the students were asked to first video- and then send the annotated transcript to
record their class presentations and then the teacher via email. Then, the students’
transcribe their own presentations. After opinions and perceptions of the potential
transcribing their own oral production, they advantages of self-transcribing tasks were
were asked to reflect on their transcripts in elicited through a questionnaire. Findings
order to find their strengths, weaknesses of the study demonstrated a low rate of
and the areas that needed improvement. self-corrections. The researcher justified this
In the final task, the students were made result by indicating the diagnostic nature of
to assess themselves by self-made scoring the test. That is, since the students’ linguistic
rubrics. At the end of the course, the performance was not being graded, they
learners’ opinions on the tasks were elicited did not feel any pressure to self-monitor.
in the form of a semi-structured interview. Moreover, another unexpected result was
The students unanimously reported that that the participants only noticed one out
recording their presentations was beneficial. of 4 errors (25%) in a transcript of a three-
However, their views on self-transcription minute recording. The researcher related this
rather disappointing result to the inadequate that the data source for the analysis in this
treatment sessions and lack of pair work study was based on the oral performance of
in comparison to some similar studies the elementary learners (n=30) and no part
conducted on this area (e.g. Lynch 2001). of the data belonged to the advanced group.
Considering the stated problems in The advanced learners only participated as
the introductory section and taking the expert assistants to scaffold the elementary
gaps into account, the present study was learners during the editing phase of their
carried out to explore the effectiveness of self-transcriptions.
self-transcription of oral production with or Before starting the study, the researchers
without expert scaffolding in improving oral mentioned that participation in the study
accuracy of elementary EFL learners. Two was completely voluntary and no one was
research questions were investigated in this compelled to take part. In addition, the
study, as given below. participants and their parents were also
1. Does expert scaffolding of a self- assured of the anonymity of their identity,
transcribed oral production have any privacy and confidentiality of the collected
effect on the accuracy of the oral data in that the recorded files would be kept
production of EFL learners? secret.
2. Does self-transcription and self-editing

of their own oral production have Research Design
any effect on the accuracy of the oral The study utilised a pre-test/post-test quasi-
production of EFL learners? experimental design with comparison groups
selected based on convenience sampling. It
METHODS involved two experimental groups and one
control group. A mixed method design was
Participants
employed in order to collect and analyse
The participants of this study were 36 EFL both quantitative and qualitative data in the
learners who were studying English in a research process. The reason for mixing is
private language institution in Sari, Iran. that neither quantitative nor quantitative
The selection of the participants was based methods are adequate to address research
on convenience sampling.They included 30 problems or answer research questions
elementary learners within the age range of (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Therefore,
11 to 16 and six advanced learners within based on the overall purpose of the study
the age range of 18 to 23. They were all and the identified research questions, this
female students and their proficiency level study used a mixed method in order to have
was based on a placement test developed a better understanding of the results. The
and administered by the institution at the design of the study is presented in Table 1.
beginning of the term. It is to be mentioned
Table 1
Design of the study
Group Tasks & Tests

Pre-test Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 Post-test
(PDT) (ST) (SC)
Scaffolding * * * * *
Self-transcription * * * —— *
Control * —— —— —— *
PDT=Picture description task; ST=Self-transcription; SC=Scaffolding by experts; *= Participants took part
All elementary participants (n=30) attended Procedure

a training session prior to the study. The All elementary participants were provided
scaffolding group attended a pre-test, three with a training session on how to tell a story
treatment sessions and a post-test. The based on a set of pictures. Next, they were
self-transcription group was administered randomly assigned into two experimental
a pre-test and a post-test but attended groups of self-transcription plus scaffolding
two treatment sessions.The study further (n=10) and self-transcription (n=10) and one
involved tape-recording all elementary control group (n=10). The two experimental
participants during pre-test and post-test groups were also trained on how to
sessions and transcribing the recorded transcribe their recorded voices. In addition
speech by the researchers. Self-transcription to the elementary participants, there was
was conducted during the second treatment another group of advanced learners (n=6)
session by the elementary participants in the who took part only in the third treatment
two experimental groups, which involved session (See Table 1). They were trained on
transcribing their own oral production for how to scaffold their elementary peers by
the picture description task. The control modelling and practising. Before the start
group took part in the two testing sessions. of the main study, the students arranged
Each group consisted of 10 participants, their time with one of the researchers and
data pertaining to whom were collected came to the institution one hour earlier
individually i.e. one at a time. Therefore, than their usual class time. For the pre-test
as Table 1 shows, there were 30 separate session, all elementary participants came
sessions for pre-testing, 50 individual to the allocated room in the institution at a
sessions for the treatments of the two specified time and were asked to tell stories
experimental groups, and 30 separate based on two picture stories taken from
sessions for the post-testing. Therefore, in Chabot (2006). Their presentations were
total, the study took place in 110 sessions of audio-recorded individually in a quiet room
about 5 to 15 min each. one at a time. In the first treatment session,
the two experimental groups were asked to and in each stage (pre-test and post-test)
tell two stories based on a picture description were fully transcribed. Then the accuracy
task (Chabot, 2006); their production was percentages of the students’ oral production
also audio-recorded one at a time. In the in the five target linguistic features (verb
second treatment session, each student in form, preposition, pronoun, subject-verb
the self-transcription (ST) and scaffolding agreement, vocabulary) and error-free
(SC) groups received her relevant recorded clauses were calculated. The rationale for
file via the Bluetooth device to listen to her considering these linguistic features was
own presentation and transcribe it carefully. that they were among the most inaccurate
Next, they were asked to individually review features frequently observed in the students’
their own transcriptions to find out if there productions during the training session.
were any problems in their own production. In this study, accuracy is defined as the
In the third treatment session, the students ability to produce grammatically correct
in the scaffolding group (n=10) were sentences (Richards & Schmidt, 2002).
assigned with expert participants to edit Therefore, all obligatory occasions for the
their transcriptions. Following Aljaafreh use of targeted grammatical features were
and Lantolf (1994), the regulatory scale of identified in the speech of the participants
the ZPD was provided for the experts on and then the correct usage for each of them
how scaffolding should be conducted in was quantified. Following previous studies,
two steps of modelling and practice (see producing grammatically correct clauses is
also Abadikhah & Valipour (2014) for a full considered the accuracy index (Nassaji &
description of scaffolding). The participants Swain, 2000).
were allowed to use the Persian language For measuring accuracy, the proportions
during their interaction since it was assumed of the correct items to the total obligatory
that native language works better in order to occasions for each feature were calculated
lower possible tension and also to remove and their percentages were tabulated. To
any misunderstanding between the learners examine the reliability of rating and scoring
in their pairs (Swain & Lapkin, 2000). for each feature, all the transcripts of the
students’ oral production were re-scored
Data Analysis by the researchers three months after the
initial scoring. The transcripts were also
Since the study sample was small and
scored twice by both researchers. The
several tests of mean comparison were
intra-rater and inter-rater reliability indices
expected to be conducted, the normal
were 96.8% and 87.9%, respectively. It
distribution of the scores of each group in
should be mentioned that in measuring the
any treatment was assured by conducting
accuracy of verb form, two features of verb
the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. To answer
tense and aspect were taken into account.
the questions, first, all of the recorded files
Furthermore, in calculating the total error-
of students’ oral production in each group
free clauses, the grammatically correct description tasks were employed to obtain
clauses were calculated and correct phrases reliable output from the learners; each task
were not taken into account. For the analysis consisted of six separate pictures that were
of data, SPSS software was employed. To sequentially related to each other. The
answer the research questions, the accuracy students were asked to tell a story based on
percentage of each item produced during the pictures. Then, the self-transcriptions of
the pre-test and post-test sessions were their tape-recorded speech were analysed in
compared across the groups. terms of the accuracy of the target linguistic
features and error-free clauses. Table 2
RESULTS displays the mean accuracy percentage of
As it was explained in the methodology each feature in the pre-test session for the
section, during the pre-test, two picture three groups of participants.
Table 2
Mean accuracy percentage of the features in pre-test
Groups S-V Preposition Pronoun Verb form Vocabulary Error- Free

Agreement Clauses
SC 54.86 68.78 86.68 54.74 93.55 29.85
ST 51.72 67.21 79.56 43.80 88.91 39.62
C 46.98 69.76 76.32 40.71 92 37.63
SC=Scaffolding plus self-transcription; ST=Self-transcription; C=Control
To check the homogeneity of the three from those used in the pre-test session. In the
groups at the start of the sessions, the second treatment session, the participants
accuracy percentage of the features and error of both groups were asked to listen to
free-clauses produced during the pre-test their own oral production (audio-recorded
were compared across the groups. Based by the researchers), transcribe it and then
on the results of a one-way ANOVA test, it identify any possible mistake. In the third
was found that there was no significant or treatment session, only the participants
meaningful difference among the groups of the scaffolding group participated and
since the p value (0.704) was higher than the were scaffolded by an expert. According to
set significance level (p<0.05). Therefore, Vygotsky (1978), in this kind of interaction,
it could be inferred that the groups were the expert assists the novice to internalise
homogenous in terms of accuracy of oral the learning and reach a higher level of
performance prior to the treatments. development.
In the first treatment session, both In order to administer the post-test,
experimental groups were asked to tell two two weeks after the implementation of the
stories based on two sets of pictures different intended treatments, the participants of
the three groups were unexpectedly asked 3 presents the mean accuracy percentage
to do the same task that they had already of each feature produced by the three
described in the pre-test session. Once again, study groups in their post-test session. As
their oral productions were audio-recorded stated before, the aim of the first research
and transcribed by the researchers. Again, question was to investigate the effect of
the accuracy values of the five specified expert scaffolding on the oral production
features and error-free clauses were obtained of learners in terms of their accuracy
and their percentages were calculated. Table percentage.
Table 3
Mean accuracy percentage of the features in post-test
Groups S-V Preposition Pronoun Verb form Vocabulary Error-Free

Agreement Clauses
Scaffolding 62.13 70.34 86.63 60.25 91.47 50.19
Self-transcription 53.40 69.97 79.87 48.26 88.86 41.93
Control 49.21 69.20 76.84 41.36 93.02 37.00
In order to see if treatment would influence Table 4 displays the results of the paired
the students’ oral production, paired sample samples t-test on all linguistic features of
analysis for the pre- and post-test of each the scaffolding group from the pre-test to
group of participants was conducted. the post-test.
Table 4
Paired samples t-test comparing the accuracy of linguistic features from pre- to post-test of scaffolding
group
Features Paired Differences t d.f. Sig.

Mean SD
S-V Agreement 7.27 13.14 1.75 9 0.11
Preposition 1.56 1.55 3.19 9 0.01*
Pronoun 0.05 6.92 -0.02 9 0.98
Verb form 5.51 11.96 1.46 9 0.18
Vocabulary 2.08 8.11 -0.81 9 0.44
Error-Free Clauses 20.34 17.57 3.66 9 0.01*
Based on the results, the p values were the treatment was effective in improving the
significant (p<0.05) for the preposition and accuracy of prepositions in this group.
error-free clauses but not for the rest of the A similar paired samples analysis was
features (Subject-Verb Agreement, Pronoun, conducted on the post-test result of the
Verb Form and Vocabulary). This means that control group. Table 5 presents the summary
of this analysis.
Table 5
Paired sample t-test comparing the accuracy of linguistic features from pre- to post-test of control group

Mean SD
S-V Agreement -2.22 6.03 -1.16 9 0.27
Preposition 0.55 2.47 0.71 9 0.49
Pronoun -0.51 1.80 -0.90 9 0.38
Verb form -0.65 3.05 0.67 9 0.51
Vocabulary -1.02 2.13 1.51 9 0.16
Error-Free Clauses 0.62 3.66 -0.54 9 0.60
Considering the statistical results of the The aim of the second research question
scaffolding and control groups presented was to find out whether self-transcribing
in Tables 4 and 5, it can be inferred that of oral production by itself had any effect
the related treatment (expert scaffolding on the accuracy of oral performance of the
plus self-transcription) had a positive effect learners. To this end, another paired samples
on the accuracy of the learners’ use of analysis on the pre- and post-test scores of
preposition and error-free clauses. this group was conducted. Table 6 displays
the summary of the findings.
Table 6
Paired samples t-test comparing the accuracy of linguistic features from pre- to post-test of self-
transcription group

Mean SD
S-V Agreement 1.68 3.19 1.66 9 0.13
Preposition 2.77 4.56 1.92 9 0.09
Pronoun 0.31 3.03 0.32 9 0.75
Verb form 4.46 5.16 2.73 9 0.02*
Vocabulary -0.06 3.34 -0.05 9 0.96
Error-Free Clauses 2.31 2.66 2.74 9 0.02*
Although the mean differences of the Table 8 illustrates the outcome of the
majority of linguistic features in the post- analysis applied to the data. Comparing
test session increased compared to the pre- the two groups’ mean accuracy rates, using
test session, the p value was significant for an independent samples t-test in the post-
the verb form and total error-free clauses test session, it can be seen that there was
(p<0.05).Therefore, it can be suggested that no significant difference between the two
self-transcription by itself is effective for groups in their post-test accuracy level since
improving the accuracy rate of verb form the p values for all the features were higher
and error-free clauses of learners. than 0.05.
The next analysis intends to specify
if the treatment type (self-transcribing or Table 8
scaffolding plus self-transcribing) had any Independent samples t-test analysis comparing
post-test scores of ST and SC groups
effect on the accuracy of learners’ oral
performance. Focussing on this goal, again Variable t df Sig.
descriptive statistics, presented in Table 7, (2-tailed)
S-V Agreement 0.65 18 0.52
are used to compare the post-test of the two
Preposition 0.05 18 0.96
groups.
Pronoun 0.91 18 0.37
Verb form 1.21 18 0.24
Table 7 Vocabulary 0.64 18 0.53
Descriptive statistics of ST and SC for post-test Error-Free Clauses 0.64 18 0.53
Linguistic Groups N Mean Std.

Features Deviation
This means that the two treatment types were
S-V SC 10 62.13 32.93
Agreement similarly effective as the two experimental
ST 10 53.41 26.67
Preposition SC 10 70.34 18.68 groups did not differ in their performance
ST 10 69.98 16.07 during the post-test session. The results
Pronoun SC 10 86.64 17.34 of a one-way ANOVA test on the post-test
ST 10 79.87 15.72 scores of the three groups (ST, SC and C)
Verb form SC 10 60.26 17.67 also confirmed this finding (df=2; F=1.833;
ST 10 48.27 25.97 p=0.163).
Vocabulary SC 10 91.48 8.10
ST 10 88.86 10.17
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Error-Free SC 10 50.20 31.09
Clauses ST 10 41.93 26.17 This study examined whether self-
SC=Scaffolding plus self-transcription; ST=Self- transcription with or without expert
transcription; N=Number of participants scaffolding would affect the accuracy of
some linguistic features in oral production.
For this purpose, three groups of EFL foreign language learners may prefer
elementary learners i.e. self-transcription teacher-fronted activities, teachers should
followed by expert-scaffolding, self- create more opportunities for students to
transcription and a control were compared. work collaboratively in pairs. In this study,
Drawing upon this comparison, the the expert-novice pattern seemed to work
effectiveness of self-transcription with or effectively in improving production of error-
without scaffolding in producing accurate free clauses and prepositions. Therefore, by
linguistic features and error-free clauses was employing this pattern, teachers can assign
then empirically compared and supported in higher- and lower-proficiency students to
the learners’ spoken output produced during work together as expert and novice pairs.
the post-test. Furthermore, since all learners do not
The analysis of data concerning the make similar improvements for the same
first research question, which examined activity, and in most cases, only higher-
the benefits of scaffolding following self- level proficiency learners are aware of the
transcription, indicated that the treatment changes they have made, scaffolding byf
had positive effects on the accuracy index the expert can induce noticing and create an
of error-free clauses and use of prepositions. opportunity for lower-proficiency learners
Regarding the impact of self-transcription, (novices) to be informed of the problematic
the findings of the present study were in areas in their use of language.
conformity with those of Cooke (2013) The results obtained from investigating
and Stillwell et al. (2009), which regarded the second research question, which
self-transcription with peer-scaffolding as explored the effect of self-transcription on
a beneficial technique that leads students oral accuracy, indicated that the participants
to reflect on their performance, notice their improved in the accuracy index of error-free
linguistic gaps, correct possible mistakes clauses and verb form from pre-test to post-
and produce more accurate language. Our test. This finding was consistent with the
finding was also compatible with Mennim’s findings of Lynch (2007), who investigated
(2003, 2012) studies, which found that self- the impact of self-transcribing and teacher
transcription exercise provided the learners transcribing of students’ own speaking
with the opportunity to reflect on their performance on the students’ production.
language performance and consequently, He concluded that participants in the self-
tackle their linguistic problems through transcription group achieved a higher rate of
knowledge-building dialogues in groups. accuracy in producing English forms than
As stated earlier, many eminent scholars the group that had been passive users of the
like Long and Porter (1985), Nelson and teacher’s transcribed extracts.
Murphy (1993), and Storch (1999, 2001, The results offer some theoretical and
2002) have acknowledged the significance pedagogical implications to the study of
of pair work in classrooms. Although foreign languages. According to Schmidt’s
noticing hypothesis (1990), conscious features such as referential pronouns but not
awareness (or noticing) of grammar plays in all the features.
an important role in the process of L2 Similarly, this study shows that self-
acquisition. In the current study, self- transcribing resulted in improvement
transcribing was used as a technique through of the accuracy rate of some linguistic
which the learners reflected upon their features (verb form and error-free clauses)
performance and stimulated noticing of in participants’ oral production. However,
the existing gaps or holes in their linguistic contrary to this result, which accentuates the
knowledge. The participants received effectiveness of self-transcribing, studies by
no external feedback from the teacher Skeates and Murphy (2015) and Valdebenito
or peer. However, they made significant (2015) found the opposite. In Skeates and
improvement on two features in the post-test. Murphy’s (2015) study, mixed views (both
Therefore, it seems that self-transcription positive and negative) regarding the effect of
without external feedback can provide an self-transcription were revealed. However,
opportunity for students to capture and Valdebenito (2015) reported on the low rate
analyse their own speech and reflect on their of self-correction through self-transcribing,
language use. which might have been due to the lack of
The results also indicated no significant pair work during the correction phase. Since
difference between the two experimental this limitation is addressed in the present
groups. This means that the two treatments study, in which the students worked in pairs
were equally effective in improving during the editing session and concluded
accuracy of error-free clauses. On the other with the effectiveness of self-transcription,
hand, we observed that the two treatments the current findings seem to be accurate.
positively influenced two different linguistic Another pedagogical implication of
features of verb form (self-transcription) the findings is that self-transcribing and
and prepositions (self-transcription plus editing activities are found to generate
scaffolding). The results confirm the findings natural language-related episodes where
of previous studies (e.g. Storch, 1999), learners discuss the accuracy of their
suggesting that not all grammatical features output. Therefore, the task of recording and
benefit from the same type of classroom transcribing their voice can be carried out
task or treatment. This result also supports by the learners themselves in order to have
the findings of a study by Goss, Yang- a better understanding of their problematic
Hua and Lantolf (1994) that investigated areas.
the performance of students on several Nonetheless, the current study has some
grammatical judgement tasks carried out limitations. Since the study involved three
in pairs and individually. They found that groups of participants who were individually
dyads performed better in some grammatical recorded and required to attend several
sessions (training, pre-test, treatments and Donovan, C. A., & Smolkin, L. B. (2002). Children’s
post-test), a small sample size was found to genre knowledge: An examination of 5 students’
performance on multiple tasks providing
be more manageable. Further research can
differing levels of scaffolding. Reading Research
be conducted on a larger sample with more
Quarterly, 37(4), 428–465.
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Goh, C. M. (2017). Research into practice;
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Scaffolding learning processes to improve
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Recent Challenges for the Enforcement of Wildlife Laws in East

Malaysia
Mariani Ariffin
Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
ABSTRACT
Law enforcement is one of the weakest links in wildlife conservation. This paper analyses
the main challenges facing wildlife law enforcement in East Malaysia and identifies the
enforcement strategy used by wildlife officers in the region. To these ends, a questionnaire
was distributed to the wildlife officers. The study found that the respondents tended
towards deterrence strategy in enforcing the laws which focuses on detecting and
punishing violations. The study also revealed that the primary challenge facing the wildlife
enforcement officers was lack of institutional capacity. This was reflected by problems
related to inadequate equipment, facilities, limited manpower and lack of skills. Other major
challenges highlighted by the respondents were lack of cooperation from the public and
other enforcement agencies, lack of political will and threats from the regulated parties. The
findings of the study contribute to a greater understanding of the main enforcement strategy
used by wildlife officers in East Malaysia and highlight challenges they encountered in
undertaking their duties. These insights provide useful information into developing better
informed capacity-building programme for the wildlife officers and for decision-makers
at state and federal level in determining allocation or other provision for the wildlife
authorities.
Keywords: Challenges, East Malaysia, enforcement, laws, wildlife
INTRODUCTION
In the wake of wildlife crimes which are
ARTICLE INFO widely committed by organised criminal
Article history: gangs across national boundaries (Cook,
Accepted: 18 July 2017 Roberts & Lowther, 2002), enforcement
E-mail address: is essential to ensure compliance with
[email protected] (Mariani Ariffin)

Mariani Ariffin
conservation legislation (Holmern, Muya, conciliation rather than coercion to avoid

& Røskaft, 2007; Keane, Jones, Edward- any conflict with the regulated parties. It
Jones & Minner-Gulland, 2008). However, assumes that the majority are willing to
ineffective enforcement has remained comply voluntarily. These two enforcement
one of the main obstacles to conservation strategies are two polar extremes that are
laws (Kaaria & Muchiri, 2011; Sharma unlikely to be found in their pure form.
2003). According to Crow, Shelley, and Other approaches occur in between
Stretesky (2013), most wildlife crimes the two polar. One of these approaches is
can be classified into four areas, namely called responsive regulation, the approach
improper permitting, illegal taking, illegal which is a combination of the two extreme
possession of wildlife and by-products and approaches, whereby regulators respond
conservation-related offences. Wildlife based on the responses of regulated parties.
crime can occur at the micro-level such For example, regulators may first give
as subsistence poaching and individual advice upon detecting an offence but
acts of cruelty, meso-level like organised if the regulated party does not comply
illegal hunts and domestic trade in protected and continue committing violations,
species, as well as macro-level, notably progressively punitive and deterrence
import and export of endangered species oriented strategies will be taken. While
(Wellsmith, 2011). literature have theorised several other
The enforcement cycle starts from regulatory enforcement approaches (for
the committing of an offence by a person, example really responsive regulation by
through its detection, the taking of Baldwin & Black, 2007, pp. 59-94), which
enforcement action, possible prosecution also highlighted a few other approaches),
and the consequent imposition of sanctions, this study will focus on the three approaches
to the final outcome of achieving compliance described earlier as they are the most
(Benson et al., 2006). The ‘deterrence’ commonly applied by many enforcement
strategy is the most stringent approach of agencies. Previous studies on regulatory
enforcement. It emphasises a confrontational enforcement have addressed general topics
style of enforcement and the sanctioning of related to environmental law enforcement
rule-breaking behaviour. The assumption against industries (Fairman & Yapp, 2005;
under this approach is rational people Gunningham, Kagan, & Thornton, 2004;
respond to incentives, and thus, “if offenders Thornton, Gunningham, & Kagan, 2005),
are detected with sufficient frequency and but not many have addressed enforcement by
punished with sufficient severity, then they, wildlife agencies, which is usually enforced
and others, will be deterred from future against small business and individuals with
violations” (Cunningham, 2010, p. 121). In different motivations. There is also not much
contrast, a compliance strategy emphasises literature that looks at the issue in the context
cooperation rather than confrontation and of Asian developing countries. In addition,
Challenges for Enforcement of Wildlife Laws in East Malaysia
previous studies have not considered the Enactment 1997 and Sarawak Wildlife
appropriateness of enforcement strategy Protection Ordinance 1998. Results of the
in light of the challenges faced by wildlife study provide information on wildlife law
agencies in practice. enforcement strategy used by agencies and
In the face of the importance ensuring challenges faced in undertaking enforcement
effective enforcement, it is particularly tasks. The results are useful to reflect
intriguing to look at the strategy used by upon the appropriateness of the existing
wildlife officers to enforce laws, and see enforcement strategy and how it can be
whether such strategy is appropriate when improved.
considered against the difficulties faced INTESA is a federal law that aims to
by the officers in practice. In Malaysia, implement Malaysia’s obligations under the
wildlife officers, rather than the police have International Convention on International
a prominent enforcement role, including Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
investigation and prosecution of wildlife and Flora. It regulates import and export
crimes (Ariffin & Mustafa, 2013). Several of certain species listed in its schedules
studies related to conservation have made through permitting system. These listed
discouraging conclusion on wildlife species are endangered or potentially
enforcement in the country. Sarawak has threatened by commercial activities if not
been reported to have the highest sale of controlled. Possession of illegally imported
bear products at local shops in the country, or exported wildlife species or specimen is
the sources of which were claimed to be also an offence under INTESA. The Act
locally hunted (Krishnasamy & Shepherd, provides stringent penalties with fine not
2014). Another study on the conservation exceeding MYR100,000 for each animal
status and trade of the Asian Box Turtle or plant specimen illegally imported or
(Cuora amboinensis) in Malaysia revealed exported or imprisonment for a term not
that there was lax law enforcement and exceeding seven years or both. Meanwhile,
unequal enforcement efforts throughout the Sabah Wildlife Conservation Enactment
country (Schoppe, 2008). Similar conclusion 1997 and Sarawak Wildlife Protection
on the lack of enforcement at all levels Ordinance 1998 provide for conservation
was made by another study on pangolin and management of wildlife and their
capture and trade in Malaysia (Chin & habitats in Sabah and Sarawak respectively.
Pantel, 2008; Pantel & Awang, 2010). The Both state laws categorise wildlife as
current study looks at the enforcement of protected species or totally protected
wildlife legislation in East Malaysia. The species with stricter controls given to the
study focuses on the enforcement of the latter category. Certain dealings in wildlife
International Trade in Endangered Species including hunting of animals, collection of
Act 2008 (Act 686) (henceforth, INTESA) plants and their utilisation and sale require
as well as Sabah Wildlife Conservation permit or license. All the three legislations
Mariani Ariffin
provide enforcement officers with police- in the SFD, Sarawak Forestry Corporation
like powers in order to do investigation (SFC) was established in 1995 to help
and enforce the laws including power of with enforcement (Forest Department
arrest, search and seizure. Under the laws, Sarawak, 2012a). Currently the SFD is
enforcement officers may also conduct the license issuing agency for wildlife
prosecution, with written consent of the exploitation-related activities including
Public Prosecutor. hunting, trading, possession and commercial
As one of the mega diverse countries in farming. Sabah Wildlife Department is the
the world, the wild flora and fauna diversity main authority that manages wildlife species
in Malaysia is not absolutely known but and protected areas as well as enforcement
is nonetheless exceptionally rich. Wildlife of the relevant laws including INTESA and
species of East Malaysia are generally richer Sabah Wildlife Conservation Enactment
than that of Peninsular Malaysia. There are 1997. The department is also responsible in
approximately 221 recorded species of non- managing and issuing license, permits and
marine mammals in East Malaysia (Davison certificates in ensuring sustainable use of
& Akbar, 2007). It is further estimated that wildlife resources in Sabah.
the region has 742 species of birds, 242 In 2013, SFD recorded 48 cases which
amphibian and 567 reptile species (Ministry were compounded and 13 cases were filed in
of Natural Resources and Environment, court for all offences under the 13 ordinances
2009). Both Sabah and Sarawak also have an and rules related to wildlife and forestry
estimated 12,000 species of vascular plants. enforced by the department. It was stated
The iconic Mount Kinabalu of Sabah alone that seven cases were investigated under
has over 5000 plant species; 40% of these the Sarawak Wildlife Protection Ordinance
are endemic (Ministry of Natural Resources 1998 but there is no report on how many of
and Environment, 2014). these were prosecuted (Forest Department
States in Peninsular Malaysia have Sarawak, 2014). Compound is a form of
agreed to federalise wildlife management civil fine imposed on a person who commits
and protection through the Department an offence under the laws by a government
of Wildlife and National Parks under the agency. In 2012, SFD reported that 75
Ministry of Natural Resources and the offences were compounded and only one
Environment. Meanwhile, Sabah and case was filed in court. Besides, seven cases
Sarawak have their own agencies under were investigated under the Sarawak 1998
the respective state governments to enforce Ordinance (Forest Department Sarawak,
different set of laws to conserve wildlife 2013). In 2011, SFD recorded 45 cases of
in the two states. The Forest Department compound and zero prosecution though the
of Sarawak (SFD) is responsible for year witnessed a total of 121 wildlife cases
conservation of wildlife and forest in the which were investigated under the Sarawak
state. In response to shortage of manpower 1998 Ordinance alone (Forest Department
Sarawak, 2012). It can be seen that the Likert items.

number of prosecution in Sarawak is much The survey was distributed to wildlife
lower compared to the number of cases enforcement officers of Sabah Wildlife
compounded. In Sabah, there have been Department and Sarawak Forestry
reports of arrests and charges in the daily Department. Using a convenience sampling
news but accessible statistics on wildlife that depends on availability of officers
crimes or successful prosecution in the state during pre-arranged field visits, a total of
are unobtainable. 48 respondents took part in the survey - 22
were from Sabah and 26 from Sarawak.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The questionnaire was administered
The study was conducted in East Malaysia through face-to-face interview and email.
comprising Sabah and Sarawak, which A combination of factors including the
occupy the northern Borneo island. demanding nature of their jobs and lack of
Environmental and wildlife issues are facility like computer made it hard for the
important to local residents of Sabah and targeted respondents to lend commitment
Sarawak as well as to those who visit the to this research despite persistent follow-
region each year for the sole purpose of up from the researcher. Therefore, it was
enjoying the states’ vast natural resources. difficult to obtain high participation.
A questionnaire survey which consisted of Nevertheless, it was estimated that at the
45 items and divided into three parts was time of the study, each of these states
developed. Some of the items were phrased had around 80 wildlife officers who were
in the reverse to avoid respondents’ tendency involved in enforcement activities, thus, the
to respond in an indiscriminately positive number of respondents who participated in
way. The first part of the questionnaire was the study was more than 25% of the target
designed to elicit respondents’ demographic population. However, convenient sampling
information. The second part attempted to method to administer the questionnaire
find out about the respondents’ orientation means that the results are not generalisable
towards enforcement strategy. The final part to all wildlife enforcement officers in the
aimed to extract information pertaining to region but provide important insights.
enforcement challenges encountered by
the respondents. The survey result was RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
analysed using descriptive analysis. An In line with the nature of wildlife enforcement
open-ended question, “What are other work, almost all the respondents were males
challenges facing your agency in enforcing with only two female respondents. In terms
wildlife legislation?”, was included to give of race, 27% of the respondents were
respondents the opportunity to identify other Malays and 60% were natives of Sabah and
challenges that were not included by the Sarawak, including Kadazan, Dusun, Iban
Mariani Ariffin
and Bidayuh. About 55% of the respondents action. In line with this, about 96% of the
were aged between 41 and 49 years old respondents give emphasis on collection of
and 32% were more than 50 years old. To evidence to prove violations.
sync with their seniority, almost all the Despite their tendency towards
respondents (98%) had more than 10 years’ deterrence strategy, their flexibility to
working experience with wildlife authorities. employ a mixture of enforcement strategies
In terms of education level, merely 14% had can be seen from the respondents’ responses
completed tertiary education. Majority of to some items related to compliance
the respondents had passed the Malaysian strategy. For example, in order to ensure
Certificate of Education. Despite their compliance, 89% of them say they may
moderate academic qualifications, most of persuade the regulated parties rather than
the enforcement officers were rich with field using confrontation. Likewise, 58% of
site experiences. Based on their academic the respondents state they may try to
qualification or their working experience, negotiate or persuade violators before
57% of the respondents claimed to be proceeding with formal enforcement action.
knowledgeable in forestry and about 5% With regard to responsive strategy, certain
declared they were knowledgeable in law statements also receive high approval from
and biology respectively. the respondents. For example, many concur
While the respondents may use a (68%) that depending on the circumstances
combination of strategies in enforcing and motives of the regulated party, a blend
the laws, the survey result shows higher of persuasion and coercion can be used
overall mean for deterrence strategy (M = to achieve compliance. Similarly, many
4.02, SD = .388) in both states compared to respondents (75%) say negotiation and
compliance strategy (M = 3.68, SD = .540) advice can be used for less serious crimes.
and responsive regulation (M = 3.51 SD As shown in Figure 1, the primary
= .551). This suggests that the orientation enforcement challenge identified by the
of the respondents is towards deterrence, respondents is institutional capacity (Sabah:
rather than being persuasive or responsive. M = 4.07, SD = .594; Sarawak: M = 4.18, SD
A high percentage responded as agree and = .425). The institutional capacity studied
strongly agree with all statements associated includes manpower in terms of number
with deterrence strategy. For instance, and skills, logistics and equipment. Almost
most of the respondents (83%) believe 90% of the respondents concur; 50% of
that people will not comply with the law them strongly agree that there is insufficient
unless punishment is imposed on violators. number of officers to do enforcement.
Besides, when a violation is detected, the Similar to the situation in many other states,
majority of the respondents (95%) say they wildlife enforcement officers in Sabah and
are always ready to take formal enforcement Sarawak also perform many different tasks
that include a myriad of administrative tasks equipment to be less advanced compared to

like issuance of licenses, regulatory duties the typed used by wildlife criminals. With
like monitoring birds’ nests collection and regard to skills, 92% feel that conducting
social welfare work like responding to effective prosecution is a big problem for
human-animal conflict call. Other than that, wildlife authorities. Besides that, 83% of
over 87% of the respondents think that their the respondents believe that not all wildlife
agencies have inadequate infrastructure officers are skilled in recognising wildlife
facilities. About 71% of them view their species.
Threats
Corrup4on
Poli4cal will
Ins4tu4onal Capacity
Public coopera4on and awareness
Interagency coopera4on
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Total Mean Sabah Mean Sarawak Mean
Figure 1. Major challenges to enforcement in practice

Figure 1. Major Challenges to Enforcement in Practice
The second main The second main challenge

challenge for wildlifeenforcement
for wildlife officers in East agencies.
Malaysia is the lack regard
With of to
officerspolitical
in East (Sabah: M = is
willMalaysia theSDlack
4.00, = 1.00; this,MSabah
ofSarawak: SD ==.611).
= 4.08, (M 3.65,TheSDresult
= show
.722) had a
politicalthat
will48% of the respondents
(Sabah: M = 4.00,agreeSD =and1.00;
6.3% strongly agree
slightly that politicians
higher pay insufficient
mean compared to Sarawak
attention to wildlife conservation issues in East Malaysia. About 41%
Sarawak: M = 4.08, SD = .611). The results (M = 3.54, SD = .516). The study shows of them say that budget
allocation for wildlife enforcement agency is inadequate. The third main challenge facing
show that 48% of the respondents agree 68% of the respondents in Sabah think
wildlife law enforcement in the region is lack of interagency cooperation with other
and 6.3% strongly agree that politicians that they lack of cooperation from other
enforcement agencies. With regard to this, Sabah (M = 3.65, SD = .722) had a slightly higher
pay insufficient attention to wildlife enforcement agencies such as the customs,
mean compared to Sarawak (M = 3.54, SD = .516). The study shows 68% of the respondents
conservation issues in East Malaysia. About and military. Further, about 77% view
in Sabah think that they lack of cooperation from other enforcement agencies such as the
41% of them say that budget allocation for information sharing between them and such
customs, and military. Further, about 77% view information sharing between them and such
wildlife enforcement agency is inadequate. agencies to be limited. In this survey, 82%
agencies to be limited. In this survey, 82% of the respondents in Sabah are also of the opinion
The third main challenge facing wildlife of the respondents in Sabah are also of the
that other enforcement agencies lack understanding of their roles and responsibilities. Most of
law enforcement in the region is lack opinion that other enforcement agencies
them also perceive training with other enforcement agencies as rare.
of interagency cooperation with other lack understanding of their roles and
In terms of cooperation from the public, 21% of the respondents strongly agree and
60% agree that the public does not have adequate knowledge about wildlife laws. The study
found 81% of them believe
Pertanika J.that
Soc. the public
Sci. & does
Hum. 26 not- 180
(1): 167 understand
(2018) the role of wildlife 173
enforcement authority. Meanwhile, 46% say that the public is not always willing to provide
information about wildlife-related criminal activity. More than 75% of the respondents say
10
Mariani Ariffin
responsibilities. Most of them also perceive tasks, lack of motorcycles which are more
training with other enforcement agencies suitable to chase culprits through narrow
as rare. paths, unavailability of weapons for self-
In terms of cooperation from the public, defence, lack of communication gadgets
21% of the respondents strongly agree and like walkie-talkie or special equipment that
60% agree that the public does not have can help in areas with no telecommunication
adequate knowledge about wildlife laws. transmission. Many respondents also cite
The study found 81% of them believe that that there is small number of enforcement
the public does not understand the role of officers for the areas that they need to
wildlife enforcement authority. Meanwhile, monitor. A few also express concern about
46% say that the public is not always willing the lack of young officers and permanent
to provide information about wildlife-related wildlife officers.
criminal activity. More than 75% of the
respondents say that the public sometimes Table 1
refuses to cooperate with them. Threat from Frequency of different challenges mentioned in the
wildlife criminals is another main challenge open-ended survey
faced by wildlife officers in East Malaysia. Coding of Challenges Frequency

The study found that approximately 29% Institutional capacity 28
of the respondents strongly agree and 46% Lack of cooperation 11
agree that in the course of field operations, Lack of incentives 8
enforcement officers are often threatened by Threats 8
criminals. As for corruption, the study found Political interference 7
Lack of training 4
the mean to be the lowest for both states
Lack of priority 2
(Sabah: M = 2.93, SD = 1.00 and Sarawak:
Poverty 2
M =3.48, SD = .780). This suggests that Corruption-leak of information 2
corruption in wildlife enforcement is seen Lack of monitoring 1
as less serious compared to other major Lack of SOP 1
challenges highlighted earlier. Forest clearance 1
Confirming the statistical findings Lack of enforcement power 1
above, as shown in Table 1, responses to High demand of wildlife 1
Easy access to habitat 1
the open-ended question reveal the highest
recurring theme (35.9% of the responses)
is coded to institutional capacity, half Besides that, 14% of the responses to the
of them mention lack of infrastructure, open-ended item are associated with lack
equipment or logistics. These include of cooperation especially from the public.
lack of space to store confiscated wildlife, A few respondents also mentioned lack
inadequate vehicles for enforcement of cooperation from other enforcement
since they are also used for other official agencies. About 10% of the responses
which were coded raised concerns about and Sarawak due to small number of officers
threats from aggressive suspects. Many and limited resources. Besides, as courts do
respondents also highlighted lack of not necessarily set the same priority as the
incentives as another major challenge wildlife authorities on protecting wildlife
for wildlife officers. In relation to this, (Leader-Williams & Milner-Gulland, 1993),
respondents reported limited overtime it is difficult to ensure certain and severe
allowance and lack of other financial punishment even if the culprit is brought
allowance for conducting dangerous to court.
operations. Low salaries and lack of moral Nurse (2011) argued that the existence
support also worsened the situation. Other of different types of offenders and criminal
major challenges cited by them are political behaviour must be recognised in policy
interference, leaking out of enforcement and enforcement practice. This could be
information and lack of training. the starting point for Sabah and Sarawak
The study discovered that wildlife to improve enforcement effectiveness.
officers in Sabah and Sarawak tend towards By acknowledging the various types
deterrence strategy in enforcement. Such of offenders and offences, the wildlife
enforcement is seen to provide deterrence authorities in both states can set targeted
to both the culprits and the wider public strict enforcement activities for persistent
(Wellsmith, 2011). However, the expected offenders and serious criminal behaviour
deterrence effect will only ensue if like those which involve organised wildlife
enforcement is strong. Enforcement can be crimes. Meanwhile, they can employ a
strong if detection is high and is followed more persuasive or compliant approach in
by certain and severe punishment (Du Rées, enforcing wildlife laws against other less
2001). Several researchers have found that culpable offenders or those doing the crimes
high detection of violations, followed with due to ignorance or for subsistence.
other further enforcement measures like The most common barriers to insufficient
giving warning, seizure or prosecution interagency coordination and cooperation
will best improve compliance with wildlife include lack of mechanism for sharing
protection laws (Rowcliffe, de Merode, & data among agencies, differing agency
Cowlishaw, 2004). structures and unclear chain of command.
The current study shows that wildlife Resolving these obstacles is essential to
authorities in Sabah and Sarawak lack ensure effective detection, investigation and
institutional capacity. Therefore, detection prosecution. Coordination problem can be
level may not be as high as the authorities overcome through crossover training and
would hope for. For example, in order to assignment of law enforcement to facilitate
increase detection of violations, patrolling communication of information between
efforts must also be intensified (Keane et al., agencies and provide on-site consultation.
2008), which is currently difficult for Sabah Another strategy is to institutionalise
Mariani Ariffin
the coordination process through regular of insufficient knowledge or skills, first,

structured meetings to discuss best practices, the issue of inadequate training needs
networking and concerns as well as formalise to be resolved, which in turn, requires
relationships through agreements or joint- solution to lack of financial resources and
policymaking (Freeman & Rossi, 2012). political support. Although limited formal
Like their counterparts in the Peninsular education does not necessarily preclude
Malaysia, wildlife officers in East Malaysia individuals from being excellent officers,
also suffer from insufficient capacity of it may lead to inefficiencies in the handling
their enforcement agencies, lack of inter- of paperwork or preparation of cases.
agency and public cooperation and lack Under both Sabah and Sarawak wildlife
of political-will (Ariffin, 2015). These legislation, wildlife officers have police-like
enforcement challenges are interrelated. investigative powers and can be authorised
Lack of institutional capacity is the primary to conduct prosecution. However, as the
challenge but is also affected by other results of the study pointed out, there is a
main challenges. For example, lack of strong impression among the respondents
skills among the officers can be attributed for their skills and knowledge to be further
to failure of hiring more highly educated developed. Therefore, their authority per
candidates. This, in turn can be linked to se, is futile, unless their existing skills and
lack of incentives to join the profession due knowledge are improved. Poor investigation
to low enumeration and other allowances. In skill precludes the authority from building
other words, if the problem of insufficient strong cases and prosecuting wildlife
skills or knowledge is to be resolved, higher offenders successfully. In addition, in
political-will is required to provide better order to encourage better cooperation
payfor wildlife officers or more budget from the public in providing information
allocation for wildlife agencies so that they on wildlife crimes, the public should be
can send existing officers to more trainings informed that the laws protect the identity
to improve their skills. Akella and Cannon of informant. When more informants come
(2004) found that inadequate budgetary forward, decision-makers may channel
resources compromise the effectiveness of more resources into fighting wildlife crimes
enforcement in several biodiversity-rich as they see the public views such crimes
countries. Similarly, insufficient budget seriously.
has hampered wildlife enforcement in East
Malaysia. CONCLUSION
Some of the challenges in the current The study found that enforcement officers in
enforcement system may need to be East Malaysia are primarily prone towards
addressed at the same time to ensure better deterrence strategy in their enforcement
enforcement against wildlife crimes. For approach. Due to the vast land mass of East
example, in order to address the problem Malaysia and the lack of manpower and
other resources of the wildlife authorities in 1530RU) which supported this project. A
the region, it is difficult to ensure detection warm gratitude is also expressed to all the
of violations and successful prosecution wildlife officers in Sabah and Sarawak who
to achieve the deterrence impact of strict lent their time and co operation to participate
enforcement. Low detection and prosecution in this study.
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Smartphone Usage Capabilities among Younger and Elderly

Users
Raywadee Sakdulyatham1, Somjaree Preeyanont2*, Rajalida Lipikorn3 and
Rewadee Watakakosol4
1
Technopreneurship and Innovation Management Program, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok 10330, Thailand
2
Department of Statistics, Faculty of Commerce and Accountancy, Chulalongkorn University,
3
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University,
4
Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the elderly population has increased, and most of them tend to live alone.
This means that the elderly need to communicate with their younger colleagues, friends, and
family via smartphones because these devices provide several channels of communication,
such as calling, chatting, and video conferencing. However, the main problem for the
elderly is their physical condition which inhibits them from using smartphones. Thus,
the objective of this paper is to find out what are the UI components that degrade their
ability for using smartphones. This can be achieved by comparing the capabilities of using
smartphones between younger and elderly users and finding out the UI components what
cause their capabilities to be different. From our assumption that physical conditions
limit the capability of the elderly, we focused our research on their visual capabilities by
conducting the experiments on younger users and elderly users, who were requested to
perform specific tasks on Line, which is
one of the most popular communication
applications among Thais. The experimental
results reveal that most of the elderly people
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
take longer time to complete their tasks and
Received: 22 September 2016 make more mistakes than younger users. It
Accepted: 27 July 2017
was found that most of them have problems
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Raywadee Sakdulyatham), with color, font style, size, and brightness
[email protected] (Somjaree Preeyanont),
[email protected] (Rajalida Lipikorn), of UI. As a consequence, it is suggested
[email protected] (Rewadee Watakakosol)
that a more appropriate UI for smartphone

Raywadee Sakdulyatham, Somjaree Preeyanont, Rajalida Lipikorn and Rewadee Watakakosol
applications, especially communication friends and family (Economic Intelligence

applications, should be designed to solve Center, 2015).
such problems in order to increase the At present, the Ministry of Finance is
elderly’s capabilities of using smartphones. trying to propose the tax policy that gives the
elderly an opportunity to work by offering a
Keywords: Elderly, younger generation, mobile social
special tax deduction to any companies that
network, limitations of using a smartphone by the
hire the elderly (Thansettakig News, 2016).
elderly
This job opportunity is another reason that
requires the elderly to use smartphones in
INTRODUCTION order to communicate with their colleagues
Thailand, like many other countries in the and have social contact with others.
world, has a population that is inclined However, many of them begin to experience
to have a longer lifespan, while the birth some form of physical limitations such as
rates are on the decline. This situation trembling hands, presbyopia, and slow-
has led Thailand into an increased ageing response actions. These limitations irritate
population; the number of people aged the elderly and make them stay away from
above 60 is increasing rapidly (Office of using smartphones because they cannot
National Economic and Social Development see the screen very well, are unable to find
Board, 2015). Moreover, the family structure the functions or the buttons they want to
of the younger generation tends to be of a use, and scroll or swipe the screen (Arfaa
nuclear family, where grandparents live & Wang, 2014; Moffatt, 2013; van de
by themselves while extended families Watering, 2005). These limitations cause
have become less significant (Pitikultang, the elderly to take longer time to send
2013). As such, more elderly people instant messages, make typing mistakes,
are living alone and feel more lonely and perform the wrong tasks (Nicolau &
(Durick & Robertson, 2013). According to Jorge, 2012). Besides physical limitations,
Photisuvan and Bunurapeepinyo, (1990), many of the elderly do not know how to use
they need to socialise with other people, smartphones and touch screens (Sayago &
communicate with friends and family in Blat, 2009). If the elderly can overcome
order to overcome their loneliness. Even these limitations and use smartphones
in the extended families, most children effectively, they can keep in touch with their
and family members like to have social family, friends, and colleagues, thus have
contact via communication applications on positive mental health and wellness (Theng,
smartphones because they are convenient Theng, Chua, & Pham, 2012). Obtaining
and fast (Mirum Thailand Team, 2015). To more benefits from using smartphones
be up-to-date, more elderly people are trying means there is an opportunity to enhance
to use smartphones to communicate with relationships and communication between
the elderly and their families, (Santana et al.,
Smartphone Usage Capabilities among Younger and Elderly Users
2005), make life more enjoyable and active Line application, which is one of the
with their families, and have pleasant lives most popular communication applications
(Consolvo et al., 2004) on smartphones. The results are used to
There is sufficient literature on determine how effectively the elderly can
smartphone usage capabilities of the elderly use smartphones and the major factors that
users but most of the literature focuses on affect their capabilities.
the interaction between the elderly users
and the touch screen of smartphones. It LITERATURE REVIEW
was found that elderly users can tap, drag,
The Elderly
pinch, and swipe the screen very easily but
make a lot of typing mistakes (Kobayashi It is an indication that a person is entering the
et al., 2011). The literature also compares stage of getting old but there is no standard
the ability of using smartphones between of the exact age criterion. It depends on the
the elderly user group, the children user social, economy and culture of each country.
group, and the teenage user group by asking For Thailand, according to the Elderly Act
them to enlarge the content on the screen, B.E. 2546, the elderly stage is divided into
drag the object, and rotate the screen. It was three age groups based on physical and
found that the elderly users have problems mental condition, and self-support (The
enlarging the content on the screen the Office of Industrial Economics, 2014).
most. They also take more time to drag and Group 1: The elderly between 60 and
rotate the screen than others (Chang, H. T., 69 years; this group refers to the elderly in
Tsai, Chang, Y. T., & Chang, Y. M., 2014). the first stage who are physically able to
Most of the elderly users spend more time live alone and can take care of themselves.
on enlarging or zooming the content on the This group has the highest number of elderly
screen in order to find the icon (Lin, W., people, accounted for 57.67% (from 2000-
Lin, H. C., & Yueh, 2014). Therefore, the 2030).
objective of this paper is to find out what Group 2: The elderly between 70 and 79
are the main UI components that degrade years; this group refers to the elderly in the
the capabilities of using smartphones among middle stage who can still help themselves
the Thai elderly. but start to rely on family and society if
From the above-mentioned reasons, it they are not very healthy. This group has
is believed that it would be better for the the number of elderly people accounted for
elderly to adapt themselves to live with 32.29% (from 2000-2030).
younger generations in the digital society. In Group 3: The elderly from 80 years up;
order to help them, the tests on smartphone this group refers to the elderly who require
usage capability between elderly users assistance from a healthcare assistant or
and younger users were conducted over their family in daily life and should be
supervised by a physician. This group they tend to use less smartphones and this
has the lowest number of elderly people might affect the statistical results.
accounted for 10.04% (from 2000-2030).
The volunteers in this research are the Mobile Social Network
elderly from Group 1 because the elderly
This is a kind of social network that uses
in this group are still self-supported and are
social network communication applications
able to use smartphones by themselves.
on a smartphone to make connections
through individuals. A user can perform any
The Younger Generation specific activity on a smartphone through
These are individuals, both males and a mobile application that is developed
females of Thai nationality, that fall into specifically for that activity (Krouse,
a group of young adults, aged between 18 2012). A survey on the use of smartphones
to 35 years and middle-aged adults who among Thai people of all ages reveals
are between 36 to 59 years, according to that the popular activity on smartphone is
the age groups defined by Havighurst’s social networking via social networking
(Baltes & Schaie, 1973). However, it communication applications which allow
is found that people, who like to use a user to join online community, exchange
online communication via smartphones information, and talk with others. (Dewing,
in the period of changing society with 2010; Mirum Thailand Team, 2015).
technological revolution and the Internet,
are between 19 to 45 years (Mirum Thailand Limitations of Using Smartphones by
Team, 2015). By combining the above the Elderly
definitions together, this paper divides
Because the elderly experience physical
smartphone users into two groups: the
and capability changes (Holzinger, Searle,
younger user group and the elderly user
Nischelwitzer, 2007), which cause major
group. The younger user group consists of
problems for the use of smartphones, this
the adults whose ages are between 18 to
paper hence focuses on the physical changes
45 years in order to include both younger
that affect the use of smartphones. From an
adults and middle-aged adults who like to
interview with an ophthalmologist from the
use smartphones, whereas the elderly user
hospital in Bangkok, it was learnt that most
group consists of adults whose ages are
elderly people have either blepharoptosis,
between 60 to 69 years and are willing to
eye ptosis, dry eyes, cataract, glaucoma, or
use smartphones. The reason this paper does
macular degeneration. Many of the elderly
not include the middle-aged adults between
have symptoms, such as dimming of color,
46 to 59 years into the sample set is because
amblyopia, and photophobia. These kinds
of physical changes in the elderly obstruct a) Add friend: Friends can be added to a
the use of smartphones. chat room in many different forms, such
as with phone numbers, QR Codes, and
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Line ID.
The objectives of this research are to b) Chat: Chat can be carried out made
compare the smartphone usage capabilities with friends who use Line by typing
among elderly users and younger users on-screen keyboard or sending voice
and to determine the UI component causes message. It also allows users to create a
of problems among elderly users when chat group of multiple members. In this
using smartphones. This paper focuses chat room there are also other functions
on the capability of using smartphone to that can be used, for example:
have social contact with others via Line Forward: Users can send text or pictures
application. The tests were conducted on from one chat room to another friend or
two sample user groups: elderly user group multiple friends.
and younger user group. The elderly user
Copy: Users can copy text from one chat
group consisted of 38 participants of Thai
room to another friend one at a time, or
persons whose ages are between 60 to 69
paste it back in the same chat room.
years, whereas, the younger user group
consisted of 46 participants of Thai persons c) Send Photo: Users can send photos or
who are between 18 to 45 years old. The test videos from the album intheir phone as
on smartphone usage has been reviewed on well as voice messages to friends in that
the moral discipline and has been approved chat room.
that it is not harmful to physical and mental d) Sticker and Emojis: Users can send
conditions of the participants. The procedure sticker and emojis in various forms to
of conducting the research is as follows: a friend in that chat room and can also
download additional stickers.
Study Line Functions e) Free Voice Call: Users can make a call
Line is a communication application that to a friend in that chat room using Line
integrates messaging and voice over IP application.
services together. It is the application that f) Profile Setting: Users can access the
allows users to create discussion groups, setting pages to edit their personal
send messages, post pictures, or make phone information including names and
calls. All functions are free of charge, only pictures, or set authorities.
user identification is needed to activate g) Timeline: This is the online community
the application. Functions of Line can be that allows users to update their status,
summarised as follows: (Kuljitjuerwong, post messages or photos or video, offer
2013; Line Corporation Thailand; College feedback, press like, or send stickers.
of Management, 2013)
h) Games: Line has games that Line Determine Activities for Testing
members can download using their Line Since access to the functions of Line
account which users can play alone or application depends on the setting of each
compete against their friends in Line . smartphone, unbiased test was established
by requesting the population to perform
From the Line functions mentioned above, the same set of activities on the same
enquiry was made of 10 elderly users. It smartphone model. The activities were
was found that most of them did not use all selected from the most frequently used
the functions, did not play games, or post activities among smartphone users, and are
information to their Timeline. Therefore, shown in Table 1.
only eight functions were selected to
conduct the test which is described in the
following section.
Table 1
Testing activities
Activity Process of Activities

1. Chat - Swipe the screen to select a friend and enter the Chat room
- Type the messages as specified
2. Add friend - Choose Add friends with ID/telephone number
- Type the specified friend’s ID
3. Forward - Select messages to be forwarded as defined
- Select Forward command
- Select friends to be forwarded
4. Copy - Select messages to be copied as specified
- Select Copy command
- Paste the copied messages and send
5. Edit name and profile Photo - Select Setting and select Profile
- Edit name
- Search for photos
- Enlarge the photo and select the photo to be displayed
6. Free call - Select Free Call from Chat page
- Press End Call
7. Sending photo - Select Photo Menu
- Search for photos and send photos
8. Sending sticker - Slide Menu to Send Sticker
- Scroll to a specified sticker
- Send sticker
Prepare Test Recording Form 15 participants from ages between 22 to 35

Before the test is conducted, the test years, which is, the group of young working
recording form was prepared, which was people.
used to keep personal information of 15 participants from ages between 36 to 45
each participant and the test results which years, which is the group of working people.
consists of two parts:
Part 1: Personal information of each After the test activities and the test recording
participant: sex, age, education, job data were designed, it was the stage of
conducting smartphone usability tests with
Part 2: Test results of usage capability based
the elderly user group and the younger user
on eight specified activities. The
group by asking each of them to perform
results of each activity consist of
eight activities. Data were collected and
the nature and the number of errors,
recorded on the test recording form by
duration, and other observations.
observing their behaviour, observing the
types of errors and the number of errors, and
Conduct Usability Test the time it took to accomplish each activity.
Two groups of smartphone users were The test was conducted by a team of three
selected as sample groups for the test: the observers; the test procedure is as follows:
elderly user group with 38 participants and a) Introduce the team and explain the test
the younger user group with 46 participants. procedure to the sample groups.
The sample size of the elderly user group
b) Clarify the purpose of the test and
was calculated using the standard sample
inform what data would be collected
size calculation from an unknown population
from the test results.
with 95% confidence interval. Elderly users
who had already used smartphones in their c) Get acquainted with the sample groups
daily lives were selected in order to make and gather all personal information
the test results unbiased. The sample size of necessary for the test.
the younger user group was larger because d) Start the test by explaining the activities
the interval of the younger user group that a participant has to perform step-
was wider; therefore, the same number of by-step together with the illustrations
participants were selected from three age to make it easier for him / her to
groups as follows: understand. The participants were then
16 participants from ages between 18 to 21 asked to start the test according to the
years, which is, the group of students. steps in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Test process of each activity
Analyse1/<9-
Smartphone Usage Capability
-7EF)DA57EEA835:5F;H;FK Smartphone Usage among the Younger
of the Elderly User Group
Upon completion of the smartphone usability The test results of smartphone usage based
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tests via Line application from both groups, on eight activities from the younger user
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results containing the numbers of group of 46 persons, aged between 18 to
errors, the types of errors, and the duration 45 years, reveal that Chat activity that
9DAGBEI7D75A?B3D76;@AD67DFAE77;8F:7D7I7D73@KE;9@;8;53@F6;887D7@57E47FI77@F:7? takes
of the two groups were compared in order to the longest time to accomplish due to typing
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see if there were any significant differences that takes an average of 34.05 seconds. Next
between them. If significant differences is Edit profile activity which needs many
usage capabilities were steps to accomplish for both renaming and
in smartphone
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out the major causes. 29.03 seconds. This is followed by the Free
Call activity takes the shortest time with an
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RESULTS average of 2.82 seconds because it needs
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The test results of smartphone usage the fewest steps to accomplish as shown in
B7DEA@E397647FI77@ FAK73DED7H73>F:3F:3F35F;H;FKF:3FF3=7EF:7>A@97EFF;?7
capabilities through Line application of the Table 2.
FA355A?B>;E:6G7FAFKB;@9F:3FF3=7E3@3H7D397A8E75A@6E '7JF;E6;FBDA8;>7
two sample groups are presented below:
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Time spentE:ADF7EFF;?7I;F:3@3H7D397A8
on testing each activity among younger users
E75A@6E4753GE7;F@776EF:787I7EFEF7BEFA355A?B>;E:
3EE:AI@;@-34>7
Activity (sec) SD Max Min
1. Chat 34.05 10.12 71.28 18.28
2. Add friend 9.45 3.27 21.50 4.71
3. Forward 13.96 4.56 27.63 7.59
4. Copy 5.34 1.63 9.28 2.29
5. Edit profile 29.03 7.17 48.95 15.40
6. Free call 2.82 0.63 4.31 1.76
7. Send photo 7.22 2.09 14.64 3.4
8. Send sticker 3.31 1.88 9.79 1.11
It can be seen that the maximum and 22-35 years: group of young working people
the minimum time spent on each activity is 36-45 years: group of middle-aged working
considerably different, and the observation people
reveals that the users who spend longer
time are the ones who often make mistakes. The average time of each activity is nearly
Remarks were recorded to see whether the the same; however, time also increases with
age difference in the younger user group age (see Table 3). Thus, the average duration
would take different time for the test or not, in Table 2 can be used as the average time
therefore, the overall data are divided into for each activity for the younger user group.
age groups as follows:
18-21 years: group of university/ college
students
Table 3
Average time spent on each activity by the younger user group
Activity Age18-21 (sec) Age22-35 (sec) Age36-45 (sec)

1 35.61 31.69 37.87
2 8.45 8.88 12.97
3 13.11 13.43 17.09
4 5.04 5.42 5.66
5 29.14 26.29 36.71
6 2.77 2.74 3.14
7 6.41 7.17 8.88
8 3.02 3.41 3.56
Table 4
Type of errors for each activity by the younger user group
Activity Type of Error Frequency

1. Chat Swipe the screen mistakenly 8
Typing error 4
2. Add friend Type the wrong ID 4
3. Forward Swipe the screen mistakenly 5
4. Copy - -
5. Edit profile Type wrong name 3
6. Free call - -
7. Send photo Select the wrong photo 1
Press the wrong button 1
8. Send sticker Swipe the screen mistakenly 2
Press the wrong button 1
From Table 4, it can be seen that the Test results of smartphone usage from
Chat activity has the highest number of the elderly user group
errors because of swiping beyond the The test results of smartphone usage based
specified name and making mistake while on eight activities from the elderly user
typing; and therefore, taking longer time group of 38 persons, ages between 60-69
for the activity. It can be notice that the Edit years reveal that Chat is the activity that
profile takes long time to accomplish but takes the longest time to accomplish with
contains less errors, this might be because the average of 79.13 seconds, followed by
there are many steps to do but each step is the Edit Profile activity with the average of
easy and straight forward. 70.21 seconds as shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Time spent on testing each activity among elderly users
Activity (sec) SD Max Min

1. Chat 79.13 26.61 164.56 37.44
2. Add friend 24.88 6.95 45.45 11.75
3. Forward 30.69 12.06 71.67 15.72
4. Copy 12.76 3.34 18.84 3.48
5. Edit profile 70.21 14.29 107.45 37.21
6. Free call 6.62 3.71 17.74 2.75
7. Send photo 16.58 5.10 31.02 8.09
8. Send sticker 5.47 3.40 16.30 1.27
Table 5 shows that the maximum and are the ones who often make mistakes and
minimum time spent on testing are quite spend more time staring at the screen before
different due to different levels of expertise. proceeding to the next step because most of
The participants who spend longer time them are afraid to make mistakes.
Table 6
Type of errors for each activity by the elderly user group
Activity Type of Error Frequency

1. Chat Swipe the screen mistakenly 10
Typing error 38
2. Add friend Type the wrong ID 3
3. Forward Select the wrong friend 2
Select the wrong messages 2
Select the wrong command 2
Swipe the screen mistakenly 1
4. Copy Select the wrong command 1
5. Edit profile Swipe the screen mistakenly 3
Select the wrong menu 2
Enlarge the wrong photo 1
Type the wrong name 2
6. Free call Select the wrong button 4
7. Send photo Swipe the screen mistakenly 3
Select the wrong photo 1
Press the wrong icon 1
8. Send sticker Press the wrong button 3
Swipe the screen mistakenly 2
According to the errors shown in Table 6, group in all activities. The most common
Chat activity has the highest occurrence of errors that occur among both user groups
errors in both groups. The main errors are are from swiping the screen mistakenly,
from typing mistakes and swiping the screen misspelling, and sending wrong stickers in
mistakenly. The second highest activity with Chat activity. For other activities, the elderly
the most number of errors is Edit profile users have various kinds of errors and
activity where most of the errors are from usually have more errors than the younger
swiping the screen mistakenly, choosing the users. In some activities, the younger users
wrong menu, typing the wrong profile name, commit no error at all while the elderly
and being unable to enlarge the photo. users make so many errors, for example, the
From the comparison of errors between Free call activity where most of the elderly
the elderly user group and the younger user users press the wrong button. This may be
group (Table 4 and Table 6), the elderly user caused by the degeneration of the eyes of
group has more errors than the younger user the elderly.
Comparison on smartphone usage analysed in two different aspects: the

capabilities between the elderly user duration and the errors of each activity as
group and the younger user group shown in Table 7.
C o m p a r i s o2n o n s m a r t p h o24.88
n e u s a g 9.45
e 15.43 0.08 0.09 -
capabilities through Line application was
0.01
Table 7 3 30.69 13.96 16.73 0.18 0.11 0.07

Average duration and average errors of each activity between the elderly user group and the younger user
group
4 12.76 5.34 7.42 0.03 0.00 0.03
A = The elderly user group B = The younger user group C = A-B
Activity 5 Average Duration
70.21(X ̅) (Sec.)
29.03 41.18 Average Error
0.24 0.07 0.17
A B C A B C
1 79.13 34.05 45.08 1.21 0.26 0.95
6 6.62 2.82 3.8 0.11 0.00 0.11
2 24.88 9.45 15.43 0.08 0.09 -0.01
3 30.69 13.96 16.73 0.18 0.11 0.07
4 712.76 5.34 16.58 7.22
7.42 9.36
0.03 0.13
0.00 0.04 0.030.09
5 70.21 29.03 41.18 0.24 0.07 0.17
6 86.62 2.82 5.47 3.8 3.31 2.16
0.11 0.13
0.00 0.07 0.110.06
7 16.58 7.22 9.36 0.13 0.04 0.09
8 5.47 3.31 2.16 0.13 0.07 0.06
From Table 7, it can be seen that the average duration on smartphone usage of the elderly
From
user Table
group7,isit can be seen
higher thanthat theof
that average these data
the younger userare displayed
group in allinactivities.
Figure 2 toThe
showgraphs of these
duration on smartphone usage of the elderly the differences in the usage capabilities in
datagroup
user are displayed in Fig.
is higher than 2 to
that of theshow the differences
younger two aspects:inthe
theaverage
usage capabilities
duration and in
thetwo aspects:
user group in duration
the average all activities.
and The graphs oferrors
the average average errors
of each of each activity.
activity.
Figure 2. The average duration and average errors of each activity between the Elderly User Group and the
Younger User Group
Figure 2. The Average Duration and Average Errors of Each Activity between the Elderly
User Group and the Younger User Group
The differences on the usage capabilities between the elderly user group and the young
user group can be categorised into three groups:
Group 1: This group consists of activities with the biggest differences; that is, Chat and Edit
Profile. In the Chat activity, the elderly users spend more time than the younger users, of up
The differences on the usage capabilities Send Photo, and Send Sticker. In the Copy
between the elderly user group and the activity, the elderly users spend more time
young user group can be categorised into than the younger users, up to 7.42 seconds
three groups: with the average error of only 0.03 times
per person. In the Free Call activity, the
Group 1: This group consists of activities elderly users spend more time than the
with the biggest differences; that is, Chat younger users up to 3.8 seconds with the
and Edit Profile. In the Chat activity, the average error of 0.11 times per person
elderly users spend more time than the from pressing the wrong call button. In
younger users, of up to 45.08 seconds with the Send Photo activity, the elderly users
the highest average error of 0.95 times per spend more time than the younger users, up
person. From the inquiry with the elderly to 9.36 seconds with the average error of
group, it is found that they spend most of 0.09 times per person. In the Send Sticker
their time to scroll the screen to find friends activity, the elderly users spend more time
and to type the message. In the Edit Profile than the younger users up to 2.16 seconds
activity, the elderly users spend more time with the average error of 0.06 times per
than the younger users, up to 41.18 seconds, person. Most of the errors are when selecting
with the average error of 0.17 times per the commands but the errors are not very
person. different from the younger users because
there are only a few steps to accomplish
Group 2: This group consists of activities the activity.
with some differences; that is, Add Friend
and Forward. In the Add Friend activity, DISCUSSION
the elderly users spend more time than the The test results from using smartphones
younger users, up to 15.43 seconds with to communicate through Line application
the average error not much different from of the elderly users and the younger users
the younger users. Observation showed reveal that elderly users take more time than
that the elderly users often take extra time the younger users in all the activities. These
to make sure that they do not make any results tell us that the elderly users have
mistake before proceeding to the next step. problems using communication applications
In the Forward activity, the elderly users on smartphones. In some activities, the
spend more time than the younger users, up capabilities of the elderly users are almost
to16.73 seconds, with the average error of as good as those of the younger users,
0.07 times per person, mostly from selecting but in some activities the capabilities of
the wrong friend and the wrong command. the elderly users are very low, especially
for Chat activity. It is because the elderly
Group 3: This group has only a few users need to spend more time to find the
differences in the usage: Copy, Free Call, alphabets and also tend to press the wrong
alphabets. In addition, there are other causes elderly users and the younger users different
and effects that make the capabilities of the as shown in Table 8.
Table 8
The impact of smartphone usage on the elderly users
Activity Errors / Timing Difference Impact on Communication

1 Swipe the screen mistakenly Slow response and miscommunication
Typing error
Take longer time
2 Type the wrong ID Add the wrong friend or communicate with the wrong
Take longer time than usual person
3 Select the wrong command Slow forwarding/sending wrong messages/ sending to the
Swipe the screen mistakenly wrong person
Take longer time than usual
4 Select the wrong command -
Take slightly longer time
5 Type the wrong name Might cause the partner to think of you as another person
Select the wrong photo but no impact on duration
Select the wrong menu
6 Press the wrong call button -
7 Swipe the screen mistakenly The wrong photo might lead to miscommunication
Select the wrong photo
8 Select the wrong command The wrong sticker might lead to miscommunication
Select the wrong sticker
From Table 8, it can be seen that errors wrong object. From the test results and the
and duration when using communication interviews with the elderly users, it was
applications increase with age. Only some found that the current screen or the user
activities are not affected by age, such as interface may not be appropriate for the
Free call and Copy, because if a user selects elderly users’ vision, and result in errors and
the wrong command, the activity cannot are time consuming. After analysing errors
proceed any further. and duration of smartphone usage of the
Most of the problems that cause elderly users, the main causes of errors can
errors are due to typing mistakes, pressing be summarised, as shown in Table 9.
the wrong command and swiping to the
Table 9 them to accomplish most of the tasks

Screen components that affect smartphone usage of
and they tend to make more errors in
the elderly users
communication than the younger ones.
Error Group Components that Affect From the test results, it is concluded that
Usage
capabilities of smartphone usages among the
Selecting the wrong Color, brightness, size of
button or command the letters and buttons, elderly users are lower than those of younger
space between objects users; the main reason is that the elderly’s
Swiping the screen Color, brightness, size of physical and mental conditions decline
mistakenly the letters, space between
objects with age. Therefore, their capabilities of
searching, typing, thinking, memorising,
and seeing are not as good which slow down
From Table 9, the errors can be divided their performance and cause more errors.
into 2 main groups: selecting the wrong Furthermore, observations during the tests
button or command and swiping the screen revealed that most elderly users have vision
mistakenly. These errors are the results problems that cause them inconvenience
from vision problems of the elderly, such as when using smartphones because they
blurred vision and halos. From the analysis, cannot see the UI components very well.
it was learnt that the main elements on a Most elderly users have problems with
screen that affect vision of the elderly are colour, font style, size, and brightness.
brightness, colour, fonts, size of the buttons Therefore, it is recommended that the
or objects as well as the space between smartphone usage capabilities of the elderly
objects on the screen. be improved if a more appropriate UI
for smartphone applications is designed
CONCLUSIONS AND especially for the elderly. Thus, a viable
RECOMMENDATION
follow-up study would be to find the most
At present, communication via smartphone suitable combination of the UI components
is an important part of everyday life. It for smartphone applications in order to
is a means for borderless and worldwide improve smartphone usage capability of the
communication without limits, in terms of Thai elderly.
location, time, and people of different age,
especially the elderly, who need to adapt to ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the new technology in order to communicate
The authors would like to thank both the
with their children, other family members
elderly users and the younger users who
as well as their colleagues. The elderly
volunteered to be the participants for the test
who need to communicate with others
and to the research assistants who helped
via smartphones have to encounter vision
in observations and gathering of the data
problems that decline their smartphone
during the test.
usage capability. It takes a long time for
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Students’ Perspective on the Impact of English Teacher

Development Programs on Teaching Quality in Indonesia
Azkiyah, S. N.1*, Doolaard, S.2, Creemers, Bert P. M.2 and
Van der Werf, M. P. C. (Greetje)2
Faculty of Educational Sciences, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University of Jakarta, Indonesia
1
Groningen Institute for Educational Research, The University of Groningen, the Netherlands
2
ABSTRACT
Finding effective methods for improving teaching quality is crucial because it has been
found to be the most important factor in education. This paper compares two approaches
of improving teaching quality through a one-year experimental study involving two
experimental groups and one control group. The first is the use of education standards
and the second is the use of education standards combined with a teacher development
program. Teaching quality was measured in four variables: Building classroom as a
learning environment (CLE), instruction, questioning, and orientation. In this study, 1255
students and 45 teachers from 43 junior secondary schools in two provinces of Indonesia
voluntarily participated. Multilevel modelling was employed and the results indicate that
both interventions have significant effects on the outcomes. However, as expected, the
second intervention is significant in all variables and has larger effects, whereas the first
intervention is significant only in two variables: CLE and questioning. The findings of this
research imply the need to have clear and concrete education standards and to enhance
these education standards with training sessions to facilitate better teaching quality.
Keywords: Education standards, teaching quality, teacher professional development program, dynamic model
of educational effectiveness research

Article history:
It is widely accepted that teachers play
Accepted: 27 July 2017 important roles in improving learning
E-mail addresses:
[email protected], [email protected] (Azkiyah, S. N.),
outcomes. Therefore, various approaches
[email protected] (Doolaard, S.), have been introduced and implemented to
[email protected] (Creemers, Bert P. M.),
[email protected] (Van der Werf, M. P. C. (Greetje)) improve teacher quality. In this paper, two

Azkiyah, S. N., Doolaard, S., Creemers, Bert P. M. and Van der Werf, M. P. C. (Greetje)
approaches, namely education standards (Chambers & Dean, 2000; McClure, 2005;
and educational effectiveness research Stosich, 2016).
(EER) are compared through a one-year The standards are also argued to promote
experimental study. Education standards school accountability whereby schools have
have been argued to serve as guidance for to report their results to the public and receive
improvement purposes, which is the focus the consequences accordingly (Raizen,
of this paper. The argument is that standards 1998; Ravitch, 1995). In this respect, high-
define goals and provide concrete direction stakes testing has been widely developed to
to different stakeholders, such as principals, monitor performance (Hamilton, Stecher,
teachers and administrative assistants to & Yuan, 2008). However, the assessment
provide learning opportunities and improve is more summative, where results are used
outcomes for all students regardless of their mainly for accountability purposes and
background (Dowson, McInerney, & Van not to provide feedback for teachers to
Etten, 2007; Neumann, Fischer, & Kauertz, improve their instruction (Snow-Renner,
2010; Schmidt, Houang, & Shakrani, 2009, 2001). In addition, little is known about the
Stosich, 2016, Volante, 2012). Agreement results. Several existing studies, which are
on a shared set of specific, clearer and dominated by those in the United States,
higher goals and ways to accomplish them have identified a large variation among
is found to improve organisational capacity different states despite some progress
and to have better planning and actions (Hanushek, Peterson, & Woessmann, 2012)
(Kawamato & Greenes, 2014). In this way, and performance gaps among different states
both excellence and equity are argued to be and between the white and black students
simultaneously addressed. . (e.g. Dowson et al., 2007; Hanushek et al.,
For teachers, education standards 2012; US Department of Education, 2008,
provide direction by setting clear indication 2015).
on what students should learn and be Indonesia, as the focus of the study, has
able to do (Choi, de Vries, & Kim, 2009; a history of low student achievement in both
Dowson, et al., 2007; Marzano & Kendall, national and international measurements
1996; National Research Council [NRC], (Jazadi, 2003; Kompas, 2010; Mohandas,
2001; Neumann et al. 2010; Ravitch, 2004; Nurweni & Read, 1999; Setiogi, 2003;
1995; Schmoker & Marzano, 1999). In this Tilaar, 1992). Following the movement of
case, teachers are required to deepen their education standards in other countries, the
knowledge and skills related to their subject Indonesian government established formal
matter and incorporate various teaching education standards to improve education
strategies to meet different needs of different in 2005. Schools are expected to start
students, which in turn are expected to implementing them seven years afterwards
improve learning outcomes for all students at the latest (Pemerintah Indonesia, 2005). To
The Impact of English TPD Programs on Teaching Quality in Indonesia
date, as in other countries, few experimental expectations, curriculum quality/opportunity

studies have been conducted to examine the to learn, school climate, classroom
effectiveness of the standards. Referring climate, effective learning time/classroom
also the findings in the US, thus, not much management, structured instruction, and
could be learnt from the standard movement; frequent evaluation are found to be strongly
there are, indeed, missing gaps that need to related to student outcome (Azigwe, 2016;
be fulfilled. Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008; Creemers
Two problems may contribute to the & Reezigt, 1996; Ehren, 2015; Muijs &
ineffectiveness of the standards. Firstly, Reynolds, 2000, 2011; Reynolds et al.,
research has found that standard documents 2014).
have been largely written in a broad and Another important finding of EER is the
global language (e.g. Choi, de Vries, & fact that teacher or classroom factors, which
Kim, 2009; Dowson et al. 2007; Hammer, in some studies are referred to as teacher
1998) and have been criticised for being instructional roles, have been found to be
vague and nebulous and having insufficient superior compared to factors at other levels
grounding in their content (Gandal, 1996; (e.g. Creemers, 1994, Darling-Hammond,
Finn, Petrili, & Vanourek, 1998). The 1997; Doolaard, 1999; Goldhaber, 2015;
standards usually consist of lists of topics Harris & Muijs, 2005; Luyten & Snijders,
and there is lack of explicit guidance for 1996; Marzano, 2007; Scheerens, 2013; Van
teachers about instructional strategies (Hill, Der Werf, Creemers, De Jong, & Klaver,
2001). Secondly, teachers face problems 2000).
dealing with the standards (Gandal, 1996; There have been models of EER
Hammer, 1998; NRC, 2001, Stosich, 2016), developed by researchers in the field, one of
which clearly implies that teachers are not which is the dynamic model of educational
provided with appropriate assistance. effectiveness research (Creemers &
On the other hand, educational Kyriakides, 2008).
effectiveness research (EER) has provided As described in Figure 1, it has four
empirical evidence on factors related to levels, that are, context/national policy
student performance, which are useful to level, school level, teacher/classroom level,
guide educational improvement and to and student level. The model emphasises
prioritise actions. There have been different the teacher/classroom level and expects the
lists of factors situated at different levels, above levels, namely context and school
namely context/system, school, classroom/ levels to provide necessary conditions for
teacher and student levels. However, the effectiveness of the classroom level.
findings suggest a consensus that high
Scheerens, 2013; Van Der Werf, Creemers, De Jong, & Klaver, 2000).
There have been models of EER developed by researchers in the field, one of which is
the dynamic model of educational effectiveness research (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008).
As described in Figure 1, it has four levels, that is, context/national policy level, school level,
teacher/classroom level, and student level. The model emphasises the teacher/classroom level
and expects the above levels, namely context and school levels to provide necessary conditions
for effectiveness of the classroom level.
CONTEXT/SYSTEM
LEVEL
- National/regional policy for
education
- Evaluation of Policy
- The Educational Environment
SCHOOL LEVEL
- School Policy and Actions
(on teaching and
providing/improving School
Learning Environment)
- Evaluation of school policy
CLASSROOM LEVEL
- - Orientation Outcomes:
- - Structuring - Cognitive
- - Modeling - Affective
- - Application - Psychomotor
- - Questioning - New Learning
- - Assessment
- - Management of time
- - Classroom as a learning
- environment
-
STUDENT LEVEL
- Aptitude - SES - Expectation
- Perseverance - Gender - Thinking style
- Time on Task - Ethnicity - Subject
- Opportunity - Personality traits - motivation to
learn
Figure 1. The
Figure dynamic
1. The model
Dynamic of Educational
Model Effectiveness
of Educational EffectivenessResearch
Research(Creemers
(Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008)
& Kyriakides,
2008)
6
Responding to the criticism that existing happen in different periods and therefore
effectiveness models do not explicitly refer the dimension of stage looks at the period
to the measurement of each effectiveness at which the activities take place. Quality
factor, the model proposes five dimensions looks at the properties of the activities or
to measure the effectiveness of factors in whether they are supported by literature
each level. Creemers and Kyriakides (2008) or whether students understand and can
argue that the dimensions could provide a follow the activities. Finally, differentiation
better picture of effectiveness enhancing is concerned with the diversity of students
factors and hence, more specific strategies and teacher actions to help all students have
for improving educational practice could be the opportunity to learn.
established. These dimensions are frequency, With respect to the classroom level of
focus, stage, quality and differentiation. the model, which is the main concern of
Frequency refers to the quantity of activities the model and also this paper, Creemers
associated with effectiveness factors, and Kyriakides (2008) refer to observable
whereas focus is dealing with the specificity teacher instructional roles and relate them to
of the activity in relation with the goals student outcomes. These factors include: (1)
of the activity. Effectiveness factors can orientation; (2) structuring; (3) questioning;
(4) teaching modelling; (5) application; (6) Taking both the arguments of education
management of time; (7) teacher role in standards and the empirical findings of EER
making classroom a learning environment; in serving frameworks to improve teacher
and (8) classroom assessment. Table 1 quality, this paper attempts to compare two
describes the main elements of each factor. approaches: the use of standards and the
An experimental study by Antoniou (2009) use of standards combined with a teacher
using classroom factors of the dynamic development program. However, as the case
model found an increase of teaching quality in other countries, the Indonesian education
and student performance and therefore, the standards have been written in broad and
model is adopted in this paper. general language. Therefore, this paper
In summary, the standards serve as proposes an elaborated standards document
guidance in setting educational goals and for English in junior high schools as the
expectations, whereas the results of EER context of the study, which is intended to
provide empirically validated principles on further explain the competencies mentioned
what to prioritise in the teacher development in the standards.
program in order to achieve the goals.
Table 1
The main elements of each teacher factor included in the dynamic model (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008)
1) Orientation a) Providing the objectives/goals for which a specific task/

lesson/series of lessons take(s) place
b) Challenging students to identify the reason for which an
activity takes place in the lesson
2) Structuring a) Beginning with overviews and/or review of objectives
b) Outlining the content to be covered and signalling
transitions between lesson parts
c) Calling attention and reviewing main ideas
3) Questioning a) Raising different types of questions (i.e. process and
product) at appropriate difficulty level
b) Giving time to students to respond
c) Dealing with student responses
4) Teaching modelling a) Encouraging students to use problem solving strategies
presented by the teacher or other classmates
b) Inviting students develop strategies
c) Promoting the idea of modelling
5) Application a) Using seatwork or small group tasks in order to provide the
necessary practice and application opportunities
b) Using application tasks as starting point for the next step of
teaching and learning
Table 1 (continue)
6) The classroom as a learning a) Establishing on task behaviour through the interactions

environment they promote (i.e. teacher-student and student-student
interactions)
b) Dealing with classroom disorder and student competition
by establishing rules, persuading students to respect them
and using the rules
7) Management of time a) Organising the classroom environment and maximising
engagement rates
8) Assessment a) Using appropriate techniques to collect data on student
knowledge and skills
b) Analysing data in order to identify student needs and report
the results to students and parents
c) Evaluating teachers’ own practices.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND EER, especially the classroom factors of the

HYPOTHESES dynamic model of educational effectiveness
This paper raises the following two research research, was used to design the TPD.
questions: Two intervention groups were set up. The
1. Do the (elaborated) standards only first group worked with the elaborated
improve teachers’ teaching quality? standards while the second group combined
the elaborated standards document with a
2. Does the combination of the (elaborated)
teacher improvement program.
standards and a teacher professional
development program (TPD) improve
METHODS
teachers’ teaching quality more?
Research Design
In line with these questions, two hypotheses The study was an experimental study in
are examined: which two interventions were deliberately
H1: teaching quality will be better when introduced to observe their effects (Field,
the education standards are further 2009). The participants voluntarily
elaborated. participated, and as described in Table 2,
H2: teaching quality will be much better were randomly assigned into three groups.
when the elaborated standards
document is combined with a TPD.
Table 2
The groups and the intervention
Group Intervention
1. Experimental 1 The elaborated standards document; the teachers were free to develop their
own strategies in implementing and achieving the standards
2. Experimental 2 The elaborated standards document and a teacher development program
(teacher training)
3. Control group No intervention, teachers used the standard document available from the
government
Participants of school is urgently required. English,

The population of the study was a private especially reading comprehension, was
Madrasah Tsanawiyah in the provinces selected since English is one of the subjects
of DKI and Banten. Indonesia has a dual tested nationally through the national exam
schooling system: general school, which is and students’ attainment on this subject has
managed and supervised by the Ministry of been the lowest throughout the years (Badan
National Education (MONE) and madrasah, Standar Nasional Pendidikan, 2010).
which is under the authority of the Ministry Sampling was carried out at the school
of Religious Affairs (MORA). Students level, yet the focus of this study was on the
in madrasah follow the same national teacher and student levels. In each of the two
curriculum complied with by those in provinces three municipalities or districts
general schools but they have additional with the highest number of madrasahs were
subjects for religions and therefore, have selected. Another criterion concerned school
longer hours of schooling (Departemen size; schools with enrolment of above 100
Pendidikan Nasional, 2003). This study students were selected. Information on the
was specifically conducted for Madrasah research project and invitation to participate
Tsanawiyah, a junior secondary school was sent to more than 200 schools in the
level (12 to 13, 15 to 16 years old) due selected areas. Until the deadline, 57
to several considerations. Most madrasah schools (32% accredited A, 68% accredited
schools are private, small, and attended B), with a total of 59 teachers (M = 44%,
by students from low income families and F = 56%) and 2,431 students (M = 48, 5%,
generally are of lower quality compared F = 51, 5%) volunteered to participate. In
to general schools (Asian Development this paper, referring to the analysis, which
Bank, 2006, Centre for Excellency and requires the participants to participate in
Quality Development Assurance [CEQDA], both measurements, only 45 teachers and
2007). Therefore, improvement in this type 1255 students are retained.
Some background characteristics at both Table 4

The background characteristics of students
teacher and student levels were collected
according to group
in this study. At the teacher level, the
characteristics included gender, teachers’ Characteristic Distribution (%)
Exp 1 Exp 2 Cont
qualification, , years of teaching experience,
Student gender
and age while those at the student level
1. Female 50 55 52
consisted of gender, fathers’ and mothers’
2. Male 50 45 48
education and fathers’ and mothers’ jobs. Father's education
These characteristics are displayed in Table 1. Primary 22 13 24
3 and 4 respectively, which generally show 2. JSS 24 23 25
no significant differences among the three 3. SSS 33 39 26
groups. 4. University 6 10 4
Missing 15 16 21
Mother's education
Table 3
1. Primary 32 19 35
The background characteristics of teachers
according to group 2. JSS 23 27 19
3. SSS 26 28 20
Characteristic Distribution (%) 4. University 4 7 4
Exp 1 Exp 2 Cont Missing 16 18 22
Teacher gender Father's Job
1. Female 50 74 47 1. Labour and Farmer 32 26 38
2. Male 50 26 53 2. Small business 40 34 38
Teacher degree 3. Professional 17 25 10
1. Diploma 13 21 18 Missing 12 15 14
2. Bachelor 81 74 77 Mother's Job
3. Master 6 5 6 1. Housewife 82 72 75
Teacher major 2. Labour and Farmer 2 3 4
1. English 75 84 82 3. Small business 6 6 6
2. Non-English 19 11 18 4. Professional 5 11 4
3. Missing/unknown 6 5 0 Missing 5 9 11
Teacher age Note: Exp 1 refers to the experimental group one,
1. <= 30 years 50 47 47 Exp 2 to experimental group 2, and Cont to the
2. 31 - 40 years 25 42 18 control group
3. 41 -5 0 years 25 11 29
4. Missing/unknown 6
Research Instrument
Teaching experience
1. <= 5 years 44 42 31 The main variable in this study is teaching
2. 6 - 10 years 31 32 31 quality, which was measured through
3. > 10 years 25 26 38 classroom observation by independent
Note: Exp 1 refers to experimental group 1, Exp 2 to observers and a student questionnaire.
experimental group 2, and Cont to the control group
This paper specifically reports the results
of the student questionnaire, which was Interventions in the Study

distributed two times (mid and end points) Prior to the study, an analysis of the
and constructed based on the classroom Indonesian government standards (of
factors of the dynamic model (Creemers content) of English (reading comprehension)
& Kyriakides, 2008). The students filled was carried out to analyse the clarity of the
in the questionnaire merely based on their terms. It revealed that they were broad and
perception since there was no training for general, and therefore, elaborated standards
them on how to fill in the questionnaire nor were developed to make them more
any interview to confirm their perception. concrete and specific. Both experimental
They rated their teachers twice, in the groups attended a workshop to discuss the
middle and end of intervention Due to document. The activities included discussion
technical problems, students were unable to on specific reading skills, analysis of the
rate their teachers prior to the intervention. government standards to get an agreement
However, based on the data of the observer, on the proposed elaborated standards, and
no difference in teaching quality (F {2, 49} analysis and development of questions/tasks
= .554, p = .578) was observed among the in accordance with the elaborated standards.
three groups. Teachers in experimental group 1 were
During the pilot study (> 300 students), free to choose strategies to implement the
40 items representing the classroom factors elaborated standards.
of the dynamic model were included Teachers in experimental group 2
and questions were based on a five-point were further assisted in a TPD program.
unidirectional scale ranging from “never” In addition to the elaborated standards
to “a great deal”. In the exploratory factor document, another document on effective
analysis, four scales (32 items, α ranged teaching based on the classroom factors
from .71 to .85) were resulted and retained in of the dynamic model was developed for
the present study. These include orientation, experimental group 2. The TPD consisted
instruction (the items refer to structuring, of six meetings and the sessions were a
modelling, and application), questioning, combination of brainstorming, lecture,
and creating classroom as a learning discussion, and group work in which they
environment (CLE). In both measurements presented the result. The topics were: (1)
in the present study, the (α) reliability was building student interest and motivation
equal or above .80 except CLE in the second through orientation and structuring; (2)
measurement (.71). In all measures, several teaching strategies [modelling] and the
items were reversed to assure that all items development of tasks [application] and
go in the same direction. questioning (for skills/competencies under
“understanding meaning”); (3) teaching model to understand the variance at the

strategies [modelling] and the development student and school levels. The next step
of tasks [application] and questioning (for added the result of measurement one to see
skills/competencies under “responding its effect. The third step included not only
meaning”); (4) developing lesson plan 1 the result of measurement one but also the
(theoretical); (5) developing lesson plan 2 second intervention (experimental group
(practical); and (6) peer teaching. In the two) as the predictors and regarded the first
visit during the observation, feedback was intervention (experimental group one) and
provided by the observer to teachers in the control group as the control group to
experimental group 2. examine the effect of the second intervention
on the outcome variables. However, in this
Data Analysis model it is not known whether the first
intervention contributed to the outcome
The data were analysed both descriptively
variables. Finally, the last model compared
and statistically. The descriptive analysis
the effects of both interventions.
refers to the mean score of each group in
the four outcome variables (orientation,
RESULTS
instruction, questioning, and CLE). These
mean scores of each scale were computed Descriptive: General Picture of
and analysed using multilevel modelling Teaching Quality
(using MLwiN; Rasbash, Charlton, Browne, The descriptive finding presents the mean
Healy, & Cameron, 2005) to investigate score of each group in all four outcome
the effects of the interventions. The data variables in both measurement one and
were nested in three levels: student (level two in order to provide general picture
1), school (level 2), and group (level 3) of teaching quality. In general, students
in which two levels were included and perceived good teaching quality of their
group (indicating intervention) was used teachers in both measurement 1 and 2.
as predictors. The first step was an empty
Table 5
Descriptive statistics
Outcome Variable/Group Measurement 1 Measurement 2

N Mean SD N Mean SD
CLE
Experimental Group 1 422 3.22 .56 426 3.31 .57
Control Group 333 3.16 .50 334 3.18 .64
Excluded 9 1
Total 1255 3.24 .55 1254 3.32 .60
Table 5 (continue)
Outcome Variable/Group Measurement 1 Measurement 2

N Mean SD N Mean SD
Instruction
Control Group 328 3.17 .62 335 3.26 .81
Excluded 15 2
Total 1240 3.21 .63 1253 3.35 .72
Questioning
Control Group 335 3.96 .54 335 3.22 .78
Excluded 5 0
Total 1250 3.40 .60 1255 3.78 .726
Orientation
Experimental Group 1 425 3.44 .72 426 3.43 1.03
Control Group 334 3.47 .70 335 3.33 .88
Excluded 2 0
Total 1253 3.47 .74 1255 3.40 5.93
Table 5 indicates that students in all groups .578, was found in the data from independent
started to rate their teacher high (above 3 observers collected at the beginning of the
from 1-5 scales) in measurement one. In intervention.
all the four outcome variables, teachers in Compared to the first measurement,
experimental group 2 were rated higher students in experimental group 1 and
than those in the other two groups except 2 rated their teachers higher in all four
questioning, which was rated higher by variables in the second measurement, that
the control group. Similarly, the standard is, there was a gain from the first to the
deviation is also highest in experimental second measurement. On the other hand, the
group 2, indicating more variance of teaching control group had a decrease in questioning
quality in the group. It is important to note and orientation. Teachers in experimental
that the data in this measurement were group 2 were again rated higher than
collected in the middle of the intervention. the other two groups, but this time in all
Due to some problems, the data at the variables. Overall, there was an increase in
beginning of the intervention could not be all four variables from measurement one to
collected. However, as previously noted, no measurement two, except orientation, from
significant difference, F (2, 49) = .554, p = 3.47 in the first measurement to 3.40 in the
second one. In short, the above descriptive student than at school level, as is common
statistics showed changes and variation of in this type of study. In order to have a better
teaching quality as perceived by students, estimate of the effect of the interventions,
whose effects were further investigated the subsequent analysis determined the
through multilevel modelling analysis. results of the first measurement. Model 1
indicates that the first measurement in all
The Result of Multilevel Modelling variables has significant effect (p < .01)
Analysis: The Effect of Interventions and is positively related to the results of the
second measurement. Thus, students who
As depicted in Table 6, four models were
rated high in the first measurement also
tested, whose results also showed variance
rated their teachers high in the second one.
at both student and school levels in all
The last model clearly shows that the first
variables. The empty model shows that the
intervention has significant effects on two
differences in all variables are bigger at the
variables: CLE and questioning.
Table 6
The results of multilevel analysis explaining variation of teaching quality and the effects of interventions
Empty Model Model 1 (+ Model 2 (+ Model 3 (+ both

measurement 1) intervention 2) interventions)
Creating Classroom as a Learning Environment
Fixed Part
Constant 3.31 (.03) 2.54 (.10) 2.50 (.10) 2.43 (.10)
CLE (measure 1) .24 (.03) *** .23 (.03) *** .23 (.03)
Intervention 1 (group 1) .13 (.06)**
Intervention 2 ( group 2) .14 (.05) ** .21 (.05)***
Random Part
School level .03 (.01) .02 (.01) .01 (.00) .01 (.00)
Student level .34 (.01) .33 (.01) .33 (.01) .33 (.01)
Deviance 2.244.363 2.175.734 2.168.675 2.163.489
Decrease in deviance 68.629 7.059 5.186
Variance explained .052 .017 .009
Total variance explained .068
Instruction
Fixed Part
Constant 3.35(.03) 2.60 (.11) 2.66 (.11) 2.61 (.12)
Instruction (measure 1) .20 (.03) *** .22 (.03)*** .20 (.03)***
Intervention 1 ( group 1) .10 (.07)
Intervention 2 ( group 2) .08 (.06) .13 (.07)*
Table 6 (continue)
Empty Model Model 1 (+ Model 2 (+ Model 3 (+ both

measurement 1) intervention 2) interventions)
Random Part
School level .02 (.01) .02 (.01) .02 (.01) .02 (.02)
Student level .50 (.02) .49 (.02) .49 (.02) .49 (.02)
Deviance 2.730.265 2.666.475 2.664.750 2.662.902
Decrease in deviance 63.790 1.725 1.848
Variance explained .028 .004 .004
Total variance explained .032
Questioning
Fixed Part
Constant 3.36 (.03) 2.60 (.01) 2.55 (.12) 2.44 (.12)
Questioning (measure 1) .22 (.03) *** .22 (.03)*** .22 (.03)***
Intervention 1 ( group 1) .19 (.07)**
Intervention 2 ( group 2) .12 (.06) ** .22 (.07)***
Random Part
School level .03 (.01) .03 (.01) .02 (.01) .02 (.01)
Student level .49 (.02) .48 (.02) .48 (.02) .48 (.02)
Deviance 2.723.683 2.670.920 2.667.196 2.660.980
Decrease in deviance 52.763 3. 724 6.216
Variance explained .038 0.008 0.012
Total variance explained 0.045
Orientation
Fixed Part
Constant 3.44 (.04) 2.92 (.13) 2.863 (.13) 2.82 (.14)
Orientation (measure 1) .15 (.04) *** .15 (.04)*** .15 (.04)***
Intervention 1 (group 1) .08 (.10)
Intervention 2 (group 2) .15 (.08) ** .20 (.09)***
Random Part
School level .04 (.02) .04 (.01) .03 (.01) .03 (.01)
Student level .82 (.03) .81 (.03) .81 (.03) .81 (.03)
Deviance 3.358.162 3.322.524 3.318.744 3.318.016
Decrease in deviance 35.638 3.780 .728
Variance explained 0.027 0.007 0.001
Total variance explained 0.034
*** p < .01; ** p < .05; * p < .10
Model 2 demonstrates that experimental as perceived by students. Generally, students

group 2 has significant effect in all variables reported high ratings in all four variables,
at p < .05, compared to other groups, which suggest that Indonesian teachers are
except instruction. On this variable, the considered to have relatively good teaching
effect is significant only at p < .10 (one quality, as perceived by their students.
tailed). However, Model 3 gives a better However, this finding is contradictory
estimate: it is significant at p = .058. In to previous studies. Using classroom
addition, it is interesting to highlight that observation, Utomo (2005) described that
the second intervention explains nearly in general, classrooms were characterised
2% of the variance in building classroom by a didactic, whole-class style of teaching.
as a learning environment as indicated He, further explained that teachers paid little
in Model 2. However, with respect to attention to children’s needs as individual
instruction, Model 2 shows that it explains learners and little recognition that children
almost nothing (.004) and the effect is less enter school with ideas, opinions and
significant (p < .10, 1 tailed). Nevertheless, conceptions about their world. Similarly,
the variance at the student level in this Kaluge, Setiasih, and Tjahjono (2004)
model remains the same as that in Model indicated that teachers in general are unable
1, indicating that the variance is due to the to create active, joyful and effective learning
differences at the school level, and thus the environment.
intervention plays a role. Moreover, Model This finding could be influenced by the
3 provides supporting information that the Indonesian culture in which the teaching
second intervention has significant effect at profession is normally regarded as a high
p = .058. and respected occupation and therefore,
Overall, the findings, especially as teachers benefit from being respected by
described by the estimates in Model 3, students and society in general (Maulana,
clearly suggest that both interventions Opdenakker, Den Brok, & Bosker, 2011).
have effect but the second one has larger Nevertheless, it is important to note that this
effects, not only in terms of the coefficient study found significant effects of the second
but also in the aspects. Concerning the intervention, which is the main concern in
aspects, experimental group 2 is proven to the study, in all variables. Thus, teachers in
have significant effects in all four outcome experimental group 2 were perceived to have
variables, whereas in experimental group better performance by their students after
1, there were significant effects in only two one school year of intervention compared
variables, namely, CLE and questioning. to teachers in the other two groups.
Furthermore, it is also crucial to show
DISCUSSION that the study found significant effects
The study examined the impact of two (p < .05) of the first intervention on two
approaches of improving teaching quality variables: building classroom as a learning
environment and questioning. However, a in instruction. This finding suggests

bigger effect size of the second approach that teachers may even forget to briefly
could be inferred from its larger estimates explain the series of activities students
compared to the first one. Therefore, the will carry out and have more difficulties in
hypothesis built in this paper is satisfied. presenting strategies or models of learning,
The use of clear and concrete education and providing appropriate and enough
standards lead to better teaching quality application activities for their students. This
compared to the general and broad education result is not surprising as previous studies
standards and the use of standards combined indicated similar findings, for instance,
with teacher development program prove teachers are text-book oriented (Utomo,
to outperform the other approaches in 2005), whereas some (English) text-books
improving teaching quality. have been criticised for not enabling learners
It is also interesting to explore further to achieve the goals of using the language
the effects of both interventions on different and not providing further explanation on
variables. Concerning building classroom why and for what purposes students should
as a learning environment, the second do the exercises (Priyanto, 2009). It is also
intervention has significant effect at p = .000 possible that instruction contains more
and explains 2% of the existing variance, difficult teaching skills.
which is relatively high considering the fact With respect to questioning, the results
that school level normally explains around indicate that teachers in both experimental
10% with many variables. In this variable, groups have managed to raise various
the first intervention has a significant questions with more or even better hints
effect at p = .002. Nevertheless, this result and feedback to their students as both
shows that teachers in both interventions interventions have significant effect (p
have improved their skills, for instance, in < .01 for the second intervention and p
building interactions among the members of <.05 for the first one). Finally, the second
the class and managing classroom disorder. intervention has significant effect on
On the other hand, the results described orientation (p < .01, model 2 and 3) but the
in Table 6 indicate that even teachers in first intervention does not. As previously
experimental group 2, to some extent, face mentioned, orientation is a very important
difficulties to provide proper instruction to aspect because effective teachers have been
students. Model 2 explains that the effect found to provide orientation activities to
of the second intervention is less significant encourage students’ motivation to learn,
(p = .10, 1 tailed and .058 in Model 2 and and this study has shown that the second
3, respectively) compared to its effect in the intervention has succeeded in improving
other variables. Likewise, Model 3, which teaching skills in this aspect.
is considered as the best model, finds no F i n a l l y, t h e t e a c h i n g q u a l i t y
significant effect of the first intervention improvement shown in this study supports
previous studies such as by Avalos (2011) driven and evidence-based principles on

and Antoniou and Kyriakides (2013). the aspects and strategies of improving
Reviewing publications in the journal, teaching quality. Theoretically, the study
Teaching and Teacher Education over ten provides empirical evidence on the necessity
years (2000 – 2011), Avalos concludes of teacher development program next to the
that when teachers participate in teacher education standards and provides ground for
development programs, improvement further development of the dynamic model,
in teachers’ knowledge and practice is especially concerning the use of standards.
observed. Similarly, the study of Antoniou Nevertheless, this study should also be
and Kyriakides show links between teacher considered from the perspective of some
professional development and improvement limitations. Firstly, this study was limited
in teaching skill. only to one type of schooling in Indonesia
and one subject, of which results might
CONCLUSION not be generalisable to other contexts.
This study compared two approaches of Secondly, a previous study (Antoniou, 2009)
improving English teachers’ teaching revealed that teaching skills in the dynamic
quality. The first was the use of elaborated model could be classified into five stages,
education standards and the second was progressing from the easier to more difficult.
the use of elaborated education standards When teachers are found in stage one, they
combined with a teacher development are able to concentrate their improvement in
program, where the classroom factors skills in the second stage. Due to inevitable
of the dynamic model was used as the reasons, this study did not incorporate these
framework in designing the program. The stages. When these stages are included in a
findings of this study suggest two important follow-up study, it is possible to see more
conclusions. Firstly, education standards comprehensive results.
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Orang Asli Student Icons: An Innovative Teaching Method for

Orang Asli Students
Rohaida Nordin1*, Muhamad Sayuti bin Hassan @ Yahya2 and
Ibrahim Danjuma1,3
1
Faculty of Law, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 UPSI, Tanjong Malim, Perak,
Malaysia
3
Faculty of Law, Misau Campus, Bauchi State University Gadau, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
To enhance learning among the Orang Asli, the Faculty of Law of the National University
of Malaysia, popularly known as Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), organised a
motivational programme for Orang Asli students in November, 2014. The programme
was facilitated by Orang Asli Student Icons, 12 Orang Asli students representing various
faculties in UKM. This article discusses the role of the Orang Asli Student Icons in
strengthening the level of awareness and motivation among the participants. To gather their
insight into their role as facilitator in transferring knowledge and ideas to fellow Orang
Asli students, a questionnaire was developed and administered following the motivational
programme. In addition to the introduction and conclusion, this article covers four main
areas. First, it discusses challenges and barriers within the Orang Asli education system.
This is followed by an in-depth description of the motivational programme that was carried
out. Third, a demographic analysis of the Orang Asli Student Icons is done. The final section
of the ariticle presents the findings and analysis of the Orang Asli Student Icons’ perception
of their role in knowledge transfer towards motivating and increasing awareness among
Orang Asli students. This article concludes that the Orang Asli Student Icons have played
a significant role in addressing all challenges
and barriers within the Orang Asli education
system. This conclusion is supported by
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: the positive feedback received from the
Received: 01 October 2016
Accepted: 03 January 2018 participants and post-event statistics on
E-mail addresses: student dropout among the participants
[email protected] (Rohaida Nordin), involved in the programme.
[email protected] (Muhamad Sayuti bin Hassan @ Yahya),
[email protected] (Ibrahim Danjuma)
*Corresponding author Keywords: Indigenous teachers, learning challenges,
Malaysia, roles, Orang Asli, student icons
Rohaida Nordin, Muhamad Sayuti bin Hassan @ Yahya and Ibrahim Danjuma
INTRODUCTION After gaining independence in 1957,

‘Orang Asli’ is a Malay term which translates the government of Malaysia adopted
to mean ‘original people’ or ‘first people’. aggressive measures to improve the life
The Orang Asli are the descendants of the and conditions of its citizenry (Abdullah,
first inhabitants of Peninsular Malaysia Mamat, Amirzal, & Ibrahim, 2013, p. 118).
5,000 years ago (Masron, Masami & Abdullah et al. (2013, p.118) stated that
Ismail, 2013, p. 77). According to Masron the programmes initiated, improved and
et al. (2013, p. 77), the term was introduced influenced the lifestyle of the populace
by anthropologists and administrators to in general. However, despite all these
identify the 18 sub-ethnic groups, generally measures, the development of education
classified for official purposes, comprising among the Orang Asli communities has
the Negrito, Senoi and Proto-Malay. yet to achieve the expected results. After
Nevertheless, the Orang Asli are not a examining the performance of primary
homogeneous group, as each sub-group has and secondary school Orang Asli students,
its own language and culture and perceives it was observed that Orang Asli students
itself as being different from the others remained far behind compared with students
(Masron et al., 2013, p.77; JAKOA, 2011- from other ethnic backgrounds in Malaysia.
2015; Musa, 2011, p. 48). Linguistically, The Malaysian government launched an
some of the northern Orang Asli groups initiative, the National Key Results Area
(especially the Senoi and Negrito) speak (NKRA) in 2009 with the intention of
languages that are presently termed as providing all students with basic writing and
Aslian languages, suggesting a historical reading skills by the year 2012 (Abdullah
link between Orang Asli groups and the et al., 2013, p. 119). Other programmes
indigenous peoples of Burma, Thailand and introduced by the Malaysian Government
Indo-China (Masron et al., 2013, p.77). included the Educational Development
According to a JAKOA report (2010), Action Plan for the Orang Asli Community,
the population of Orang Asli is about the Mini Hostels Programme, the Education
178,197, representing approximately 0.6% Assistance Scheme of 2010, the Special
of the total Malaysian population (Kardooni, Awareness Programme for the Parents
Kari, & Yusup, 2014, p. 283). Most Orang of Orang Asli Students and the Friendly
Asli live in rural and remote areas. Thus, they Teaching Programme (JAKOA, 2011).
are frequently excluded from mainstream Accordingly, the Ministry of Education
development (Nordin & Witbrodt, 2012, p. proposed a unique curriculum for Orang
210; Nordin, Yahya, & Witbrodt, 2012, p. Asli by establishing and developing a
528). Due to their geographical location, the suitable syllabus such as the Curriculum
Orang Asli do not have access to favourable for Orang Asli and Penan (KAP) and the
infrastructure or quality education (Laporan Comprehensive Special Model School
Status, 2010). Programme (K9) in selected Orang Asli
Orang Asli Student Icons: An Innovative Teaching Method
schools (Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan understanding of the language, the culture

Malaysia 2013-2025). and present way of life of the Orang Asli.
Notwithstanding the efforts made by Also, these factors could be noted as having
the Malaysian Government, the standard a much greater impact than those for non-
of education of the Orang Asli has not been Orang Asli. The Student Icons adopted the
fruitful. It is recognised that there remains role of facilitator in various teachings and
a high number of dropouts from both learning activities throughout the course of
primary and secondary schools, coupled the programme and developed friendships
with all-round poor academic performance. with the participants. This helped the
It was further noted that only 880 Orang participants to feel comfortable and to
Asli students had completed their tertiary cooperate in all the activities. Furthermore,
education between 1971 and 2010 (Abdullah the Student Icons also acted as translators
et al., 2013, p. 119). for the Orang Asli participants when the
The Research Group on Indigenous message communicated by the teachers
Peoples, Faculty of Law, UKM conducted was unambiguous or unclear. The Student
a motivational programme entitled ‘Moh Icons, therefore, played a significant
Hek Masuk U’ for Orang Asli students from role as mediator, facilitating effective
Raub, Pahang from the 14 to 16 November, communication between the organisers,
2014. This motivational programme was teachers and participants of the programme.
carried out as part of the Research Group’s This article discusses and outlines the
effort to assist the Orang Asli community significant role of the Student Icons and
in Raub. A total of 70 Orang Asli students the overall programme by sharing their
travelled to UKM for the duration of the experience and transfer of knowledge.
programme. The students were from SMK
Tengku Kudin (40 students) and SK Satak LITERATURE REVIEW
in Raub (30 students). The Research Group As highlighted in the introduction, despite
worked with the Department of Orang the efforts of the Malaysian Government
Asli (JAKOA) and the Human Rights in improving the standard and level of
Commission of Malaysia (SUHAKAM) on education among the Orang Asli, issues
this project. remain which bedevil the success of these
The Research Group obtained the list efforts. Many scholars have examined these
of Orang Asli students in UKM from the issues and provided recommendations.
Department of Student Services (JPPel), The following paragraphs discuss the
and 12 Orang Asli students accepted their issues and recommendations proposed to
appointment as Student Icons for the mitigate potential barriers that will enable a
motivational programme. The appointments successful initiative to improve the standard
were created and endorsed by the Orang and level of Orang Asli education.
Asli student community owing to their
It is important to mention that In other words, most teachers within the

most scholars identify communication Orang Asli communities are not able to
as being one of the main criteria for a effectively communicate in any of the Orang
successful teaching and learning process. Asli languages such as Temiar. Furthermore,
Educationalists agree that the teaching most teachers have little knowledge of
and learning process encompasses positive the customs and culture of the Orang Asli
communication between both students and community that could potentially play a vital
teachers and is not merely a one-way flow role in improving the standard of education
of knowledge from teachers to students in the area.
(Abdullah et al., 2013, p.122). It contains Nor, Roslan, Mohamed, Hassan, Ali
interaction between teachers and students and Manaf (2011, p. 45), reported poor
and effective interaction with teaching academic performance among Orang Asli
tools and methods used to attain definite students in both the Primary Achievement
Orang Asli contact (Haron & Boon, 1985). Test results and at the Secondary Certificate
Abdullah et al. (2013), in the study entitled level. The situation could be attributed to
“Teaching and Learning Problems of Orang the inability of the Orang Asli students to
Asli Education”, pointed out that there are follow or understand the lessons. This may
many factors responsible for the educational also be attributed to the lessons being taught
setback of Orang Asli. These include, in the Malay language, inadequate school
among others, the existing language barrier facilities, the educational system itself,
between indigenous Orang Asli children and the curriculum being above their level and
non-indigenous teachers, culture, poverty, teachers who are mostly non-Orang Asli and
the availability of teaching and learning who are not familiar with the socio-cultural
facilities, the influence of dropout friends needs of the Orang Asli (Nor et al., 2011,
and early marriage (Abdullah et al, 2013). p. 52).
The replies received from the Orang Asli Comparable results were observed for
students during the interview process carried a programme initiated by the Department
out by Abdullah et al. (2013) showed that of Orang Asli Affairs (JHEOA), currently
some teachers (non-Orang Asli) within known as JAKOA. Their teaching staff
the Orang Asli community were unable were not adequately trained and therefore
to establish effective communication with possessed little knowledge of the Orang
students during the teaching process. Asli; the Malay teachers (non-Orang Asli)
Furthermore, according to this study, some at the central primary schools had limited
students could not comprehend the lessons knowledge of Orang Asli culture and
delivered by the teachers in the Malay traditions (Asian Indigenous & Tribal
language. This is the medium of instruction Peoples Network, 2008). According to
given that most of the teachers are Malay Adnan and Saad (n. d.), teachers of Orang
and do not speak indigenous languages. Asli students need a certain level of skills and
proficiency in their students’ mother tongues students, the teacher needs to be trained in
to encourage and intensify progressive various techniques and methods due to the
intercultural exchange. language and cultural differences in order to
In a related development, recent enable Orang Asli students to benefit from
research by Wahab, Mustapha and Ahamd the lesson (Renganathan, 2013, p. 150).
(2016, p. 371) revealed that the main A similar problem was also observed
problem associated with the educational in the Indigenous Australian community.
backwardness of the Orang Asli community There is an enormous collection of work and
is poor interaction between the non-Orang evidence that advocates that non-indigenous
Asli teachers and the Orang Asli students. teachers are not accustomed to teaching
This caused poor understanding and indigenous children. Notwithstanding their
apprehension of lessons, leading to signficant sincere intentions and commitment towards
exam failure. Teaching and communicating teaching, Santoro, Reid, Crawford and
in a language that is alien to Orang Asli Simpson (2011, p. 65) opined that most of
students requires careful consideration the teachers had insufficient understanding
regarding planning, application and of suitable pedagogy and the complexities
evaluation, and teachers should be trained of indigenous cultures, character and
in indigenous teaching (Wahab et al., knowledge. Furthermore, there is a severe
2016, p. 371). Wahab et al. (2016, p. lack of knowledge and understanding of
372) recommended that applying native students’ out-of-school living conditions and
languages and cultures of an indigenous lives, the knowledge of which can facilitate
society (in this case, Orang Asli society) or impede the students’ educational success.
in the classroom teaching environment Children are coming to school who have not
would greatly help to obtain good results had enough sleep at night or who have not
in academic education, improve school had breakfast and are potentially hungry
attendance, promote positive behaviour (Santoro et al., 2011, p. 69). As a result,
of the students and reduce the number of the students cannot concentrate in class,
student dropouts. and their teachers who are non-indigenous
Renganathan (2013) highlighted the have no idea why. More so, there are non-
problems that Orang Asli students face indigenous staff in schools and universities
in learning English in schools. He stated whose teaching and course materials for
that while teachers in Malaysian schools their respective subjects are designed
are trained to teach English as a second with little or no input from indigenous
language, most of these teachers find it practitioners (Santoro et al., 2011, p. 73).
problematic to acclimate their teaching To address the problems as highlighted
to accommodate the Orang Asli students’ by Santoro et al. (2011), it is evident that
background and situation. He stressed that there is a need to involve indigenous
to improve learning among Orang Asli teachers in teaching and in the overall
learning process for indigenous people. This improving the teacher-student relationship
is because teachers who have grown up and and continual learning process throughout
completed their schooling as ‘indigenous’ the students’ academic life.
learners speak the same common language
of indigenous students and have a wealth METHOD
of experience and knowledge about the
Demographic Analysis of Orang Asli
pedagogy that is likely to be successful
Student Icon
for indigenous students. They understand
indigenous world views and have first- The Orang Asli Student Icons included three
hand experience of the challenges facing males and nine females as listed in Table 1
indigenous students in mainstream and shown in Figure 1. All 12 Student Icons
schooling systems. It is further suggested were from different sub-ethnic groups; eight
that indigenous teachers can potentially play were Jakun, with one person each from
important roles as educators and mentors to Semelai, Jahut, Kuala and Temuan sub-
non-indigenous teachers and in pre-service ethnics, as shown in Table 2 and Figure 2.
teacher education. Because of the diversity of these sub-ethnic
As the primary outcome from many backgrounds, the Student Icons could use
of the studies conducted in Australia and different approaches in communicating with
Malaysia on the challenges and barriers the Orang Asli participants.
Table 1
faced by the current education system for
indigenous
Genderpeople, several
of Orang opportunities
Asli Student Icons as Table 1
Gender of Orang Asli Student Icons
discussed, exist to enhance the educational
Gender
process for indigenous people (including Number
Gender Number
the Orang Asli). These include involving Male 3
Male 3
indigenous teachers or facilitators as Female 9
Female 9
mentors, role models and educators, thereby
Gender
9
10
3
5
0
Boy Girl
Figure 1. The Orang Asli Student Icons included three males and nine females
Figure 1. The Orang Asli student icons included three males and nine females.
224
Table 2 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 219 - 238 (2018)
Sub-Ethnic of Orang Asli Student Icons
Sub-ethnic Number
Kuala 1
Table 2 participating in the programme to study

Sub-Ethnic of Orang Asli Student Icons
at UKM or any other university of their
Sub-ethnic Number choosing.
Kuala 1
Semelai 1 Table 3
Jakun 8 Faculties of Orang Asli Student Icons
Temuan 1
Faculty Number
Jahut 1
Faculty of Social Science and 3
Humanities (FSSH)
Institute of Environment and 1
Development (Lestari)
Sub-Ethnics Faculty of Economic and 4
Management (FEM)
Jahut Kuala Faculty of Science and Technology 4
Temuan Semelai
(FST)
Jahut 1
Jakun
Faculty
Figure 2. Sub-ethic group distribution
Figure 2. Sub-ethic group distribution. FST FSSH
In addition to the ethnic differences, the

In additionlevel
to the FEM
of ethnic differences,
diversity was apparentthebased
level on
of the
diversity was apparent
LESTARI
differences
sed on the differences in eachinStudent
each Student
Icons’Icons’ respective
respective field of study. As shown
field of study. As shown in Table 3 and
Table 3 and Figure 3, four Student Icons were studying inFigure the 3.Faculty of by faculty
Distribution
Figure 3, four Student Icons were studying in
onomics and Management (FEM),
the Faculty four in the
of Economics andFaculty of Science and Technology
Management
ST), three in the Faculty
(FEM), of Social
four in theSciences
Faculty and Humanities
of Science and (FSSH) and one their
Furthermore, in capability was not
Technology
e Institute for Environment and(FST), three in (Lestari).
Development the Faculty The only in the diversity
of level of diversity of of their areas of
Social Sciences and Humanities (FSSH) specialisation but additionally in the various
eir respective fields of study enhanced the value of the programme, as each
and one in the Institute for Environment levels of their studies. Table 4 and Figure
udent Icon appliedanda high degree of (Lestari).
Development interest inThe
sharing
leveltheir
of experiences
4 show that in twotheof the Student Icons were
ferent fields. Onediversity
of the benefits
of their of the programme
respective studythatpostgraduate
fields of was it enabled thosestudents, while the rest were
enhanced theto value
rticipating in the programme studyofat the
UKMprogramme,
or any other undergraduates.
as university of theirThe difference in their level
each Student Icon applied a high degree of studies assisted them to combine their
oosing.
of interest in sharing their experiences in knowledge and experience in teaching and
the different fields. One of the benefits of learning, in interacting with the Orang Asli
ble 3 the programme was that it enabled those participants.
culties of Orang Asli Student Icons

Number
Faculty
Faculty of Social Science and Humanities (FSSH) 3
Institute of Environment and Development
Table 4
Table 4
StudyofLevels
Study levels Orang of Orang
Student Student Icons
Icons
Study Level Number Study Level Number

Undergraduate 10 Undergraduate 10
Postgraduate 2
Postgraduate 2
Study Level
10
10
8
6
4 2
2
0
Undergraduate Postgraduate
Figure 4. Nature of studies of Orang Asli Student Icons

Figure 4. Nature of studies of Orang Asli student icons.
Objectives enthusiasm among the participants to

Objectives
In consideration of the challenges and enhance their motivation and confidence
In consideration of the challenges and barriers (refer to Section 2), a key outcome
barriers (refer to Section 2), a key outcome in developing themselves through their
of the programme was to confirm the effectiveness of Orang Asli Student Icon and
of the programme was to confirm the studies. This article discusses and outlines
how using
effectiveness of Orang
Orang Asli
Aslistudents
StudentasIconicons the
couldsignificant
enhance therole of the
process of Student
learning Icons
and howamong
usingOrang Asli
Orang students
Asli as itas
students enabled andand
icons easy thequick
overall programme
building of rappotbybetween
sharing their
could students,
enhanceteachers
the process of learning experience.
and facilitators.
among Orang Asli students as it enabled
easy and quick Thebuilding
12 Orang ofAsli Student
rappot Icons were
between appointed to facilitate the teaching
Questionnaire
students,
andteachers
learning and facilitators.
process and to ensure effective and plausible
A survey communication
questionnaire was the
to obtain
The 12 Orang Asli Student Icons were
expertly executed with Orang Asli students.Student
All 12 Orang Asliperception
Icons’ Student Iconsofplayed
their roles
appointed to facilitate the teaching and
a significant role in creating and fosteringwas developed
enthusiasm amongandthedistributed
participantstotothe 12
learning process and to ensure effective Student Icons appointed to participate in
enhance their motivation and confidence in developing themselves through their
and plausible communication was expertly the programme. The questionnaire was
studies. This article discusses and outlines the significant role of the Student Icons
executed with Orang Asli students. All considered the most suitable tool to assess
and the overall programme by sharing their experience.
12 Orang Asli Student Icons played a the perceptions and opinions of the Student
significant role in creating and fostering Icons and the extent of their role in the
13
Orang Asli education programme. The motivation to pursue further studies at

questionnaire comprised six questions: a higher level. The questionnaire was
i. Why did you accept the appointment distributed to participants on the final day
as a Student Icon for the Orang Asli of the programme, 16 November, 2014. The
Students Motivational Programme? methodology that was adopted also provided
relevant information to the participants
ii. What role have you played as a Student
before they answered the survey questions.
Icon in this programme?
This was primarily to ensure that the
iii. How did you play a role in increasing participants fully understood the context and
the motivation of the participants of meaning of the questions before completing
this programme? Give examples, if the survey.
necessary.
iv. How does your role as a Student Icon FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
assist you in improving your soft
Perspective Analysis of Orang Asli
skills and enhancing your existing
Student Icons
knowledge?
As discussed in Section 3, the primary
v. Do you agree that this programme
objective of this article was to examine the
should only involve Orang Asli Student
perception of the Student Icons regarding
Icons as mentors? Why?
their respective roles in facilitating the
vi. Do you agree that Icons who are non- learning process and advancing and
Orang Asli would not be able to play the strengthening education among the Orang
role as effectively as played by Orang Asli participants of the programme. The
Asli Student Icons? Why? results of the survey questionnaire obtained
from the Student Icons are as follows.
Another survey questionnaire was developed
to collect feedback from the participants 1. Why did you accept the appointment
relating to the effectiveness of the overall as a Student Icon for the Orang Asli
programme and whether the programme Students Motivational Programme?
helped to increase their own personal
Table 5
Reason(s) for accepting the appointment by Orang Asli Student Icons
No. Reason No. of Icon

1. Help in advancing Orang Asli education 5
2. Give encouragement and create awareness about education among the Orang Asli 2
3. A sense of responsibility towards the community itself 2
4. Be an example to the Orang Asli community 1
5. Provide service to the community 2
6. Prove the ability of the Orang Asli 1
7. Show pride in being Orang Asli 1
8. Build new friendships 1
9. Improve own soft skills 1
10. Gain new experience 2
11. Help the organisers 1
Table 5 shows 11 reasons why the Student The above response corresponds with the
Icons accepted their appointment, with Abdullah et al. (2013) study, which found
several providing more than one reason. that only 880 Orang Asli students completed
Table 5 shows that most of the Student their tertiary education between 1971 and
Icons accepted the appointment to help 2010. This clearly demonstrates how the
and develop the Orang Asli community in Orang Asli are indeed far behind with
the field of education. Also, they wanted regards to education compared with other
to serve their community and their nation. ethnic groups in Malaysia.
This intention was further evidenced in one The Student Icons accepted the
of the answers provided by a Student Icon: appointment to serve as role models, to
I accepted the appointment as an prove the ability of Orang Asli and to show
Orang Asli Student Icon for this pride in their ethnicity. It was apparent that
programme because I want to help they accepted the appointment to boost
and promote education among Orang confidence among the participants. This role
Asli since we are still far behind in was a tremendous contribution to the benefit
the field of education. This is because of the Orang Asli. Furthermore, as observed
the percentage of students at the in the study by Abdullah et al. (2013), the
undergraduate and postgraduate levels main reason affecting the poor showing
are estimated as being less than 1% of in education among the Orang Asli is the
the total population of the Orang Asli influence of student dropouts; the students
community in Malaysia. Hence, our who drop out influence those still in school
responsibility as Student Icons is to help to do the same. Therefore, it is evident that
our community regarding education. having Orang Asli educators and facilitators
involved in teaching and learning activities learners who had completed their schooling
or in similar motivational programmes as ‘indigenous’ learners speak the same
carried out among the Orang Asli will only language as indigenous students and have a
boost the confidence of Orang Asli students, wealth of experience and knowledge about
helping them to focus on their studies and pedagogy that is likely to benefit indigenous
climb the academic ladder while following students. Thus, among the respondents were
in the footsteps of their mentors. those who pointed out that they accepted
There were also Student Icons who the appointment to gain experience and
wanted to improve their skills by participating to improve their skills. For if the Student
in the programme. One response was, “to Icons are to be appointed as teachers and
gain experience and develop my soft skills.” facilitators someday, they would need
Another was, “I accepted the appointment to acquire a wealth of experience and
as an Orang Asli Student Icon for this knowledge about pedagogy to share with
motivational programme because I wanted their Orang Asli students. This was echoed
to improve my soft skills. Also, to assist by Santoro and the other studies mentioned
the participants from SK Satak and SMK above.
Tengku Kudin by sharing my experiences
as a student of UKM.” Santoro et al. 2. What role have you played as a Student
(2011) explained that mature indigenous Icon in this programme?
Table 6
Role(s) of Orang Asli Student Icons

1. Facilitator and Mediator between the organisers and Orang Asli students 1
2. Building a relationship such as brother and sister/family 2
3. Leading a group 2
4. Guiding the Orang Asli 2
5. Being the emcee 1
6 Being an example of success to the Orang Asli 3
7. Helping the programme to run smoothly 2
8. Sharing knowledge, leading and monitoring the movement of students 1
9. Providing motivation/encouragement/inspiration so that the Orang Asli students 7
would continue with their schooling, considering themselves no different from
other communities
10. Understanding the existing problem within the Orang Asli community 1
Table 6 shows that there were 10 roles from other societies while being proud
for the Student Icons. The 22 responses to have been born Orang Asli.
emphasised that most of the Student Icons
played more than one role as a Student Icon The above responses confirmed what Adnan
for this programme. et al. (n. d.) proposed, that teachers of Orang
Most of the Student Icons responded Asli need some skills and proficiency in
by saying that their role was to motivate, their students’ mother tongue to encourage
encourage and inspire the participants these students and to intensify continuous
to continue their studies and to be more learning and intercultural exchanges.
successful in the future. For example, one The Student Icons responded by saying
response was, “I inspired the Orang Asli that they played a pivotal role in being an
students to succeed in their studies in order example of Orang Asli success. They also
to help both their parents and the indigenous played a role in guiding the participants,
peoples.” Another comment was: establishing friendships with the participants
My role was to act not just as a and trying to understand the problems faced
counsellor or an Icon, but rather to by the Orang Asli. Furthermore, the Student
build a relationship as between a brother Icons played a role in facilitating the smooth
and sister, provide encouragement and running of the overall programme.
advice for them to keep learning and
be more competitive while at school, 3. How did you play a role in increasing
and to consider themselves no different the motivation of the participants of
this programme? Give examples, if
necessary.
Table 7
Motivational approaches adopted by Orang Asli Student Icons

1. Storytelling and sharing life experiences, particularly success in furthering my 7
studies at university
2. Providing advice and encouragement to continue studies 7
3. Creating awareness on the importance of education 2
4. Increasing motivation through cultural performances 2
5. Cooperating with the Orang Asli participants 1
6. Encouraging participants to come forward 1
7. Observing the situation and understanding the problem 1
8. Showing good values 1
9. Teaching how to communicate well 1
Table 7 showed that there were nine by emphasising that Orang Asli should
approaches that the Student Icons applied change their attitudes towards education.
to motivate participants. The 23 responses Furthermore, seven of the Student
reflected that several Student Icons adopted Icons used the motivational programme
more than one method. as a platform to provide advice and
It is evident that most of the Student encouragement to the participants to
Icons took to storytelling and sharing continue their education to the highest level.
their life experiences, especially about the One Icon used the method of “increase[ing]
success they achieved by furthering their the motivation of the participants by
studies at university and encouraging the increasing their spirit of desire to continue
participants to do likewise. One of the their studies.” Examples like this received
attributes of a good teacher is knowing positive reaction from the Orang Asli
which method is best for teaching students. students. This is further emphasised in
For instance, while some students may be another response, “I found that they feel
visual learners and some auditory, others good and want to continue their studies …
may be better at reading and writing, or they were excited when I cited that many
even kinaesthetic learning. A teacher can Orang Asli have succeeded in pursuing
correctly and quickly identify which method studies at universities and now stand at par
is the best for a student if he or she happens with those from other communities.”
to know the culture, custom and traditions There were various other methods
of the student. In the same way, the Student adopted by the Icons, as depicted in Table 7.
Icons identified storytelling and sharing life Some responded that another way that they
experiences as the most appropriate method chose was to establish confidence among
of imparting knowledge and encouraging the participants to pose questions and to
their fellow Orang Asli. This was possible improve communication. As reported by
because they were part of the community Wahab et al. (2016) in his study, one of the
and well acquainted with the customs, problems encountered by the non-Orang
traditions and way of life of the Orang Asli. Asli teachers was difficulty in elucidating
One of the answers was, “I chose to certain terms to Orang Asli students and
share a terrible experience… I had done making them understand the context due
wrong and failed to gain anything but with to the language barrier. Thus, having
effort and perseverance, I was able to bounce Student Icons to facilitate the motivational
back from failure.” Not limited to sharing programme greatly helped the Student Icons
experiences, the Student Icons also used to pose questions and to better communicate
this opportunity to raise awareness of the with the Orang Asli students. This is because
importance of education for a better future they spoke the same language. Confidence
and active communication is essential for 4. How does your role as a Student Icon
motivating Orang Asli students. assist you in improving your soft
skills and enhancing your existing
knowledge?
Table 8
Skills and knowledge acquired from the role as a Student Icon

1. Increase/Improve communication skill 7
2. Enhance leadership 4
3. Enhance collaboration/teamwork 4
4. Increase level of confidence 3
5. Learn how to organise a programme efficiently 1
6. Improve social aspect and accountability 1
7. Irrelevant answer 3
Table 8 shows that a total of seven Student were strengthened among the Orang Asli
Icons responded that their skills improved participants. These aspects are significant
communication among the participants. in shaping future leaders. The Student Icons
Most of the Student Icons emphasised also paid attention to other kinds of soft
communication, as this was the one most skills, particularly in raising the confidence
important aspect in helping to shape the of the participants to move forward in life.
future of the participants. One of the Student One of the answers emphasised, “the
Icons stated that “weak or inadequate experience we have received in facilitating
communication nowadays is a cause of this programme has improved our knowledge
difficulty in getting a job.” Through this and soft skills,” while another stated,
programme, the Student Icons themselves “participating in a variety of activities helps
were inspired to be more confident in develop the potential within participants and
speaking in front of audiences. expertise within Student Icons.”
Several of the Student Icons applied
some other aspects of their soft skills. 5. Do you agree that this programme
For example, four Icons responded that should only involve Orang Asli Student
their leadership qualities and teamwork Icons as mentors for the participants?
Table 9
Perception of the involvement of only Orang Asli Student Icons as mentors for the participants
No. Reason (Agree) No. of Icon

1. Provides evidence and gives encouragement that Orang Asli too can be successful 8
2. The similarity of culture, customs, background and life experience allow effective 6
communication and interaction between Student Icons and participants
3. Facilitates communication/helps students to communicate well 5
4. Share success 1
5. Share experiences 1
6. Opportunity to assist one’s community 1
Table 9 shows that all 12 Student Icons was necessary because of “the similarities
unanimously agreed that the programme between the Icons and Orang Asli students.
should involve Orang Asli Student Icons as Therefore, discussion with Orang Asli
mentors to the participants. Icons believed students in the programme is more open
that the Icons represented Orang Asli because they consider the Icons to be
success. With this example in mind, the members of their family.” Another stated, “In
participants would be more enthusiastic addition to cultural similarities, participants
and realise that they too could be just as are more comfortable sharing their concerns
successful. One Icon explained that Orang with the Orang Asli Icons because the
Asli mentors could make a significant Icons had also faced the same problems at
contribution to their community i.e. Orang some point.” Therefore, the Student Icons’
Asli Icons can motivate and encourage approach towards the Orang Asli students
Orang Asli students to succeed in their may be more beneficial as they were already
studies to the highest level, like the Icons aware of the customs and beliefs as well as
had themselves. Furthermore, they believed the perceptions and attitudes of Orang Asli
that the Orang Asli Icons could make a in general.
greater impact on Orang Asli students as The involvement of the Orang Asli as
they understood the current context of Orang Student Icons is essential because of the
Asli better themselves. ease of communication with the participants.
As many as six Icons stated why it A total of five Icons confirmed this in their
was better to involve Orang Asli, saying response. According to the five Icons,
they came from the same culture, tradition participants can share experiences, share
and background and shared many life their success stories and inculcate a sense
experiences. This would elicit easier of responsibility in relation with the Icons.
acceptance from students while facilitating In this regard, the Icons hoped to inspire
better interaction, approach and partnership. them to follow their advice to succeed. One
In one response, an Icon reiterated that the of the Icons stated, “Maybe by seeing the
involvement of the Orang Asli themselves success of the Icons, by setting foot into
their university, we can inspire them also (n. d.), Nor et al. (2011) and Renganathan
to strive to get a place in any university or (2013), featured under Section 2 of this
college.” article, unanimously acknowledged this fact.
The above responses from the Student Thus, most of the teachers who are non-
Icons tally with what Abdullah et al. pointed indigenous find it difficult communicating
out in their study, that the main problems with indigenous students such as the Orang
associated with the educational setback Asli students and are not accustomed to their
of Orang Asli are predominantly language customs and traditions.
barriers and differences in culture and
customs between the teachers and the Orang 6. Do you agree that icons who are non-
Asli students. Other studies like Santoro et Orang Asli students would not be able
al. (2011), Wahab et al. (2016), Adnan et al. to play the role as effectively as played
by Orang Asli Student Icons? Why?
Table 10
Perception of the involvement of Non- Orang Asli Student Icons
No. Reason (Agree) No. of Icon

1. Non-Orang Asli students do not understand the life, situation, problems, desires, 4
feelings and traditional beliefs of the Orang Asli
2. The Orang Asli can inspire and make the participants realise the importance of 1
education
3. Participants would be more comfortable to communicate and share experiences 2
with Icons who are also Orang Asli
4. Orang Asli students have more sense of responsibility to help other Orang Asli 1
5. Orang Asli students are more sensitive, easy to understand and influence the 1
community
6. Every individual has a different approach, but Orang Asli have the advantage 1
because they belong to the same ethnic community
Reason (Disagree)
1. Non-Orang Asli should also come together to help the Orang Asli 1
2. Everybody irrespective of ethnic background could perform at the same level 1
3. Everyone has different skills and knowledge to be shared 1
4. Every programme, if done responsibly and with sincerity will succeed, the key is 1
cooperation
5. Every human being has advantages and disadvantages 1
Table 10 shows six reasons given by those students, they would not be able to play the
who agreed and five reasons given by those role as effectively as Orang Asli Icons.”
who disagreed with the statement “If Icon One of the Student Icons was adamant
selection were done among non-Orang Asli about the ability of Orang Asli Student Icons
to help other Orang Asli. Their question greater capability in performing the role,
was, “If this programme involves Orang the ability of non-Orang Asli students to
Asli students, why should Student Icons be perform the same role could not be denied.
appointed from among non-Orang Asli?” However, given a choice, Orang Asli Icons
The Student Icons also confirmed via the should be considered in preference to non-
questionnaire that Icons from among non- Orang Asli Icons in teaching the community.
Orang Asli students would not understand
the problems faced by Orang Asli students Perspective Analysis Among Orang Asli
as they did not understand the customs and Student/Participant
beliefs of the Orang Asli. The Icons also
A survey questionnaire was developed
reiterated that the programme was used to
to collect feedback from the participants
maximise assistance to their people rather
relating to the effectiveness of the overall
than to the non-Orang Asli. However, this
programme and whether the programme
stance does not question the ability of the
helped to increase their own personal
non-Orang Asli as the Student Icons merely
motivation to pursue further studies at a
believed that the impact of the partnership
higher level. From the replies received,
would be better if Orang Asli Icons were
69 participants agreed and strongly agreed
involved.
that they felt motivated to continue their
On the other hand, there were others
schooling following the programme.
who had an alternative perspective on this
Furthermore, 69 participants also agreed
matter. One of the Icons disagreed that non-
and strongly agreed to pursue their studies
Orang Asli students could not play the role
to a higher level in the forthcoming year.
of Orang Asli Student Icon effectively. This
The programme was a success as all the
Icon believed that “every human being must
participants were satisfied with it. All the
be able to carry out the duties assigned to
participants provided positive comments,
them to the best of their ability. Although
and no negative comments were received.
different regarding religion and culture, it
Most of the participants replied that overall,
cannot obstruct the relationship between
the programme had been fun and that they
people.” Several other Icons supported
were more than happy to have been given the
this view, believing that “non-Orang Asli
opportunity to participate in the programme.
students exhibit and perform their duties in
Here is a sample of the comments received:
the best possible manner and can lead the
“The programme is very exciting, and I’m
Orang Asli students.” It indirectly affirmed
happy because I made a lot of friends”;
the view of these Icons that every individual
“Everyone in the hall was very kind and
has advantages and disadvantages that can
affectionate towards us”; “I’m interested in
be of benefit to others.
this programme because the programme is
Therefore, it can be concluded that
the best and may serve as a lesson for me.
although the Orang Asli Student Icons had
The programme contained a lot of activities
that were fun, and all the Student Icons made The effectiveness and success of this
me feel excited and motivated during this programme could be measured from the
programme”; and “This programme has positive feedback received from the 12
inspired me to continue my studies.” Orang Asli Student Icons and the 69 Orang
Asli participants. To collect quantifiable
CONCLUSION information in support of the programme,
To address the challenges and barriers to the programme organiser contacted SMK
education experienced by the Orang Asli, Tengku Kudin to obtain the actual number
indigenous teachers should be involved in of Orang Asli students who continued
the teaching and learning process undertaken their schooling to a higher level when the
by Orang Asli students. This is because school opened in January of the following
teachers who have grown up and completed year. From a total of 70 students, 61 had
their schooling as ‘indigenous’ learners continued with their studies1. The actual
speak the same language of indigenous dropout rate was approximately 13%, with
students and have a wealth of experience and 87% of the participants of the programme
knowledge about the pedagogy that is likely held at the university continuing their
to be successful for indigenous students. education in secondary school.
They understand indigenous world views
and have first-hand experience of many of ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
the challenges faced by indigenous students This programme was carried out with
in the mainstream schooling systems. financial assistance from the Ministry of
In this motivational programme, the Education under FRGS/2/2013/SSI10/
role of indigenous teacher was played by UKM/02/4 and Universiti Kebangsaan
12 Orang Asli Student Icons. All the Orang Malaysia under COMMUNITY-2013-028.
Asli Student Icons played a significant role Our highest appreciation and thanks go to all
in advancing and strengthening education the Student Icons: Mohd Razif Bin Mustafa;
among the Orang Asli participants of the Zulhelmi; Norhazlinda a/p Sahari; Yeoh
programme. The perception of the Icons, En Ne a/p Yeoh See Teck; Rosnirawida a/p
as highlighted in this article, is that the Ali; Shaffila Binti Sahat; Liew Huei Ling @
Orang Asli participants cooperated and Farah a/p Liew King Man; Zuraini a/p Law
demonstrated a positive response when Wau Kong; Muzaffar Yusry; Suraini Normie
assisted by other Orang Asli. It was further Binti Suzaimi; Norsakina a/p Jamaludin and
shown that the Orang Asli Student Icons Norilmiah Rosli.
played an enormous and significant role in
facilitating the teaching and learning process
of the Orang Asli participants by eradicating
all the barriers and challenges identified and Letter from SMK Tengku Kudin dated 5
1
discussed in Section 2 of this article. March, 2015
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Impact of Commuter Families on Adolescent Development: An

Evaluation of the Adolescent from Peninsular Malaysia
Siaw Yan-Li1,2*, Samsilah Roslan1, Maria Chong Abdullah1 and
Haslinda Abdullah3
1
Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Institute of Educational Leadership, Universiti of Malaya, 59990 UM, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This study attempted to address the question concerning the influence of commuter families
on adolescent school performance using the proposed Model for Adolescent Development
Among Commuter Families (MADCF). We investigated whether the adolescent problem
mediates the relationship between parental readiness and adolescent school performance,
and clarified the moderating effect of gender. The survey data were drawn from 434
respondents (adolescents-parents) in Malaysia. The results indicated that the adolescent
externalising problem partially mediated the relationship between parental readiness
and adolescent school performance. The model accounted for 21% of the variability in
adolescent school performance. The moderator findings presented that gender moderates
the causal effect of parental readiness and the adolescent externalising problem with respect
to adolescent school performance. This study clearly shows the importance of parental
readiness, and that the results are in line with the proposed mediation and moderation
effects. The model proposed by this study was strongly supported.
Keywords: Parental readiness, commuter families, adolescent development
INTRODUCTION
ARTICLE INFO The idea of ‘commuter families’ originated
Article history: from the lifestyle of military families
Received: 06 March 2017
Accepted: 27 November 2017 (Grestel & Gross, 1983). However, in
E-mail addresses: recent years, an increasing number of
[email protected] (Siaw Yan-Li),
[email protected] (Samsilah Roslan), married couples from other occupational
[email protected] (Maria Chong Abdullah),
[email protected] (Haslinda Abdullah)
sectors, such as professional, public service

and civilian populations who commit to breadwinner and the mother, who plays
a commuting lifestyle have become more the main role of caregiver. Even for dual-
common for various reasons, such as career career families in Malaysia, gender ideology
opportunities and economic development. strongly affects parental role in the family
The term, ‘commuter families’, describes function and child development.
the phenomenon of a married couple who Due to the above reasons, the first
agree to have their own careers and maintain research into commuter families conducted
two residences in different geographical in Malaysia was to investigate the challenges
locations and are separated from each other faced and the impact of such a lifestyle on
for at least three nights per week. the health, well-being and quality of life
In Malaysia, commuter families are of families (Norlila, 2011). The study
defined as a weekend family by means of revealed that 86.6% of the respondents
one of the married couple staying far away (commuters) had a negative perception
from the nuclear family and only meeting the of commuter lifestyle. Commuters with
family once a week, twice a month, once a a negative perception of their lifestyle
month etc. (MWFCD, 2010). The increasing often manifest psychosocial problems,
trend for such a lifestyle in Malaysian such as depression, stress or aggression.
society indicates that commuter families are According to the findings, commuters have
becoming more common, especially among a negative perception and psychosocial
young couples. According to previous problem because they were less prepared
studies, among the most common reasons to commute. Nonetheless, there was a
that married couples commit to a commuter significant relationship between commuters’
lifestyle, either voluntarily or imposed, are psychosocial outlook and child-rearing at
the increasing number of households with home. The findings showed that commuters
dual-career couples, financial and societal with a psychosocial problem response
demands, the desire to maintain or enhance spent the least time in discussion with their
career, deployment by employer, potentially children. Quality of discussion with children
higher income and better opportunities for relating to issues, such as education, personal
career advancement (Ferk, 2005; Norlila, problems, ambition and friends was lacking.
2011). The findings of this study have raised the
This matter has become a concern in concern of researchers in Malaysia. Parents
Malaysian society because the lifestyle of are the first educators of their children and
commuting families is entirely different play an important role in their development,
from and contrary to the conventional model especially during their adolescence (Erikson
of family in Malaysia Abd Rashid, Hussin, Theory, 1959; Bronfenbrenner Model,
& Jubah, 2006). As reported by Rahim et al. 1979). Psychosocial factors affecting
(2006), most Malaysians have a traditional parents greatly influence a child’s behaviour
family consisting of the father as the primary and academic performance (Schwab et al.,
Adolescent Development among Commuter Families in Malaysia
1995; Finkel, Kelly, & Ashby, 2003; Kessler parental readiness, adolescent problems
et al., 2005; Pugh & Farell, 2012). Therefore, and adolescent school performance; (3) To
readiness to commute is important in determine if adolescent problems mediate
ensuring a positive psychosocial outlook the relation between parental readiness and
among commuters, which should lead to adolescent school performance; and (4) To
better child-rearing, family function and examine the effect of gender as a moderator
child outcome. Lack of family readiness and in the individual paths of the model. Finally,
the degree of preparation prior to moving a simple Model of Adolescent Development
may affect family outcomes and the work Among Commuter Families (MADCF) is
performance of spouses (Palmer, 2008). proposed at the end of the study.
Previous research suggested that parental
stress and pathology from the separation METHOD
of families are expected to negatively
Research Design
impact on a child’s development including
academic achievement and behavioural A quantitative research design, which
problems (Kelly et al., 2001; Barry et al., included conducting a correlational study
2005). Preparation and degree of readiness and path analysis, was used in this study. The
are believed to smoothen the transition and study was based on data obtained from two
family functions, and, indirectly influence sets of questionnaire to gather information
the child’s outcome (Yonezawa, 2000; from adolescents (Youth Self-Report, 1991)
Burrell, 2006; Dumka et al., 2009; Kiernan and parents (Parental Readiness Inventory).
& Mensah, 2011). The Pearson correlation test (SPSS) and
structural equation modelling (SEM) were
applied in the data analysis. Data were
Present Study
randomly collected from public secondary
This study sought to investigate the impact schools in Selangor, Malaysia. Selangor has
of commuter lifestyle on adolescent outcome been identified as the state with a dramatic
among commuter families in Malaysia. increase in the number of commuter families
Four main objectives were addressed in Malaysia (MWFCD, 2010; Norlila,
by this study: (1) To provide an overall 2011). The participation of the subjects
description of parental readiness to commute (adolescent and parents) was voluntary and
(cognitive, emotional, behavioural); all information was kept confidential and
adolescent problems (internalising problem, used only for the purpose of research.
externalising problem and other problems);
and adolescent school performance
Participants
(curriculum and co-curriculum) among
commuter families in Malaysia; (2) To To be eligible for the study, participants
assess the relation and influence between had to be from commuter families. They
were identified by school administrators.
In this study, commuter families were Table 1 (continue)

defined as families in which either the father Item Frequency Percentage
or the mother or both the parents stayed Years of 1-4 128 59
separately from the nuclear family for at Commute
least three nights a week because of career 5-8 59 27.2
commitment, and the particular family 9-12 19 8.8
13-16 7 3.2
must have practised the defined commuter
17-20 4 1.8
lifestyle for at least one year before the date
Monthly Less than 81 37.3
of data collection. A total of 376 families Income RM4000
were identified as commuter families, of (Family) RM4000- 68 31.3
which 239 families were willing and agreed RM6000
RM6001- 30 13.8
to participate. After excluding incomplete
RM8000
data and potential outliers, 217 families More 38 17.5
(434 samples; parent-child dyads) were than
confirmed as reliable and were considered RM8000
N=217; RM=Ringgit Malaysia
for further analyses. The summary of the
participants’ demographics is presented in
Table 1. Instruments and Measurement
Instrument: Parental readiness inventory.
Table 1 Three indicators of parental readiness were
Descriptive statistics of demographics
evaluated: (1) Parental cognitive readiness;
Item Frequency Percentage (2) Parental emotional readiness; and (3)
Gender Male 116 53.5 Parental behavioural readiness. The data
(Adolescent) Female 101 46.5 were collected based on 32 items, which
Age 13 39 18.0 were instrument specific and developed
(Adolescent) 14 32 14.7
to measure the level of parental readiness
15 61 28.1
to commute among commuter families
16 36 16.6
17 49 22.6 in Malaysia (Prochaska & Diclemente,
Race Malay 124 57.1 1983; Price & Horning, 1994; Van Breda,
Chinese 37 17.1 1997; Dieryek, 2003; Norlila, 2011).
Indian 56 25.8 Five stages of change were suggested by
Commuter Father 141 65 Prochaska and Diclement (1984) through
Mother 32 14.7 the Transtheoretical Model. The model
Father & 44 20.3
illustrates each stage as assessing an
Mother
individual’s readiness to act on a new and
Variance Extracted (AVE) and the Construct Reliability (
instrument, as shown in Table 2. The instrument for parental
high AVE (more than 0.50), indicating high convergent validity
1981); the instrument is reliable with a CR and Cronbach’s A
0.70 Families
Adolescent Development among Commuter (Hair et al., 2005).
in Malaysia
healthier behaviour for a better lifestyle

(Figure 1). The validity and reliability Maintenance
Staying on track
analyses were examined. Confirmatory
Ac*on
Factor Analysis (CFA) was applied to
Making change
determine the Average Variance Extracted
Prepara*on
(AVE) and the Construct Reliability (CR)
Ready to change
of the study instrument, as shown in Table
Contempla*on
2. The instrument for parental readiness Thinking to change
showed a high AVE (more than 0.50), Pre-contempla*on
indicating high convergent validity (Fornell Not Ready to change
& Larcker, 1981); the instrument is reliable
Figure 1. Stages of change (Prochaska & Diclement,
with a CR and Cronbach’s Alpha of more Figure 1. Stages of change (Prochaska & Diclement, 1984).
1984)
than 0.70 (Hair et al., 2005).
Table 2
Number of items, Cronbach’s Alpha, Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Construct Reliability (CR) of
study instrument
Instrument Indicator No Items

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)- SPSS
AMOS
Factor AVE CR Cronbach’s
Loading Alpha
0.564 0.792 0.734
Parental Cognitive 12 0.61
Readiness Emotional 11 0.87
Behavioural 9 0.75
0.747 0.894 0.951
Youth Self- Internalising 31 0.91
Report Externalising 30 0.76
Other Problems 30 0.76
AVE=Average Variance Extracted; CR=Construct Reliability; N=217
Instrument: Youth self-report. The breaking and aggressive behaviour); and (3)
instrument for youth self-report, as Other problems (social problem, thought
developed by Achenbach (1991), was problem and attention problem). The Youth
used to measure adolescents’ problems, Self-Report is a self-administered survey
including 10 symptoms related to three intentionally designed for adolescents aged
major types of problem: (1) Internalising from 11 to 18 for the purpose of measuring
problem (anxious, withdrawn, somatic the emotional and behavioural problems
complaint); (2) Externalising problem (rule- among adolescents in a standardised format.
The Youth Self-Report is an established factor analysis (CFA) was applied for each
questionnaire and has been used in more individual construct to determine the average
than 23 countries represented by different variance extracted (AVE) and the construct
cultural and socioeconomic conditions, reliability (CR) of the study instruments.
such as Hong Kong, Australia, Iran, Japan, Table 2 shows that both instruments had a
and Poland (Ivavova et al., 2007). There high AVE (more than 0.50), indicating high
are a total of 112 items in the instrument convergent validity, and the instruments
of the Youth Self-Report, with 31 items were reliable, with a CR of more than 0.70
assessing theinternalising problem, 30 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2008).
items assessing the externalising problem
and 30 items assessing other problems. Analytic Strategy
The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
Analyses were conducted using the
was applied to determine the average
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
variance extracted (AVE) and the construct
(SPSS) and AMOS (Analysis of Moment
reliability (CR) of the study instrument, as
Structures). SPSS was first used for the
shown in Table 2. The value of the validity
reliability test, descriptive analysis and
and reliability of the construct was more
Pearson correlation test. The purpose of
than 0.70 and the factor loading for all the
the correlation analysis was to confirm the
indicators was more than 0.50.
significance of the relationship between
each construct: parental readiness,
Instrument: School performance. School
adolescent problems and adolescent school
performance was measured based on the
performance. According to Baron and
adolescent curriculum and co-curriculum
Kenny (1986), all the variables must be
achievement in school. The final examination
correlated with each other to establish
marks (year 2012) and yearly average scores
a complete mediation effect among the
in the co-curriculum were kindly provided
variables. Therefore, the Pearson correlation
by the school administrator. The Malaysian
test was used before the path analysis was
Secondary School Grading System was used
employed to test the mediation effect.
to measure adolescent school performance
Next, structural equation modelling
from Grade A to Grade E.
(SEM-AMOS) was used for the second and
third step of the path analysis. In SEM, the
Confirmatory Factor Analysis measurement model was developed based
Validity and reliability analyses were used on the outcomes of the Pearson correlation
to determine the validity and reliability test. The initial variable, mediator and
of the instruments. The confirmatory outcome variable have to significantly
correlate with each other (Baron & Kenny, problem than the male respondents; this
1986). The discriminant validity and model was expected for symptoms of somatic
fit were stated based on the measurement complaints, as illustrated by the mean
model. The purpose for testing the model and standard deviation value in Table 4.
fit was to confirm that the model proposed However, the male adolescents reported
is acceptable with good fit and suitable for higher mean scores for the symptoms of
the hypothesis test. Lastly, the structural the externalising problem, social problems
model was formed to examine the influence and thought problems compared with the
of parental readiness and the adolescent female adolescents. According to the results,
externalising problem on adolescent school only 28.6% of the respondents reported
performance and also to test the mediation Grade A in the curriculum achievement
(adolescent problem) and moderation and 31.8% reported Grade B (Table 5). For
(gender) effect on the Model of Adolescent co-curriculum performance, Table 6 shows
School Performance Among Commuter 50% of the respondents having achieved
Families (MASPCF). Grade B.
RESULTS Table 3
Descriptive statistics for parental readiness
Descriptions Analysis
Descriptive Statistic Score
We first present the results of the description
Mean 84.99
analysis to provide descriptions of parental
Median 84.00
readiness, adolescent problems and
Standard Deviation 9.381
adolescent school performance among Minimum 60.00
commuter families in Malaysia. As noted in Maximum 113.00
Table 3, 62.6% of the respondents’ parents Percentile
were in the preparation and ready-to-change 25th 79.00
stage; 33.2% were in the stage of making a 50th 84.00
change. Only a minority of the respondents’ 75th 91.00
Stages of Change Frequency (Percentage)
parents (4.1%) were still in the stage of
Pre-contemplation 0 (0 %)
contemplation and 0.5% of the respondents
Contemplation 9 (4.1%)
had adapted to the commuter lifestyle.
Preparation 135 (62.6%)
The descriptive table reveals that Action 72 (33.2%)
female adolescents scored higher for Maintenance 1 (0.5%)
the internalising problem and attention N=217
Table 4
Descriptive statistics for adolescent problem (Youth Self-Report)
Variables Symptom Male Female

Mean SD Mean SD
Adolescent Problem Internalising Problem 17.3103 9.2890 17.7921 7.4998
Anxious 8.0776 4.2038 8.8020 3.8653
Withdrawn 4.8621 2.9632 5.1386 2.6155
Somatic Complaints 4.3707 3.3765 3.8515 2.4265
Externalising Problem 13.8190 9.7559 11.1782 5.7955
Rule-Breaking Behaviour 4.9397 4.3862 2.9505 2.4429
Aggressive Behaviour 8.8798 5.9112 8.2277 4.2588
Other Problems 18.3276 8.7950 17.3960 7.7538
Social Problems 6.5690 3.5928 5.7723 3.4231
Thought Problems 6.8966 4.1439 6.4851 3.2973
Attention Problems 4.8621 2.3844 5.1386 2.4901
N=217
Table 5 Table 6
Descriptive statistics for adolescent school Descriptive Statistics for adolescent school
performance: Curriculum performance: Co-curriculum
Grade Frequency Percentage (%) Descriptive Statistic Score

A (100 to 80) 62 28.6 Mean 70.29
B (79 to 60) 69 31.8 Medium 70.00
C (59 to 40) 64 29.5 Standard Deviation 5.157
D (39 to 20) 22 10.1 Minimum 59.00
E (less than 19) - - Maximum 83.00
Total 217 100 Percentile
N=217 25th 67.00
50th 70.00
75th 74.00
N=217
Correlational Analysis indicator of the variables. A total of

A second series of analyses was conducted eight indicators were used to measure
to evaluate the relationship between three variables in the study. The Pearson
parental readiness, adolescent problem correlation test reported that two of the three
and adolescent academic performance. indicators of parental readiness (emotional
The Pearson correlation test was used and behavioural) were not significantly
to examine the relation between each related to the adolescent internalising
problem (Table 7). In addition, the findings
revealed no significant relationship between externalising problem was significantly

adolescent other problems (social problem, related to parental readiness and adolescent
thought problem, attention problem) with school performance and adolescent school
parental readiness and adolescent school performance was significantly correlated
performance. However, the adolescent with parental readiness, as shown in Table 7.
Table 7
Correlation between parental readiness, adolescent behavior problem and adolescent school performance
Indicators 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Cognitive (readiness)
2. Emotional (readiness) 0.505**
3. Behavioural (readiness) 0.451** 0.671**
4. Internalizing Problem -0.192** -0.069 -0.062
5. Externalizing Problem -0.473** -0.527** -0.398** 0.479**
6. Other Problems -0.089 -0.063 -0.003 0.677** 0.411**
7. Curriculum 0.298** 0.384** 0.299** -0.191** -0.364** -0.059
8. Co-curriculum 0.256** 0.362** 0.301** -0.164* -0.328** -0.019 0.972**
**correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Correlation across sources was generally low the model for path analysis using SEM
(less than 0.49), except for the correlation only focused on the relationship between
between the adolescent externalising problem three constructs: (1) Parental readiness; (2)
and parental emotional readiness (r=0.527), Adolescent externalising problem; and (3)
which was defined as moderate correlation Adolescent school performance. Finally, the
according to Guilford’s Rule of Thumb step to establish mediation was met since
(Guilford, 1956). Although the adolescent the initial variable (parental readiness) was
internalising problem was significantly correlated with the outcome (adolescent
related to parental cognitive readiness and school performance) and mediator
adolescent school performance, there was (adolescent externalising problem).
relatively low correlation (less than 0.20).
In conclusion, based on the findings, it Measurement Model
appeared that there was no appropriate
Discriminant Validity. In the third step
relationship between parental readiness
of the analysis, the measurement model
and adolescent school performance and
was created by combining the three
two indicators of the adolescent problem
constructs (parental readiness, adolescent
(adolescent internalising problem and other
externalising problem, adolescent school
problems). Therefore, the step to establish
performance) with a total of six indicators Model Fit. A number of fit indices were used
(cognitive readiness, emotional readiness, to test for the model fit (Byrne, 2001; 2010;
behaviour readiness, aggressive behaviour, Hair et al., 2010). The goal of examining
delinquency behaviour, co-curriculum the fit indices of a model is to determine
achievement, curriculum achievement) in how well it models the data. According to
reference to the results of the correlational Hair (2010), a minimum of three to four fit
analysis. The measurement model is indices are suggested for a model fit. Table
important for examining discriminant 9 shows that all the values in the research
validity through the average variance model were reported to fit the recommended
extracted (AVE) and squared correlation value. Therefore, the model suggested in this
coefficient. Discriminant validity refers study is statistically accepted and indicates
to the extent to which a construct is truly a well-fitting model.
distinct from other constructs and involves
the relationship between a particular latent Table 9
construct and other constructs of a similar Fit indices
nature (Brown, 2006). Table 8 presents Fit Indices Recommended Model Value
the discriminant validity of the study Value
instruments. The table shows that all the Relative Chi- <=5.00 1.335
square
instruments had a higher average variance
AGFI >=0.90 0.951
extracted (AVE) compared with the squared
GFI >=0.90 0.981
correlation coefficient (Hair et al., 2010). CFI >=0.90 0.996
The correlation coefficient between the IFI >=0.90 0.996
constructs was not more than 0.90 and the RMSEA <=0.80 0.039
AVE for each construct was more than 0.50
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010).
Path Analysis
Structural Model. A similar analysis was
Table 8
Average variance extracted and squared correlation conducted to examine the effect of parental
coefficients readiness and the adolescent externalising
Construct (1) (2) (3) problem with respect to adolescent school
1. Externalising problem 0.700 performance (Figure 2). Based on the
2. Parental Readiness 0.423 0.563 analysis, parental readiness had a significant
3. School Performance 0.160 0.185 0.923 effect on the adolescent externalising
Average Variance Extracted (on the Diagonal); problem (β=-0.65; p<0.01), and adolescent
Squared Correlation Coefficients (on the off-
diagonal)
school performance (β=0.31; p<0.01),
whereas the adolescent externalising parental readiness. The model accounted for
problem had a significant effect on the 21% of the variability in adolescent school
adolescent’s school performance (β=-0.20; performance explained by the model with
p<0.01). The findings indicated that the the total effect being 0.44. The direct effect
contribution of the adolescent externalising of the model was 0.31, while the indirect
problem was slightly weaker compared with effect was 0.13.
Figure 2. Structural model: Mediation model of adolescent development among commuter families (MADCF)
Mediation Model of Adolescent’s School problem as a mediator between parental

Performance. The objective of establishing readiness to commute and adolescent school
the Mediation Model of Adolescent School performance (Figure 2). Table 10 shows that
Performance (MMASF) was to explore the standardised direct effect of parental
the role of the adolescent externalising readiness on adolescent school performance
in the direct model and mediation model showed that the adolescent externalising
were statistically significant (β=0.44 and problem had a partial mediation effect on the
0.31, respectively). However, the effect relationship between parental readiness and
of parental readiness on adolescent school school performance, strongly supporting
performance in the mediation model was the research outcomes. As shown in Table
slightly less compared with the direct model. 11, bootstrapping for the mediation test
Therefore, we reasoned that the adolescent indicated that the standardised direct effect
externalising problem partially mediates the of parental readiness on school performance
relationship between parental readiness and in the direct model was significant and that
adolescent school performance. Additional the effect was significantly reduced in the
bootstrapping (AMOS) revealed that our mediation model with a significant standard
results were in line with the research indirect effect (SIE). Therefore, the partial
outcomes. The bootstrapping analyses mediation effect was accepted.
Table 10
Results of Mediation Test
Construct Beta p
Direct Model
Parental Readiness → School Performance 0.44 0.00
Mediation Model
Parental Readiness → School Performance 0.31 0.00
Parental Readiness → Externalising Problem -0.65 0.00
Externalising Problem → School Performance -0.20 0.04
Table 11
Bootstrapping for Mediation Test
Model Beta
Direct Model
Parental Readiness → School Performance 0.44**
Mediation Model
Parental Readiness → School Performance 0.31**
Std. Indirect Effect (SIE) 0.13*
**significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
95% CI Bootstrap BC: LB=0.02; UP=0.27
Table 11
Moderation Test
Model Beta
Parental Readiness → School Performance
Male 0.36**
Female 0.19
Parental Readiness → Externalising Problem
Male -0.66**
Female -0.38**
Externalising Problem → School Performance
Male -0.12
Female -0.35**
** significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Moderation Test. The moderation test was school performance. The findings suggested
used to examine the effect of gender as a that the majority of the adolescents in this
moderator in the individual paths of the study scored B in their school curriculum
model. The results indicated that gender and co-curriculum tasks. This was in line
moderates the causal effect of parental with the first study done in Malaysia,
readiness on school performance and the which reported that children in commuting
causal effect of the externalising problem families had been experiencing difficulties
on school performance, as shown in Table in co-curricular achievement since the
12. According to the decision criteria family adopted the commuting lifestyle
recommended by Hair (2010), the findings (Norlila, 2011). This clearly indicated
showed that gender did not moderate the that the lifestyle of commuter families
causal effect of parental readiness on the directly and indirectly influenced adolescent
adolescent externalising problem. educational achievement (Dumka, 2009).
School performance and achievement are
DISCUSSION important in the development of youth
to determine their future, especially their
The purpose of the study was to investigate
future career (Masten & Coatsworth,
the impact of the commuter lifestyle on
1998; Elder & Conger, 2000). The study
the adolescent outcome among commuter
also argued that adolescents potentially
families in Malaysia. To understand the
experienced the externalising problem,
impact of commuter families on adolescents,
internalising problem and other problems
we first provided a description about the
including social, attention and thought
level of parental readiness to commute,
problems. The overall findings indicated
adolescent development from the perspective
that the mean scores of the adolescent
of the adolescent behaviour problem and
problem in this study were higher than in readiness, adolescent externalising problem
the referred samples provided by Achenbach and adolescent school performance.
(1991). A preview of the research showed However, the findings revealed that the
that the lifestyle of commuter families symptoms of internalising problem and
had a negative impact on the adolescent other problems were not significantly
problem (Kelly et al., 2011; Finkel et al., related to parental readiness and adolescent
2003). According to Norlila (2011), 80% school performance. This is in line with
of the commuters in Malaysia claimed previous studies that indicated that maternal
that their children had been experiencing separation was significantly correlated
discipline problems in school since their with the child’s externalising problem but
commuter lifestyle started. Therefore, not with the child’s internalising problem
further investigation is warranted to ensure (Hewage, 2011). In addition, the Social
that the growing number of commuter Learning Theory (Bandura, 1976) states
families would not affect the development that people learn by observing others.
of adolescents and their school performance. The modelling processes introduced by
In respect to the level of parental readiness Bandura (1984) described modelling as
to commute, our findings showed that a general term that refers to behavioural,
the majority of the respondents (62.6%) cognitive and attitude changes derived from
were in the stage of preparation to change. observing one or more models. Children
Although they were prepared and willing are responsive to parental psychosocial
to make changes for a better life, practical outlook and may easily mirror how parents
actions had yet to be taken; this is the stage respond (Fletcher, 1996; Pfefferbaum,
defined as ‘thinking but action not started’ 1997). Parental readiness is believed to be
(Prochaska & DiClement, 1984). However, an important factor in adolescent academic
one should remember that family readiness performance. Palmer (2008) indicated that
to commute is important, especially parental parents with low readiness would always
readiness, for the management, development express negative psychosocial behaviour,
and well-being of the family (Palmer, such as stress, aggression and depression,
2008). Hofmeisfer (2006) emphasised that and that the psychosocial problem
individuals, especially parents, have to adapt negatively affects the child’s development
to changes in the lifestyle of the commuter and academic performance (Martin, 1999).
family for success, not only in their career Good adjustment and preparation to change
but also to improve the quality of family life. among parental beliefs indirectly increases
Second, to examine the relation between parental involvement and supervision of
parental readiness, adolescent problem and children’s daily activities (Hardaway, 2004;
adolescent school performance, support Webb, 2004). A substantial body of research
was found for the notion that there were has documented the importance of parental
significant relations between parental practice in respect of a child’s behaviour
and academic performance (Keith, 1994; behaviour and aggression. Parents showing
Rodriquez, 2002; Ishak, 2004; Gershoff et negative psychosocial behaviour have less
al., 2007; Han et al., 2012). communication and involvement with their
Third, we explored a model to examine children; this is significantly correlated
the contributions of parental readiness with a child’s academic achievement. The
and the adolescent externalising problem results are in line with our findings showing
towards adolescent school performance. that parental readiness may have a negative
The model suggested that parental readiness impact on adolescent school performance
contributed more to the adolescent (Malecki & Elliott, 2002; Ronald, 2003).
externalising problem compared with Fourth, this study also contributes to
adolescent school performance. The overall the literature in its proposal of a simple
model contributed 21% to adolescent school mediation model to explore mediation effect
performance among commuter families on adolescent academic performance. The
in Malaysia. This finding supports the model suggested that the relation between
earlier studies that indicated that although parental readiness and adolescent school
parental role was important in adolescent performance in this study was partially
development, adolescent academic mediated by the adolescent externalising
performance required the cooperation of problem. Surprisingly, this finding indicated
both the school management and parental that the total effect of the mediation model
practice (Epstein & Sander, 2002; Hill & was equivalent to the total effect of the
Taylor, 2004). The relationship between direct model. This is inconsistent with
school and parents’ involvement positively the previous studies that indicated that
affects a child’s psychosocial development the degree of preparation to move partly
and academic achievement (Yonezawa, accounted for the family and child outcome
2000). Our findings were consistent with (Martin, 1999; Palmer, 2008). One possible
previous research showing that a higher explanation is that the above research was
level of parental readiness was related to a carried out among commuter families from
lower level of the adolescent externalising military parents. Although military families
problem (Qi & Kaiser, 2003; Barry et al., are also categorised as commuter families,
2005) and a lower level of the externalising the ‘military family syndrome’ (LaGrone,
problem was related to a higher level of 1978; Jensen, Martin, & Watanabe, 1991)
adolescent school performance (Windle should be considered. The risk and resilience
& Wiesner, 2004; Bradshaw et al., 2010). factors i.e. relocation, pre-deployment and
According to the study conducted by Norlila deployment every two to three years may
(2011), in Malaysia, commuters with less affect the development of military families
preparation and a negative perception of and their child’s outcome (Palmer, 2008).
commuting may experience psychosocial Our finding in the mediation model strongly
problems, such as stress, anxiety, emotional suggested that parental readiness was an
important component in the adolescents’ commuter families in Asian countries,

development. Finally, the moderation especially Malaysia. Therefore, the research
test carried out summarised that gender is important for contributing new knowledge
moderates the causal effect of parental for future research in social sciences to
readiness and the adolescent externalising ensure that the growth of commuter families
problem on adolescent school performance. in Malaysia is in line with positive family
This result was in line with previous research, development and children’s outcome.
which reported that boys scored significantly
higher than girls in the externalising problem ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
(Rescorla et al., 2007), and that academic The authors would like to thank Professor
achievement among girls was higher in non- Dr. Rahil Mahyuddin and Dr. Maznah
delinquent groups (Malinauskiene, Vosylis, Baba for their assistance in verifying the
& Zukauskiene, 2011). Most studies have research instruments. Acknowledgement
shown that girls performed better in school also goes to Dr. Thomas M. Achenbach,
than boys, and that girls graduated from the President of the Research Center for
high school with a higher grade than their Children, Youth and Families Inc (The
male peers (Perkin et al., 2004). Gender as University of Vermont, ASEBA), for his
a predictor of academic achievement has permission to use the instrument (Youth
been a controversial topic in the literature. Self-Report). This research was supported in
part by University Putra Malaysia under the
CONCLUSION Grant ERGS 5527065 headed by Associate
Generally, our study supported the mediation Professor Dr Samsilah Roslan.
model proposed by this study. For the results
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The Influence of Demographic Profile on Work Life Balance of

Women Employees in Tannery Industry – An Empirical Study
S. Prithi and A. Vasumathi*
VIT Business School, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014 India
ABSTRACT
In the current scenario, the common news in newspapers is that many highly educated and
dual income couples prefer to opt for divorce, separation or the partner may get killed by
the spouse. The reason for this may be due to the immense stress they face at work and
also due to the family environment. Their work-life balance is very poor, suffer high ego,
unable to spend time with family members and are pampered children of their parents.
If the person is highly educated, has high income, and also receives support from family
members, he / she can face failure easily which is caused by family life; for others, they
may end up making harsh decisions like committing suicide, lodging a report against their
spouse, starting unhealthy habits which affect his / her health or harass their life partner.
This motivated the researchers to carry out the study of less educated, lower income female
employees who are working in the tannery industry. The researchers found that current
experiences and dual earners are the most important independent variables in predicting
stress, such as hypertension, obesity and gynecological problems. The researchers also
found respondents with certain demographic profiles to work more productively than
others. This study also reveals the most and least preferred attributes of work life balance.
Keywords: Stress, failure, productivity, attributes, family and work life balance
INTRODUCTION
Work life balance (WLB) of women workers
has become a vital and often discussed
ARTICLE INFO
matter, as women are also earning and
Article history:
Received: 03 October 2016 equally sharing the responsibility for
Accepted: 08 September 2017
the betterment of their family. Work life
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (S. Prithi), balance means the individual’s capacity
[email protected] (A. Vasumathi)
*Corresponding author to schedule the hours of personal and

professional responsibilities to lead a to work life balance issues, when increased

healthy and peaceful life. A woman when number of women workers and dual-earner
attains a successful WLB, she becomes couples entered into workforce in various
highly committed, productive, satisfied employment sectors (Burke & Greenglass,
with the job and succeeds in her career. 1987; Lambert, 1990).
Some women fail to achieve their work In the early centuries only few women
life balance due to incapability to set had the access to higher education and
priorities (Santhana & Gopinath, 2013). A many were forced to rely on their father’s
working woman enjoys her personal life or husband’s attitudes on the way to women
and succeeds in her professional life which employment. The fast growing knowledge
leads to positive work life balance. Work life economy has enlightened many women by
balance of women employees differs from higher education and has given them the
one another; the priorities differ based on opportunity for robust careers (Delina &
their age, marital status, number of children, Prabhakara, 2013). Women are now visible
age of children, experience and emotional in those domains which were traditionally
intelligence. In today’s competitive scenario, dominated by men. This has given a tough
the ability to work with emotion plays a task for women to balance additional
key role in faculty members’ performance. responsibilities related to work and family.
From many studies, it has been evident that Many mothers struggle to balance both
faculty members who have higher emotional the roles in a better way; especially for
intelligence can perform better in both the working mothers with young children it
working environment and family life, which becomes a great challenge to fulfill the
leads to personal satisfaction. WLB is the responsibilities. It acts as a boon for them to
assurance of emotional intelligence among balance career and life (Sahana & Bagali).
faculty members (Sagaya, 2015). According to Greenhaus, Collins and Shaw
Crompton (1999) described that in (2003) WLB is defined as the extent to
the beginning of the twenty-first century, which an individual is similarly engaged
work-life balance did not receive much and equally satisfied with his or her work
attention and seemed to be less challenging and family role. Purohit (2013) refers to
due to two reasons. First, employment was WLB as a situation where people have
limited only to a male full-time worker and control over their work when, where, what
they were considered as the bread-winner. and how they perform. Although women
Second, it was a traditional trend that struggle to balance family and work roles,
women involved themselves in more unpaid their participation in the workforce has led
work such as nurturing, caring and domestic to many benefits like economic benefits to
work. The notion of work-life balance the organisations, involvement in decision
underwent a drastic change and gave rise making whether it is related to family or
The Influence of Demographic Profile on Work Life Balance
work, increase in standards of living, social satisfaction in their work and family role. A
interaction, and increased competence better work life balance will help to achieve
(Cleveland, Stockdale, & Murphy, 2000). professional satisfaction and personal
In this rapidly growing competitive freedom for employees (Sayers, 2007).
world, opportunity for job is increasing
day by day, and organisations are required Research Objectives
to create a congenial atmosphere where
The researchers have framed the following
employees especially women and working
research objectives to find the work life
mothers can balance their professional and
balance of women employees in the tannery
family life. A successful work-life balance
industry:
leads to achievement of personal and
professional career goals (Matheswaran & • To identify the most important
Hemalatha, 2015). Bharat (2003) pointed independent variable in predicting the
out that demographic changes in women occurrence of stress when compared to
are seen to be increasing at the workplace other independent variables.
and dual earner families have generated an • To f i n d o u t t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f
increasingly diverse workforce and a greater demographic profile of the respondents
prerequisite of employees to balance their and WLB determinants.
work and non-work lives. Increasing work • To find the most preferred and least
life balance issues of employees, increasing preferred attribute of WLB.
attrition rates, and absenteeism have
forced organisations to revise and initiate REVIEW OF LITERATURE
practices such as flexible working hours,
In recent years, WLB has drawn much
different work arrangements, supportive
attention in the modern management
family-friendly policies like family care
literature. Pandu, Balu and Poorani (2013)
responsibilities, child care facilities,
state that work life balance is all about
compensation packages, and employees’
framing a productive culture where the
assistance programmes (Andukuri, Sagar
ability of the individual is maximised
& Deepa, 2013).
and the tension between work and other
Rahul and Parvesh (2015) described
activities of people’s survival is minimised.
WLB to mainly emphasise on two main
Participating in multiple roles can subsidise
features called achievement and satisfaction.
to good mental and physical health of
This implies that a working woman should
an individual so long the degree of “fit”
be able to have job satisfaction (enjoyment),
between work and family is acceptable
and at the same time, be able to rise in
(Bamett, Garies, & Brennan, 1999; Marks &
her career (achievement). Balancing a
MacDennid, 1996). The current knowledge
successful career with family life can be
economy has given adequate access to
challenging and has an impact on a person’s
women who are combined with factors
like changes in marital arrangements and Women’s Marital Status. Balancing work
smaller families. This has led to an increase and life has become difficult for a married
in the volume of working women especially working woman. Due to the transactional
working mothers. shift in the trend of society, families have
started to move from joint to nuclear family,
Demographic Variables and Work life causing imbalance in work and family
Balance (Desai, 2015). Sahana and Bagali (2014)
described that marital relationship, co-
In the past decades, global demographic
operation of husband and family members,
and personality fluctuations occurred,
and their attitudes are factors that impact
such as maximum participation of women
WLB of women. Martins, Eddleston and
in workforce, dual earning families, single
Veiga (2002) pointed out that married
parent earning families, child care, and
women always give more importance and
elderly care resulted in greater tasks for
priority to their family than work. Barette
women workers, who try to balance the
(2009) also postulated that balancing work
needs of both work and family life (Tennant
life is difficult for a single parent.
& Sperry, 2003). Researchers pointed
out these kind of greater tasks and higher
Educational Background and Income of
demands from work and family led to
Women. Chong and Ma (2010) found that
negative effects on the well-being of workers
higher education and more work experience
and causing family-work conflicts (Aryee,
boost the confidence level of an individual
Srinivas, & Tan, 2005).
and increases self-efficacy. Ross and Huber
(1985) predicted that education has a largest
Age. Leger (2004) reported that most
effect on reducing stress; it has a positive
working women who belonged to the age
impact on WLB. Tausig and Fenwick
group of 35 to 55 years were experiencing
(2001) described that work life balance is
depression and generalised anxiety disorder;
less among employees with undergraduate
such symptoms emerged to be a hurdle in
degree or with an advanced university
their success at the workplace and household
degree and high among school leavers or
lives. Dubey, Saxena and Bajpai (2010)
below. Researchers argue that work place
found women belonging to the age group
flexibility is limited to high income and
of above 40 years to maintain better work
position of women. It was also pointed out
life balance by having control on their work-
that women with high income were able to
life responsibilities, when compared to their
make some arrangements for domestic work
younger colleagues. Many researches have
(Kalpana & Kiran, 2014).
reported that working women of 25 to 50
years face the problem of work life balance
Personality. Researchers have identified
(Desai, 2015).
five core personality traits : (1) Extraversion
(active, assertive, positive emotions,excited); (1994) studied women’s job performance

(2) Agreeableness (kind, forgiving, straight and work attitudes which were affected
forward, trusting, pro-social behaviour); by family life. The results witnessed that
(3) Conscientiousness (Competent, well women with children had less occupational
organised, self-disciplined, achievement commitment compared to women without
oriented, deliberated); (4) Neuroticism children. Also, women who have younger
(self-conscious, impulsive, anxious, angry, children were better at balancing work
tense, depressed); and (5) Openness (curios, and family life than colleagues with older
imaginative, creative, aesthetic, inventive) children. Pew Research Center survey
(Judge & Higgins, 1999; McCrae & John, (2013) predicted that most working mothers
1992). Responding emotionally to a role with children under the age of 18 agreed that
by a person influences their interpersonal being a working parent made it harder for
availability and psychological presence in them to advance in their career, about 42%
a different role (Rothbard, 2001). Crooker of working mothers reduced their working
et al., (2002) found that individuals with hours at some point of their working life
conscientiousness (commitment, control in order to take care of the child or other
and challenge) and kindness are most likely family members. Working mothers who
to achieve a better WLB. Kaur (2013) have children with some chronic illness or
found that there is positive correlation disability face more problems in balancing
between WLB, satisfaction with life and work and family, sometimes this leads
friendliness dimension of personality. to work life conflict (Emslie, Hunt, &
Intrinsic work values make a person express Macintyre, 2004). Along with child care,
openness for change - interest, growth, working women also have the responsibility
pursuit of autonomy and creativity in work. to take care of their ageing parents (elderly
An employee with extrinsic work value care). Elderly care differs from child care;
orientation may be associated with lower job the demands associated with elderly care
vitality, job commitment, job satisfaction increase over time and caring for them
and higher exhaustion (Van den Broeck, spans many years which is unpredictable
Vansteenkiste, & Has De Witte, 2010). and varies widely (Pavalko & Gong, 2005).
Caregiver and Work Life Balance. Household Responsibilities and Work

Giddens (l997) described that an increasing Life Balance. Treiman and Hartman (1981)
number of working women choose to put pointed out that married women, irrespective
a hold on their career, when they become of their paid or unpaid employment, do
mothers. Another reason for women not to double the amount of housework than
be in full time employment is because of their husbands. A married woman who is
their husbands who may be neglecting to unemployed works 70 hours per week in
take care of the children. Campbell et al. carrying out domestic chores and taking care
of the children. In contrast to this married organisation time, perception of negative

men only spend about 11 hours per week career consequences, gendered nature
for doing house work and taking care of of policy utilization, and perception of
children. Hochschild and Machung (1990) unfairness by employees with limited non
illustrated that married women having work responsibilities. Employees with lower
families and careers dedicated an additional levels of observed control over their work
month to domestic chores. Nicolson (1997) are more probable to experience high role
described that working mothers often face overload and high intervention between
health problems due to their family and work and family roles (Baral & Bhargava,
work responsibilities. Makoswska (1995) 2010). Improvements and introduction to
studied the psychosocial factors of stress and new technologies have helped employers
well-being of employed women. The results to progress in business more effectively,
revealed that the relationship between more accessible to clients as well as often
family functioning, well-being and stress reachable with employees. Technology has
was significant. However, work-related made working hours of an employee into
stressors were greater than family-related 24/7 (Maxwell & McDougall, 2004).
stressors.
Consequences of Work Life Imbalance
Work Characteristic and Work Life Low level of work life balance can lead to
Balance employees having less morale and more
Haworth and Lewis (2005) pointed out that absenteeism (Brought, O’Driscoll, &
many organisations are introducing new Kalliath, 2005). Gambles (2006) discusses
technologies, working practices and are also that work life imbalance of an individual
demanding greater flexibility due to their is related to demanding and increased
pressure of competition in the workforce. work practices followed at the workplace,
Geurts, Kompier, Roxburgh and Houtman work increasingly interfering with personal
(2003) put forward that higher workloads life, workplace being more efficient with
lead to negative spillover affecting both labour regulations and constant changes.
work and home. Butler, Grzywacz, Bass,and Stress stemming from higher demands from
Linney (2005) found existence of positive work or family has effects in family-work
relationship between job demands and conflicts and work-family conflicts (Aryee,
work-family conflicts. Work demands and Srinivas, & Tan, 2005). Kofodimos, (1993)
additional work hours minimise the time suggested that imbalance in particular
for home (White, Hill, McGovern, Mills, causes great levels of stress, minimises the
& Smeaton, 2003). McDonald, Brown and quality of life finally reducing individuals’
Bradley (2005) put forward five dimensions performance and efficiency at work. Aziz
that affect organisational work-life culture: and Cunningham (2008) narrated that
lack of managerial support, expectation of work stress and work life imbalances are
correlated with workaholic behaviour. to cope with stress (Hardie, Kashima, &
Malik, McKie, Beattie and Hogg (2010) Pridmore, 2005; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
found that imbalance in work-family life Diener (1984) argued that positive effect,
was caused by increased work needs and negative effect and satisfaction with life
led to higher levels of stress. Long working are important factors indicating well-being.
hours force employees to flee many of Erlandson (2006) described that women
their family responsibilities that create an with low complex pattern of occupations
imbalance in their work and family lives. in a paid workforce have better health and
Greenhaus et al. (2003) indicated that an well-being than women having medium and
imbalanced fulfillment between dual roles, high complex pattern of occupation. For an
work and family creates maximum stress individual, both family and work are vital
as the disparity appears to be a perpetual elements in life (Clark, 2000).
reminder about one not meeting his or her
desires or values in one role as the other. Work and Family Support
Various studies suggest that there is a
Well-being correlation between forms of social support
Well-being of an individual can be which includes support from spouse,
categorised into (a) subjective well- family members, superior, co-workers
being that focuses on positive effects and or colleagues and work/family conflict
the absence of adverse effects, and (b) (Byron, 2005; Cinamon & Rich, 2005).
psychological well-being, which focuses Many studies discriminate the domain of
on achieving an individuals’ full capacity. work-based social support from individual
Subjective wellbeing is also known as social support, such that existence of
emotional well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001). correlations in one domain can attenuate
According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), adverse consequences or accentuate positive
stress is a relationship between a person consequences from other sectors (Carlson &
and their circumstances which is evaluated Perrewe, 1999; Greenhaus & Parasuraman,
as taxing and endangers his or her well- 1994). Allen (2001) found from the survey
being. Well-being of a person can also be that types of occupations who alleged
determined by their subjective judgment their organisations as minimally friendly
towards satisfaction with life, psychological and where their presence is required for
health (Grzywacz, Almeida, & McDonald, family care, experienced more work-family
2002), and also by their objective evaluation conflict, which caused them to be less
of physical health (for example, blood satisfied with their job, less committed to the
pressure) (Broadwell & Light, 1999). For organisation and showed greater intentions
an individual, high stress may cause ill- to turnover than those who alleged their
being especially when a person lacks coping organisation as more family supportive.
strategies or applies ineffective strategies Various forms of research has also suggested
that a friendly organisational environment satisfaction, marital satisfaction and work

and supportive relationships (the manager, satisfaction. Work family conflict and
supervisor, colleagues and co-workers) at family work conflict are due to the strain
work might have a significant association framed by incompatible roles. Occurrence
with the employee’s work outcomes. The of work family conflict has shown to be
social support of peers actually facilitates relatively negative to family satisfaction
job satisfaction of all workers (Ducharme and family work conflict due to lower
& Martin, 2000). Social support outside job dissatisfaction (Netemeyer, Boles, &
the workplace or at home may come from McMurrian, 1996). Various researches
women’s spouse, parents, siblings, children, witnessed that job satisfaction produces
relatives and friends. Working women many favorable organisational outcomes,
believe that support from spouse in various like lower absenteeism, lower turnover rate,
areas, which includes earnings, personal increased job performance, organisational
financial management (Kate, 1998), home commitment, customer satisfaction and
and family responsibilities (Baron, 1987), organisational citizenship behavior (Kinicki,
career management and support (Gordon McKee-Ryan, Schriesheim, & Carson, 2002).
& Whelan-Berry, 2004; Hertz, 1999) and Researchers and scholars have also reported
interpersonal support (Becker & Moen, that work-family conflict and family-work
1999) helps them in balancing work and conflict are adversely associated with work
life. Greenhaus and Parasuraman (1994) satisfaction (Beutell, 2010; Netemeyer et al.,
found that the family relationships enhance 1996), family satisfaction and well-being
support which minimises work-family (Beutell, 2010; Lu et al., 2010). Grandey,
conflicts by reducing their time demands Cordeiro and Crouter (2005) pointed out
and stress. Vasumathi, Sagayamary and that job and family roles are the key roles
Subashini (2015) found that majority of the for many individuals. Literature suggests
faculty members’ performance is affected that an individual who considers work to
by conflict / misunderstanding with the be the source of interference may develop a
managers, while only very few have more negative attitude towards the job, resulting
conflicts / misunderstanding with the family in lower job satisfaction. On the other
members. hand, if an individual considers family as
the source of interference and high value
Work and Family Satisfaction work role, it may result in family conflicts
and lower family satisfaction (Beutell, 2010;
Various research projects have configured
Grandey et al., 2005).
that work / family conflict is the reason for
minimised satisfaction, including personal
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (250 from each district). In Vellore district,

the researchers collected 250 questionnaires
Type of Research
from women labourers who were working
Descriptive research is followed in this in Gudiyattam (125 questionnaires) and
study. Women workers working with Ranipet (125 questionnaires). Similarly, the
the tannery industry in Tamil Nadu were researchers collected questionnaires from
considered as target respondents for this 250 women labourers working at Ambur
study. (125 questionnaires) and Vaniyambadi (125
questionnaires). The target respondents
Sample Size were selected based upon their interest and
The formula for deriving the sample size is willingness to respond to the questionnaire
as follows: and they were thus, considered as sample
size for this study.
n = (zσ / d)2
n = Sample size of the population
Research Instruments
z = Value at a complete level of confidence
This research is an empirical study;
σ = Standard deviation of the population hence, questionnaire was used as the sole
d = Difference between the population mean instrument for primary data collection for
and sample mean this research. The researchers drafted a
structured questionnaire which consisted
The researchers approached the target of second parts. The first part of the
respondents who were working in the tannery questionnaire consisted of demographic
at locations such as Ambur, Vaniyambadi, profile of the women labourers, in the
Gudiyatham and Ranipettai. As per CLRI second part, the questions were related to the
2013 report, there are 42,000 tannery units WLB, occurrence of stress related disease,
in India. Out of that number, 1924 tannery and other important attributes required for
units are located in Tamil Nadu. There are WLB. The researchers conducted a validity
314 units located in Vellore and Tirupattur test for the variables in the questionnaire
districts. There are 63 units in Ranipet, 96 in order to measure the WLB practices,
units in Ambur, 130 units in Vaniyambadi working hours related issues and important
and 25 units in Melvisharam. It was a attributes of work life balance.
difficult task to identify the population mean
and standard deviation, hence the researchers Sources of Data
used convenience sampling method and the
The primary source of data was collected by
survey was conducted with women labourers
distributing a well-structured questionnaire,
working in the tannery industry. Hence, the
while the secondary source of data were
researchers approached 500 respondents
collected from articles, business magazines, number of children, number of dependents

publications and booklets of the tannery excluding children and time to reach
industry. the workplace from home. Discriminant
analysis identifies the association between
Data Analysis Procedures one dependent variable (dichotomous
questionnaire) and many independent
The primary data was collected by
variables. Hence, the researchers used
distributing questionnaires to the target
discriminant analysis which revealed a
respondents and their responses were keyed-
significant association between working
in and analysed using SPSS (Statistical
hours and the demographic profile of
Package for Social Sciences). Multiple
respondents (age, marital status, educational
regression analysis is useful to identify the
qualification, current experience, current
important independent variables among all
annual income and number of children).
other independent variables that predict the
Weighted average method was adopted to
dependent variable. Therefore, multiple
find out the preferred work life balance
regression analysis was carried out to
attributes of women labourers.
identify the occurrence of stress-related
disease on independent variables such as
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
age, marital status, educational qualification,
current experience, current annual income, Regression Analysis
number of children, number of dependents Regression analysis was carried out to
excluding children, dual earning couple predict the occurrence of stress related
and time to reach the workplace from disease with the demographic profile
home. The authors found that current of the respondents such as age, marital
experience and dual earner couples are the status, educational qualification, current
most important independent variables in experience, current annual income, number
predicting the occurrence of stress when of children, number of dependents excluding
compared to other independent variables children, dual earning couple and time to
such as age, marital status, educational reach the workplace from home.
qualification, current annual income,
Table 1
Predicting the occurrence of stress related sisease with Demographic Profile Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .267 .071 .054 1.465
Table 2
ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 80.553 9 8.950 4.167 .000
Residual 1052.349 490 2.148
Total 1132.902 499
Table 3
Coefficients
Model Unstandardised Standardised t Sig.

Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 3.171 .377 8.421 .000
Age -.061 .081 -.043 -.750 .453
Marital status -.159 .083 -.116 -1.928 .054
Educational qualification -.121 .073 -.077 -1.653 .099
Current experience .240 .090 .139 2.667 .008
Current annual income -.038 .119 -.015 -.319 .750
Number of children .156 .082 .124 1.897 .058
Number of dependents excluding .088 .055 .077 1.618 .106
children
Dual earner couple .411 .139 .137 2.969 .003
Time taken to reach the .196 .089 .106 2.205 .028
workplace from home
Dependent variable: Stress related disease
From Table 1, we can see the R2 value, 0.71, which indicates that the model is statistically
which shows that 7.1% of the variation significant at a confidence level of 0%.
in predicting the occurrence of stress can From Table 3, the equation can be
be explained by 10 independent variables written is as follows:
such as age, marital status, educational Y= 3.171- 0.061 (Age) – 0.159 (marital
qualification, current experience, current status) – 0.121(educational qualification)
annual income, number of children, number + 0.240 (current experience) – 0.038
of dependents excluding children, dual (current annual income) + 0.156
earner couple and time taken to reach the (number of children) + 0.088 (number
workplace from home. of dependents excluding children) +
From Table 2, the analysis of variance 0.411 (dual earner couple) + 0.196
table shows that the significance of F is 0, (time taken to reach the workplace from
home.
It is also clearly depicted from Table statistically significant since their p value
3 that independent variables, namely is greater than 0.1.
age, current annual income and number
of dependents excluding children are Forward Regression Analysis
Table 4
Particulars Mean Std. Deviation N

Stress related disease 4.51 1.507 500
Age 2.31 1.073 500
Marital status 2.11 1.096 500
Educational qualification 2.04 .965 500
Current experience 1.94 .872 500
Current annual income 1.40 .611 500
Number of children 2.50 1.197 500
Number of dependents excluding children 2.88 1.322 500
Dual earner couple 1.56 .500 500
Time taking to reach company from home 1.87 .816 500
Table 5
Model summary

1 .168 .028 .026 1.487
2 .208 .043 .040 1.477
Table 6
ANOVA

1 Regression 31.845 1 31.845 14.403 .000
Residual 1101.057 498 2.211
Total 1132.902 499
2 Regression 49.144 2 24.572 11.268 .000
Residual 1083.758 497 2.181
Total 1132.902 499
Table 7
Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 3.951 .162 24.317 .000
2 (Constant) 3.346 .269 12.456 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Stress related disease
Table 5 shows the R 2 value as 0.028, indicates that the model is statistically
which means that 2.8% of the variation in significant at a confidence level of 0%.
predicting the occurrence of stress can be From Table 7, using forward regression
explained by two independent variables analysis, the regression equation of the
such as current experience and dual earner occurrence of stress can be predicted by
couple. demographic variables such as:
From Table 6, the analysis of variance Y= 3.346+ 0.301(Current experience)
shows that the significance of F is 0, which + 0.373 (Dual earner couple)
Backward Regression Analysis
Table 8
Particulars Mean Std. Deviation N

Stress related disease 4.51 1.507 500
Age 2.31 1.073 500
Marital status 2.11 1.096 500
Educational qualification 2.04 .965 500
Current experience 1.94 .872 500
Current annual income 1.40 .611 500
Number of children 2.50 1.197 500
Number of dependents excluding children 2.88 1.322 500
Dual earner couple 1.56 .500 500
Time taking to reach company from home 1.87 .816 500
Table 9
Model summary

1 .267a .071 .054 1.465
2 .266b .071 .056 1.464
3 .264c .070 .057 1.463
Table 10
ANOVA

1 Regression 80.553 9 8.950 4.167 .000b
Residual 1052.349 490 2.148
Total 1132.902 499
2 Regression 80.334 8 10.042 4.684 .000c
Residual 1052.568 491 2.144
Total 1132.902 499
Regression 79.124 7 11.303 5.277 .000d
Residual 1053.778 492 2.142
Total 1132.902 499
Table 11
Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 3.171 .377 8.421 .000
Age -.061 .081 -.043 -.750 .453
Marital status -.159 .083 -.116 -1.928 .054
Current annual income -.038 .119 -.015 -.319 .750
Number of dependents .088 .055 .077 1.618 .106
excluding children
Time taking to reach .196 .089 .106 2.205 .028
company from home
Table 11 (continue)

B Std. Error Beta
2 (Constant) 3.157 .374 8.448 .000
Age -.061 .081 -.043 -.751 .453
Marital status -.163 .082 -.118 -1.989 .047
excluding children
company from home
3 (Constant) 3.096 .365 8.493 .000
Marital status -.173 .081 -.126 -2.150 .032
excluding children
company from home
Using backward and forward analysis, the and 0.419 respectively, which is higher
researchers found that current experience and than the coefficients of other independent
dual earner couples are the most important variables.
independent variables in predicting the
occurrence of stress when compared to other Discriminant Analysis
independent variables such as age, marital
H1: There is a significant association
status, educational qualification, current
between working hours and demographic
annual income, number of children, number
profile of the respondents (age, marital
of dependents excluding children and time
status, education qualification, current
to reach the workplace from home. It is also
experience, current annual income and
significant that the coefficient of current
number of children).
experience and dual earner couple are 0.222
Table 12
Wilks’ Lambda
Test of Function(s) Wilks' Lambda Chi-square df Sig.

1 through 2 .928 36.699 12 .000
2 .997 1.672 5 .892
Table 13
Standardised canonical discriminant function coefficients
Particulars Function
1 2
Age -.232 -.026
Marital status .462 -.438
Educational qualification -.058 .684
Current experience -.755 .266
Current annual income .730 .322
Number of children .311 .769
Table 14
Classification Groups
Number of hours normally work in a day Predicted Group Membership Total

5-8 hrs 8-9 hrs above 9 hrs
Original Count 5-8 hrs 75 56 48 179
8-9 hrs 77 172 48 297
above 9 hrs 8 7 9 24
% 5-8 hrs 41.9 31.3 26.8 100
8-9 hrs 25.9 57.9 16.2 100
above 9 hrs 33.3 29.2 37.5 100
51.2% of original grouped cases correctly classified
The classification matrix in Table 14 shows the F test indicates that the discrimination
that the discriminant function obtained is between working hours is highly significant.
able to classify 51.2% of the 500 objects This is because P<0, which indicates that the
correctly. The Wilk’s Lambda value in Table F test would be significant at a confidence
12 is 0.928, which is closer to 1. Hence level up to (1-0) x 100 or 100%. Therefore,
it shows low discriminating power of the H1 is accepted. There is a significant
selected variables. The probability value of association between the working hours
profile of the respondents (age, marital status, education qualification, current experience,
current annual income and number of children).
Table 15
Functions at Group Centroids
Number of hours Function

normally worked in a 1 2
day
of the respondents
5-8 hrs and their demographic -.337
Table 15
-.028
Functions at group centroids
profile of the8-9respondents
hrs (age, marital
.223 -.003
above 9 hrs -.244 .253
status, education qualification, current Number of hours normally Function
experience, current annual income and worked in a day 1 2
number of children). 5-8 hrs -.337 -.028
8-9 hrs .223 -.003
above 9 hrs -.244 .253
1.000
.800
Number of
Educa8onal qualifica8on
children
.600
Series1
.400 Current annual Series2

Current experience
Above 9 hrs income
.200
5-8 hrs Age 8-9 hrs

.000
-1.000 -.800 -.600 -.400 -.200 .000 .200 .400 .600 .800 1.000
-.200
Marital status
-.400
-.600
Figure 1. Attribute Based Perceptual Mapping
Figure 1 on Attribute Based Perceptual current annual income (0.730). Similarly,

Mapping shows that all the three different dimension 2 comprises educational
working hours (5-8 hours, 8-9 hours and qualification, number of children (0.311) and
above 9 hours) have their individual current experience (0.266). Respondents’
positions. The same map also represents age has no impact in defining any of the
the plotted value of the attributes as well as dimensions as its coefficient value from
two types of dimensions (each discriminant Table 5 is -0.232, -0.026 and its arrow
function is represented by a dimension). is not close to either of the two different
The map also indicates that dimension dimensions. Respondents who work for 8-9
1 comprises marital status and current hours are stronger on dimension 1 (marital
annual income. Table 13 on standardized status and current annual income). This
discriminant function coefficient appears to analysis reveals that the respondents who
be significant for marital status (0.462) and are married and satisfied with their current
annual income are working 8-9 hours current annual income, the less qualified
compared to other respondents. Respondents and less experienced ones who work for
who have good educational background and only 5-8 hours do not prefer to work more
excellent experience work beyond 9 hours. than 8 hours. Hence, their work life balance
Respondents who work for 5-8 hours are low would is better than other respondents who
on both the dimensions compared to other work more than 8 hours in office.
respondents. It also proves that unmarried
respondents, those who are unhappy with Weighted Average Method
Table 16
Attributes of WLB
Education allowance
Support from family
Health care benefits

More flexible hours
Counseling service
Medical claim for

Picnic/ excursion
Time off during
Time off during

school holidays
Social services
Support from
Job Sharing
supervisors
dependents
Rest room
members
sickness
for kids
N Valid 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 5.38 5.38 5.20 6.53 5.67 5.09 6.38 9.24 8.42 8.60 8.82 8.95 6.49 5.33
Std. Deviation 3.338 3.338 3.739 3.429 3.582 3.125 3.169 2.890 3.144 2.896 2.995 4.098 3.737 3.697
Coefficient of 62.04 62.04 71.9 52.5 63.2 61.4 49.7 31.2 37.3 33.7 33.9 45.7 57.5 69.36
Variation (%)
Table 17
Ranking of WLB attributes
Factors Frequency Table

Weighted
Rank 10
Rank 12
Rank 13
Rank 11
average
Rank 1
Rank 2
Rank 3
Rank 4
Rank 5
Rank 6
Rank 7
Rank 8
Rank 9
Rank
Total
More flexible hours 15 112 80 54 25 48 31 24 44 4 22 40 1 4403 48.38 2
Time off during school 46 91 100 71 26 2 32 26 1 46 4 15 40 4401 48.36 3

holidays
Time off during 27 55 56 23 39 50 35 59 33 41 54 10 18 3736 41.05 8
sickness
Support from family 63 39 74 70 39 33 22 16 37 44 25 26 12 4166 45.78 5
members
Support from 78 43 14 113 50 86 32 4 13 18 25 18 6 4454 48.94 1
supervisors/colleagues
Health care benefits 64 16 23 20 63 52 83 34 56 51 18 7 13 3810 41.86 6
Social services 15 6 3 2 2 60 34 90 50 12 89 82 55 2380 26.15 13
Job sharing 17 20 7 29 20 36 34 50 60 67 89 48 23 2788 30.63 9
Table 17 (continue)
Factors Frequency Table
Weighted
Rank 10
Rank 12
Rank 13
Rank 11
average
Rank 1
Rank 2
Rank 3
Rank 4
Rank 5
Rank 6
Rank 7
Rank 8
Rank 9
Rank
Total
Counseling service 2 8 2 40 37 11 86 63 54 59 38 34 66 2699 29.65 10
Rest room 6 1 26 12 47 5 71 62 43 24 72 104 27 2590 28.46 11
Picnic/excursion 20 35 35 10 15 33 25 35 5 72 22 6 187 2527 27.76 12
Medical claim for 75 33 30 22 39 65 20 22 82 9 42 57 4 3754 41.25 7

dependents
Education allowance 83 58 49 32 114 20 2 32 15 31 15 14 35 4333 47.61 4
for kids
From Table 17, it can be seen that the majority of WLB. There is more consistency among
of respondents say support from supervisor / respondents towards the response of social
colleagues is the most important attribute for service, counseling service and rest room
WLB. The next important attribute is more facility. Their mean rank is higher than
flexible hours, followed by time off during other attributes of WLB. Social service,
school holidays. The respondents ranked counseling service and rest room facility
the least important attribute to be social would not help them for WLB, compared
service. This reveals that if respondents to other attributes.
spend time on social service, they are unable
to balance work and family environment. CONCLUSION
The respondents feel that going to picnic / The study has revealed that current
excursion plays an adverse effect on WLB, experience and dual earner couple are
since the respondents with lesser annual the most important independent variables
income would not prefer to go for a picnic or in predicting the occurrence of stress
excursion arranged by the company, which related diseases in comparison to other
would make them unable to spend time with independent variables such as age, marital
family members, have financial problems status, educational qualification, current
and health issues. The respondents feel that annual income, number of children, number
they don’t require restroom facility offered of dependents excluding children and
by the company which leads to an increase time to reach company from home. Using
in non-productive hours at the work place. discriminant analysis, the researchers found
This would be accumulated for the next day that the respondents’ who are married and
and it ultimately results in poor WLB. satisfied with current annual income work
Table 16 shows the coefficient of 8-9 hours compared to other respondents.
variation for social service (31.2%), This result is aligned with Barette (2009),
counseling service (33.7%) and rest room and Kalpana and Kiran (2014). Respondents
(33.9%) are lower than other determinants
who have good educational background and respondents with less annual income would
excellent experience work above 9 hours. not prefer to go for picnic or excursion
Hence, the organisation should select female arranged by the company, as they are unable
workers with good quality of education and to spend time with family members, and
experience, as they contribute more to the have financial problems and health issues.
organisation. Also, the organisation should The respondents say they don’t require rest
pay adequate salary to female labourers room facility offered by the company which
in an effort to increase productivity. This leads to non-productive working hours at
result is similar to the finding of Chong and the workplace; and would be accumulated
Ma (2010), and Ross and Huber (1985). for the next day, which ultimately results in
Respondents who work for 5-8 hours are low poor WLB.
on both the dimensions compared to other
respondents. It also proves that unmarried IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
respondents, unhappy with current annual The company should educate women
income, less qualified and less experienced employees that require adequate rest in
respondents who work only 5-8 hours will between work hours. This may lead to more
not prefer to work more than 8 hours. This productivity and reduce fatigue of employees
finding contradicts with White et al., (2003). working for long hours at monotonous work.
Hence their work life balance would be Women employees feel that going for picnic
better than the other respondents who work or excursion will create issues in WLB.
more than 8 hours in office. Using weighted Therefore, it is the duty and responsibility of
average technique, the researchers have the management to create awareness among
revealed that the majority of respondents employees about the recreation activities
feel support from supervisor or colleagues which would help them achieve greater
is the most important attribute for WLB. WLB as well as present the opportunity
The next important attribute is more flexible to reduce conflicts among employees
hours; this result is aligned with Andukuri with supervisors or colleagues and family
et al. (2013) and is followed by time off members. The respondents feel spending
during school holidays. The respondents time for social work leads to poor WLB. The
feel the least preferred attribute of WLB supervisor should encourage and motivate
to be social service. This finding is against employees to work for society which will
the result of Ducharme and Martin (2000). help them to burst or divert their work or
This research reveals that if the respondents family stress to pleasant work. This brings
spend time on social service, they are unable them more energy and positive attitude
to balance work and family environment. in both work and family environment.
The researchers also found that going to Policy creators should also spend money
picnic or excursion plays an adverse effect in creating crèche facility and counseling
on WLB, since the maximum number of facility. The employees are dissatisfied with
the counseling facility available in their Bharat, S. (2003). Women, work, and family in urban
company, hence, the management should India, towards new families? In J. W. Berry, R.
C. Mishra, & R. C. Tripathi (Eds.), Psychology
appoint properly trained counselors who
in human and social development, Lessons from
can guide employees with respect to their
diverse cultures (pp. 155-169). New Delhi, India:
work and family related issues. Sage Publications.
Broadwell, S. D., & Light, K. C. (1999). Family

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Rape Talks Louder Than Guns Feminising Men via Wartime

Rape in Judith Thompson’s Palace of the End
Elaff Ganim Salih*, Hardev Kaur, Ida Baizura Bahar and
Mohamad Fleih Hassan
Faculty of Modern Language and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Wartime rape is a widespread phenomenon that accompanies most wars and conflicts,
especially contemporary ones, yet there is much misconception about it. Earlier studies
done on war rape focused exclusively on the experiences of female victims. Men as
victims of war rape is a topic not many are familiar with or even aware of. The inclusion
of men as victims of rape is very rare in society. Moreover, the rape of women often finds
its way to the stage, but not the rape of men. Thus, the rape of men in time of war has
been overlooked due to unfamiliarity with the topic or to the myth of the invulnerability
of man to rape. More importantly, wartime man rape is not taken into consideration as a
strategic weapon. Thus, the present study aims to explore the sexual victimisation of men
in times of war as an orchestrated combat tool. It investigates the reasons why American
combatants raped Iraqi prisoners in Judith Thompson’s play Palace of the End. Inger
Skjelsbæk’s Social Constructionist Concept is used to explain the rationale behind wartime
man rape and to map out the mechanism of its victimisation and perpetration. The present
study concludes that men can be victimised like women by rape. In addition, the present
study contributes a new understanding of the strategic function of rape with the inclusion
of male rape. More importantly, it concludes
that the rape of male prisoners in this play is
not a natural consequence of war stemming
ARTICLE INFO from sensuality or abnormality but a pre-
Article history: planned institutional act to dominate the
Accepted: 30 November 2017 perceived enemy.
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Elaff Ganim Salih), Keywords: Judith Thompson, Palace of the End,
[email protected] (Hardev Kaur),
[email protected] (Ida Baizura Bahar), strategic weapon, social constructionist concept,
[email protected] (Mohamad Fleih Hassan)
wartime rape

INTRODUCTION Most of the previous dramatic research

The horrors of rape are a well-known, on wartime rape failed to recognise man
widely discussed topic worldwide but the rape in wartime since women’s victimisation
rape of men is rarely discussed openly. Even has always been the sole point of research.
more so, the wartime rape of men is hardly These studies examined female victims-
ever discussed, even in literary works. combatants and civilians and shifted the
Indeed, the use of male rape as a strategic attention away from men. This is due to the
weapon of war has been overlooked by typical discourse surrounding rape that casts
literary works. Dramatic works usually the woman as the non-violent and the man as
portray wartime rape as a feminist issue the perpetrator, by attributing it to misogyny
by dramatising women as targets of rape, and hegemony over women, as it would
and men as rape perpetrators (Salih, Kaur, appear that “[war] provides men with the
& Yahya, 2016). Wartime man rape was perfect psychological backdrop to give vent
an issue disguised under catagories such to their contempt for women” (Brownmiller,
as ‘torture’ (Blatt, 1991) and ‘crime of 1975, p. 32). To list some works, Ellen
violence’ (Cleiren & Tijssen, 1994). Unlike Mclaughlin’s play Ajax in Iraq (2011) and
the rape of women, man rape is neglected Eve Ensler’s Vagina Monologue (1996) both
for various reasons, but mainly because it address these issues. Women, combatants
threatens the very fabric of masculinity that or civilians in both plays, are depicted as
hinges on the myth of invulnerability of the victims of masculinity and the patriarchal
hetero-normative man to rape. Moreover, military system. In both works, rape is
there is the misbelief that only homosexual depicted as a natural product of a biased
men are raped because ‘they ask for it’, society that considers women as weak and
whereas the hetero-normative man is not objects of rape, and man as powerful and a
(Wakelin & Long, 2003). In fact, these rapist by nature, either because of his sexual
assumptions enhance the submersion of drive or hatred for women. Consequently,
this phenomenon. Although rape and sexual these studies draw no attention to man rape
violence against men have been reported in a war context. By excluding man rape
in 25 wars and armed conflicts around the from dictionary definition, rape is associated
world, including in the former Yugoslavia, synonymously with women.
Sri Lanka, South Africa and more recently, Furthermore, dramatic studies tend
Iraq (Russell, 2007; Sivakumaran, 2007) and to focus on man rape in peacetime only.
now Syria, these reports are categorically Wartime rape of male civilians and its
overlooked in the contemporary dramatic strategic function of humiliating and
world. Equally, wartime man rape as a dominating the enemy are rarely tackled.
strategic weapon is overlooked and/or not Some of the research into man rape is
considered as good fodder for the stage. stereotypic in its approach. First, it is
Feminising Men via Wartime Rape in Judith Thompson’s Palace of the End
shown that the rape of man happens only in their ethnic and religious identity to achieve
homosexual communities. One example is the essential aims of war. The analysis will
found in David Rudkin’s The Sons of Light focus on man rape enhanced by the political
(1981) and Mark Ravenhill’s Shopping and motives beyond their commitment in Palace
Fucking (1996). These plays depict man of the End.
rape as a homosexual, queer act. Second,
past studies dealt with only one type of man THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST
rape, that is male/male rape within a peace CONCEPT (2002)
context, as depicted in James Dicke’s novel Inger Skjelsbæk (1969) is a Norwegian
Deliverance (1970). There is, however, a psychologist and peace researcher
noticeable dearth of studies on the strategic specialising in sexual violence during war.
function of wartime rape. Her Social Constructionist concept maps
Accordingly, the present study aimed to out the complex relationship between rape
explore the sexual victimisation of men in as a form of sexual violence and war. It also
times of war as an orchestrated combat and explains why men are targetted for rape
political tool and to consider the motivations in warfare although women constitute the
behind this act of violence and domination. largest group of victims. More importantly,
The study does this by investigating the act it perceives rape as a weapon of war to
of rape committed by American soldiers achieve more of the strategic goals of war.
against male Iraqi prisoners in Judith Accordingly, it argues that both men and
Thompson’s play Palace of the End (2007) women can be victims and understands
as an exercise of power and humiliation. femininity and masculinity as malleable
Since male rape has not come under any categories that could conceivably be applied
theoretical lenses in previous studies, Inger to anyone within contexts of conflict.
Skjelsbæk’s Social Constructionist Concept However, Skjelsbæk’s concept posits
(2001) is utilised as a framework to look at that the hierarchical power relationship
the process by which men are raped, with between the genders is not perceived as
a focus on the reversal of the male-female fixed and universal but flexible. Thus, it
power dynamics of wartime rape. revolutionises the traditional assumption
The current study contrasts sharply the that the woman is the only victim and the
feminist paradigm of ‘male-female’ that man is the ultimate rapist. Moreover, it
sets the male as the stereotypical rapist and emphasises that the hierarchies of power
the female as the ultimate victim of rape and dominance are constructed through
because of misogyny and gender conflict social interaction and transaction between
(Brownmiller, 1975). This study refutes all gender, ethnic, religious, political and other
these assumptions and argues that man rape identities. Rape as a practice of political
is a war tactic exploited to humiliate and power and control is not a result of gender
emasculate men and dismantle and distort and patriarchy but a combination of many
social transactions, including gender and Thus, the concept of masculinity is related
patriarchy. Consequently, the victim of to heterosexuality, which means that the
sexual violence in the war zone is victimised perpetrator, be it man or woman, will be
by feminising both gender and the ethnic/ masculinised. Thereby, a new perception
religious/political identity to which the of wartime rape is found by including men
victim belongs; likewise, the perpetrator’s and women as both victims and perpetrators.
gender and ethnic/religious/political identity T h e g o al s o f em as cu l at i o n an d
is empowered by becoming masculinised. feminisation underlying orchestrated
Briefly speaking, these positions under the wartime rape are clearly stated through the
Social Constructionist Concept demonstrate assertion that “the purpose behind targeting
clearly that wartime rape is institutionalised victims by sexual violence is to masculinize
violence deployed to realise far-reaching the identity of perpetrator and feminize the
goals via planned political and military identity of the victim” (Skjelsbæk, 2001,
agenda. It is committed against and by p. 225). Actually, this argument includes
both men and women, whose bodies are men’s victimisation in its theorisation and
weaponised to achieve planned strategies. women in its perpetration. The occurrence
Practising masculinity in international of this reversal of gender roles is related to
conflicts is not born of biological circumstantial and contextual factors such
impulse; it is situational, governed by as war.
pre-determined outcomes. Skjelsbæk’s
Social Constructionist Concept refutes JUDITH THOMPSON’S PALACE OF
the static nature of war rape that posits THE END (2007)
women as mere victims and men as the Palace of the End is the play of the Canadian
sole perpetrator. It, however, expounds a playwright Judith Thompson (1945). It
dynamic theory that posits that the hetero- is based on real-life persons and events
normative man is in the victimisation cycle dramatising the act of rape and sexual
and the hetero-normative woman is in the abuses committed against Iraqi detainees
cycle of perpetration, respectively. In this by American combatants in the Abu-Ghraib
case, the victims, the Iraqi prisoners, are prison during the American war in Iraq.
feminised and the offender is masculinised, These highly publicised rape acts came to
irrespective of their gender: “The base of be known later on as ‘the scandal of Abu-
violence against both men and women is not Ghraib’ (Stemple, 2009, p. 605). Through
in hetero- or homosexuality of an individual the use of the monologue technique, the
male actor but in an inseparable construction dramatist gives a straight and authentic
of masculine = heterosexual = power” record of what actually happened in this war,
(Skjelsbæk, 2001, p. 225). This equation away from the falsified narratives presented
highlights masculinity as a core element, by by American policy. Thompson is inspired
having power enhanced by heterosexuality. in naming and structuring content as well
as character by the atrocious photos of the perpetrator’s sexuality but a tool of

Lynndie England and other soldiers in the projecting violence (Seifert, 1993).
media as mentioned in her “Playwright’s
Notes” (Coates, 2015, p.169). She names Structures and Dynamics of Wartime
her character ‘Soldier’ to give her a national Man Rape
and general identity. The play dramatises
In Skjelsbæk’s concept, the focal points
acts of rape in which the victims are men,
in understanding the strategic rape are
making man rape no longer an anomaly
power, masculinity and femininity. They are
(Cohen, 2013).
different from the feminist approach, which
focusses on the patriarchal victimisation of
DISCUSSION
women. These points interrelate since the
Feminising Men via Wartime Rape common meaning of masculinity includes
To underline the mechanism of man rape having power, especially the physical power
and its perpetration alongside its strategic to attack and subjugate femininity. In the
use as a war tactic in Palace of the End, current study, power and subjugation are
there are some structures and dynamics employed on the national and collective
to be first considered. There are certain level. Man, like woman, is objected and
structures of power and dominance as well feminised by rape in times of war. This
as masculinisation and feminisation that are means that there must be a masculine power
motivated by the dynamics of patriotism in this process which is absolutely ‘other’
and national identity. Intentionally, these than the victimised man. In Thompson’s
are adopted to humiliate the male prisoners play, the masculine role is exercised by the
and their national identity in order to female character, Soldier, and the feminine
realise far reaching purposes by subduing role is taken by male figures, the prisoners.
them to America’s will. It can be claimed It is a reversal of the traditional masculine
that the relationship between the two is and power hierarchy that sets man at the
that of colonisation. Thereby, the text top and woman at the bottom of social
analysis will be organised accordingly. power relationships. Arguing that man, like
These structures and motivations will be woman, can be victimised in warfare and
explored by examining acts of rape that are thus feminised introduces a new perception
committed by American soldiers on Iraqi and explanation of this type of rape, which
prisoners in Thompson’s play, in light of diverges from the feminist gender paradigm
Skjelsbæk’s Social Constructionist Concept. of ‘male-female’ (Skjelsbæk, 2001). Taking
They are posited through mapping out the this into consideration, power, masculinity
mechanism of victimisation and perpetration and femininity are not gendered, since
as a practice of power and dominance. gender is related to social and cultural
Thus, rape is not an end in itself to show roles. Therefore, the roles of ‘powerful’ and
‘powerless’ are flexible and not assigned prisoner who is emasculated by rape and
to gender in wartime by the one who is pushed into a position of powerlessness
more powerful and dominant (Skjelsbæk, traditionally attributed to women.
2001). They are the key elements in In the play, different acts of rape are
understanding the organised nature of war committed against the detainees. These acts
rape in Thompson’s play, which highlights indicate power and submission dynamics for
the complex perpetration and victimisation strategic goals. One of these acts of rape is
process of man rape. nakedness. Coercing the Iraqi captives into
nakedness and herding them in a sexually
Collective power and dominance. Wartime abusing way is also considered an act of
rape, in Skjelsbaek’s concept, is a practice rape. Because rape includes in its meaning
of power and dominance over the enemy in and definition nakedness and duress, the
order to achieve strategic aims. Skjelsbæk definition of rape and sexual abuse has
stated that rape is “an exertion of control been broadened by including “acts that
over the enemy’s bodies and sexual entity did not constitute physical invasion of the
driven by far reaching military and political body, penetration or even contact, such
goals” (p. 47). In Thompson’s play, the hand as forced nakedness” (Zawati, 2007, p.
of power is masculine in that the American 31). Although the ideas for rape are the
combatants exert dominance over the character, Soldier’s inventions, these ideas
feminised victims, the Iraqi prisoners, by are instructed implicitly if not directly by
perpetrating rape against them. Thompson her military training for her to act upon, as
names the perpetrator ‘Soldier’ to show she says in the play:
that she is a representative of the American Human pyramids WAS ALL MY IDEA.
military institution in general. Skjelsbæk Actually, it’s the first thing that come
clearly stated that “the masculinized to my mind when I walked into that
and feminized identities are situated in prison and seen all them men that look
a hierarchical power relationship where exactly alike. I know what might be fun:
masculinized identities are ascribed power HUMAN PYRAMID WITH NAKED
and feminized identities are not” (p. 226). CAPTIVE MEN” (Palace of the End,
In a war context, where human relations p. 15)
are condensed into power hierarchies,
rape becomes the means by which these She talks about one of her rapes, saying that
hierarchies are intensified. Usually, when she accumulated the naked male prisoners’
talking about rape, the victim is understood bodies to form a human pyramid. She feels
to be a woman and the aggressor, a man. proud of her egocentric actions as she
However, in Palace of the End, the feminine declares, “And I am very proud to say that”
individual is not a woman but a male (p. 15). This incident of war rape both in
the play as well as in the actual photos of woman is an ultimate public humiliation
prisoners show how the victims were forced and emasculation” (Couturier, 2012, p. 7).
to undress while being sexually threatened Making fun of the prisoners “willies”
(Sivakumaran, 2007). Soldier exploits is another case of rape practised by the
her military power over the captives by character, Soldier, as rape is defined to
forcing them to be naked and to shape a include “any violence, whether physical
pyramid made by human bodies as an act of and/or mental, carried out through sexual
humiliation and emasculation. Emasculation means or by targeting sexuality” (Lewis,
occurs because nakedness, being a form of 2009, p. 3). It is used in this context to
rape against men, “can reduce the targeted humiliate and dominate the prisoners as
man’s status to that of a ‘de facto’ female, Soldier directly confesses that “according
which in turn sends the message that his to their culture, me laugin at their willies
community is ‘lesser’ as well” (Manivannan, was worse than a beatin’, way worse”
2014). This is what is meant by turning (POTE, p.15). Clearly, the collective identity
a man’s body during war into a symbolic of the prisoners is set by the perpetrator.
construction by which his community is She is completely aware of the cultural
shamed and emasculated. considerations of sexual entity at play
In return, the abused prisoners are in the context of this conflict. Therefore,
reduced to a feminine position characterised she attacks them sexually to show her
by powerlessness, which becomes the American dominance over them. Actually,
source of Soldier’s amusement. Again, there psychological degradation of the Iraqi
is a relationship between amusement as a prisoners through nakedness and ridicule is
motive for humiliating the captives by rape considered a plan for humiliating them and
and their humiliation by feminising them their nationality. Thus, male rape “attacks a
through rape. Thus, Soldier’s exultation of man’s personal and social identity, leaving
power stems from “the coerced submission long-lasting psychological consequences
of the male prisoners” (Rajiva, 2007, p. for the victim” (Russel, 2007, p. 27). In
228). The point is that the actors in a real this context, empowerment and supremacy
war scenario are neither feminine nor are extended to the American soldiers and
masculine but are placed in such position by their national and ethnic identity, while
the conditions of war. By remembering that dehumanisation and humiliation extend
a soldier is not an individual representation to the prisoners’ collective identity. In
but stands for the policy of the nations at Palace of the End, the rape of the male
war, in this case, American policy, the study prisoners functions as a means by which the
concludes that man rape in this drama is combatants, male and female, show power
institutional since “men being raped by [a] and dominance, as well as their ethnically
superior status to the victims.
The rape of the male prisoners is American soldiers. These violations

institutional, not a personal or natural product are neither personal nor individual but
of war, as evidenced by the American claim institutional and pre-planned acts executed
that they are destroying terrorists. Prisoners to dehumanise the Islamic and Iraqi identity
are consistently labelled ‘terrorists’ in the (Holloway, 2006, p. 140). Thus, this form of
play, as Soldier says: rape is a violation, a means of interrogation
We was not entertaining ourselves. We that grants the perpetrators power to ridicule
was breaking down the terrorists. and weaken their victims. In other words,
by practising this form of rape, Soldier
And it worked. We did attain information
acquires power and superiority over the
(POTE, p. 16).
prisoners, who are powerless. This inversion
of power relations occurring in specific
The text clearly shows that these claims
contexts is “a transaction of identities
against prisoners were orchestrated in order
between the perpetrator and the victims i.e.
to justify American brutality and violation
how their social identities become situated”
of their enemies. Ethnic, racial, religious
(Skjelsbæk, 2001, p. 226). This concept
and nationalist hatred is the motive that aids
claims that wartime rape is a matter of
in the dehumanising of the enemy’s army
acting, not being, which means that it is
and their civilian population through the
not about gender and sexuality but about
act of rape as an effective warfare tool to
the situation and circumstances; the latter
achieve strategic aims (Skjelsbæk, 2001).
are the conditions that decide who will be
Soldier insists that rape is a war tactic by
the victim and who will be the aggressor
which the army can get information from the
(Skjelsbæk, 2001). Thus, the perpetrator’s
enemy, obligatorily believing that these men
sexuality is not an end by itself in the act
represented the enemy who master-minded
of rape, but a means of projecting violence
the attacks of 11 September, 2001 and other
(Seifert, 1991).
terrorist attacks against America. She clearly
In the text of the play, another reference
states that they are:
to this strategic and collective power lies in
guys who had Soldier’s confession that:
KILLED AMERICANS. GUYS WHO I was doin what had to be done,
WERE
to get the intelligence…. I was softening
PLANNING ANOTHER 9/11, dude,
them up; you might put out hard butter
AND
on the windowsill” (POTE, p. 15).
YOU ARE UPSET THAT I laughed AT
THEIR WILLIES? (POTE, p.18) The American combatants integrate the
motives of their rape of Iraqi prisoners
These accusations expose the real motive with the collective conception of their own
behind the atrocities committed by the national and ethnic identities. Rape in this
war context is about power and dominance masculinises the perpetrator and feminises
over the victim as a representative of his the victim. Men when victimised by rape,
ethnicity or religion, and not done to realise take the feminine position of women: “a man
for sexual or individual motives. Therefore, who is victimized though sexual violence in
performing rape in public and against large the war-zone, is also feminized” (Skjelsbæk,
numbers of people is intended to realise a p. 225). The position of the perpetrator is also
further end other than sexuality, that is, it is drawn as that of masculinisation, depending
to spread fear in the community (Oosterhoff on the structure and dynamics of masculinity
et al., 2004). In fact, these acts of rape are and femininity. Rape appears as a form
perpetrated as part of a strategy to destroy of violence that best communicates these
a particular ethnic or religious group, which structures and dynamics of masculinisation
in this case, was the Iraqis. The feeling of and feminisation (Skjelsbæk, 2001).
having fun and of ecstasy arising from these Masculinity as an expression of military
acts stem from a political agenda that is dominance is heightened in times of war
based on dehumanising and despising the and conflict.
Muslim prisoners by attacking their sexual In Palace of the End, there are many forms
integrity. of rape that demonstrate the mobilisation of
Thus, this is clear evidence that the rape masculinity and femininity in this process
of the prisoners in this play is a strategic of organised sexual victimisation. The
tool. Soldier declares this fact again when character, Soldier’s, participation with
she states that she was trained to do what another American soldier, Ronnie, in de-
was supposed to be done. It can be said masculinising the prisoners by coercing a
that “In moments of national conflicts, religious Iraqi prisoner, ‘Sheikh’, to have
the formation of national identity and sex with another prisoner is also named
collective subjectivities involving acute rape. Thus, the forced sexual intercourse
power relations can occur in moments between the prisoners themselves is
of exceptional physical violence and considered war rape as happened at Abu-
psychological upheaval” (Edkins, 2003). Ghraib (Sivakumaran, 2007; Maier, 2011).
Thus, the prisoners are the victims of this Thompson depicts this act through Soldier’s
war and the American combatants are the revelation:
means of achieving the far-reaching goals One of ‘em, who the other ones seem to
of the conquering nation. look
up to? I think he was like, a holy man.
Engendered masculinity and femininity.
Ronnie
In this play, American war leaders employed
rape to humiliate and intimidate prisoners in goes to him: “Hey you. Wise Man.
order to discourage resistance to American Mullah. Fuck him, fuck your friend in
forces. This strategic combatant tool the butt, man! Do it now,” (POTE, p.
21).
In so doing, the American soldiers and masculinity as malleable categories that

deliberately impose the label of can conceivably be applied to anyone within
‘homosexual’ on these prisoners even conflict contexts (Skjelsbæk, 2001). Thus,
though they are not homosexual men, these ascriptions of power are not gender-
thereby bringing disgrace to the prisoners related but power-related.
and their community. Talking about the Yet another demonstration of masculinity
psychological damage caused by this rape, and femininity behind institutional rape in
these victims “struggle with the ‘taint’ the play is masturbation. Forcing one of the
of homosexuality attached to male/male detainees to masturbate is considered rape
rape,” (Sivakumaran, 2007) which causes (Peel et al., 2000). It is clearly revealed by
societal stigmatisation especially in Arabic Solider in the text:
Muslim societies. This is the far-reaching I will tell you something. We did a hell
strategic intent of the perpetrator i.e. “to cast of a lot of
this emasculating ‘taint’ on the victim, his
Worse than what you seen. Or what you
community and society, and simultaneously
heard.
cast the role of masculinity onto herself
and her nationality,” (Vermeulen, 2011) as What YOU seen is tiddlywinks: we
Soldier does in this rape incident. Skjelsbæk made a
stated that the victim of sexual violence in man masturbate. Ohhhhhh. So
the war-zone is victimised by feminising SCARY!!!! SO?
both the sex and the ethnic/religious/political So WHAT? (POTE, p.18)
identity to which the victim belongs;
likewise, the perpetrator’s sex and ethnic/ This type of wartime rape, ‘enforced
religious/political identity are empowered masturbation’, between victims or with
by becoming masculinised (p. 225). perpetrators is also reported in Abu-
Masculine power here is associated with Ghraib (Manivannan, 2014, p. 645). This
the dominant male and female combatants type of rape of the prisoners denotes
who are empowered to impose a weaker dehumanisation through sexual acts in a
position on the prisoners. Accordingly, this culture that considers a man’s masculinity
form of rape de-masculinises the victims but as the main element of his superiority and
masculinises the perpertrators through their dignity. The character, Soldier, is ascribing
domination (Lewis, 2009). Gender does masculinity to herself and femininity to the
not equate with the hand of power because prisoner when she forces him to masturbate.
the key element is power, not gender. This Raping the captives in this way is not for
means that whoever wields power and sexual gratification, but to achieve a political
dominance is the masculine, whether man agenda that aims to destroy the dignity
or woman. Both men and women may be of the enemy, the Iraqis, by arousing fear
victims, and must understand femininity and shame in the community. Such acts
guarantee the supremacy and dominance The American war in Iraq was a
of the perpetrators over the powerless geopolitical one in which America tried
(victims). Both victims and perpetrators are to impose its military control over Iraqi
symbolic representations of their national prisoners and their collective identity via
and religious identities, masculinising rape. Thus, man rape is also centred on
the perpetrators empowers their identity, power and masculine domination as in
while feminising the victims weakens their the case of the raped of women; therefore,
identity. both forms of violence include similar
Thus, humiliation resulting from rape constructions of masculinity and masculine-
in this context is a strategic weapon because heterosexualised domination (Sivakumaran,
“sexual violence is a weapon of war if 2007). The powerful position and myth
the effects are so dependent on time and of men being invulnerable to rape are
circumstance” (Skjelsbæk, 2001, p. 229). diminished the moment a man is raped
The captive in this case of rape is powerless and rendered powerless. The normative
and obligated to do whatever he is forced to belief is that the heterosexual man is not an
do. In the play, whether rape is labelled as object of rape but according to the present
“intelligence” or “destroying the terrorist,” study, this belief is inaccurate. In return,
its ultimate aim is to humiliate the enemy Skjelsbæk’s concept argues against the
by denying them their humanity. In times invulnerability of the heterosexual man
of conflict, the structures of masculinity and against the homosexual assumption
are more prominent, so the male victim of male war rape. A man raped by another
is subjected more significantly to the man is stripped of his masculinity and is
contamination of feminine or homosexual forced to take the feminine position. Thus,
characteristics (Seidler, 2006). Skjelsbæk ascribing homosexuality on the prisoners by
thus maps out the perpetrator and victim’s forcing them to rape each other is “largely
hierarchal power relationship and asserts that an exertion of power and control through
the perpetrator is masculinised, whereas the feminizing the other by forcing a man
victim is feminised, irrespective of whether into the sexually submissive role of the
male or female. This claim refutes the female” (Skjelsbæk, 2001, p. 225). In this
universal assumption that the heterosexual way, a man’s body works like a means of
man is invulnerable to rape and highlights communication by which many messages
male victimisation in a war context. The are sent from one side to the other in the
American war agenda on Iraq seen in conflict. The rape of their men relays to the
this play supports the argument that men, Iraqi community that “their male members,
like women, can be victimised by rape in their protectors, are unable to protect
wartime to achieve strategic national goals. themselves …the manliness of the man is
Thus, masculine sexuality and violence are lost and the family and community are made
connected inextricably (Couturier, 2012). to feel vulnerable” (Sivakumaran, 2007, p.
269). Accordingly, the male prisoner and rape against Iraqi male prisoners by
his whole community are stigmatised and American soldiers in Thompson’s Palace
disempowered since rape has turned the male of the End introduces new concepts to the
prisoner into a social body; symbolically, the understanding of wartime rape away from
victim’s national identity is also feminised the labels of ‘torture’, ‘crime of war’ or
and humiliated. The demonstration of ethnic ‘natural consequence of war’. Thus, the
variants and the masculine military power of study explored man’s sexual victimisation
the American combatants over the identity in times of war as an orchestrated combat
of the Iraqi victims, who are predominantly tool. Following Inger Skjelsbæk’s argument
Muslim, becomes public. American leaders in her Social Constructionist Concept, the
tried to justify that the “[the] rapists are act of raping men prisoners of war is an
low-ranking personnel who represent only exertion of control over the enemy’s body
themselves and not America and whom they to achieve far-reaching military and political
labeled ‘the seven bad apples’ who had to be goals. In contemporary wars, men are the
punished for embarrassing the military and object of rape instead of the subject of rape.
the administration” (Coats, 2015, p. 176). The present study proves that Thompson’s
By this feminised depiction of man in play introduces rape as an exercise of
Palace of the End, the dramatist protests power and dominance perpetrated against
against the previous argument that war rape Iraqi prisoners by American troops. Rape
is a gender-based violence that targets only functions to masculinise and empower
women because of misogyny and/or their the collective identity of the perpetrator,
ethnic and religious identity. Thus, man rape while simultaneously feminising and
is acknowledged as “part of [the] backlash conquering the victim’s collective identity.
against feminism.” (Stemple, 2009, p. 629). Therefore, the man’s body is like that of
In this way, the present study presents a new the woman’s in times of war; both are a
strategic reading of war rape that is different symbolic construction through which many
from the feminist one. messages and meanings are delivered to the
opposite side in a war. Finally, the study
CONCLUSION created awareness that man rape in Palace
The present study dealt with man rape in of the End is an intended act strategised to
Judith Thompson’s play Palace of the End. terrorise, dominate, emasculate and then
The rape of men is believed to be abnormal or defeat the collective identity as well as
invisible. However, the act of man rape as a religion of the conquered by inflicting fear
strategic weapon of war has been overlooked and shame on the captured Iraqi prisoners
under the guise of homosexuality, gender- in order to end resistance and win the game
based conflict and the invulnerability of war.
of man to rape. The dramatisation of
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men-in-armedconflict/

The Nature of ‘Nature Tourism’: Exploring the Role of Images

and Imagination in Ecotourism
Kalpita Bhar Paul
Manipal Centre for Philosophy and Humanities, Manipal University, India
ABSTRACT
In present day tourism, ecotourism has gained significant popularity and is an avenue to
foster synergy between economic, cultural, and ecological growth. This paper attempts
to demonstrate how the ecotourism industry uses the power of human imagination to
generate tourism imaginaries. By employing these two tools, ecotourism industry plants
a very unique notion of ‘nature’ in tourists’ minds, in which nature remains pristine and
immaculate. Although this notion hardly matches the actual reality, ecotourism showcases
a fabricated reality of tourist spots to fulfil tourist demands. By drawing examples from the
flourishing ecotourism industry of the Sundarbans, through in-depth interviews of tourists
and analysis of tour brochures, the stark differences between imaginaries and actual reality
are documented. Finally, this paper concludes that what ecotourism attempts to offer through
imaginaries and the primary objectives of this industry are self-contradictory and can only
be attained through the power of imagination.
Keywords: Ecotourism, imagination, imaginaries, nature tourism, Sundarbans
INTRODUCTION industry. On one hand, tourism is one of

India, blessed with rich geographical the most important economic activities in
and zoological diversity, has always had a country like India, which is known for
a mixed relationship with the tourism its biophysical as well as cultural diversity
(Kakkar & Sapna, 2012). On the contrary,
increasing number of tourists to a rather
undisturbed natural region always brings
ARTICLE INFO anxiety to environmentalists and ecologists
Article history:
because of its projected impact on local
Accepted: 07 December 2017 ecosystems and biodiversity (Rizal &
E-mail address: Asokan, 2014). Primarily, for this reason,
[email protected] (Kalpita Bhar Paul)

Kalpita Bhar Paul
in the era of global warming and climate environment as it slowly ruins the natural
change, the tourism industry has modified beauty of the place. In this day and age,
the term ‘nature tourism’ to ecotourism although ecotourism influences every kind
to strike a balance between its economic of tourism, in the case of nature tourism, it
benefits and socio-environmental impact. plays a crucial role in maintaining a balance
Firstly, it is important to clarify what is of the socio-ecological fabric of tourist
meant by nature tourism. It has a long spots. In an effort to preserve the natural
history of meeting different purposes such beauty and true essence of natural aesthetics,
as exploring nature for adventure, hunting nature tourism is now synonymous with
or to engage in nature sports. In this context, ecotourism, which is clearly revamping the
nature tourism reflects the desire of humans idea of nature tourism at the very level of
to enjoy the beauty of nature as its ethereal its scaffolding. It reduces the externalities of
beauty has always led people to explore and the tourism industry on local environments
marvel at it. Natural aesthetic imagination and on native communities, as well as
plays a vital role in fuelling the interest in promises to bring economic benefits to the
nature tourism (Denker, 2004). In order to host communities. Moreover, it also tries to
satisfy their desire to experience the awe provide experiential satisfaction to tourists
of nature through direct sense perception, by serving a holistic picture of tourist places,
humans travel all across the world. and creates an opportunity for tourists to
The traditional mode of nature tourism connect with the local way of life.
creates a dualistic scenario altogether. On Simply put, ecotourism is a broad term
one hand, tourists prefer visiting unspoiled, that attempts to explore the interaction
pristine nature and also like to fantasise between tourism and the environment.
about the local inhabitants of a place. Naturally, when the environment is at
Nature-loving tourists tend to imagine the centre of attention, native people also
that communities still do live in the past become an integral part of ecotourism. Due
and strive to connect with the cultural to the wide range of possible interactions
aspects of local life. On the other hand, the between these two terms (environment and
natural landscape of tourist spots and its tourism), the entire concept of ecotourism
vicinity has been immensely transformed contains a significant amount of plurality.
by tourism activities due to consumption- To just comprehend some bits of this
based modes of entertainment that are plurality, World Conservation Union defines
generally preferred by tourists. Therefore, ecotourism as: “… environmentally
owing to consumerism, tourists still remain responsible travel and visitation to
as outsiders and fail to connect with the relatively undisturbed natural areas, in
local lifestyle. Consequently, this type order to enjoy and appreciate nature that
of tourism puts a huge toll on the local promotes conservation, has low visitor
The Nature of ‘Nature Tourism
impact, and provides for beneficially this age of ecotourism, and how nature has
active socio-economic involvement of been ‘imaged’ to evoke certain kinds of
local populations” (Lindsay, 2003). imaginations and perceptions. Firstly, the
Meletis and Campbell (2007) defined role of imagination and images of nature
ecotourism as “responsible travel to natural will be reviewed and following that, the
areas that conserves the environment and reciprocal relationship between tourism
improves the well-being of local people” imaginaries and the tourism industry will be
(p. 851), as per the International Ecotourism examined. In the final section, by analysing
Society. To capture this multiplicity of a case study of the thriving ecotourism
definitions, Gilbert (2007) highlights the industry in the Sundarbans, India, some
manner in which the term ecotourism over real world evidence is presented to prove
time has become synonymous with terms how these images and imaginations play
like ‘alternative tourism’, ‘environmental important roles in ecotourism and how
travel’, ‘green tourism’, ‘low-impact often that creates a lofty expectation of
tourism’, ‘ethical travel’ and ‘soft-adventure reality. In addition, this paper will attempt to
travel’. demonstrate that the promises made by this
Through ecotourism, the tourism ecotourism discourse are often contradictory
industry tries to fulfil its objectives by and tend to obscure the actual reality of a
evoking a different realm of fantasy in place.
the minds of tourists. To garner tourists’
attention, this paper deposits that ecotourism Role of Imagination in Nature Tourism
uses images as a tool to conjure up fantasies. or Ecotourism
To create an avenue for green tourism,
Imagination is considered a precious gift of
ecotourism industry uses the power of
God to the human mind. As Reichling (1990)
imagination to form an image of nature that
expressed, “imagination might be viewed as
needs to be protected or, at times an image
a power of the whole of human consciousness
of serene nature that must be experienced
that employs intuition, perception, thinking,
with care. Also, these carefully crafted
and feeling” (Reichling, 1990, p. 285).
images of nature create an own niche market
Perhaps due to our self-conscious state
which promises to strike an optimal balance
of mind, we, humans can experience the
between different types of tourists who
special ability of imagination. Imagination
either go through the hassle of exploring
is an extremely liberating force that helps
pristine, untouched natural spots or enjoy
human beings overcome and figure out
a comfortable and relaxing holiday - two
various difficult situations. It also unlocks
supposedly contradictory demands.
the creative world to one’s mind. However,
In this context, this essay will
the question ‘what is imagination?’ has
particularly detail how imagination plays
always puzzled and divided humanity. An
a central role in nature-based tourism in
account of that is given in the context of
Kalpita Bhar Paul
this paper. Imagination is a process whereby environment. One of the main reasons for a
our self-conscious mind tries to fulfil our tourist to visit new places is to experience
desires. It serves as an opportunity for us to his or her imaginations. However, one can
place ourselves at a particular location where assume that these imaginations about a
we would like to be. Imagination provides us place may or may not match reality. In that
a way to go beyond our everyday framework case, tourists often imagine any missing
of time and space and to explore ourselves components of their imagination and try
in a new spatial as well as temporal domain. to fulfil their desire of seeing a place in
Often, through this process of imagination, the exact way they imagined it. Schroeder
individuals directly connect with nature or named this phenomenon as mental editing.
natural objects. Most people during their For example, in one scenario experienced
childhood have visualised various kinds by the researcher at a forest safari, the co-
of imaginary objects in the clouds or on tourists had pre-conceived thoughts that
a damp wall. Beautiful natural objects they would see deer or elephants in the
play a vital role in evoking imagination in forest, but in reality it was not really easy
one’s mind. It is a well-known fact that the to capture a glimpse of wildlife. However,
aesthetic beauty of natural landscapes has some of them were so eager to experience
influenced poets, writers or artists over the their desires that they repeatedly claimed
years in their creative endeavours. A natural to see a deer behind the groves although in
landscape provides a sense of aesthetic reality there were no deer present.
beauty in our mind, and this aesthetic beauty In addition, tourists often imagine
provokes us to imagine ourselves in front themselves associated to their previous
of various beautiful natural landscapes. connection with similar types of landscapes.
Thus, there is a cyclical process between They attempt to exaggerate their past
the imagination of natural aesthetic beauty memories and imagine themselves as
and gratification of that beauty that invokes somehow connected with landscape in
further imagination. It could be perceived the past. Schroeder gives an example of
that people travel because they want to this kind of imagination as he mentions,
actually sense the aesthetic beauty of “Perhaps the wild garden means a great
nature that they have imagined or because deal to me because it was my stepping stone
travelling to a new place induces the power into a bit of past, with the woodland flora of
of imagination through sensory perception my childhood abundant” (Schroeder, 2009,
of aesthetic nature. Hence, this paper posits p. 13). He termed this kind of imagination
that imagination acts as a critical link as time travel. In time travel, at times
between these two domains - nature and even tourists go beyond their actual life
tourism. experiences and try to connect with the local
Schroeder (2009) illustrated five communities of earlier times by imagining
types of imagination to experience natural their presence at that particular landscape.
Not only do people travel through time, but if it were otherwise; to make absent
on many occasions tourists travel through alternatives to be present to the
space as well. They are prone to imagining mind’s eye. (p. 6)
themselves in a place other than their present
location. It happens particularly after a Along with the aforementioned mode of
tourist returns from a tour. For instance, imagination, ecotourism has a recapitulatory
when idle at home or at the workplace, attribute which can be termed as colonial
he or she goes back to the recently visited legacy. Mostly, in countries like India or
natural landscape and imagines himself other developing nations, colonial legacy is
or herself to be present there again. On considered the primary source of imagination
other occasions, when tourists are in a which aids the success of ecotourism
natural landscape, fictional stories or fairy (Gilbert, 2007). In this context, Echtner
tales from their memories lead them to and Prasad (2003) identified three recurring
a completely different imaginary world. myths which are inevitably connected to
Schroeder addresses this as travel to other imagination and are particularly essential
places. The last kind of imagination is for tourism in developing countries: the
quite anthropomorphic, as tourists try to myth of the unchanged, the myth of the
impose a human character on nature such unrestrained, and the myth of the uncivilised
as when they refer to nature as ‘mother (Salazar, 2012). These three myths are the
nature’. This kind of imagination evokes a prime drivers for ecotourism expansion
completely different type of aesthetic beauty which attract foreign tourists to developing
and is called personification. All these countries. Tourists from developed nations
categories show that by imagining natural with their own colonial legacy still imagine
landscapes and aesthetic natural beauty, developing countries as a place where one
tourists seek a state of mind in which they can get a taste of unspoiled and untouched
can position themselves in a virtual world. nature. History evokes nostalgia for various
Kearney (1993) rightly captures the effect places, and for the nature and culture of
of imagination as follows: these colonies. People readily imagine
historical memories, and the consequently
It wagers that imagination is evoked nostalgia drives them to return to
the very precondition of human those same places as tourists to cherish
freedom-arguing that to be free similar experiences. Appadurai (1996,
means to be able to surpass the p. 76-78) called such nostalgia without
empirical world as it is given here lived experience as “armchair nostalgia”
and now, and in order to project or “imagined nostalgia” (Salazar, 2012, p.
new possibilities of existence. It 871).
is because we imagine that we are To extend the type of imagination as
at liberty to anticipate how things discussed above, the researcher would like to
might be; to envision the world as
Kalpita Bhar Paul
propose one additional form of imagination. cannot evoke similar aesthetic sensations.
In the age of ecotourism and consumerism- This assumption converts someone into a
driven lifestyle, this imagination can be tourist as travelling to new places offers
termed as intellectual imagination. This the opportunity to access the material
offers a fascinating mixture between manifestations of imagination. Projecting
the ideology of non-consumption and artistic structures onto nature is possible
conservation of nature. Tourists create an because of imagination as it acts as the
altered image of themselves which does main link between these two domains. Our
not match their typical daily image of a imagination enables us to appreciate nature
consumer. In the era of increased global as if it was a piece of art.
warming, when environmental issues The following section will be an attempt
have become pertinent topics even in the to dissect the process through which the
socio-political sphere and in popular social creation of imagination happens. The ways
discourse, this altered image helps to place in which creation of imagination arises in
oneself on a pedestal. It also grants mental the context of tourism through imaginaries
satisfaction as one is transformed from being will be demonstrated. For the tourism
a tourist as a consumer to being a tourist as industry, imaginaries - in the form of
a conserver. Additionally, as ecotourism posters, guidebooks, photographs, and blogs
provides a platform to connect local are used as a means to evoke imagination
people and the tourism industry through in the minds of tourists. Perhaps due to this
economic involvements, tourists gain a reason, the tourism industry is marked as an
sense of fulfilment through involvement in “image production industry” (Harvey, 1989,
philanthropic work. The imagination of this p. 290 - 293).
altered image is the source of intellectual
satisfaction for thousands of tourists who not Imaging Nature in Nature Tourism
only desire a leisure holiday but also equally
Two main agents of tourism are tourists and
cherish any intellectual stimulation they can
the tourism industry. Often times, personal
derive out of the experience.
imagination interacts with institutional and
To conclude, it can be said that human
industrial imaginations and in the process,
life is somehow bound by these inclinations
both are influenced by each other. When
for imagination, beauty, aesthetic nature
we close our eyes and imagine ourselves
which can extend beyond actual life. Some
before a spectacular natural landscape, the
even argue that the specific purpose of
perception of nature as a source of aesthetic
human life is to make the world imaginative
beauty evokes certain images. Various
(Salazar, 2012). When one imagines visiting
tourist guidebooks, posters, and tourism
a beautiful place, it automatically reinforces
advertisements shape the imaginations
the assumption that the current place where
tourists form of a tourist spot. This is an
one lives in is not beautiful enough and
example of consumer-producer relationship,
where producers present certain images like ‘this is the heaven on earth’; nothing
in front of consumers and these images more can exist apart from this image of the
together create the imaginations held by landscape.
consumers. Through these means, the Our minds always imagine pictures of
tourism industry tries to portray an aesthetic aesthetic nature which are pristine and full
nature and their posters, leaflets as well as of wilderness. In this context, ecotourism
websites are very much inclined to this. raises the bar as it offers tourists the added
Tourists tend to exaggerate this aesthetic satisfaction that they can exclusively be a
sense through imaginations that are based on part of the pristine nature, and at the same
all these advertisements. In this manner, the time, be able to contribute to the preservation
industry presents a paradisiacal environment of the same. On a critical note, Meletis
to prospective tourists and promises to and Campbell (2007) pointed out that
fulfil dreams to consume the aesthetics of ecotourism uses nature as a product and tries
local landscape and population “through to go beyond ‘natural’ nature and imposes
observation, embodied sensation, and an artificial image of aesthetic nature in the
imagination” (Salazar, 2012, p. 866). minds of tourists. The idea of pristine nature
To capture the attention of tourists, this or wilderness also acts as one of the steps
industry strategically uses beautiful and to form an aesthetic component of nature.
visually appealing photographs of forests, In this case, the researcher argues that
seas, or mountains. They never expose this desire to see nature bestowed with an
the all-inclusive pictures of reality. “Eco aesthetic essence is a consumeristic attitude
tourists are often presented with sanitised but hidden behind a completely different
or ‘greenwashed’ versions of destinations” veil. To fulfil the demands of tourists,
(Meletis & Campbell, 2007, p. 864). For local communities are sensationalised and
example, a photograph of a mountain the entire ecotourism experience is also
landscape will neither capture the garbage packaged under the façade of greenery and
heap in the valley nor the massive crowds pristine surroundings, as these are the main
that may be found due to presence of other drivers behind romanticising nature. To
tourists. This is because the photograph of meet the aesthetic wants of ‘ecotourists’,
a mountain landscape with only a partially the ecotourism industry crafts a special kind
highlighted reality can evoke the desired of landscape that is portrayed differently
imagination in the human mind and the from reality. It can be seen that the current
subsequent aesthetic desire, while the other concept of homestay is developed to exploit
mentioned attributes of the same landscape the same motivation. This idea specifically
can act as repelling factors. The carefully opens the door to relate and connect to
chosen frame of the entire landscape is local people and their culture. This kind of
‘picturised’ so dramatically that it feels packaging also obscures the actual reality.
Kalpita Bhar Paul
By romanticising nature this way and by maintain this frozen, static view, people tend
perceiving nature as a beautiful object, a to exclude human beings or other tourists
satisfactory subjective experiential memory who are present at a tourist spot when
of fabricated reality is generated. capturing a photo. Human beings ultimately
In recent times, it can be observed that only appear in pictures when either the
tourists enjoy the aesthetic beauty of a subject wants to place himself or herself
tourist spot mostly through the lenses of their in the photo or when one tries to capture
camera rather than actually experiencing it an image of the local people. Individuals
through their eyes. Through photography, try to exclude other tourists from their
one can very easily capture an image of photographs to highlight that the special
pristine nature or natural landscape and moment only belongs to them and sharing
later on, these images are used as a tool a moment with others somehow makes it
for evoking one’s imagination. Through less exclusive.
this, photography becomes an integral part Interestingly, in this context, Foale
of the culture of tourism. This culture of and Macintyre (2005) bring the attempt of
photography however, portrays nature with Sontag to compare guns and cameras. In
attributes that are completely opposite to that line with this comparison and consistent
of actual reality which Salazar (2012) states with current times, guns have been replaced
with reference to Barthes and Lowenthal: by cameras because nature has become
something which brings nostalgia rather
Still photographs stand diametrically
than fear. This nostalgia creates stimulation
opposite of the natural flow of
for imagination to preserve the wilderness
life. The photograph is a silent,
of nature. The idea of pristine nature is also
immobile rigor mortis of reality,
directly connected to the idea of wilderness.
a symbolic death (Barthes, 1972).
Tourists find it extremely fascinating to
This temporal ambiguity is of major
imagine a part of the landscape being
significance for a great deal of
pristine, which means it is completely
tourist activities which are directed
devoid of other human beings. Hence, the
at experiencing the past (Barthes
entire conceptualisation of wilderness is
& Lowenthal, 1985, as cited in
based on the drive for discovery which acts
Salazar, 2012, p. 875).
as the main source of motivation for many
voyagers and explorers of the past. This
Through this ‘picture window’, tourists drive of discovery can be justified by the
perceive a serene view of nature which is thrill one experiences after discovering the
aesthetically pleasing but is a ‘frozen’ and landscape in a pristine state. This makes
‘static’ outlook. These kinds of images of the experience exclusive as the individual
landscapes create an ecologically deceptive imagines something that is to be seen
perception (Bookchin, 1998). Ironically, to only by himself or herself. This sheer
exclusivity of experience drives tourists to for the holiday. Looking at this process of
visit places they consider pristine in that imagination, it can be said that any form of
sense. Unfortunately, this is not really the tourism is completely meaningless if there
case for most places. Perhaps due to the are no expectations formed before the direct
difficulty of even imagining a place to be subjective experience. Various tourism
pristine, tourists are further motivated to agencies seem to clearly understand this and
locate comparatively unexplored places accordingly market their advertisement as:
for exploration. However, in this case, the
A holiday is not really a holiday
idea of pristine nature is solely dependent
unless you do something different
on the nominal presence of other tourists.
… Getting away from the urban
Generally, the presence of local people does
bustle into the lap of nature, in the
not affect the imagination of a place to be
midst of luxury, a face-off with
pristine. This also points to the notion that
the wild, a bit of challenge, a little
the local people are seen to be a part of the
adventure and loads of fun …That
entire landscape and are viewed as ‘pristine
is what good holiday constitutes.
communities’.
(Mahua Tiger Resort, 2011)
Tourism Imaginaries and Impact of

A caption like this can often be found in many
‘Imagination’ on Tourism
advertisements. The tourism industry creates
The impact of imagination on tourism closely a series of imaginaries based on a “complex
depends on how tourism imaginaries are system of presumption” (Salazar, 2012,
circulated throughout society. Imaginaries p. 864). These presumptive imaginaries
drive tourists and the tourism industries in develop a desire for a set of experiences.
many ways. To become a passionate and an Summarised in one sentence, “It is hard
ardent tourist, individuals should employ to think of tourism without imaginaries or
the power of imagination in several daily ‘fantasies’” (Salazar, 2012, p. 865).
activities such as reading novels, playing Along with images and numerous
games, watching movies, telling stories, and discourses on places, host communities are
daydreaming because planning a vacation also an integral part of the tourism industry
and going on a holiday involve the human today (Salazar, 2012). It could be asserted
capacity to imagine or to enter into the that the future of any tourism is solely
imaginations of others (Salazar, 2012, p. dependent on generating these kind of
863). Imagination has a key role in a holiday images and discourses, along with ensuring
experience as most holidays are lived before their effective circulation. Considering the
being actually experienced. Before visiting indispensable presence and importance
a place, one should undergo the phase of of images in the tourism industry, Salazar
imagination that is gathered from various (2012) introduced the analogy of ‘mass
sources and this then builds an expectation production’ in the context of creating images
Kalpita Bhar Paul
in tourism sector. The mass production and independently; rather, they

of images and various discourses are ‘‘travel’’ in space and time through
completely dependent on tourists and their well-established conduits, leaving
fantasies. This complete dependence on the certain elements behind and picking
vast possibilities that imaginations offer up new ones along the way, and
allow tourists to experience every moment at continuously returning to their
tourist places. This phenomenon is akin to the points of origin. (p. 868)
opening of Pandora’s Box, when anything
and everything is possible at any moment. In this context, it can also be seen that
At this point, it is important to highlight the very momentary nature of tourism
that a positive feedback loop constantly imaginaries indicates its capacity for
works as diverse imaginations and diverse continual adaptation to new contexts and to
conceptualisations of a place occur in the new consumers.
mind of a person and in the process, unveils Naturally, as local communities consider
more avenues through which fantasies about tourism as an alternative livelihood option,
a place can be shaped. If anything, tourism they get massively influenced by demands
forms a vital part of the “image production of tourists. To provide a romantic natural
industry” (Harvey, 1989, p. 290-293), in experience, native people drastically change
which identities of destinations and their their lifestyle, livelihoods, and depict
inhabitants are “endless (re) invented, (re) themselves as being in tune with nature. As
produced, (re) captured and (re) created in a local communities use their cultural traits
bid to obtain a piece of the lucrative tourism solely for the sake of business, it represents
pie” (Salazar, 2012, p. 866). Tourism a very superficial set of practices carried
imaginaries seem to be primarily composed out just to present an image of primitive
of various exclusive moments. The process harmony between nature and human beings.
of generating imaginaries is complex and At the same time, tourists continue to enjoy
extends not only to the spatial domain, but various non-tangible objects like heritage,
is equally present in the temporal domain as history, habitat, and handicrafts (Gilbert,
well. As Salazar (2012) states: 2007). The researcher emphasises that
the consumeristic demands of tourists to
Tourism images and ideas easily
meet their imagination has the ability to
travel, together with tourists, from
drastically change the entire community
tourism-generating regions (which
dynamics and can impact the way of life of
are also destinations) to tourism
locals to a large extent.
destination regions (which also
As described earlier, imagination is a
generate fantasies) and back.
self-liberating process and for tourists, this
However, tourism imaginaries do
self-liberating urge acts as a guiding force
not float around spontaneously
to fantasise about natural landscapes. The
urge for liberation from modern day living, the claim more explicit, various ambiguities
in terms of overcoming the monotonous which have been discussed will be further
aspect in most daily experiences, is one of explained with an example of the world
the primary reasons for generation of these famous ecologically-sensitive tourist spot,
imaginaries. Tourism provides a window to the Sundarbans of West Bengal, India.
temporarily escape this boredom and offers
the opportunity to experience moments that An Illustration of Ecotourism in the
are completely different and unique. Another Sundarbans
motive behind tourism imaginaries, as put
In this section, an illustration of the Indian
forward by the researcher, is somewhat
Sundarbans ecotourism is provided to
more complicated as it is driven by a deep
capture the way imagination and imaginaries
egoistic dissatisfaction which is entrenched
influence ecotourism as well as to show
in the modern way of living and pushes
how through these two tools, the tourism
one to accumulate and consume in various
industry manipulates reality to grasp
forms. Tourism imaginaries also do the
attention of tourists. During the field work1
same by helping to create a self-image or
in the Sundarbans for her doctoral work,
by enabling an individual to satisfy his or
the researcher had scope of interactions
her ego through mere accumulation and
and conversations with several tourists
consumption of imaginaries. Dann (1976)
distinctly mentioned these two underlying
characteristics of tourist fantasies. There is 1
The researcher has followed the
an urge to overcome the monotony, anomie phenomenological research methodology for
and lack of meaning of everyday life with conducting the field work for her doctoral
research and that field research has yielded
a more satisfying experience - escapism
four articles published in various international
and the desire for exoticism or difference. journals: Baindur, M. and Paul, K. B. 2015.
Besides, there is also the boosting of “Mapping the observer in the observation in
personality - ego-enhancement, leading to Anthropocene: A Methodological Exploration”.
Humanities Circle, 3(2): 61–81. Paul, K.B. and
the accumulation of symbolic capital (as
Baindur, M. 2016. “Leopold‘s Land Ethic in the
cited in Salazar, 2012, p. 871). Sundarbans: A Phenomenological Approach”.
In this context, it can be concluded Environmental Ethics, 38(3), 307–325. Paul,
that tourism imaginaries can be considered K.B. 2017. “Introducing Interpretive Approach
of Phenomenological Research Methodology in
as a set of tools which enable humans to
Environmental Philosophy: A Mode of Engaged
expand their scope of imagination to multi- Philosophy in the Anthropocene”. International
layered dimensions. However, in contrary, Journal of Qualitative Methods (SAGE),
the presence of imagination in the minds 16: 1–10. 1. Paul, K. B. 2017. “Towards a
Community Based Ethic: A Phenomenological
of tourists also serves as a hindrance to
Account of Environmental Change from the
experience the true essence of a tourist Sundarbans’s Islanders”. Journal of Agriculture
spot. In the next section, in order to make and Environmental Ethics, 30(5): 645–665.
Kalpita Bhar Paul
who came from all over the world to visit did you choose this time of year to travel
the Sundarbans National Park. These here? How has your travel experience
casual interactions initially provided the been?” Along with these questions, general
impetus to explore the Sundarbans tourism enquiries regarding the socio-economic
industry and determine how imagination and demographic backgrounds of the
plays a significant role in the success of participants were made. Moreover, a request
this industry. To systematically understand was made that the participants share the
this, four random tourist boats were chosen photographs they captured during their
from more than 35 boats visiting the travel, and based on the pictures, the
Sundarbans and from each boat, interviews researcher tried to discuss their experiences
were conducted of five tourists who were in depth. Evidently, the primary focus of the
chosen randomly, while keeping in mind not interviews was to document the experiences
only the gender ratio but also from where of the participants. The interviews were
these tourists were from. The tourists were mainly conducted on tourist boats while a
mostly from Kolkata and other parts of West few were conducted in Godkhaali, which
Bengal, as well as from Uttar Pradesh and is the mainland area from where the boats
Andhra Pradesh. A group of foreign tourists depart and return. On average, the duration
was also encountered, who came on a tour of the interviews was 30-45 minutes,
of India with the Sundarbans at the top of audio-taped and verbatim transcripts
their list of places to visit in India. In total, were made. Close and detailed reading of
interviews were held with 20 tourists and out these transcripts uncovered themes such
of that, 12 in-depth interviews (seven males, as pristine nature, local culture, Royal
five females, and among them, three foreign Bengal tiger, waterscape, and freedom from
tourists, five tourists from West Bengal and mundane life. Through repeated readings
four from other states) were selected to be of these themes, a better understanding of
analysed thoroughly to understand their these interviews was obtained and based on
experiences of and expectation from nature that, conclusions were drawn as presented
tourism in the Sundarbans. The researcher here. The experiences of the researcher
decided to go ahead with this number of in the Sundarbans islands for a period
interviews as saturation in terms of adding of one year provided interesting insights
any new dimension to the concerned into how the tourism industry operates in
understanding was reached during the initial this region. Moreover, examples of tour
analyses of the 20 interviews. The interview brochures and websites were perused to
was guided by questions like: “Why did you explain how imagination and imaginaries
choose to visit the Sundarbans? How did play an important role in the growth of the
you take the decision to stay at the particular tourism industry in the Sundarbans. Also,
island you are staying? How did you get to to gain first-hand experience of traveling
know about tourism in Sundarbans? Why in the Sundarbans, the researcher was part
of a tourist group and experienced various along with the images of exotic animals,
aspects of the Sundarbans tourism as a especially tigers, incite imagination that
tourist. makes people believe that wherever they
The Sundarbans is one of the central go in the Sundarbans, they will encounter
attractions in West Bengal and is a focal these creatures, as if the Sundarbans is the
point of the Indian tourism industry. It place for only these creatures. Contrary
attracts tourists from all over the world due to this imagination, the official report by
to its geographical features and ecological the Ministry of Environment and Forests
diversity. In various tour posters and (MOEF) in 2012 stated that the tiger
advertisements, it is easy to spot images population in the Sundarbans is sharply
of the Royal Bengal tigers, spotted deer, declining. In 2004, the number was 274
or crocodiles that are carefully positioned but it dropped to a range between 64 to 90
to portray the wildlife of this mangrove in the 2012 census (Indian Express, 2013).
forest. These images of wild creatures have Judging by the finding of this report, the
such a powerful presence in the outside density of tigers in the Sundarbans and its
world that even in the second decade of surrounding area is 4.3 tigers per 100 sq.
the 21st century, the Sundarbans is known km. Moreover, according to a report by
as a ‘man-eater’s place’2. When interacting World Wildlife Fund (WWF) in 2013, 101
with travellers about their expectation from tigers were captured in the entire area of the
visiting the Sundarbans, most of them Sundarbans. The same source acknowledges
expressed that the Sundarbans provides that in 1983, the population of tigers was 264,
a pristine natural environment full of albeit the difference in survey methodology
colourful birds, mangrove forest, and exotic which should be taken into consideration.
animals as well as the backwaters in the Hence, it is understandable that except
sketch of natural scenery in an open sky in the core areas of the Sundarbans Tiger
that meets the sea. These serene pictures Reserve, it is almost impossible to catch
a glimpse of a tiger. Most of the travellers
expressed dissatisfaction as they were not
2
The Sundarbans is widely acknowledged able to encounter the Royal Bengal tiger
as ‘man-eater’s place’ in popular fiction and and bewailed that one needs to have good
literary genre, for example see Montgomery, luck to have a glimpse of a tiger in the wild.
Sy (1995). Spell of the Tiger: The Man-Eaters Still, in every advertisement of this tourism
of Sundarbans. Houghton Mifflin Company,
New York; Ghosh, Amitava. (2004). The destination, the image of tiger is placed at
Hungry Tide, HarperCollins. This fictional the forefront.
and romanticised notion of the Sundarbans Moreover, the creation of the Sundarbans
has been perpetuated to tourists coming from tourism imaginaries in most travel brochures
other countries as well as to Indians who are
not aware of the present scenario of the Indian suppresses and hides the underdeveloped
Sundarbans conditions of human settlements in this
Kalpita Bhar Paul
area, but instead, highlights the imaginaries km2. Although population density directly
of isolated islands with exotic animals, influences the rest of the claims made by
waterscape 3 or just portrays intriguing these tour organisers such as the existence of
pictures of the individual fisherman or isolated islands or pristine nature, this region
a cluster of women carrying fuel-wood. is exclusively marketed in advertisements,
Many of the advertising agencies emphasise either as the home of Royal Bengal tigers
and highlight that the Sundarbans is home or as a haven for bird watchers5. At most,
to 334 species of plants, 49 species of references to the islanders are limited
mammals, 320 species of birds, 53 species to some tribal cultural performance by
of reptiles and 400 species of fish while the Munda or the unique way of escaping tigers
elusive keystone species of the Sundarbans in the forest by honey gatherers 6. Tour
Mangrove Forest, the Bengal Tiger ranges organisers strategically bypass these facts
in 440 tigers only, according to the Forest by organising their trips through motorised
Department census. boats. This then creates a distance between
Ironically, most tour organisers the tourists, and the local life and the
avoid revealing in their brochures or actual reality faced by local communities.
advertisements the fact that the Sundarbans Furthermore, to sustain the constructed
is also densely populated by another species, images of the sea, tigers, crocodiles, deer,
that is, humans, along with all the other birds, and mangrove forests, these organised
types of media previously mentioned. For tours cleverly ignore islands which are
that matter, it is one of the most densely mainly inhabited by humans.
populated areas with an average density As discussed in the preceding section,
of 925 persons/km2, based on 2001 census the current trend of ecotourism emphasises
(WWF, 2013), whereas, the average density on building a relationship between local
for the entire state of West Bengal is 903 inhabitants and tourists as well as trying
persons/km2 which is the highest4 in India to provide alternative livelihood options
(Census, 2001). To put this estimate into for the local people. However, in the case
perspective, the population density for of the Sundarbans, the situation is quite
the whole of India is just 325 persons/ different. The primary means of tourism
here is through motorised boats, and most
of the time these boats come from outside
3
Please see various websites on Sundarbans’
tourism such as: Denzong Leisure (http://
www.denzongleisure.com/packages/jungle_ 5
See http://www.travelchhutichhuti.com/
safari_sundarban_1); Tour De Sundarbans sundarban-tour-packages.html
(http://www.tourdesundarbans.com/gallery. 6
See Denzong Leisure (http://www.
php?page=1) denzongleisure.com/packages/jungle_safari_
4
Though in overall ranking West Bengal is sundarban_1) and Tour De Sundarbans
ranked 6th, all of them before West Bengal are (http://www.tourdesundarbans.com /gallery.
union territories. php?page=1)
the Sundarbans, mainly from Kolkata or areas are predominantly occupied by

Diamond Harbour, or Namkhana, which migrants from Bangladesh, Jharkhand
are the nearest major towns or cities. As or other districts of West Bengal. Hence,
most travel agencies are located outside owing to this reason, they do not obtain
these islands, the organised trips also any indigenous status, and somehow are
procure resources from outside. In the case deliberately ignored by the tourism industry.
of individual tourists, there is an income By assessing these facts, it can be
opportunity for local boatmen who transport claimed that mass production of images
tourists to the surrounding areas. This study creates a particular notion about various
puts forward two main constraints faced by tourist places. At times, these public images
tourism in the Sundarbans region that make become so widely circulated that they
it tough to rely heavily on outside resources. completely invade the private or personalised
Firstly, its uncertain climate condition makes images of a place, and subsequently, public
it difficult to provide assurance of hosting notions percolate into personal expectations.
tourists each and every year, so islanders
cannot entirely be dependent on tourism. CONCLUSION
Secondly, the unavailability of electricity The objective of this study is to explore
stands as a major obstacle in making all the the role of imagination and images in the
necessary local arrangements. In this regard, discourse of nature tourism. To achieve this,
it is reasonable to expect that tourists would throughout the entire study, the key role that
not get much exposure to the lifestyle of the imagination holds in the vast and growing
locals. Through the understanding obtained tourism industry was fully explored. Various
by the researcher from this study, it can be manifestations of imagination were given
seen that negating the reality of the human due importance and consideration. An
settlements and present infrastructural attempt was also made to illustrate the
barriers of the Sundarbans are two main means through which the tourism industry
reasons why the tourism industry constructs employs images as an essential tool for their
a different world based on landscape and business and portrays nature in a distinct
biodiversity, which is far from the existing manner to evoke imagination in minds of
true essence of the Sundarbans. tourists. However, the questions arising here
On a more critical note, the researcher are: why has this discussion been limited to
finds that the inhabitants of the Sundarbans only the context of ‘nature tourism’ and also
are not treated as an integral part of tourism why is the concept of ecotourism mostly
as they do not belong to any recognised expanding in the case of ‘nature tourism’? It
ethnic group and are not labelled as ‘tribal’, is important to address these two questions
except for the Mundas. Hence, their lifestyle at this stage. Pragmatically, the definition
and culture also do not evoke any kind of of ‘nature’ has so much of variation that it
romanticism. As a matter of fact, these is quite difficult to fix a particular definition
Kalpita Bhar Paul
to it. Although theoretically, nature is with the incentive of aesthetic as well as

everywhere, still the discourse of ‘nature philanthropic satisfaction. On the other,
tourism’ places an emphasis on a special the tourism industry promptly uses various
kind of conception of ‘nature’ and this gets constructed images as an essential tool for
altered depending on the situation. On the their business and portrays nature in a very
contrary, for any other type of tourism, such unique manner to facilitate imagination
as religious or historical, tourist hotspots in the minds of tourists. However, in this
already possess certain intrinsic values. dialectical process, the significant role of
However, in the case of nature tourism, imagination on the part of tourists is viewed
this value has to be ascribed by the tourism as the primary initiator of this process. In
industry. There is little doubt that the this relationship, the question arises as to
concept of ecotourism has uncovered a whether it is ethical to commoditise nature
completely new range of possibilities where for the sake of economic and industrial gain.
the tourism industry can easily transform an This question becomes more complex, when
ordinary place to a popular tourist spot. In to accomplish this ‘commoditisation’, the
this process of creation, the role of images, reality on the ground gets obscured with
as extensively described in this study, is a rosy and distorted image perceived of a
absolutely central. Without the portrayal of tourist destination. Nevertheless, it would
these images, it is almost impossible to draw be absolutely hypocritical to put the entire
attention of tourists to a rather unexplored blame for creating this imagination on the
tourist place. tourism industry. It is posited that the driver
Moreover, with ecotourism being a of this is primarily from the fundamental
watershed event in the tourism industry, human nature. Here, it is argued that
it attempts to go beyond the socio- the main factor behind the imaginative
environmental externalities commonly minds of tourists stems from the proverb,
associated with tourism. Ecotourism is ‘the grass is always greener on the other
seen as capable of providing a win-win side’. This proverb also rightfully captures
situation for all stakeholders - tourists, host the basic nature of human beings. To
communities, the tourism industry, and provide this greenery, the tourism industry
the environment. This study thoroughly continuously does a ‘green-wash’ especially
analysed how a dialectical process between with the support of ‘green’ images. Hence,
tourists and the tourism industry actually tourism as an activity, opens up a unique
helps to solidify a fresh new concept avenue to study various subtle demands and
like ‘ecotourism’. On one end of this conceptions of human minds and how they
dialectical process, tourists are eager to can act together to perceive reality out in an
take a break from their mundane life entirely different manner. This also feeds
and want to experience exotic places into the age-old debate that reality is what
one wants to perceive through the eye of the also in a way, are self-contradictory in their
mind rather than what is actually present very formulation.
before the observer.
Lastly, on a critical note, the definition ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of ecotourism explicitly highlights its two The researcher wishes to acknowledge the
fundamental attributes. Firstly, it provides institutional support of Manipal Centre
the platform to interact and commune for Philosophy and Humanities, Manipal
with the host community to offer a ‘true’ University, particularly, the guidance
experience of the place. Secondly, it tries to provided by Prof. Sundar Sarukkai to
conserve the host environment which also conceptualise and improve this study.
encompasses the local community. This
study has explored the manner in which REFERENCES
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between-64-and-90/1052945/

Gender Differences in Behaviourally Fractionated Omitted

Stimulus Reaction Time Task using Visual, Auditory and
Somatosensory Stimuli
Hernández O. H.1,2*, Alfonso-ArguelloJ. I.1 and Hernández-Sánchez J. A.1
1
Biomedical Research Center, Autonomous University of Campeche,
Agustín Melgar Avenue between Juan de la Barrera and 20th street, Colonia Buenavista,
San Francisco de Campeche, Campeche, Mexico
2
General Hospital of Specialties, Ministry of Health. Av. Lázaro Cárdenas No. 208,
San Francisco de Campeche, Campeche, Mexico
ABSTRACT
Although most studies in the field agree on gender differences regarding reaction times,
disagreements also remain about this trend. This is a replication study with a large sample
size designed to verify the consistency of a prior result that showed an absence of gender
differences in omitted stimulus reaction time (OSRT) task using behavioural criteria to
fractionate reaction time into Premotor (cognitive) and Motor components. A total of 112
healthy participants (56 males) responded to the termination of a train of visual, auditory, or
somatosensory stimuli. The results did not support the previous finding and showed that men
have faster Premotor and Motor responses on each of the three sensory modalities. Faster
responses were obtained with auditory rather than visual or somatosensory stimuli. These
results are relevant to developing a better understanding of the different time processing
capabilities of the male and female brains.
Keywords: Cognitive, movement, multisensory, omitted stimulus, reaction time
INTRODUCTION
Time estimation is considered an important
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: control mechanism in the behaviour of
Received: 16 February 2017
organisms and is an indirect index of the
E-mail addresses:
processing capabilities of the brain. It helps
[email protected]; in determining sensory-motor associations
[email protected] (Hernández O. H.),
[email protected] (Alfonso-ArguelloJ. I.), and the alertness of a person because how
[email protected] (Hernández-Sánchez J. A.)
*Corresponding author quickly a person responds to a stimulus

depends on his/her reaction time (RT). A spatial or visual stimulus is presented, but
number of papers have found significant women are faster when they must react to an
differences between men and women in auditory signal (Lahtela, Niemi, & Kuusela,
distinct time estimation tasks (Bell, 1972; 1985). Nevertheless, Spierer, Petersen,
Delay & Richardson, 1981; Eisler & Eisler, Duffy, Corcoran and Rawls-Martin (2010)
1992; Hancock, Vercruyssen, & Rodenberg, found faster responses in men than women
1992; Rammsayer & Lustnauer, 1989). presented with auditory signals. Still other
Others report no gender differences (Ayala, studies have found no gender differences
De Ste Croix, Sainz de Baranda, & Santonja, in RT tasks (Teleb & Al Awamleh, 2012).
2014; Hong et al., 2014; Marmaras, A different type of RT occurs when
Vassilakis, & Dounias, 1995; Roeckelein, a task presents a recurring stimulus that
1972; Teleb & Al Awamleh, 2012). One requires an immediate response to the
way to assess the time estimation is through omission of the stimulus. This is known as an
the measurement of RT to sensory stimuli, omitted stimulus reaction time (OSRT) task.
which is considered to reflect the sum of Although the OSRT paradigm is somewhat
the duration of a series of mental and motor uncommon, it bears a resemblance to some
processes, requiring stimulus perception, real-life situations such as those requiring
cognitive selection, and response execution reaction to the cessation of a flashing
(Welford, 1952). Much research has been stoplight, or to a missing beep on a heart
published about RT, and it is clear that RT monitor. It is considered additional cognitive
is influenced by several factors, such as processes, such as sustained attention and
age, practice, and drugs (Kosinski, 2013). mental chronometry to determine when the
Although gender differences in RT have next stimulus is expected and discrimination
been demonstrated in several studies (Adam of the cessation of a temporal stimulus
et al., 1999; Dane & Erzurumluoglu, 2003; sequence, that are not involved in choice
Der & Deary, 2006; Landauer, Amstrong, RT tasks (Hernández, Huchin-Ramirez, &
& Digwood, 1980; Riccio, Reynolds, & Vogel-Sprott, 2005; Bullock, Karamürsel,
Lowe, 2001; Sherman, 1978), it is still a Achimowicz, McClune, & Başar-Eroglu,
controversial issue (Teleb & Al Awamleh, 1994). Most importantly, the trigger for the
2012). Some authors have argued that behavioural response is an internal cognitive
males have faster RT than females (Barral process and not an external event. This task
& Debu, 2004; Dane & Erzurumluoglu, is also of considerable interest because the
2003; Der & Deary, 2006), even in animals omitted stimulus potential (OSP), a special
(Bayless, Darling, Stout, & Daniel, 2012). form of event-related potentials (ERPs),
Others suggest that the speed of response is accompanies the cessation of a train of
a function of the type of stimuli presented stimuli that lasts a few seconds (Bullock et
(Burnstain, Bank, & Jarvick, 1980) and al., 1994). Previous research has shown that
men have an advantage over women when the OSP and the OSRT share some qualities
Gender Differences in OSRT
(Hernández & Vogel-Sprott, 2008, 2009, in the Premotor time, but this difference did
2010). not reach any significance. Although this
Research has shown that the total RT can was a statistically non-significant result,
be partitioned into Premotor (cognitive) and the observed male advantage motivated
Motor (movement) components to determine the researchers to conduct a further study
the source of the timing delay related to a to ascertain possible gender differences in
process (Botwinick & Thompson, 1966a). the OSRT task in order to ratify or rectify
This procedure of fractionating RT to the such results. In this study, the number of
presentation of a stimulus has been applied males and females was more than twice
to simple and choice reaction time tasks those previously reported, and used only
(Botwinick & Thompson, 1966a; Ito, 1997; their dominant hand in responses with no
Raynor, 1998; Simmons, Wass, Thomas, lateralised stimuli. Gender differences in the
& Riley, 2002) and also to the OSRT task, OSRT are important because they show that
using behavioural fractionation (Hernández, the brain works differently in men and women
et al., 2005). to handle internal information such as the
Gender differences in the Premotor timing and expectation. Gender differences
and Motor components of RT are also in the OSRT are particularly important to
controversial. Botwinick and Thompson drug studies. Some cognitive information
(1966b) found that these two components about the effects of acute doses of alcohol
do not differ among men and women. on the Premotor and Motor fractions of the
Conversely, Ervilha, Fernandes Da Silva, OSRT in men has already been published,
Correa Araujo, Mochizuki and Hamill but the equivalent information in women is
(2014) found faster Premotor fraction missing (Hernández, Vogel-Sprott, Huchín-
RT for athletic women, but faster Motor Ramirez, & Aké-Estrada, 2006).
RT for athletic males, with no gender This study is an extension of a previous
differences in the total RT. Hong et al. work on behaviourally fractionated RT
(2014) reported Motor fraction to be longer to an omitted stimulus with the aim to
in elderly women but not in elderly men, verify the lack of gender differences
with no gender differences in the Premotor previously reported. The main objective
component. is to determine if gender influence exists
The only study of OSRT comparing in college students´ responses to visual,
the two fractionated measures in men and auditory, and somatosensory stimuli in
women was published by Hernández et al. omitted stimulus reaction time (OSRT) task
(2005), in which a paradigm of lateralised using behavioural criteria to fractionate
stimuli and responses was used. In that reaction time into Premotor (cognitive) and
report, analysis of variance (ANOVA) Motor components.
showed that men were faster than women
METHODS RT to visual, auditory, and somatosensory

stimuli (Hernández et al., 2005). A pattern
Participants
generator (Grass mod. 10VPG) presented
A total of 112 healthy college students the visual stimuli on a monitor. The monitor
volunteered for the study, 56 of whom were presented a black and white checkerboard
females with regular menstrual cycles. with 16 squares (5 × 8 cm each). The centre
Although the cyclic hormones have no of the monitor was placed 30 cm in front of
influence on the OSRT (Hernández, García- the participant’s eyes. The generator, hidden
Martínez, Monteón, & Alfonso-Arguello, from the participant’s view was triggered
2013), they were asked to arrive at the lab and stopped by an electrical stimulator
when they were in days 1-5 of the menstrual (Grass S48), which released a pulse every
cycle. Right-handedness was assessed and two seconds (0.5 Hz) that reversed the black
confirmed using the Annet (1970), and and white squares. The electrical stimulator
Shimizu and Endo (1983) tests. All the also triggered the auditory stimuli, which
participants were aged between 17 and 26 were presented as 10 ms ćlicks´ at 2-second
years (mean of 20.4 ± 2.1 years), and none intervals to both ears through headphones.
reported having any history of nervous The auditory thresholds were determined by
system diseases or motor disability. Subjects reducing the output voltage to a minimum
with well-defined premenstrual syndrome, and gradually increasing the voltage
any gynaecological problems, irregular until the person detected the clicks. The
cycles, or any drug consumption (such as stimulus pulse was then set at 20 times
hormonal treatment and psychotropic drugs) the threshold so that they would be clearly
were excluded from the study. The subjects heard. The somatosensory stimuli were also
were instructed to abstain from consumption administered at 2-second intervals by two
of any stimulant drink or alcohol for at disc electrodes (Grass F-E5SH) placed on
least 24 hours before their arrival at the lab. the medial finger of the right hand. These
All the participants were informed of the electrodes were connected to the electrical
procedures before completing an informed stimulator (Grass S48) through a stimulus
consent form and reported their age and isolation unit (Grass SIU5). Somatosensory
health history. The protocol was reviewed thresholds were also determined and set at
and approved by the Ethics Committee of 1.2-times the threshold, which was well
the university. below the pain threshold.
The responses to the termination of a
Apparatus and Materials train of stimuli in each sensory modality
This task was similar to that used in prior were measured. At the outset of the trial,
research to test the Premotor and Motor a response key (Key 1) was depressed
with the thumb until the train of stimuli ceased. Each trial was preceded by a verbal
ceased. At this time, Key 1 was released ‘ready’signal. The number of stimuli in a
and Key 2, placed 10 cm in front of Key train on a given trial varied between five
1, was depressed. Key 2 was large enough and 10 in a predetermined pseudorandom
to avoid sacrificing speed for accuracy. fashion and was ignored by the participants.
Both response keys were connected to AC A test included 30 trials, with 10 consecutive
amplifiers (Grass P511). Each stimulus and trials administered with each type of
the release and the press of the response stimulus. Trials with a given stimulus were
keys generated clear changes in the voltage completed in approximately 10 minutes and
relative to the baseline that were collected were immediately followed by trials with
online using a computer fitted with an a different sensory stimulus. The order in
analogue-to-digital converter (Biopac, which the sensory stimuli (visual, auditory
Inc.,) and analysed using AcqKnowledge or somatosensory) were presented during
software (Biopac Inc.). The computer the test was counterbalanced in the groups.
recorded the time (in milliseconds) between A test with all three sensory stimuli was
the changes in voltage associated with each completed in approximately 30 minutes.
stimulus in the train of stimuli and the Key The administration of additional trials would
1 and 2 responses. Premotor time (PM) extend the duration of a test and possibly
was measured as the time between the first result in restlessness and fatigue effects.
missing stimulus and the release of Key 1.
Motor time (M) was measured between the Data Analyses
release of Key 1 and the pressing of Key 2.
The scores of any trial in which the response
A participant’s PM and M were recorded for
occurred before or coincided with the first
each trial, and separately for each sensory
missing stimulus in a train were discarded.
stimulus (visual, auditory or somatosensory)
In total, 0.8% of the trial scores were
in the omitted stimulus task.
rejected. On each test, a participant’s PM
and M times were averaged using the trials
Experimental Procedures with each sensory stimulus. SPSS software
The participant was seated in front of a table (SPSS, v.18) was used to analyse the OSRT
where the two response keys were in easy measures using a 2 (gender, that is, men
reach. The task instructions were identical and women) × 3 (sensory, that is, visual,
for each sensory modality. Participants were auditory, and somatosensory) ANOVA.
told to hold down Key 1 at the beginning of A partial Eta-square value (ηp2) provided
each trial and immediately release the Key the ANOVA effect size. To correct the
1 and press Key 2 when the train of stimuli chance occurrence of a result with p<.05
for repeated tests, a Bonferroni correction (F(1,110) = 11.3, p<.001; ηp2 = .093) and
was used to adjust the alpha level. The Sense (F(2,220) = 9.87, p<.0001; ηp2 =
assumptions of normality and equal variance .082), but not in their interaction (F(2,220)
were tested by the Kolmogorov Smirnov test = 1.376; p>.255; ηp2 = .012). Comparisons
and the Levene test, respectively. with Bonferroni test indicated that the
auditory modality was faster than the visual
RESULTS and somatosensory modalities (p<.0001),
The average age of the men was 20.1 ± 1.9 and the visual modality was faster than
years and was 20.8 ± 2.2 for women, with no the somatosensory modality (p<.002) in
significant difference (p>.66). A 2 (Gender) the Premotor component (Table 1). The
× 3 (Sense) repeated measures analysis of Motor component did not have any main
variance (ANOVA) for the Premotor OSRT differences between the visual and auditory
yielded main effects on Gender (F(1,110) systems, but these were both faster than the
= 10.2, p<.002; η p2 = .085) and Sense somatosensory modality (p<.002) (Table
(F(2,220) = 38.5, p<.0001; ηp2 = .259), but 1). Separate paired t-tests for each stimulus
not in their interaction (F(2,220) = .027; modality verified that the men’s responses
p>.584; ηp2 = .005). In the same way, the were faster than the women’s responses
2 (Gender) x 3 (Sense) ANOVA for the in both the Premotor (p<.011) and Motor
Motor OSRT yielded main effects on Gender (p<.021) fractions of the OSRT (Figure 1).
Table 1
Comparison of the Premotor and Motor times in the sensory modalities for the sample
Times Sensory Modality

Auditory Visual Somatosensory
Premotor (ms) 665.1 ± 237.7* 809.4 ± 304.4 915.1 ± 360.6
Motor (ms) 506.8 ± 166.8 501.9 ± 158.1 553.6 ± 181.1**
*p<.0001 compared to visual and somatosensory
**p<.002 compared to auditory and visual
Gender differences in OSRT 17
Figure 1. The Premotor (A) and Motor (B) Fractions of the Omitted Stimulus Reaction Time (OSRT) Task
Figure 1. The Premotor (A) and Motor (B) Fractions of the Omitted Stimulus Reaction Time
according to sensory modality separated by gender *p<.03; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001
(OSRT) Task According to Sensory Modality Separated by Gender
*p<.03; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001
DISCUSSION hunting, than to her, dedicated to planting
The main findings of this study indicate and harvesting in the ancient times.
that men are faster than women in both the The results are not in agreement with
Premotor and Motor components of the the only other study that has compared the
OSRT and in the three sensory modalities, OSRT fractions between men and women
suggesting a male advantage in neural (Hernández et al., 2005). Nevertheless, it
mechanisms involved in timing. This should be highlighted that in the previous
advantage could be more relevant to him for study, although not significant, women had
consistently longer Premotor and Motor to provide guidance in deciding whether an

OSRT than men using lateralised stimuli. observed change due to alcohol is within
This finding motivated the researchers to the boundaries of assessment error or is a
carry out this study with the main goal of true change. In other real life situations,
verifying whether any gender differences differential reactions to an omitted stimulus
exist in this task. The present work has could help music band directors select
several methodological improvements better music players under scientific bases
relative to the previous study: the number or coaches design strategies to optimise
of participants was more than double, the athletes´ training.
stimuli were not lateralised but were central, The Premotor times of the OSRT were
and the tasks were performed only with their slower than those found in the traditionally
dominant hand. simple or choice RT tasks. This is consistent
The faster responses for men than with the fact that response time increases
women are consistent with the findings with higher cognitive loads (Kosinski,
in simple and choice RT tasks when 2013). In the OSRT task, a person must
fine or gross movements are performed not react when a sudden stimulus appears
(Sherman, 1978; Adam et al., 1999; Dane but only when the next stimulus fails to
& Erzurumluoglu, 2003; Barral & Debu, arrive. Thus, the triggers of the behavioural
2004; Der & Deary, 2006; Spierer et al., response are internal cognitive processes
2010; Karia, Ghuntla, & Mehta, 2012). But related to attention, mental chronometry,
as it was mentioned before, others report no and decision making. All these triggers lead
gender differences (Marmaras, Vassilakis & to higher cognitive load of the OSRT task.
Dounias, 1995; Roeckelein, 1972; Teleb & Moreover, difficulty determining that the
Al Awamleh, 2012; Ayala et al., 2014; Hong expected stimulus did not occur is likely to
et al., 2014). The gender differences in the increase as the stimulus takes place at a slow
Premotor fraction could be explained as rate (2 seconds).
changes in brain function between men and This paper is in agreement with the
women, who employ different information study of Hernández et al. (2005), which
and processing strategies to measure time used the OSRT task, and also with many
(Adam et al., 1999; Spierer et al., 2010). other studies (Brebner & Welford, 1980;
An understanding of gender differences Kosinski, 2013) which used conventional
is of value in many ways. It is interesting simple and choice RT tasks in showing
to test the acute effects of alcohol in the faster responses when auditory stimuli
Premotor and Motor fractions of the OSRT were applied. Sanders (1998) reported this
in females, as they were reported in males pattern persists, regardless of whether the
(Hernández et al., 2006). However, before subject is asked to provide a simple response
female alcohol experiments are developed, or a complex response. Unfortunately,
baseline (free-drug) values must be defined comparison with other OSRT results is not
possible as no further studies have examined also important to reproduce this experiment
the Premotor and Motor fractions of OSRT using the left hand and the EMG to
with multisensory stimuli. separate the Premotor and Motor fractions.
The male advantage in the Motor Additionally, further studies comparing
fraction demonstrated in this paper is gender changing stimulus parameters, health
consistent with other results (Blackburn, conditions, previous training, and drug use,
Riemann, Pauda, & Guskiewics, 2004). will provide new knowledge to the omitted
Gender comparison Blackburn, et al., 2004; stimulus task.
Granata, Wilson, & Padua, 2002), and the
idea that motor time is related to the rate CONCLUSIONS
of muscle force production and indirectly
In conclusion, the main finding of this
measures muscle-tendon unit stiffness
replication study was that gender differences
(Blackburn, Bell, Norcross, Hudson, &
do exist in response to auditory, visual,
Engstrom, 2009) is similarly consistent with
and somatosensory stimuli in the omitted
the literature. Men have larger motor units
stimulus reaction time task. The men were
due to their larger muscles, which generate
quicker to respond to both Premotor and
a higher force and movement velocity. Male
Motor fractions than women in the three
athletes´ and trained individuals’ faster
sensory modalities with the dominant hand.
responses support this assumption (Arito &
This suggests that the male and female
Oguri, 1990; Ervilha et al., 2014; Hascelik,
brain employs different strategies to drive
Basgoze, Turker, Narman, & Ozker, 1989;
some internal process such as timing and
Spierer et al., 2010). The results found
expectation in order to trigger a behavioural
slower responses to somatosensory stimuli
reaction.
but no differences between the visual and
auditory stimuli. The longer duration of the
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Effect of Phase-based Instruction Using Geometer’s Sketchpad

on Geometric Thinking Regarding Angles
Poh Geik Tieng and Leong Kwan Eu*
Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Faculty of Education University of Malaya,
ABSTRACT
Teaching and learning geometry is not merely about memorising geometrical properties
but about grasping the conceptual understanding of geometry as well. Students, however,
face challenges in the classroom trying to develop their geometrical thinking. The purpose
of this study is to identify whether phase-based instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad
helps primary school pupils develop their Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking regarding
angles significantly. Eight different pre-sketched activities were designed based on Van
Hiele’s five phases of learning to guide the students in learning about geometrical angles.
Pre and post Van Hiele Achievement Tests were given to both the experimental and control
groups before and after the intervention. Inferential statistics such as Mann-Whitney test and
Wilcoxon signed-rank test were used in analysing the quantitative data. Results of the pretest
indicated no significant difference between both groups of students in their Van Hiele levels
of geometric thinking. After the intervention, the findings showed that students in both the
experimental and control groups have improved significantly in terms of their Van Hiele
levels of geometric thinking. Additionally, results of the Mann-Whitney test revealed that
the difference in Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking between students in both groups was
significant during posttest. In short, phase-based instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad
has helped the students to develop their
Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking and
provided an insight for the educators to
further utilise the software.
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords: Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking,
Article history:
Received: 24 January 2017 phase-based instruction, Geometer’s Sketchpad,
primary mathematics, geometrical angles
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Poh Geik Tieng),
[email protected] (Leong Kwan Eu)

INTRODUCTION in significant improvement in geometrical

Battista (2007) stated that “Geometry achievement as well as Van Hiele levels of
is a complex interconnected network geometric thinking (Abdullah & Zakaria,
of concepts, ways of reasoning, and 2013; Chew & Idris, 2012; Chew & Lim,
representation systems that is used to 2013; Dimakos & Zaranis, 2010; Idris,
conceptualize and analyze physical and 2009).
imagined special environments” (p. 843). Prescott, Mitchelmore, and White
Teachers should stimulate the students’ (2002) conducted an exploratory research on
geometric thinking and develop their Year Three pupils to study their difficulties
reasoning skills about geometry that can in abstracting angle concepts from physical
enable them to carefully analyse spatial activities with concrete materials. In short,
problems and situations (Battista, 2002) Prescott et al. (2002) suggested that the
by preparing meaningful tasks to allow concept of angle seems difficult for Year
exploration of geometric concepts. Erdogan, Three pupils. The pupils faced some
Akkaya, and Celebi Akkaya (2009) stress difficulties in learning angles, which could
that geometrical thinking is not only limited be classified into four categories: matching,
to mathematics but plays an important role measuring, drawing, and describing. Shoval
in students’ cognitive development in all (2011) also found that the achievement of
courses. Therefore, it is important for pupils second and third grade pupils in angles
to develop their own geometrical thinking improved after cooperative learning using
in the elementary level so that they can mindful movement. It seems that the
progress further at secondary level. difficulties faced by primary school pupils in
Crowley (1987) emphasise that learning angles could be overcome through
appropriate instructional guidance is the instructional activities that involve frequent
key to helping students master geometrical interaction.
thinking based on Van Hiele theory.
Abdullah and Zakaria (2013) suggest
Research Purpose
using various approaches in imparting
geometrical knowledge, specifically using This study aims at determining whether
Geometer’s Sketchpad software based on phase-based instruction using Geometer’s
Van Hiele’s phases of learning geometry. Sketchpad helps primary school pupils
Some researchers have conducted studies to develop their Van Hiele levels of geometric
develop students’ geometrical achievement thinking regarding angles. The study intends
and geometric thinking using technology to answer the following research questions:
t o o l s , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e G e o m e t e r ’s 1. Is there any significant difference in
Sketchpad. They found that students were students’ Van Hiele levels of geometric
motivated to learn geometric concepts thinking between the experimental
through Geometer’s Sketchpad, resulting group and the control group before
Effect of phase-based instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad
the phase-based instruction using Hiele theory explains the problems which
Geometer’s Sketchpad? students face and when applied it helps them
2. Is there any significant difference in progress to higher levels of geometrical
students’ Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking (Usiskin, 1982). Erdogan et al.
thinking regarding angles before and (2009) suggest the use of Van Hiele levels
after the phase-based instruction using in geometrical instruction as it enhances the
Geometer’s Sketchpad? role of teachers in managing instructional
activities.
3. Is there any significant difference in
Van Hiele theory proposes five distinct
students’ Van Hiele levels of geometric
levels for categorising students’ geometric
thinking regarding angles before and
thinking, namely Level 1 (visualisation/
after the instruction using traditional
recognition), Level 2 (analysis) Level 3
approach?
(informal deduction), Level 4 (formal
4. Is there any significant difference in deduction) and Level 5 (rigor). Clements
students’ Van Hiele levels of geometric and Battista (1992) suggest an indicator
thinking between the experimental of Level 0 (precognition) for the students
group and the control group after who have not mastered Van Hiele Level 1
the phase-based instruction using of geometric thinking. This study involves
Geometer’s Sketchpad? two of the five levels of geometric thinking,
which are covered in Year FourMathematics
Significance of the Study curriculum:
This study contributes to mathematics (a) Level 1: Visual/Recognition. The
teachers by providing insights into teaching students in Level 1 should be able to
primary mathematics using technology recognise, name and sort shapes based
tools to enhance pupils’ Van Hiele level of on the physical appearance of the shapes
geometric thinking. The mathematics teacher but cannot identify a figure based on its
can try to teach geometry in a sequential way properties (Crowley, 1987; Erdogan et
using phase-based instruction to enhance al., 2009; Van Hiele, 1986).
students’ Van Hiele levels of geometric (b) Level 2: Analysis. At this level, students
thinking as well as guide students’ learning should be able to differentiate the
through exploration to achieve specific geometrical figure based on their
academic goals. characteristics through observations
and experiments. In addition, students
Theoretical Framework should use the properties learnt to solve
Van Hiele Theory of Geometric Thinking. problems. (Crowley, 1987; Erdogan et
Van Hiele theory is “an idea that systemizes al., 2009; Lee & Kim, 2012; Van Hiele,
the experience of mathematical thinking 1986).
processes” (Lee & Kim, 2012, p. 4088). Van
Van Hiele Phase-Based Instruction. Van (e) Phase 5: Integration. Students

Hiele theory also proposes five sequential summarise what they have learnt and
phases of learning to guide students to generate their own understanding about
develop their geometric thinking. The five geometrical concepts.
phases of learning include:
(a) Phase 1: Information / Inquiry. Teachers Review of Related Literature
and students engage in conversation Dimakos and Zaranis (2010) conducted a
and activities such as questioning, quasi-experimental study on how integrating
observations and vocabulary. From the Geometer’s Sketchpad into high school
activities, teachers may know about geometry teaching affected students’
students’ prior knowledge regarding the achievement and proof writing ability. A
topic and the direction of further studies total of 79 grade seven students participated
as well (Crowley, 1987). in this study (40 students were assigned
(b) Phase 2: Guided / Directed Orientation. to the experimental and 39 to the control
Students explore the geometrical group). A Van Hiele based pretest was
concepts using the materials carefully given in the first week. Subsequently,
sequenced by the teacher (Crowley, students in both groups were taught about
1987; Van Hiele, 1986) with minimal triangles and quadrilaterals for six weeks.
guidance from the teacher (Clements & One or two hours of computer activities
Battista, 1992). using Geometer’s Sketchpad per week were
(c) Phase 3: Explicitation. Students explain carried out for experimental group students.
their views about geometrical concepts Posttest was given to evaluate students’
learnt by combining new knowledge geometry achievement after the instruction.
with prior knowledge. The activities in The t-tests results indicated that students in
this phase should be done with minimal both groups improved significantly after
teacher guidance, specifically only on the instruction. The difference in geometry
the use of accurate and appropriate achievement between the two groups was
language (Crowley, 1987). not significant during the pretest but showed
marked difference during the posttest,
(d) Phase 4: Free Orientation. Students
whereby students in the experimental group
are challenged with more complex
scored significantly better than the students
tasks, such as those involving more
in the control group during the posttest.
complicated solution steps and open-
Poh and Leong (2014) also conducted
ended tasks (Crowley, 1987). “By
a quasi-experimental study to investigate
orienting themselves in the field of
the usage of Geometer’s Sketchpad in
investigation, many relations between
the teaching and learning of angles for
the objects of study become explicit to
Year Three pupils in a rural school in
the students” (Hoffer, 1983, p. 208).
Pahang. A total of 31 students from an intact
mixed-ability classroom participated in group students learnt geometrical angles

the study (16 of them were assigned to the using the traditional approach for six
experimental group and the remaining 15 to sessions. After the intervention, the students
the control). Three sets of pre and posttests in the control group obtained higher Van
were developed based on the content of right Hiele levels of geometric understanding
angles, acute angles and obtuse angles. The regarding angles, on average, compared
posttests were administered immediately to the students in the experimental group
after the instruction on the specific types during post Van Hiele Achievement Test,
of angles. Results of the paired samples but the difference was not significant. The
t-tests showed that the Van Hiele levels researchers concluded that the students
of geometric thinking among students might be unfamiliar with the software
in both the experimental group and the and instructional method because of
control group improved significantly after time constraints. Hence, the instructional
the intervention. Although the result of activities have been modified once again for
the independent samples t-tests for three the current study to allow sufficient time for
posttests indicated that the Van Hiele students to explore the geometrical concepts
levels of geometric thinking did not differ on their own.
significantly, it is interesting to find that the In a related study, Siew and Chong
significance value of the difference reduced (2014) conducted a single group pre-test and
over longer duration. post-test experimental design study to foster
In the following year, Poh and Leong pupils’ creativity in terms of Torrance’s
(2015) improvised the instructional tasks Figural Test of creative thinking through
and carried out another quasi-experimental Van Hiele’s five phase-based tangram
study involving 30 Year Three students activities. A total of 144 grade three pupils
in a rural school in Pahang to examine taken from five mixed-ability classrooms
whether Geometer’s Sketchpad could be participated in their study. Three hours of
used to enhance the Van Hiele level of phase-based intervention was given to the
geometric understanding regarding angles pupils regarding two-dimensional shapes
among primary school students. A Van and symmetry.
Hiele Achievement Test, consisting of 10 In another study, Abdul Halim and
multiple choice items was constructed Effandi (2013) disagreed with the traditional
to assess students’ Van Hiele levels of teaching approach, which encourage
geometric understanding regarding angles. pupils to memorise facts and algorithms
The students in the experimental group without understanding the underlying
underwent six sessions of phase-based concepts. They used quasi-experimental
instruction on geometrical angles using research design and developed activities
Geometer’s Sketchpad whereas the control for form two students based on the topic of
transformations, which aimed to identify Chew and Idris (2012) in their case study
the effectiveness of Van Hiele phases of also explored whether pupils’ geometric
geometry learning using the Geometer’s thinking and achievement in solid geometry
Sketchpad on the geometric thinking among regarding cubes and cuboids could be
form two students. The results implied enhanced through phase-based instruction
that instruction using Van Hiele phases using manipulatives and the Geometer’s
of learning geometry through Geometer’s Sketchpad based on Van Hiele theory. The
Sketchpad is more effective compared to the results of the post-interview suggested that
conventional way of learning for improving phase-based instruction using manipulatives
students’ geometric thinking. Based on and Geometer’s Sketchpad had enhanced
their results, the researchers suggested that achievement in solid geometry.
teachers should introduce new approaches Hence, based on previous studies,
in their geometry teaching such as utilising Geometer’s Sketchpad could enhance
Geometer’s Sketchpad software since its secondary students’ geometric thinking
benefits had been affirmed by previous but research using Geometer’s Sketchpad
studies. as an instructional tool for primary school
Similarly, Chew and Lim (2013) also pupils is insufficient (Chew & Lim, 2013).
conducted an exploratory case study to Moreover, the mathematical content of
enhance primary school pupils’ geometric geometrical angle was first introduced in the
thinking through phase-based instruction current primary mathematics syllabus. So
using Geometer’s Sketchpad based on the far, no research has been done on teaching
Van Hiele theory of geometric thinking geometrical angles to Malaysian primary
about equilateral triangle, square, regular school pupils, specifically by using phase-
pentagon, and regular hexagon. Their based instruction aided by Geometer’s
sample involved a class of 26 mixed-ability Sketchpad. The current study adds to the
Year Four pupils from a primary school in existing body of research.
Selangor. Their results indicated that 84.6%
of the pupils’ improved their Van Hiele METHOD
levels of geometric thinking from either
Research Design
Level 0 to Level 2 or from Level 1 to Level
2. At the same time, 15.4% of the pupils A quasi-experimental study of non-
improved their Van Hiele levels of geometric equivalent pretest-posttest design was
thinking from Level 0 to Level 1. There was conducted in one of the primary schools in
a significant difference in the pupils’ Van Pahang, Malaysia. By using non-equivalent
Hiele levels of geometric thinking for all pretest-posttest design, the researcher can
the regular polygons after the phase-based determine the improvement of pupils in
instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad. terms of Van Hiele levels of geometric
thinking within the intervention period. The sampling of the Kuantan district to select
research design is shown as follows: one of the national type primary Chinese
Experimental group O1 X1 O2 schools in Kuantan area because the school
has sufficient personal computers for pupils’
Control Group O1 X2 O2
use. A total of 74 Year Four pupils (ten years
old) participated in the study. The students
O1 r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r e Va n H i e l e
were chosen from two intact mixed-ability
Achievement Test
classrooms. The researcher used coin-toss
O2 r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o s t Va n H i e l e and assigned a class of 38 students as the
Achievement Test
Population and Sample experimental group and another class of 36
X1 represents the phase-based
The population of this study instruction
includes all Yearstudents as the
Four pupils control
in the nationalgroup.
type primary
of geometrical
Chinese schoolsangles using Geometer’s
in Malaysia. There are 74 national type primary Chinese schools in Pahang.
Sketchpad
The researcher employed purposive sampling of the Kuantan district to select one of the
Instrumentation
nationalthe
X2 represents typeinstruction
primary Chinese schools in Kuantan area because the school has sufficient
of geometrical The Van Hiele Achievement Test was
personal computers for pupils’ use. A total of 74 Year Four pupils (ten years old) participated
angles using traditional approach. developed by the researcher to gather
in the study. The students were chosen from two intact mixed-ability classrooms. The
information about 74 Year Four pupils’ Van
researcher used coin-toss and assigned a class of 38 students as the experimental group and
Population and Sample Hiele levels of geometric thinking regarding
another class of 36 students as the control group.
The population of this study includes all geometrical angles. It consisted of twenty
pupils in the national type primary multiple choice items. Sample items for
Year FourInstrumentation
Chinese The
schools in Malaysia.
Van Hiele AchievementThere 74 eachbylevel
are developed
Test was of geometric
the researcher to gatherthinking regarding
information
national about
type74primary
Year FourChinese schools
pupils’ Van in of geometric thinking regarding geometrical Figure
Hiele levels angles are illustrated in the following
Pahang. The researcher
angles. It consistedemployed purposive
of twenty multiple 1. Sample items for each level of geometric
choice items.
thinking regarding angles are illustrated in the following Figure 1.
Sample items
Van Hiele Level 1 of Geometric Thinking Van Hiele Level 2 of Geometric Thinking
3. What type of angle is shown on the clock in 18. Based on Diagram 11, which statement is
Diagram 1? correct?
G
E F
Diagram 1 Diagram 11
A Acute angle A ∠𝐸𝐸 is 30° and it is a right angle.

B Right angle B ∠𝐸𝐸 is 80° and it is an acute angle.
C Obtuse angle C ∠𝐹𝐹 is 25° and it is an acute angle.
D Straight angle D ∠𝐺𝐺 is 55° and it is an obtuse angle.
E Reflex angle E ∠𝐺𝐺 is 100° and it is a right angle.
Figure 1. SampleFigure
items1.for each level
Sample Itemsof
forgeometric thinking
Each Level regarding
of Geometric angles
The students in both the experimental and control groups were allowed to use Geometer’s
Sketchpad as another Pertanika
choice in J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 329 - 344 (2018)
answering the test besides paper and pencil so that they 335
10
The students in both the experimental (SPSS) version 20.00 and generated
and control groups were allowed to use Cronbach alpha value of .737. Nunnally
Geometer’s Sketchpad as another choice in (1978) suggested that an instrument with an
answering the test besides paper and pencil alpha value above .7 would have sufficient
so that they possessed the same condition internal consistency.
and environment during the assessment.
They were also provided with a protractor Procedures
and virtual protractor to help them visualise
The research procedure for this study is
the angles.
shown in Table 1. First of all, a Van Hiele
Mayberry’s (1981) scoring criterion
Achievement Test was administered to
suggest that the students master one Van
the students in both the experimental
Hiele level of geometric thinking if they
group and control group to determine
can answer at least three out of five items
the students’ initial Van Hiele level of
correctly. In this study, the researchers
geometric thinking. Next, an introductory
assumed that the students who answered
lesson on the Geometer’s Sketchpad was
seven out of 10 items correctly for item
given. During the lesson, the researchers
1 to item 10 mastered the visualization
demonstrated how to use the basic features
level of geometric thinking (Level 1). If
in the Geometer’s Sketchpad such as
the students could answer seven out of 10
rotating, drawing segments and drawing
items correctly for item 11 to item 20, they
lines. The experimental group students
were assumed to have mastered the analysis
were then paired up based on their initial
level of geometric thinking (Level 2). The
Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking
students who were unable to answer seven
and left to explore the software on their
out of 10 items correctly for item 1 to item
own for 30 minutes. From the following
10 were graded as Level 0.
week, the students in the experimental
group underwent eight sessions of phase-
Reliability and Validity of Instrument based instruction on geometrical angles
The content validity and translation validity using Geometer’s Sketchpad whereas the
of the instrument was confirmed by several students in the control group were taught
experienced senior mathematics lecturers using the traditional method. At the end of
from the local universities in Malaysia. The the treatment, post Van Hiele Achievement
Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency score Test was given to students in both groups
procedure for the Van Hiele Achievement to gather information about their post Van
Test instrument was performed using the Hiele levels of geometric thinking.
Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences
Table 1
Research procedures
Groups Research procedures

Experimental Group 1. Pre Van Hiele Achievement Test
2. Introductory lesson of the Geometer’s Sketchpad
3. Phase-based instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad
Lesson 1: Knowing about angles
Lesson 2: Comparing angles
Lesson 3: Identify the right angles through visualization
Lesson 4: Identify the acute angles through visualization
Lesson 5: Identify the obtuse angles through visualization
Lesson 6: Identify the properties of the right angles
Lesson 7: Identify the properties of the acute angles
Lesson 8: Identify the properties of the obtuse angles
4. Post Van Hiele Achievement Test
Control Group 1. Pre Van Hiele Achievement Test
2. Instruction using traditional method
Lesson 1: Knowing about angles
Lesson 2: Comparing angles
Lesson 3: Identify and measure the right angles
Lesson 4: Identify and measure the acute angles
Lesson 5: Identify and measure the obtuse angles
Lesson 6: Identify and measure the right angles in polygons
Lesson 7: Identify and measure the acute angles in polygons
Lesson 8: Identify and measure the obtuse angles in polygons
3. Post Van Hiele Achievement Test
Data Analysis FINDINGS

Mann-Whitney U test and Wilcoxon signed- The frequency and percentage of students
rank test were used to analyse the students’ in the experimental group and control group
pre and post Van Hiele levels of geometric who acquired Level 0, Level 1 and Level 2
thinking using SPSS software version 20.00 in the pretest and posttest regarding the topic
since the data violated the assumptions of of geometrical angles are shown in Table 2.
normality and homogeneity of variance.
Table 2
Frequency and percentage of students at different levels in the Pre and Post Van Hiele Achievement Test
Van Hiele Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking

Achievement Level 0 Level 1 Level 2
Test
f % f % f %
Pretest Experimental 27 71.1 10 26.3 1 2.6
(n = 38)
Control 27 75.0 9 25.0 0 0.0
(n = 36)
Posttest Experimental 1 2.6 4 10.5 33 86.8
(n = 38)
Control 9 25.0 2 5.6 25 69.4
(n = 36)
Before intervention for the experimental in the control group had achieved Van
group, the pre Van Hiele Achievement Hiele Level 2 of geometric thinking after
Test was administered to enquire the initial the instruction of angles using traditional
Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking approach. However, nine (25.0%) of them
among the students. In the pretest, 27 were still at Level 0. In general, the students
(71.1%) , 10 (26.3%) and one (2.6%) of the in the experimental group performed better
students in the experimental group were than the students in the control group in the
found to have acquired Van Hiele Level 0, post Van Hiele Achievement Test.
Level 1 and Level 2 of geometric thinking
respectively. On the other hand, 27 (75.0%), Question 1: Is there any significant difference
10 (25.0%) and 0 (0.0%) students in the in the pupils’ Van Hiele levels of geometric
control group had acquired Van Hiele Level thinking regarding angles between the
0, Level 1 and Level 2 of geometric thinking experimental group and the control group
respectively. It was found that students in before the intervention?
the experimental group performed slightly
better than students in the control group in Results of the Mann-Whitney test (as shown
the pretest. in Table 3) for pre Van Hiele Achievement
After the phase-based instruction using Test indicate that there is no significant
Geometer’s Sketchpad, 33 (86.8%) students difference in Van Hiele levels of geometric
in the experimental group acquired Van thinking between the experimental group
Hiele Level 2 of geometric thinking but (Median = 0) and the control group (Median
one (2.6%) of the students was still at Level = 0), U (n1 = 38, n2= 36) = 652.50, z = -0.44,
0. On the other hand, 25 (69.4%) students p = 0.66 at the significance level of 0.05.
Table 3
Result of Mann-Whitney U Test (U) and Effect Size (r) for experimental and control groups in pre Van Hiele
Achievement Test
Group Mean Median Mean rank z U p r

Experimental 0.32 0 38.33 -0.44 652.50 0.66 -0.05
(n = 38)
Control 0.25 0 36.63
(n = 36)
The mean rank of the experimental group Results of Wilcoxon signed-rank test
(38.33) was slightly higher than the control analysis using SPSS (as in Table 4) showed
group (36.63) indicating that the students in that the students’ Van Hiele levels of
the experimental group possessed slightly geometric thinking regarding geometrical
higher Van Hiele levels of geometric angles after phase-based instruction using
thinking at the initial stage than students in Geometer’s Sketchpad (Median = 2) were
the control group. The effect size is -0.05, significantly higher than their Van Hiele
which shows that both the groups had only a levels of geometric thinking before the
small effect on the students’ achievement in instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad
pre Van Hiele Achievement Test according (Median = 0), z = -5.42 with a p-value
to Rosenthal (1991). Using Rosenthal’s smaller than 0.01. The difference in Van
(1991) interpretation of the effect size, ±0.1 Hiele level of geometric thinking of the
and below, a small effect size, ±0.3 and students before and after the intervention
below indicates a medium effect size while period was significant at the 0.05 level
±0.65 and below reflects a large effect size. of significance as p<0.05. The effect size
for the phase-based instruction using
Question 2: Is there any significant difference Geometer’s Sketchpad was -0.63 which was
in the experimental group pupils’ Van Hiele large, based on Rosenthal (1991).
levels of geometric thinking regarding
angles before and after the phase-based
instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad?
Table 4
Result of Wilcoxon Signed-rank Test for difference in Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking for the
experimental group
Post VHAT N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks z Asymp. Sig. r

– Pre VHAT (2-tailed
Negative Ranks 0a 0.00 0.00 -5.42d 0.00 -0.63
Positive Ranks 36 b
18.50 666.00
Ties 2c
Total 38
Note: PostVHAT < PreVHAT; b PostVHAT > PreVHAT; c PostVHAT = PreVHAT; d Based on
a
negative ranks
Question 3: Is there any significant Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking

difference in the control group pupils’ Van before the instruction of geometrical angles
Hiele levels of geometric thinking regarding (Median = 0), z = -4.65 with a p-value
angles before and after the instruction using smaller than 0.01. The result shows that
traditional approach? students in the control group had progressed
significantly after the traditional instruction
Based on the results of Wilcoxon signed- on geometrical angles. The difference in the
rank test as shown in Table 5, the students Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking of
in the control group acquired significantly the students before and after instruction was
higher Van Hiele levels of geometric significant at the level of α = 0.05 as p<0.05.
thinking in post Van Hiele Achievement The effect size for the traditional instruction
Test after the instruction on geometrical of geometrical angles was -0.54 which was
angles (Median = 2) compared to their large based on Rosenthal (1991).
Table 5
Result of the Wilcoxon Signed-rank Test for difference in Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking for control
group
Post VHAT N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks z Asymp. Sig. r

– Pre VHAT (2-tailed
Negative Ranks 1a 6.00 6.00 -4.65d 0.00 -0.54
Positive Ranks 27 b
14.81 400.00
Ties 8c
Total 36
Note: a PostVHAT < PreVHAT; b PostVHAT > PreVHAT; c PostVHAT = PreVHAT; d Based on
negative ranks
Question 4: Is there any significant difference of 0.05. The mean rank of the experimental
in the pupils’ Van Hiele levels of geometric group (41.08) was higher than the mean rank
thinking regarding angles between the of the control group (33.72), indicating that
experimental group and the control group students in the experimental group possessed
after the intervention? higher Van Hiele levels of geometric
thinking than students in the control group
The Mann-Whitney test analysis using after the intervention period. The effect size
SPSS (as shown in Table 6) showed that the is -0.24, indicating only a small effect on
difference in Van Hiele levels of geometric the students’ Van Hiele levels of geometric
thinking between the students in the thinking in post Van Hiele Achievement Test
experimental group (Median = 2) and the according to Rosenthal (1991) as the r-value
students in the control group (Median = 2) is below the 0.3 criterion for a medium
was significant, U (n1 = 38, n2= 36) = 548.00, effect size.
z = -2.05, p = 0.04 at the significance level
Table 6
Result of Mann-Whitney U Test (U) and Effect Size (r) for the experimental and control groups in post Van
Hiele Achievement Test
Group Mean Median Mean rank z U p r

Experimental 1.84 2 41.08 -2.05 548.00 0.04 -0.24
(n = 38)
Control 1.44 2 33.72
(n = 36)
DISCUSSION phase-based instruction using Geometer’s

Result of the Mann-Whitney U Test revealed Sketchpad is useful as an approach for
that the Van Hiele levels of geometric guiding primary school pupils to progress
thinking among students in the experimental to higher Van Hiele levels of geometric
group and control group did not differ thinking.
significantly during the pretest. This means On the other hand, students in the
that the students in both groups had similar control group also improved significantly
Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking in their Van Hiele levels of geometric
before this study was conducted. thinking regarding geometrical angles after
After eight sessions of phase-based instruction using the traditional approach.
instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad, Based on this result, we can see that the
the students in the experimental group students gained higher Van Hiele levels of
improved significantly in terms of their Van geometric thinking after traditional teaching
Hiele levels of geometric thinking regarding of geometrical angles.
geometrical angles. This result implies that
By comparing the post Van Hiele levels CONCLUSION

of geometric thinking among the students in In conclusion, phase-based instruction using
both groups using Mann-Whitney U Test, Geometer’s Sketchpad has helped Year Four
it is clear that students in the experimental students in this study to acquire significantly
group acquired significantly higher Van higher Van Hiele levels of geometric
Hiele levels of geometric thinking compared thinking in the topic of geometrical angles.
to students in the control group. Based on Although it may not be easy for primary
this data, it is concluded that the phase-based school students to utilise the Geometer’s
instruction using Geometer’s Sketchpad is Sketchpad well on their own as a tool for
more effective than the traditional approach learning geometry, well-designed pre-
in enhancing students’ Van Hiele levels of sketched Geometer’s Sketchpad activities
geometric thinking. (Idris, 2009) as well as proper guidance
Results of the Mann-Whitney test on and facilitation from the teacher (Chew &
pupils’ post Van Hiele Achievement Test Lim, 2013) may be helpful for students to
suggest that pupils who underwent phase- overcome the difficulties. .
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Overcoming The Shadow and Achieving Individuation through

a Hero’s Journey in Tunku Halim’s “A Sister’s Tale”
John Helvy Akam* and Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
ABSTRACT
In Jungian psychology, Individuation is the process of achieving psychological maturation
wherein individuals are able to integrate their conscious and unconscious mind to create a
balanced psyche. One aspect of the unconscious mind that needs to be integrated with the
conscious is the Shadow, a psychological component consisting of all rejected and repressed
aspects of one’s personality. The process of dealing with the Shadow aspect is analogous to
the journey of the Hero archetype, and the goal of this journey is Individuation, whereby
one becomes connected to their Self, an archetype that represents wholeness and totality.
In Tunku Halim’s “A Sister’s Tale” (1999), Jessica has been pulled into a Hero’s journey
because of an unaddressed repressed guilt that ultimately becomes her Shadow. This paper
aims to examine Jessica’s Heroic journey in attaining her Self through the integration of her
unconscious component, the Shadow, with her consciousness. To achieve this objective,
the text is analysed through Jungian’s concept of the Shadow and Hero archetypes. The
findings reveal that Jessica’s Shadow had become too dense for a successful integration
to occur and therefore, she failed to achieve Individuation.
Keywords: Archetypes, hero, individuation, Jungian, self, shadow
INTRODUCTION
The concept of the Self as the centre of
human psyche was developed by Carl
ARTICLE INFO Jung in analytical psychology. Considering
Article history:
Jung’s history and apprenticeship under
Accepted: 18 July 2017 Sigmund Freud, this concept is noticeably
E-mail addresses: distinctive from Freudian psychoanalysis
[email protected] (John Helvy Akam),
[email protected] (Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya) which proposes that the centre of the

psyche is the Ego. While the centre of the the Shadow is often represented by the
psyche in Freudian theory mediates one’s villainous monster that the Hero needs
instinctive uncontrollable desire (id) and to defeat (Jung, 1959b). Only through a
acquired societal rules (superego), Jungian triumphant battle against the monster can
centre of the psyche lies on a deeper level. the hero gain his boons and return as a
The Self needs to be discovered through a wiser person. Similarly, individuals who
process called Individuation. Once the Self have successfully integrated their Shadow
is discovered, the individual is considered will reach Individuation and gain access
to have attained a wholesome personality, to their Self, thus achieving psychological
thus becoming complete. maturation.
The process of achieving Individuation A similar journey can be traced in Tunku
mimics the Archetype of Hero and Hero’s Halim’s “A Sister’s Tale” (1999) which tells
journey. Archetypes are collective images the story of guilt and overcoming the said
shared among people regardless of their guilt to achieve enlightenment. The short
cultures. These images imprint themselves story narrates the tale of two sisters, Jessica
onto folklore, myth, fairy tales and such. In and Anna, fighting for the love of one man,
almost every heroic cultural tale, the heroes Kia Seng. Kia Seng, who was initially
share similar characteristics, going through Anna’s romantic partner, left her to marry
similar patterns or stages. While not all tales Jessica. In a fit of rage, Anna decided to
may follow the exact same patterns, they avenge Jessica’s betrayal by poisoning her,
are generally similar in outline (Johnson but accidentally poisoned herself instead.
Jr., 1973). The heroes will go through Moments before her death, Anna told
a journey, complete tasks, and achieve Jessica that she will return to kill her if she
their goal. For this reason, the journey of does not remain faithful to Kia Seng. After
Individuation is equated with the Hero’s years of being loyal to her husband, Jessica
journey - an individuating person needs to started having an extra marital affair which
address the elements of their unconscious in thrusted her into a psychological journey
order to discover their Self, thus receiving for Individuation, wherein she has to deal
enlightenment at the end of their journey. with her repressed guilt that has become
One element of the unconscious that her Shadow. While undergoing this journey,
needs to be addressed is the Shadow. The she had to assume the role of a Hero in
Shadow refers to all thoughts and traits order to slay her inner demon, her Shadow,
rejected by the conscious mind which to achieve psychological maturation or in
are then repressed in the unconscious Jungian term, Individuation. This paper aims
mind. Shadow that is not addressed to examine Jessica’s Heroic journey in order
will eventually become dangerous to an to determine whether her Individuation
individuals’ psychological health and may journey is successful. Being unwittingly
lead to neurosis (Jung, 1958). In mythology, pulled into a psychological journey akin to
Hero’s Journey in Tunku Halim’s “A Sister’s Tale”
a mythical hero’s adventure, Jessica must with the archetype of Hero, in which the
face and deal with her version of mythical Hero has to undergo a journey and complete
monster, her Shadow, in order to achieve tasks to achieve victory. In this case,
psychological victory, which is the balance victory represents the attainment of Self,
in her psyche and psychological maturation. and the tasks are linked to the integration
of the elements of the unconscious into the
LITERATURE REVIEW conscious - the elements being the Shadow,
For this paper, Jung’s concepts of Shadow which is the core element employed in
and Hero archetypes are applied to study this study, and the Anima (feminine aspect
the character of Jessica. In previous studies, in men) or Animus (masculine aspect in
Tunku Halim’s works have been analysed women), two other other unconscious
through the lens of the gothic and the elements that are outside the scope of the
grotesque theories. His novel, Dark Demon current study.
Rising (1997) has been assigned with the The Hero’s journey has been observed
characteristics of global gothic, which is in Henry James’ short story “The Great
defined as a national, regional or localised Good Place”. Three main stages of a
version of Gothicism (Byron, 2015). Byron hero’s journey as described by a Jungian-
asserts that the portrayal of the supernatural influenced mythologist, Joseph Campbell,
in this novel is an amalgamation of the in The Hero with a Thousand Faces are
local and Western images. Meanwhile, the highlighted in this short story (Herx, 1963).
grotesque is observed in the act of deviant The stages are departure, initiation and
sexuality through which the characters return. The character George Dane, who
engage in sexual relationships that defy both felt he was losing his spiritual identity,
cultural and religious norms (Ahmad Jafni, departed on his heroic journey with the
2015). Psychological interpretation of Dark assistance of a young man. Herx claimed
Demon Rising was suggested by Byron that Dane had lost his life in the real world
(2008) who pointed out certain ambiguities when he was transported into the dream
in the narrative. Even though Byron’s world, suggesting that death and rebirth
comment was in regards to Dark Demon are common themes in heroes’ journeys.
Rising, other Tunku Halim’s works, like “A This marked the beginning of the initiation
Sister’s Tale”, also shared similar narrative stage. In this dream world, Dane was able
ambiguities that may be best tackled through to discover his Self. Upon returning to the
psychological reading. real world, he was reinvigorated and began
In Jungian depth psychology, the to see the world anew. Dane’s new outlook,
archetype of Self represents wholeness and according to Herx, resulted from his ability
completeness. In an individual, the Self can to illuminate his soul, and restored what he
only be attained through Individuation. The had gained from his journey in the fantasy
process of Individuation can be associated world into the real world.
Herx’s study, however, had failed to Taghizadeh argued that by meeting with
pinpoint any specific actions that can be Kurtz, Marlow was able to gain self-
equated to the integration of the unconscious knowledge which helped him achieve a
elements with consciousness. As previously whole new personality—the wholeness of
mentioned, the Shadow and the Anima or his Self. He had achieved his heroic goal,
Animus are the unconscious archetypes namely to understand the human nature.
that are usually addressed in order to reach Kurtz had also achieved similar goal
the Self. The failure to individuate has although Taghizadeh mentioned that the
been observed in regards to the Shadow in nature of their enlightenment differed. He
Dana Brooke Thurmond’s (2012) analysis played the role of a sacrificial hero in order
of Henry James’ The Turn of the Screw. for Marlow to receive enlightenment.
She pointed out that strong rejection of the
Shadow may aggravate the condition of CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
the Shadow. In this novella, the protagonist In psychology and alchemy, Jung (1953)
of the story projected her Shadow as the described the Self as the circumference
ghosts of Peter Quint and Miss Jessel, the encompassing both the conscious and the
deceased employers of the house. The more unconscious. As an archetype, it represents
she rejected the apparitions, the more they totality and wholeness. This totality is
took control of her life. Indeed, when the achieved when there is unity of both
Shadow leaked into the consciousness, it the conscious and the unconscious, thus
usually appeared in the form of projection. creating a complete human personality
As observed in Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Cask which is balanced in all aspects of the
of Amontillado”, Montresor, an unreliable psyche. The conscious is represented by
narrator, described Fortunato as the bad the persona which consists of behaviours
person when in fact, he was projecting all that conceal one’s true nature (Jung,
his own negative attributes onto his friend 1966b), and the ego which is the centre
to maintain the idea that he is the nice one of the consciousness (Jung, 1954a). The
(Lau & Wan Yahya, 2013). unconscious is represented by the Shadow
Meanwhile, Taghizadeh (2015) explored which is the collection of repressed desires
the role of the Shadow in the hero’s journey (Jung, 1989) and the Anima or Animus, the
through Joseph Conrad’s The Heart of image of one’s opposite sex (Jung, 1954b).
Darkness. He examined two characters from In the centre of all these elements is the Self.
the novella, Marlow and Kurtz, to explain To tap into the Self, one has to go through
the role of the Shadow in the attainment a quest, similar to the journey of a Hero
of the Self. While Taghizadeh described archetype, in a process called Individuation.
both characters as being on their respective Individuation is a process in which
hero’s journey, it was Marlow who had to the individual recognises his / her own
face his Shadow to achieve Individuation. individuality and becomes a whole,
Marlow’s Shadow is projected as Kurtz.
integrated personality (Jung, 1959a). that they are suppressing these thoughts and
This was echoed by Jacobi (1973) who desires into their unconscious, or that they
explained that Individuation occurs when even have a dark component in their psyche.
the individual “know[s] himself for what Indeed, Jung mentioned that humans are
he naturally is” and not “what he would like rarely aware that they have a Shadow,
to be” (p.132). It involves conscious effort thereby suggesting that the mere existence
on the part of the individuals who want to of the Shadow is frightening (Jung, 1966a).
come to terms with the Self (Von Franz, The act of continually repressing or ignoring
1964). The process is usually jumpstarted the Shadow may cause even the “little
by conflicts before the individual becomes weakness” and “foibles” (Jung, 1966a,
conscious of it. When conflict arises, the p. 30) to become “blacker and denser”
individual is thrusted into the journey. (Jung, 1958, p. 76) and grow into “a raging
This is in accordance with Jung’s idea that monster” (Jung, 1966a, p. 30). In fact, the
individuation is developed through conflict more aggressively the Shadow is rejected,
between two fundamental psychic facts— the more destructive it becomes. Human’s
the conscious and the unconscious (Jung, rejection of the Shadow is aligned with
1959a). Therefore, it can be observed that Whitmont’s (1979) notion of the Ego
there is a parallel between the process of ideal. The Ego has an ideal personality; by
Individuation and the archetype of Hero. ignoring the weakness or unwanted aspects,
Both require the individuals to undergo a the Ego ideal is satisfied.
quest in order to be transformed and reborn. In the quest for Individuation, the
Connolly (2002) mentioned that during Shadow is one of the aspects that needs
the quest of Individuation, individuals will to be addressed. The individual becomes
encounter several images that correspond whole only when their unconscious is
to their unconscious elements. In fiction, integrated with the conscious and when
these images are usually the projection of they come to terms with the disowned facets
either the character’s Shadow or Anima/ of themselves. In this aspect, the Shadow
Animus. It is therefore, necessary to trace can be described as being the opposite
these unconscious aspects which will of, yet compensates the archetypes of the
usually create significant challenges for the Persona (Trouba, 2002). In dealing with
character. For this study, the Shadow will be unwanted aspects of oneself, the Persona
examined as a part of Jessica’s Heroic quest. and the Shadow both play a role. The
Persona works by masking the rejected
SHADOW desires away from the public eye through
The Shadow represents the repressed conscious and deliberate actions. In contrast,
aspects of one’s personality that are not the Shadow works at a deeper level. These
allowed to surface onto the conscious mind undesirable characteristics are repressed into
(Jung, 1989). Most humans are unaware the unconscious involuntarily, becoming
the Shadow that remains hidden until it is able to withdraw all their projections, it
acknowledged and dealt with. means they are conscious of their Shadow.
Dealing with the Shadow involves Becoming conscious of the Shadow is the
moral effort. Jung (1959c) explained that the initial step in managing it. When individuals
Shadow is a moral problem and becoming realise that their Shadow is dangerous, they
conscious of the Shadow requires significant can learn to control it and therefore, be able
moral effort. The relationship between the to accept their weaknesses and anxieties
Shadow and moral is deeply interwoven. without relying on psychological projection
Jung further commented that to become to comfort their Ego.
conscious of the Shadow, one must be willing The Shadow, consisting mostly of
to recognise the dark aspects of oneself. This dark desires, also has positive aspects that
involves confronting the thoughts that are contribute to the development of the psyche,
against one’s moral beliefs, for the Shadow if dealt with properly. This notion was
itself was born out of moral constraints noted by Jung’s follower, Von Franz, who
created by society. Dealing with the Shadow pointed out that it is one’s own decision to
also involves moral efforts because it make the Shadow one’s enemy or one’s
is one’s moral responsibility to become friend. Halverson (1963) elaborated that
conscious of one’s Shadow—failure to do so the Shadow initially is frightening to the
would result in “negative projection into the Ego because it consists of ideas that the Ego
social world” (Leibing & McClean, 2007, p. has repressed. However, once the Shadow
4). Projection is a defence mechanism that is accepted, it becomes a “helpful friend,
refers to the psychological reaction towards helping bring up to consciousness those
anxiety involving the projection of the said elements of the unconscious … necessary
anxiety onto external objects (Freud, 1911). to the wholeness and health of the self” (p.
Jung claimed that individuals who are not 438). Jung (1959b) also stated that a hero’s
aware of their Shadow have a tendency to main accomplishment is to overcome the
project their unconscious traits onto others monster of darkness. In this aspect, the
(Jung, 1967). With this understanding, one Shadow, despite its monstrous attributes,
can concur that projection occurs when the is a necessary component in the quest for
Ego feels threatened by the Shadow and Individuation. A hero needs to defeat the
therefore finds comfort in ascribing one’s monster to achieve his goal; an individuating
Shadow characteristics onto others instead. person needs to deal with his Shadow to
By doing so, it creates an illusion that one achieve enlightenment. Without the villain,
is a nice person. Therefore, by projecting there will be no hero.
these traits onto others, one inadvertently
reveals one’s Shadow—the part of oneself ARCHETYPE OF HERO
which one refuses to acknowledge but A Hero is an individual who undergoes
projects onto others. When individuals are a life-changing journey and successfully
completes the said journey. The universality Individuation means to face, acknowledge,
of this image can be traced throughout the and integrate one’s Shadow and Anima or
ages, from the ancient myths like the Epic Animus—the Ego’s villains.
of Gilgamesh, to modern day entertainment The hero’s journey has been described
figures like Superman. Jung (1956) said that by Joseph Campbell in The Hero with
the Hero is the symbol of the unconscious a Thousand Faces. Beforehand, it is
Self and that several other archetypes can worth noting that Campbell’s idea is the
be subsumed into the role of the Hero. To expansion of Jungian Hero archetype,
name a few, the archetype of the Father can being described as “the kindred soul of
assume the role of a Hero and the archetype C.G. Jung” (Segal, 2000, p. 12) and a
of the Wise Old Man can be the result of a classic of the Jungian analysis of the Hero.
completed Hero’s journey. In this fashion, While current analysis will not focus much
the Hero can be considered as almost divine on Campbell’s expansion of the Hero
in nature. The divine characteristic of the archetype, his three stages of hero’s journey
Hero has been discussed by Jung who are significant enough to be foregrounded.
further explained that the Hero has a higher Campbell (2008) asserted that every heroic
stature than a human, and has a godlike tale followed the separation-initiation-return
quality. This godliness results from the Hero outline. Separation occurs when the hero is
having attained the Self, which is in itself, called away to adventure, initiation follows
numinous. when the hero faces trials and challenges,
A Hero’s main purpose is to triumph and finally the hero returns after ending
over the monster of darkness, or for his journey and gaining new knowledge.
individuating individuals, the triumph Johnson Jr. (1973) stated that a hero begins
of integrating the unconscious and the his adventure in a normal world before being
conscious (Jung, 1959b). Interestingly transported into a realm of supernatural
enough, Jung mentioned that humans are wonder. Through trials and tribulation, the
unconsciously inclined towards the journey hero will return a victor, bringing with him
of discovering the Self. The quest for Self something beneficial. This general pattern
attainment and the Hero’s quest parallel each can be traced in almost every heroic tale
other in that both involve heroic struggle to even though there may be slight variations
bring forth a state of wholeness. The struggle among them.
is a major component of being a Hero, as Upon finishing the journey, a hero will
Jung (1963) asserted that individuals are not acquire self-confidence and have the right to
a hero if they have not faced any challenge feel confident about tackling future problems
or refuse to acknowledge the challenge. because he has experienced the journey
Moreover, overcoming challenges would before (Jung, 1963). Therefore, individuals
have to be followed by victory before who have experienced Individuation
one can be considered a Hero. Achieving will gain self-confidence from having
encountered the worst of themselves—the Jung mentioned that a person with dense
manifestation of their personal Shadow Shadow will use projection to channel out
or Anima/Animus and integrated these their undesirable thoughts. This behaviour
elements with their conscious Ego and is observed in Jessica who was dissatisfied
Persona to create a wholesome, united with her married life. She felt that “her
personality. sister’s words had kept her faithful to Kia
Seng, the sister that tried to kill her, the
ANALYSIS one that wanted Kia Seng to herself. What
What appears to be a classic story of a joke!” (Tunku Halim, 2016, p. 404).
jealousy and rivalry among siblings which Jessica blamed her dead sister, Anna, for
ends in tragedy can be interpreted differently her dissatisfied life even though she herself
using Jungian concept of the archetype. had made the decision to marry Kia Seng.
Jessica is depicted in the short story as She claimed to only love Kia Seng even
a conflicted character who is pulled into though she knew she could never be faithful
a journey similar to the journey of an to him. She projected her own failure onto
archetypal Hero. The source of her mental Anna. It is hinted here that Jessica had
conflicts can be traced to her Shadow— a fixation towards Anna even before she
her repressed thoughts that she refused to started having an affair with her new lover,
acknowledge. True to Jung’s description, Weng Feh. She had remained faithful to
a Shadow that is continually ignored will her present husband, Kia Seng, because of
grow into a monstrous form and damage the Anna’s presence in her mind. It appeared to
person’s psyche. For Jessica, her Shadow be a relatively harmless form of projection
manifested into a grotesque vision of her since her anxiety was projected towards a
deceased sister, Anna, who supposedly came dead person. However, by refusing to let go
back from the dead to exact revenge. Jessica of the memory of Anna, Jessica unwittingly
was haunted by the guilt she experienced allowed Anna to linger in her unconscious
after leaving Anna to die in an incident that mind, and slowly it turned into a formidable
had happened 17 years before. However, her Shadow.
refusal to acknowledge her guilt resulted in Once her affair with Weng Feh started,
the thoughts to fester in her unconscious Jessica began experiencing more intense
mind. The more adamant she was in ignoring disturbances which can be attributed to the
this Shadow, the stronger it became until it Shadow leaking into her conscious mind.
manifested into her conscious mind as a It was subtle at first, taking the form of a
monster. Similar to the Hero’s journey, her shadowy twisted face in a painting and a
personal psychological journey required whisper in the wind. Jessica chose to reject
her to slay this monster in order to attain the tell-tale sign of a festering Shadow in
victory—which is to her, a psychological her psyche. Her rejection of the Shadow is
maturation, or the Self. evident in her claim that “she wasn’t going
to let Anna curse her. So she bought [the Shadow. Initially, she did not show any
painting] from the hotel to show she wasn’t intention in undertaking the journey. The
afraid. Anna was dead and she would stay initial awareness of her distress can be
dead” (p. 403). Her defiance in refusing to traced to her dissatisfaction even though
address the Shadow stems from her denial of she was “seemingly contented with life”
guilt—she had deliberately let her sister die. (Tunku Halim, p. 388). This is also the
Jessica’s actions illustrate Jung’s notion that point in which Tunku Halim introduced
humans are rarely aware they are carrying a symbols which illustrate the condition of
Shadow that can be of a “positively demonic Jessica’s psyche. It was dusk, there were
dynamism” (Jung, 1966a, p. 30). Jessica’s overhanging branches (p. 388) and “heavy
Shadow was beginning to assume a demonic threatening clouds hanging low in the sky”
form and her decision to ignore it might (p. 390). All these images conjure the sense
have stemmed from the fact that she was of darkness and shadow which culminate in
oblivious to its danger. the appearance of the shadowy figure.
Jessica’s next encounter with her Despite the destructive nature of the
Shadow is a pivotal part of the story. This woman-thing entity, it plays the role of an
is when the Shadow appeared before Jessica usher for Jessica into the realm of adventure.
as a tall, shadowy feminine figure. This In myths, this role is usually played by a
figure fits the description that Jung had crone, a godmother, hermit or a ferryman
ascribed to the physical manifestation of (Herx, 1963). The usher is the agent that
Shadow in one’s dream. He said that the carries the Hero into the spiritual world.
Shadow often appears in dreams as an actual Aided by the entity, Jessica drifted into the
shadow and more commonly of the same world of a Heroic adventure. In reality, she
sex as the dreamer (Von Franz). Despite was comatose after the encounter with Anna
having had a face-to-face encounter with the woman-thing, and she experienced her
her Shadow, Jessica continued to reject Heroic journey in a dream state. In contrast
the Shadow, claiming that “she must have to most myths wherein the adventure is
imagined the woman-thing” (Tunku Halim, commenced by the aid of a character with
p. 404) and resumed her evening seemingly the specific role as an usher, Jessica was
undisturbed, albeit briefly before another pulled in by her Shadow—her enemy. As
encounter propelled her into a Hero’s Von Franz had pointed out, the Shadow
journey. is not always evil and can also take on a
The main purpose of a Hero’s journey is friendlier role. In this case, the woman-thing
to defeat the “monster of darkness” (Jung, plays the positive function by jumpstarting
198, p. 167). Jessica was pulled into this Jessica’s journey through the attack.
journey by a monster of her own creation The readers’ insights into Jessica’s
and once she embarked on her journey, her journey can only be observed through
main goal was to overcome this monstrous an external perspective. Falling into a
stupor throughout the psychological Heroic his wife instead. These examples show that
journey, the plot focus shifted to Kia Seng, she did not have enough strength to face her
her husband. Even though the journey was own morality. Jung (1964) mentioned that
not explicitly narrated because of the shift in healing will not come as long as individuals
focus, the readers are given several tell-tale try to convince themselves that only their
signs of the battle with the Shadow through opponents are wrong. In Jessica’s case, she
Jessica’s autonomous actions as witnessed was unwilling to acknowledge her Shadow
by Kia Seng. These signs follow two of the until the Shadow pulled her into the journey.
three steps of dealing with the Shadow: The next step is to master the Shadow.
acknowledging the Shadow, mastering This step occurred after Jessica entered the
the Shadow, and finally assimilating with dream world when she was in a vegetative
the Shadow. This is in agreement with state. Even under partial wakefulness,
Henderson (1964), one of Jung’s immediate Jessica was psychologically deep in her
disciples, who stated that Heroes must Heroic adventure, trying to master her
acknowledge that the Shadow exists and Shadow by learning its behaviour. This
they must be able to master and assimilate psychological action was sometimes
the Shadow in order to achieve victory. translated onto bodily movements which
The first step is to acknowledge the Kia Seng took special interest in. The first
Shadow and this occurred before Jessica was of these episodes was her physical response
pulled into the dream world. Jung mentioned to the sounds of gecko. The doctor who was
that the Shadow is a moral problem—it tasked to treat Jessica had mentioned that it
takes considerable moral effort to face could be a reaction towards the “high pitch
one’s dark side in order to acknowledge the of [the sound] or maybe that particular
Shadow. This posed a challenge for Jessica sound” itself (p. 411). Jessica responded
because she was unable to embrace her dark to the sound because the woman-thing
side. Her mind had “strayed many a time” produced high-pitch giggles similar to the
and “thought never become action” even sound of the gecko. “…She heard high-
though “there was the odd remark, the odd pitch giggling” (p. 406) right before she
look, the odd touch,” she dismissed them was attacked and knocked herself out. Her
as “nothing” (p. 404). This exemplified reaction towards the sound indicates that
that Jessica knew that she could not remain she was trying to face her Shadow, actively
faithful to her husband and she was not searching for its presence.
willing to address that. Furthermore, she did Later, Jessica began to actively re-enact
not feel guilty about her extra marital affair her fight against her Shadow. She was
with Weng Feh. When she thought, “Damn actively killing mosquitoes even though
Weng Feh! Damn that wife of his!” (p. 404), she was still unconscious. The mosquito,
she was unconsciously refusing to address being a blood-sucking creature, represents
her guilt by projecting it onto Weng Feh and the woman-thing which Jessica believed to
be a blood-sucking monster. The woman- the assimilation process appeared to be

thing was described as having a “cavern successful.
of sharp teeth punctuated with two long However, Jessica’s behaviour afterward
ugly fangs” (p. 391). The readers are also indicates otherwise. There was “a strange
led to believe that the creature had killed expression in her eyes,” she looked at her
Weng Feh because of the “two dark gaping sons “awkwardly” (p. 417) and refused to
puncture marks sat on his neck” (p. 406). have ice cream, her favourite food (p. 418).
Therefore, the blood-sucking characteristics She had assumed a different personality.
of mosquitos and the high-pitch sound came Therefore, it can be concluded that Jessica
to represent the woman-thing in the real failed her Heroic journey. In the dream
world. This episode illustrates that Jessica’s world, she was defeated by her Shadow
inner battles with her Shadow in her dream and she failed to become a Hero. The
world were translated into her actions in the consequence in the real world is she had
real world. fallen into a psychosis. Psychosis is an
The final step in coming to terms with extreme dissociation of the personality which
the Shadow is assimilation. The Shadow is caused by the activity of the unconscious
is assimilated when individuals accept the complexes (Jung, 1976). For Jessica, it is her
Shadow as a part of themselves. In myths, unresolved Shadow complex that caused her
the slaying of Dragons or other monsters to become psychotic. Falling into psychosis,
signifies the assimilation of the Shadow she failed to achieve Individuation because
(Henderson). Upon successfully slaying the she had created a potent and formidable
monster, the hero will complete his goal. Shadow in her unconscious mind. A Shadow
Therefore, assimilation of the Shadow will that is continually suppressed and ignored
bring individuals closer to Individuation and will erupt in period of extreme duress and
the attainment of Self. This would have been Jessica’s refusal to acknowledge her Shadow
Jessica’s last trial in her Heroic journey. became the cause of her destruction. Her
The process of assimilation is translated Shadow proved to be an indomitable
into Jessica’s struggle to integrate her adversary and she was ill prepared for
consciousness with her Shadow. Similar to the journey. This is in accordance with
the previous step, the inner battle manifested Jacobi’s statement that any solitary attempt
into the real world through physical actions. at Individuation is “extremely dangerous”
It is a violent struggle, as Kia Seng noted (p. 107). Jessica’s fate in the end concurred
“her eyes were wide open, staring blankly with this statement.
at the ceiling, lips twitching” (Tunku
Halim, p. 416). Subsequently, Jessica CONCLUSION
woke up from her stupor, seemingly The attainment of the Self is an ideal,
gaining her consciousness. At first glance, which humans instinctively strive for. To
be reborn into a new, whole personality herself. It was only during the quest that
is considered a victory that only a few she began to acknowledge and tackle
humans accomplish. Treading the path her Shadow. Unfortunately, her attempt
of Individuation is often an arduous and to assimilate the Shadow failed and the
perilous task which requires heroic effort. Shadow took over her psyche. Towards the
The most challenging part of the journey is end, Jessica’s personality was consumed
having to face one’s dark side, the Shadow by her Shadow, and she fell into psychosis
which is every part of oneself rejected by due to her unresolved Shadow complex. In
the conscious mind. Meeting face-to-face a nutshell, Jessica was not able to overcome
with the disowned parts of oneself requires her Shadow and therefore had failed in her
tremendous effort, especially after the long Heroic journey towards Individuation.
ignored and suppressed Shadow becomes
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Integration of Values and Culture in Malay Folklore Animation

Normaliza Abd Rahim1*, Awang Azman Awang Pawi2 and
Nik Rafidah Nik Muhamad Affendi1
1
Department of Malay Language, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Socio-Culture, Academy of Malay Studies, Jalan Universiti, Universiti Malaya,
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on the integration of values and culture in the Malay folklore animation.
The objectives of the study are to rank and discuss the values and culture in the Malay
folklore animation. The study adopts the values incorporated in the Malaysian National
Education Philosophy (1996) to analyse the values and culture in the animations. The
philosophy consists of 16 values, which are understood by all students in Malaysia. The
values stated are related to the culture among the community, with 10 animations from
The Kingfisher Stories. The results of the study reveal that the folklore Leader and Palm
Tree contain the most number of values, that is, 10 values, while the folklore Crow, with
two values, is ranked the lowest. The results show that values and culture are important in
folklore. It is hoped that further studies will focus on values in Malay short stories.
Keywords: Values, culture, folklore, animation
INTRODUCTION the opportunity to interact with other

Animation has played a major role in children. Also, animation allows creativity
children’s education, besides giving children in storytelling and helps to create new
stories that are related to the ones that they
have heard or read. Good animation will
create good atmosphere among children.
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: Due to a strong preference for animation,
Received: 21 December 2016
many forms of animation are published
E-mail addresses: or available on the Internet and movies.
[email protected] (Normaliza Abd Rahim), Animation like Frozen has shown that it
[email protected] (Awang Azman Awang Pawi),
[email protected] (Nik Rafidah Nik Muhamad Affendi) is appreciated not only by children but

Normaliza Abd Rahim, Awang Azman Awang Pawi and Nik Rafidah Nik Muhamad Affendi
by all age groups. Frozen is adapted from demonstrated that Malay reading materials
folklore and therefore, the storyline or plot have constructed a positive impact on
can be remembered by children and adults. children’s identity development. The study
As such, it is appropriate for folklore to yielded similar results with the study
integrate values and culture (Md Ishak, of Sujud and Nik Muhammad Affendi
2005; Rahmat, 2006) in animation so that (2011) and Awang Pawi (2015), where
the animation can be understood and can children would prefer to read stories that
demonstrate all the good values in children’s consisted of values in order to integrate the
or adults’ everyday lives (Hassan, 2010). culture within them. Husin (1989) claimed
Values are important in our everyday life that values could be integrated with the
(Abd Rashid, 1993), so in order to share formation of character and identity of the
values, a person needs to understand the child. Therefore, the integration should start
meaning. Awang Pawi (2011) adds that as early age as possible.
the existence of Malay folklore has given Sujud and Nik Muhammad Affendi
a big impact to the community and can be (2011) claimed that children’s emotion
integrated into new technology. can be identified through literature reading
materials. Most of the reading materials
VALUES, CULTURE AND FOLKLORE consisted of stories from folklore. The study
Saidin and Abdul Majid’s (2012) study involved students from the age of seven
discussed children’s identity development to 12 years. A total of 30 students from
via Malay reading materials. The study three schools in Malaysia were selected at
believed that Malay literature materials random. The students were interviewed and
play a role in forming children’s identity. observed. The result of the study revealed
According to the study, there are many that the students were content with the
moral values in the Malay literature reading materials and were also able to
which are able to mould the identity and identify the values and culture from the
personality of children. Therefore, this study reading materials. Further, Mahmor and
focused on the outcomes and engagement Hashim (2015) concurred that the evolution
of these materials on children’s self-esteem. of children literature in Malaysia can be
Here, it can be seen that self-esteem, seen through animation stories on television
that is, confidence in doing something is and the web. Besides, animation can be
one of the values and cultural practices easily accessed at any time. The television
mentioned in the Malaysian National channels listed are TV3, TV9, Astro Ceria
Education Philosophy (1996). This study and Disney Channel. Although some of
was a combination of library methods and the channels have animations that are not
field methods. The research instruments related to the Malay folklore, the Malaysian
applied were interview, observation and community can relate to these stories with
content analysis. The result of the study elements from folklore that they know.
Mahmor and Hashim’s (2015) study focused Putih Bawang Merah. There is also new and
on feminism in the animation Upin and modern folklore which has been filmed like
Ipin. It was found that the creator of Upin Magika in 2010, therefore showing that the
and Ipin portrayed women’s characters as Malay folklore has been a preference among
humble, passive, and submissive to fate. the community. The aspect of intellectuality
However, in the same regard, the study includes stories like Badang, Bawang Putih
also found that women characters in the Bawang Merah, Pak Pandir, Mak Mandir,
animation showed positive vibes and had Mahsuri, Hang Tuah, Puteri Gunung
high moral values. Ledang and Batu Belah Batu Bertangkup.
The integration of values plays a major There are also other studies on
role in helping children become aware of animation that involve values. Studies on
the meaning of each value in their everyday awareness of folklore in animation that
lives. Che Yaacob and Abd Rahim’s (2016) involve children show that children prefer
study on the value of kindness in the Malay animation for better understanding of the
folklore revealed that values are embedded folklore (Abd Rahim, 2014a; Abd Rahim,
in the stories in order to be shared with Abdul Halim, & Mamat, 2014); studies
readers. The finding of the study was parallel on folklore songs have found that children
to their own previous study (Che Yaacob are interested to story tell folklore by using
& Abd Rahim, 2014) which also depicted their own words (Abd Rahim, 2014b; Abd
other types of values. It can be seen that Rahim & Harun, 2016; Che Yaacob & Abd
values have been important in the Malay Rahim, 2014; Sulong & Abd Rahim, 2015).
folklore for a long time, as it is the only Other studies on perception of animation
way to disseminate values to the younger also found that children and adults give
generation. Folklore is not only known and positive feedback on animation related
spread through stories of folklore, which are to folklore, are interested to rewrite the
read but also through songs of folklore. Che stories, and explain and discuss the main
Yaacob and Abd Rahim (2016) focused on characters in folklore (Abd Rahim, Mamat,
folklore songs and students’ perception of Ab Halim, Sujud, & Roslan, 2013; Mamat,
these folklore songs. It was found that the Abdul Halim, Mansor, & Abd Rahim,
students were able to share their stories and 2016; Mamat, Abdul Rashid, Abd Rahim,
identified the values in the stories. Other & Abdul Halim, 2014; Mamat, Mansor,
studies by Awang Pawi (2015, 2011) also Abdul Halim, & Abd Rahim, 2015; Rosly,
claimed that folklore has become dynamic Abd Rahim, & Abdul Halim, 2016, 2015).
and relevant when used as a toll in the Studies on perception towards folklore using
political propaganda in Malaysia. There are rewritten folklore have also been found to be
also movies based on folklore like Bawang interesting, easy to understand, consisting of
interesting settings and plots (Abd Rahim, SUMMARY OF 10 ANIMATIONS

Abdul Halim, Mamat, & Mansor, 2016; Che
Leader
Yaacob & Abd Rahim, 2016, 2014).
Hence, the objectives of the present The story is about a group of birds in the
study are to rank and discuss the values forest. They try to elect a leader among
related to culture in the Malay folklore them since there have been incidents of
animation. baby chicks taken away by other birds. In
the beginning, they elect the eagle. But the
METHOD next day, there are birds missing, as they
are eaten by the eagle. Then, they elect the
The study adopts the values embedded in the
hawk and the same thing happens the next
Malaysian National Education Philosophy
day. Finally, they decide not to have any
(1996) to analyse the animations. The
bird as the leader. The chicken then decides
philosophy consists of 16 values known to
to help by waking them up every morning
all Malaysian students. The values stated
to avoid any danger.
are related to culture among the community.
These values are kindness, self-reliance,
good manners, respect, affection, justice, Jalak and Biring
freedom, courage, physical and mental Jalak and Biring are two roosters. They live
hygiene, honesty, hard work, cooperation, in a village with other chickens. Jalak is
awareness, gratitude, rationale and strong but arrogant towards other chickens
community spirit. However, the value of while Biring, which is also strong, is a good
freedom is not analysed due to irrelevance rooster. One day, Biring invites Jalak to its
in the animation. Freedom is subject to the barn. Biring puts a mirror in the barn. When
rules and laws prescribed by religion, society Jalak comes, it is surprised because there is
and country. It is related to freedom in the another rooster that looks like Jalak. Jalak is
legal aspect and freedom in democracy. As actually fighting with its own self thinking
such, the stories from these animations are that it is fighting with another rooster. It
non-related to freedom. becomes tired. Eventually, Biring comes
The Kingfisher Stories consist of 10 out and informs Jalak that there is a mirror
animations. These animation stories were in the barn. Jalak feels embarrassed at itself.
used to analyse the values and culture in the
stories. The stories were based on the Malay Bird of Paradise
folklore which was rewritten by Abd Rahim The bird of paradise lays an egg in the nest.
(2016) and copyrighted by Dewan Bahasa It then flies away. A sparrow sees the egg and
dan Pustaka. helps to care for the egg till it is hatched. The
sparrow tries to call the bird of paradise but ordered the villagers to plant a lot of cloves.
it has flown away. Soon the egg is hatched From that day onwards, the kingdom felt
and the chick learns how to fly. The sparrow so happy that they could talk to each other
leaves after the chick knows how to fly. again, without any bad breath.
Fox The Stork and the Mouse Deer

A number of foxes live in a cave. They live The stork and the mouse deer are best
together happily. At night, they hunt for friends. One day, they find a big rice crust.
food. During the day, they go back to the They decide to eat the rice crust. However,
cave and sleep. The villagers become angry the mouse deer is clever, so it cheats the
when they find that most of their chickens stork by telling it that there is a nice place
are gone. They ask a hunter to find the foxes. full of food across the river. The stork
The hunter finds a cave full of foxes. The believes the mouse deer and they both climb
foxes run away when they see the hunter. up the rice crust and go across the river. The
mouse deer keeps eating the middle of the
Mermaid crust and is reprimanded by the stork since
it would make them sink. The mouse deer
A group of mermaids live in the sea
does this again, so the stork flies away. The
happily. One day, they decide to move to
mouse deer panics as the rice crust sinks.
another place. They find a river and live
The mouse deer swims to the river bank. It
there happily. Suddenly, two men see the
regrets its own behavior.
mermaids. The mermaids get scared and
swim away.
Crow
Clove One day, a crow and a peacock are talking to
each other. They decide to paint themselves
Long time ago, there were people in the
so that they would become more beautiful.
kingdom that had the problem of bad breath.
The crow starts to paint the peacock. It is
Even the king had bad breath. They did not
beautiful. Then, it is the peacock’s turn to
talk to each other. The ladies would use a
paint the crow. At that moment, the crow
mask in order to talk. The king tried so many
sees a dead animal in the river and wants
ways to solve the problem but failed. One
to eat it. However, the peacock has not
day, a bird was trying to talk to the princess.
completed the painting. Since the crow is
The princess stopped playing and listened
too impatient, it tells the peacock to colour
to the bird. The bird gave the princess a
its feather with only one color. The peacock
clove. The princess ate the clove and she
manages to colour the crow only black. The
was surprised that her bad breath had gone
crow then flies away to get the dead animal.
away. The princess told the king. The king
Brilliant Akim showing a person’s care and sincere feelings

Long time ago, there was a village with for the welfare of others. Kindness can
many people. Every year, the village would be seen by evaluating and looking at
be flooded when it rained. The crops and the behaviour of others. These include
animals died and the villagers had nothing aspects of mercy, consideration, generosity,
to eat. One day, a boy came to the village. mutual understanding and readiness to
He wanted to help the villagers, so he forgive. Here, it can be seen that kindness is
called his friends, that is, the elephants and integrated in the Malay culture and therefore
other animals to help with the river and the in folklore, being kind is said and written
village. The village improved and there was to illustrate the importance of this value to
no flood anymore. All the crops could be listeners and readers. For instance, in Malay
eaten and the animals survived. literary text, kindness is also shown through
folklore stories. For example, in the folklore
story, The Stork and the Mouse Deer, the
Palm Tree
stork is a kind bird that helps the mouse
Once upon a time, the palm trees talked deer to cross the river with the rice crust as
to each other. They would talk about their a boat. The stork shows virtues of mercy,
family and friends. Every day, the palm consideration and mutual understanding
trees would cry because their bodies were towards the mouse deer. Another example
chopped and cut by humans. Humans is from Bird of Paradise, where the sparrow
needed their body parts for everyday use. is a kind bird and helps the bird of paradise
The palm trees would smile again every to care for its young. The sparrow looks
time they talked to their family and friends after the bird of paradise’s young until it
because they knew that they would help can fly. The sparrow demonstrates mercy,
humans with their body parts. consideration and readiness to forgive the
bird of paradise.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The impact of the study is that it will
In accordance with the Malaysian National give children the opportunity to identify
Education Philosophy (1996), values should aspects of mercy, consideration towards
be integrated among Malaysian students. others and readiness to forgive others. The
Hence, values are related to the cultural values in Bird of Paradise are congruent
factors in understanding Malay literary with the study by Abd Rahim (2014a) where
texts. children understand the values and culture
through the Malay folklore and are able to
Kindness, Self-Reliance and Good display these values in their everyday lives.
Manners Next, is the value related to culture of
self-reliance. Self-reliance is the ability
The first value related to culture is being
and willingness to do something without
kind. Kindness towards others means
depending on others. Self-reliance in this among the older generation. He is also

context means that a person or animal is careful when he speaks to the elderly. The
responsible, has the ability to act alone and culture of acknowledging mistakes can also
possesses confidence and belief in himself be seen in folklore. Brilliant Akim shows
or herself. Here, it can be seen that this that the villagers acknowledge their mistake
value is present in the Malay culture and of leaving the place in flood without doing
hence, in literary texts, such as folklore. anything. Also, in the folklore Jalak and
For instance, this can be witnessed in the Biring, Jalak admits that it has been mean to
story, Leader, where the chicken takes the other animals and arrogant towards others.
responsibility of waking up all the birds in Similarly, the culture of being friendly is
the forest and ensures their safety against the also shown in most folklore. The folklore,
eagle and hawk. The chicken has the ability Leader shows that most of the birds in the
to act alone and it believes that taking care forest are friendly with each other. Also, the
of all the birds is a good virtue. Besides folklore Fox, Mermaid and Palm Tree show
that, in Brilliant Akim, Akim has taken the that the animals are friends with each other
responsibility of helping the villagers from and live together in harmony. In the same
the flood. Akim also helps in the process of way, the folklore, The Stork and the Mouse
reconstructing the village after the flood. Deer also shows that the stork and mouse
The impact of the study from the story deer have been friendly with each other.
Brilliant Akim shows the culture of self- The impact of the study shows the value
reliance in order to be responsible and Akim of kindness, self-reliance and good manners
believes that his hard work will ensure the where the values can be practised among
safety of the people in the village. family members at home and students at
The third value is the culture related to school. This also shows that a person can be
good manners. A well-mannered demeanor responsible and hardworking for the sake of
is noble and gentle which should be practised others. In fact, the values can be practised
by individuals in their interaction with other among adults everywhere. The results of the
community members. The virtues of a study are parallel to the study by Abd Rahim
well-mannered person include courtesy, and Harun (2016) where these values have
acknowledging mistakes and friendliness. made a big impact on individuals who want
Here, it can be seen that all the features are to make a change in their lives.
included in folklore. The value and culture
of courtesy have been seen among the Respect, Affection and Justice
people since a long time ago. Therefore, it is
The fourth value is related to the culture
included in folklore so that the value can be
of respect for each other. Respecting and
passed down from generation to generation.
honouring a person or animal and social
Courtesy can be seen in the folklore Brilliant
institutions is important in order to create
Akim where he is seen to be courteous
a harmonious environment. These include
respect and obedience to parents, elders, are also shown in the folklore, Mermaid and
teachers, friends, neighbours and leaders, Fox when all of them shower their affection
king and country, obeying the law, human towards each other and take care of each
rights, beliefs and customs and personality other. Hence, the folklore, The Stork and
of the individuals. All these values and the Mouse Deer shows that both the stork
culture are found in the different stories and mouse deer show their affection towards
in folklore. Leader shows that birds in the the environment when they decide to cross
forest respect their leader, such as the eagle the river to go to another peaceful place
and hawk. Jalak and Biring also show full of food. However, the folklore, Clove
that Biring respects the other animals. and Brilliant Akim also display the value
Subsequently, the folklore, Clove portrays and culture of affection when they mention
how the bird respects the princess and the about the environment. The bird in the Clove
king, while the folklore, The Stork and the helps the princess and the people in the
Mouse Deer shows that the stork respects kingdom to ensure their affection for each
the mouse deer. In the folklore Brilliant other, while Brilliant Akim shows that Akim
Akim, the character of Akim is depicted as helps the village people in order to create a
a person who shows a lot of respect to the better environment after the flood.
village people and tries to help them. The sixth value related to culture is
The fifth value related to culture is justice. Justice is treatment, speech, fairness
affection. Affection is the feeling of love, and therefore, is not biased. There are a few
as well as deep and lasting affection. This stories from the folklore which show justice.
feeling is born of a willing heart to do The folklore, Jalak and Biring shows that
something without any element of self- Biring helps Jalak, so, justice is upheld.
interest. Affection includes feeling dear Jalak has been mean towards other animals
to life, the environment, and country, with and therefore, Biring tries to ensure that
peace and harmony. The value and culture justice is maintained. The folklore, The
of affection are clearly exhibited in folklore. Stork and the Mouse Deer also shows the
The folklore, Leader shows that the birds in stork gives the mouse deer a lesson in order
the forest love their children and are worried to have justice when the stork flies away and
that their young are in danger. Jalak and the mouse deer is left nearly drowned, as a
Biring also shows that Biring loves Jalak result of its own mistake.
and tries to teach it not to become arrogant Here, it can be seen that the value and
with other animals. Likewise, in Bird of culture of respect, affection and justice have
Paradise, the sparrow shows its love for given great impact on folklore and are also
the bird of paradise’s young. The sparrow practiced in their everyday life. The results
takes care of the young based on affection of the study are similar to the study by Rosly,
and love. The value and culture of affection Abd Rahim and Abdul Halim (2016) who
found that values are important to nurture also depicts courage with confidence and
children to become better persons when perseverance of all the palm trees when they
they grow up. let their bodies taken away by humans.
The eighth value related to culture
Courage, Physical and Mental Hygiene is physical and mental hygiene. Physical
and Honesty cleanliness is personal hygiene and
environmental sanitation. Mental hygiene
The seventh value related to culture
also includes speech, behaviour, thought and
is courage. Courage is when a person
spirituality. Among them are hygiene, clean
faces challenges with confidence and
environment, kind speech, polite behaviour
perseverance. Courage should exist in every
and healthy and constructive thoughts. One
person but a person who knows the limit
of the stories related to these traits is Bird of
and capabilities as reckless courage will
Paradise. The sparrow gives speaks kindly
therefore, result in disaster. The values of
and shows polite behaviour when it tells the
courage include being brave to do something
bird of paradise about leaving its young.
beneficial - brave enough because you know
Clove also demonstrates that when the bird
it is true, dare to make a stand and be brave
is concerned about what is happening in the
enough to be responsible.
kingdom, it helps the princess by giving her
There are stories in folklore that have the
the clove for mouth hygiene. In Palm Tree,
value of courage and are related to culture.
humans take all the palm trees that have
The folklore, Leader shows that the chicken
been chopped and clean the area around
helps the other birds in the forest by waking
them.
them up early in the morning to protect them
from the eagle and the hawk. In Jalak and The ninth value related to culture is
Biring, courage with confidence is shown by honesty. Honesty includes attitude and
Biring when it deals with Jalak. Biring sets behaviour that show good faith, trust and
up the barn by putting a mirror so that Jalak sincerity without expecting anything in
will fight with its own self. Bird of Paradise return. There are several stories from
also reveals courage with confidence and folklore that are related to this value and
perseverance of the sparrow by taking care culture. For example, in Leader, the chicken
of the bird of paradise’s young until it can helps the birds in the forest every morning
fly. In the same way, Clove too shows that without expecting anything in return. The
the bird has the courage to help the princess character, Biring in Jalak and Biring does
and the rest of the kingdom to deal with the not expect anything in return when it helps
bad oral smell. As for Crow, it can be seen Jalak to realise about its bad behaviour.
that both the crow and the peacock show Bird of Paradise portrays honesty when the
courage with confidence and perseverance sparrow takes care of the bird of paradise’s
when both birds decide to colour their young until it begins to fly. The folklore
feathers with different colors. Palm Tree Palm Tree also shows that the palm trees
offer their body parts to humans and do not deer exhibit hard work when they try to go
expect anything in return. So is the case in to the other side of the river with the rice
the folklore, Brilliant Akim, where Akim crust. Other than that, Clove also shows that
helps the villagers and shows good faith, the bird perseveres and is determined when
trust and sincerity. Honesty is also seen it tries to talk to the princess.
in Clove when the bird helps the princess The eleventh value related to culture
by giving her the clove and also helps the is cooperation. Cooperation is a good
kingdom to eat the clove for bad breath. and constructive effort undertaken
The study is impactful because it shows simultaneously at the individual, community,
that courage, physical and mental hygiene society or country to achieve a goal such as
and honesty help children in being strong brotherhood, shared responsibility, mutual
and honest towards others. Children can understanding, liberality and solidarity. The
also be able to identify bad and good folklore, Leader shows that all the birds in
behaviour towards others. The results of the the forest have shared responsibility with
study are congruent with the study by Abd each other. The plot of Mermaid and Fox is
Rahim (2014a) which revealed the values also interwoven with shared responsibility of
in folklore which help build positive values looking after each other against any danger.
and culture among children. Further, The Stork and the Mouse Deer also
shows good cooperation between the stork
Hard work, Cooperation and Awareness and the mouse deer. The stork helps to go
across the river and shares the responsibility
The tenth value related to culture is hard
with the mouse deer. The character Akim in
work. Hard work or diligence is when a
Brilliant Akim helps the villagers in dealing
person is full of the spirit of perseverance,
with the flood and shares the responsibility
determination, persistence, dedication and
with them. Likewise, Palm Tree shows that
effort in doing things. Some examples of
all the palm trees show their understanding
folklore which showcase hard work are
when humans need their parts of the body.
Bird of Paradise, Fox, Palm Tree, The
The twelfth value related to culture
Stork and the Mouse Deer, and Clove. In
is awareness. Awareness involves non
Bird of Paradise, the sparrow takes care of
exaggeration in making judgments and
the bird of paradise’s chick until it can fly.
actions whether in thought, speech or
Fox and Palm Tree show that the characters
conduct that conforms to the norms and
are hardworking to care for their respective
values of society. These include simple
families and friends. The folklore, Fox
gestures such as not merely considering self-
shows that they would go out every night to
interest but the interests of others too and
find food and in the Palm Tree, all the palm
not overdoing it in speech and behaviour.
trees put in effort in growing into heathy
In Leader, we can see that the birds in the
trees for humans. In the folklore, The Stork
forest are aware of the attitude shown by
and the Mouse Deer, the stork and mouse
the eagle and hawk. Jalak and Biring shows in the kingdom to be thankful to the bird
how Jalak’s attitude makes all the animals since it helped by giving the clove to the
scared and makes them aware that Jalak princess and also helped the whole kingdom
should be avoided. In Brilliant Akim, the overcome its predicament. In Palm Tree, we
villagers are aware of the help that Akim see that humans are thankful to the palm
has given them and conveys values for the trees since they offer all the parts of their
society. Palm Tree also shows that the palm body for use. Crow shows that the peacock is
trees are aware that their body parts will be thankful to the crow since the crow painted
taken away by humans but they are content its body in beautiful colours.
with it since they are able to add value to The fourteenth value related to culture
human life. is rationale. Rational behavior is when a
The impact of the study is that children person can think based on reason and clear
will be able to understand the values of evidence and can take appropriate action
hard work, cooperation and awareness. without being influenced by feelings.
The stories have helped children to practise For example, the person does not make
the values in order to create a positive judgments, can make logical statements and
environment at home and at school. Similar is open-minded about it. Jalak and Biring
studies also found the same result, such shows that Biring has been rational with
as by Mansor and Abd Rahim (2017) and the attitude shown by Jalak. Jalak has been
Rosly, Abd Rahim and Abdul Halim (2016) mean to other animals and Biring shows
where values are important to help children appropriate action to help Jalak in realising
in the process of growing up and becoming it. The Stork and the Mouse Deer also shows
better persons. that the stork is rational towards the mouse
deer when the mouse deer keeps eating the
Gratitude, Rationale and Community rice crust. In addition, in Palm Tree, we see
Spirit appropriate action of the palm trees of being
open minded with humans taking their body
The thirteenth value related to culture is
parts. The palm trees are positive about this
gratitude. Gratitude is the feeling of being
since they know that their body parts are
thankful and is a behaviour that is born
helpful to humans.
in good faith. In Leader, we see that all
The fifteenth value related to culture
the birds in the forest are thankful to the
is skill spirit. Skill spirit is willingness
chicken that wakes them up every morning
to do something for the common interest
to avoid danger from the eagle and hawk.
of creating harmony in society such as
Mermaid also shows how the villagers who
reaching a consensus, being hardworking
see the mermaid for the first time, name
and sensitive to the social issues in the
the place Mermaid. They are thankful for
community. The folklore that has this value
the mermaids’ existence. Clove is also a
and culture is Leader, where all the birds try
reflection of gratitude as it shows everyone
to have skill spirit by having a leader for the them in their everyday lives. Similar results
whole kingdom so that their safety will be were found by Abd Rahim, Nik Muhammad
taken care of. The folklore, Fox also offers Affendi and Awang Pawi (2017), Abd
insights into the skill spirts of the foxes Rahim, Abdul Halim, and Mamat (2014)
which go out at night together and find food and Abd Rahim, Abdul Halim, Mamat and
for their families. Similarly, in the folklore, Mansor (2016), where disseminating values
Palm Tree, all the trees support each other through folklore will help the process of
by giving positive vibes. This shows that better understanding among readers and
they work together in order to have the skill listeners. This way, it will create a new and
spirit and will therefore benefit all of them. positive environment among children in the
The study reveals that the values of classroom.
gratitude, rationale and community spirit
can be seen in the stories above. Children Summary of Results
will understand the values and try to use
Table 1
Animation according to values related to culture
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Kindness / /
Self-reliance / /
Good manners / / / / /
Respect / / / / / /
Affection / / / / / /
Justice / / /
Courage / / / / / /
Physical and mental hygiene / / /
Honesty / / / / / /
Hardwork / / / / /
Cooperation / / / / / /
Awareness / / / /
Gratitude / / / / /
Rationale / / /
Spirit / / /
Total 10 9 5 4 4 7 7 2 7 10
The numbers 1 to 10, at the top of the table 7: The Stork and the Mouse Deer, 8: Crow,
denote 1: Leader, 2: Jalak and Biring, 3: Bird 9: Brilliant Akim, 10: Palm Tree.
of Paradise, 4: Fox, 5: Mermaid, 6: Clove,
Table 1 shows the frequency for 10 and use the values in their everyday life. The
animations according to values related to results also reveal the importance of values
culture. Based on the discussion above, in folklore as these will affect the storyline
it can be seen that Leader and Palm Tree of the animation. The stories will be more
have the most values related to culture in interesting and values can be integrated
the storyline or plot (10 values). Both these into any activities in the classroom or at
animations have successfully depicted home. The results of the study are similar
these values since the values are easily to the study by Abd Rahim, Abdul Halim
identifiable. Both stories are based on and Mansor (2017), and Che Yaacob and
animals and trees. This will therefore Abd Rahim (2016), as well as the values
encourage children to imagine as if they are found in the Malaysian National Education
actually physically present in the stories. Philosophy (1996) which have an effect on
Jalak and Biring embodies nine values, the community. Moreover, values are also
which are interwoven in the story between included in most folklore to enhance reading
the two roosters. However, the least number among children at school. The results of
of values is seen in the folklore, Crow, since this study are also parallel to the study by
the story is merely about two birds that want Abd Rahim, Nik Affendi and Awang Pawi
to paint their feathers. Although, Crow has (2017) which found that animation plays a
only two values, the animation is interesting major role in disseminating values through
to watch since the peacock is popular for Malay folklore.
its colourful feathers. The folklore, Bird of This study implicates children or
Paradise contains five values whereas Fox younger generation in appreciating the
and Mermaid appear to incorporate four Malay folklore. Also, this study helps
values. This shows that Fox and Mermaid educators in choosing the best and suitable
are stories about the origin of these two folklore values in teaching and learning. It
animals. Therefore, too many values do is hoped that further studies will focus on
not really affect the stories. Here, it can values in Malay short stories.
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Iranian Medical Students’ Perception about Classroom

Participation in General English Course and its Grading Criteria
Laleh Khojasteh1, Nasrin Shokrpour1* and Reza Kafipour2
Department of English, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
1
Department of English, International Branch, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
2
ABSTRACT
The classroom is considered a social institution in which the social interaction that happens
between students and professors in a university setting is of prime importance. Accordingly,
classroom participation as an important variable in this setting and pros and cons to grading
the students’ class participation have been considered to be researched further to answer four
research questions regarding EFL students’ perception toward: (1) their class participation;
(2) the common factors that hinder or encourage their participation; (3) grading or not
grading class participation; and finally (4) positive and negative effects of grading class
participation. To answer these questions, this study applied a qualitative descriptive research
method using a case study to collect data first from 120 medical students through four close
and open- ended questions and then through interview with 10 students. The results showed
that majority of the students (85%) do not consider themselves as active participants in their
English classes, and psychological, physical and teacher factors are regarded as intensives
for their class participation while cultural norms, textbook and teacher factors are among
the factors that prohibit students’ class participation. Furthermore, about half of the students
reported that they are indifferent about whether class participation is graded or not because
they are not intrinsically motivated to even study English. Pedagogical implications based
on the above mentioned findings have been provided for teachers in this article.
Keywords: Class participation, grading class participation, student participation, EFL context
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
INTRODUCTION
Accepted: 07 November 2017 Since classroom is considered a social
E-mail addresses: institution, the social interaction that
[email protected] (Laleh Khojasteh),
[email protected] (Nasrin Shokrpour),
happens between students and professors
[email protected] (Reza Kafipour) in a university setting is of prime importance

because both professors and students bring what hinders the students to actively get
with them certain understandings of the involved in their classes?
normative behaviours which are expected To answer this, so far many researches
of them. One of these normative behaviours have reported various reasons including
expected of students in academic settings professors’ characteristics and their teaching
is their active participation in class which styles (Fritschner, 2000; Fritschner, 200),
is believed to foster their learning. What is class size and class design (Crawford &
considered ideal classroom participation? MacLeod, 1990; Fritschner, 2000), age
Not long ago this term was defined as (Karp & Yoels, 1976), gender and cultural
asking and answering questions raised in differences of students (Weaver & Qi,
the class; however, today a new version 2005), consolidation of responsibility
of classroom participation includes the (Karp & Yoels, 1976) and finally classroom
silent form of students’ engagement in the participation grading criteria ( Meyer, 2009;
classroom experience by listening actively Rogers, 2011) which is another focus of this
to others’ comments (Meyer, 2009, p. 12). study. It is also believed that in high grade-
Unfortunately, even if silence is regarded orientation cultures, students tend to value
as a measure to serve communicative just that part of the course which is graded.
functions, there are still students who prefer According to Bean and Peterson (2002),
to fill in the role of passive participants who “When students see that their participation
occasionally nod, smile or pretend to take is being graded regularly and consistently,
notes when they are actually involved in they adjust their study habits accordingly
other things. In other words, as teachers, we to be prepared for active participation” (p.
are usually bemoaning the fact that some 33). To further investigate this, the next
students choose to detach themselves from section of this article reviews opposite views
what goes on in the classroom no matter how mentioned in literature regarding grading
much we try to solicit participation from class participation.
them. One possible reason mentioned in the
literature is that seemingly students tend to LITERATURE REVIEW
be more comfortable to actively participate
Why is Participation Important?
in arts and social science courses than natural
sciences (Crombie, Pyke, Silverthorn, Jones, A lot of scholars have emphasised the
& Piccinin, 2003). Since English language role class participation plays and the
courses fall under the category of humanities impact it has on students’ learning. Various
and social sciences, one may believe that theories in education revolve around this
students are more willing to raise questions concept such as cognitivist notions of
and offer comments in the class. However, social constructivism and active learning,
we barely observe this in our classes. So information processing theory’s deep
why is participation of students so low and processing, social-interactionists’ views
of cooperative learning and learning
Students’ Perception about Classroom Participation
communities. Based on active learning, can usually be encouraged by grading

it is learners’ duty to take responsibility policies (normally ranges from 10% to
for their learning and that this learning 20% of the total mark for the subject).
opportunity should be offered by teachers in However, the question of whether or not this
student-centered learning environment. The participation should be graded has generated
theory behind this viewpoint comes from two schools of thought.
the constructivism theory which stresses on The opponents of grading classroom
developmental process of learning through participation believe that class participation
social interactions with peers and the teacher. is more than merely raising the hand and
By taking greater responsibility and having picking out a good seat. They believe that
greater involvement in the learning process, although participation grades might measure
learners not only develop deeper levels of the frequency of student participation, they
understanding, but also learn how to take often do not account for the quality of
control over their learning (Rogers, 2011). participation and cannot measure cognitive
This outcome leads us to the next important learning (Dallimore, Hertenstein, & Platt,
theory regarding class participation which 2013). As Wood (1996) explains, “what is
is information processing theory (Craik & abundantly clear is that a class participation
Lockhart, 1972). Based on this theory, the requirement neither promotes participation
more meaningful the learning environment nor does it effectively measure what a
is, the deeper the level of processing the student learns in class” (p. 112). In addition,
information would be. Therefore, it is since participation grades typically fail to
expected that the information gained in this actually measure the quality, it is doubtful
way would remain longer in the memory that participation grades truly result in the
and have the highest subsequent retention. type of participation desired by instructors.
For example, in one study conducted by Rau Furthermore, since grading classroom
and Heyl (1990), the results showed that participation is often subjective, students
students had a better performance on the test may consider themselves and their peers
material when they discussed it in the group as more active in classroom than their
earlier. This, has been supported by another professors think they really are (Dancer &
study carried out by Handelsman, Briggs, Kamvounias, 2005) and this indicates that
Sullivan and Towler (2005). in college context, students and professors
have different viewpoints about classroom
To Grade or Not to Grade University participation. Therefore, if not appropriately
Students’ Class Participation applied, the use of participation grades may
not only possess a potential measurement
With or without rubrics, some professors
problem, but also, students may believe
at universities allocate range of marks for
the grading criteria is nothing but bias and
levels of students’ classroom participation
includes favoritism (Shindler, 2003). This
because it is believed that this participation
skepticism about grading the participation listening and speaking skills needed for
of students especially in colleges and career success, and the ability to join a
universities further comes from Karp discipline’s conversation. Dallimore et al.
and Yoels (1976) who coined the term (2013) also believe that when participation
“consolidation of responsibility” which is part of grading criteria, students tend to
refers to the norm that in each session only adjust their study habits in order to prepare
a few students “five to seven” account for themselves for active participation in the
most of the interaction that takes place in classroom. Moreover, substantial evidence
each classroom (talkers) and the rest of the suggests that students with high grade
students are just passive observers (non- orientation value only those portions of a
talkers) (Karp & Yoels, 1976, p. 429). So is course that are visibly graded (Carstens,
it fair to grade the participation of students 2015). Indeed, the ratio of classroom
in such classes which on top of that may participation allotted in the final grade of
follow the traditional passive instructional students has been found to be effective
delivery still prevalent in many university in students’ willingness or unwillingness
classrooms all over the world? towards classroom participation (Smith,
Despite the above-mentioned 1992). Even if this participation is not
objections, supporters of grading classroom voluntary, by random cold-calling, students
participation believe that it is not really are motivated to become more involved
fair to students if they are evaluated based in the learning process (Dallimore et al.,
on one or two tests. According to Galyon 2013). Whether it is part of students’
(2012), it is not rational to give more grades or an extra credit, Rocca (2010)
credit than they deserve to term papers emphasises grading students’ participation
or homework because they cannot be fair and informing students where they stand in
indicators of what students have learned. He terms of participation midway through the
further condemns this kind of assessment semester. Finally, from the viewpoint of
because he believes the systems which behavioural psychology, Shindler (2003)
subscribe to such evaluation criteria do believes that when classroom participation
not pay enough attention to the inequality is graded objectively, even trouble-makers
of standard deviation of both midterm and become better students as a result.
final examinations if both tests are supposed
to contribute 50% to the composite score. Studies on Class Participation
Logic aside, others (Carstens, 2015; and
Looking thoroughly through the studies on
Dallimore et al., 2013) believe by grading,
class participation, we can see that there are
teachers can send positive signals to students
a lot of disagreements among scholars as
about the kind of learning and thinking an
to the grading criteria. For example, in one
instructor values, like growth in critical
study conducted by Fassinger (2000), the
thinking, active learning, development of
viewpoints of both students and professors
in 51 college classes were obtained with carried out by Howard and Henney (1998),
a questionnaire about class participation. the results showed that despite allocated
The results revealed positive viewpoints graded participation system, more than half
from both students and professors regarding of the students present in the class were
high-participation classes. Although it is not silent throughout the discussion. In another
really clear what criteria students referred graded participation study, Fritschner (2000)
to when they perceived themselves as observed 344 class sessions and reported
active participants, the results showed that that a small number of students accounted
active students perceive their professors as for the majority (79%) of all the students’
more approachable, and more stimulating talk in the class. This, however, is not in
and find the classroom environment to be line with what Dallimore, Hertenstein
less threating. Another interesting finding and Platt (2004) reported when studying
revealed from this study was that less the perception of students regarding class
active students had less positive perception participation when it is graded. In that
towards their classes and professors than study, the results showed that if students
the professors who had much more positive know their participation is graded, they
perception about their classes. Similar would participate more in the classes that
findings were also stated by Crombie, instructors assign a large percentage of the
Pyke, Silverthorn, Jones and Piccininn overall grade to class participation activities.
(2003) who reported that the higher the In another study conducted with the same
level of participation of the student, the team of researchers a few years later,
more favorably he or she perceives his Dallimore, Hertenstein and Platt (2012)
or her instructors’ attitude and behaviour. evaluated a classroom strategy that included
The opposite seems to be true too. There cold calling and marked participation and
are numerous studies including the ones reported that cold-calling even expands
conducted in Malaysia (Mustapha, Rahman, students’ comfort zone in terms of higher
& Yunus, 2010; Liu & Jackson, 2007) participation in the classroom.
which reported that instructors’ trait can Wood (1996, p. 111), however, argue
have undetected direct or indirect complex that “we must get away from the false
influence on students’ class participation. assumption that the amount one learns
Although these studies did not report is directly connected to the amount one
anything about the grading criteria which does (or does not) talk”. She argues that
existed at the time the studies were conducted, grading classroom participation only
the question remains here is that whether motivates over-talkers to dominate the
grading or not grading the class participation class and does not really help those quiet
would make a difference in students’ students who despite everything, prefer
viewpoints towards their instructors, and to remain silent. Meyer (2009) believe
the class participation itself. In one study that grading class participation can have
negative consequences for teachers too given to all students. Due to persistence
because the quality of their class would of problems over several semesters, the
not necessarily improve even if the number university authorities withdrew the grading
of students who participate increases as a process and voted for not grading class
result of grading policies. More than grading participation at all. Did they really make the
criteria, Fritschner (2000) believes it is the right choice? Did students themselves have
instructor’s verbal and nonverbal behavior a say in this decision?
(such as facial expressions and voice) that According to Meyer (2009), students’
significantly affects students’ participation. feelings about participation grades are
Based on whatever has been discussed worthy of investigation because if they like
in the last two sections, it seems that being graded, they may be persuaded to
although participation grade can have engage actively in the classroom. Meyer
numerous benefits, its drawbacks should (2009) continues claiming that there is
not be disregarded especially when both a strong relationship between student’s
teachers do not know how to assess it and perception and his or her participation
students do not know exactly how they habits. “If, …, students believe they have
are evaluated based on their participation a right to remain silent in the classroom,
(Meyer, 2009). they might be more likely to have a silent
engagement style [even with the existence
The Gap of a participation grade]” (Meyer, 2009,
p. 14). Accordingly, knowing about what
In Iranian setting, like in many other
Iranian students think about classroom
colleges and universities around the world,
participation and why they decide to actively
participation grades are often included
participate or remain inactive throughout the
in instructor syllabi because active
class prompted the researchers to conduct
involvement in classroom is believed to
this study. Indeed, most studies on class
be associated with students’ higher-order-
participation were those that evaluated
learning. Despite the promising results
class participation while it was graded.
active participation might bring about,
Interestingly, this study is among the first
there are also some Iranian universities
ones from its nature to study students’
in which classroom participation used to
perceptions about class participation and its
be graded in the past. The researchers’
grading criteria while the class participation
informal discussions with some professors
is not even graded. The sampling that this
of universities suggest that since grading
study used was pooled among EFL learners
policies were defined neither to teachers nor
who take English classes as part of their
to students, when it came to that five to 10%
credit fulfillment but none of these classes
that was supposed to be allotted to measure
allocate any marks for class participation.
student participation, free pass was usually
Hence, Iranian EFL students’ perception
about classroom participation, the grading randomly from among the students in Shiraz
criteria and how much lack of participation University of Medical Sciences. According
grade may or may not affect their willingness to this technique, each student receives a
towards in-class participation is worth unique number and then the determined
investigating. number of samples is drawn randomly. To
do so, the student number was used as the
RESEARCH QUESTIONS unique number; then 120 students’ numbers
The following research questions were were drawn randomly. All 120 students were
posed: students of Medicine and were 18 to 24 years
old. A number of 70 students were females
1) What is the perception of EFL students
and the rest (50 students) were males. As
regarding their class participation?
all of them were first semester students,
2) What are the common factors that their level of English proficiency was
hinder or encourage students’ class intermediate. The students were required
participation? to obtain intermediate level of English
3) Should class participation be graded? language at National University Entrance
4) What do EFL students think about the Exam if they wanted to be admitted to Shiraz
effects (both positive and negative) of University of Medical Sciences, one of the
grading class participation? leading medical universities in Iran.
METHODS Instruments
This study applied qualitative descriptive Two close-ended questions (questions
research method and was conducted at number 1 & 3) as well as two open-ended
Shiraz University of Medical Sciences in questions (questions number 2 & 4) plus a
the fall of 2015. supplementary interview were designed to
enable the researchers to answer research
Participants questions one to four. The close- and open-
ended questions are as below:
After determining the target population
and referring to Krejcie and Morgan’s 1. If being active in the classroom means
(1970) table, 120 students were selected asking questions, answering questions
through random sampling. Krejcie and and being involved in class activities
Morgan specified the standard and logical even if it is in silent form, how active
sample size based on population size. They do you think you are in your English
specified when the population is around classes?
600, the standard and acceptable sample 2. What encourages or hinders you to be
size should be around 120. Fish and Bowl an active participant in your English
technique was used to select the samples classes?
3. Should class participation be graded? Subsequently, one of the researchers

4. If class participation was graded in conducted a semi-structured interview
your English class, how do you think starting with four open and close-ended
this would affect (both positively and questions allowing the students to adapt to
negatively) your performance in and out her commentaries and feel comfortable at
of class? the interview. The interviewer began with
more general questions about students’
Due to the low response rate in answering number and types of English courses they
the above-mentioned questions and to enrich had previously passed and if they had
the data as well as to collect supplementary enjoyed learning English. Then, they were
qualitative data, 10 students were also asked four core questions that allowed them
interviewed. The researchers applied to talk about as much as they want. These
convenience sampling in selecting the questions were revised forms of the open
interviewees. Thus those who tended to and close-ended questions to motivate and
participate in interview, were selected. encourage the interviewees to provide more
Selection of 10 interviewees is based on complete data and fill the information gap
the grounded theory methodology which in open and close-ended questions asked
proposes the sample size of 10 to 12 as before (Nakamura, 2000). The following
an accepted sample size for interviewees questions were asked to participants:
(Creswell, 1998). All the interviewees 1. What does class participation mean to
were 18 to 24 years old, and were students you and do you believe there is value in
of medicine while their level of English class participation?
proficiency was intermediate as determined 2. How much do you actively participate
by National University Entrance Exam. in your English classes as a whole?
There were six female and four male Elaborate.
interviewees who were included in the
3. What factors influence your level of
sample.
participation in a given class?
4. What would increase your participation
Procedure
level in class and what do you think
The researchers collected data from two prevents you? Elaborate.
sources. First, with the permission from
authorities, two closed-ended questions and The interview took approximately 45
two open-ended questions were presented to minutes and was audio recorded to prevent
students at the end of one of their English any inevitable omission during note taking
classes and 15 to 20 minutes were allotted at the interview.
for them to answer the above mentioned
questions.
Data Analysis of questions, My English is not going to

After data collection, the researchers coded improve”. Another interviewee said, “What
and analysed each data source separately. All participation? Most of my friends bring the
the transcriptions were analysed based on books of former students to the class and
content analysis and were coded thoroughly read from those responses. I can also do
based on the key concepts, namely, that, but this is not participation. I let my
teachers’ traits, students’ traits, classroom friends do that”. Although it not directly
environment, and size of the class. All these mentioned by any of the interviewees,
concepts emerged from literature review. it seems that the only thing that requires
However, it is worth mentioning that based students’ participation in English classes is
on the researchers’ specified objectives of reading through the questions from the book
the interview, narrow transcription was not and answering those questions.
entirely applied here and the researchers To find out more about engagement
transcribed the interviews at a “very broad in class participation, the researchers
level of delicacy” as stated by Cusen (2005, referred to an open-ended question - What
p. 115). After the entire data were coded, encourages or hinders you to be an active
all code words were listed and similar participant in your English classes? The
codes were grouped; this then enabled the results obtained were three main reasons: (1)
researchers to search for meaningful themes. psychological factors; (2) physical factors;
The researchers extracted the themes and and (3) teacher factors.
showed their frequency of occurrence
through percentage (descriptive statistics). Factors that Encourage Students’ Class
Participation
FINDINGS Psychological Factor. This factor which
In response to the first research question encompasses the students’ motivational
(What is the perception of EFL students factors has been mentioned in 89 responses
regarding their classroom participation?), (74%). The following are representative
the results revealed that 85% of the students comments for this factor: “If teachers
believed that they were not active in their memorise our names and call us with their
English classes. Only 10% of them claimed first name, we feel good about wanting to
that they were active and 5% of the students participate more in our classes.” Another
said that they didn’t really know whether pertinent comment was:
they were active or not. By referring to
“We don’t really know our teachers;
the interview responses, it can be seen
sometimes we don’t even know
that students are not motivated enough to
their names even at the end of the
participate in classroom activities because
term. It would be great if we go to
as one respondent said, “My English is bad,
field trips together, or even sit at
and even if I participate and read the answers
university cafeteria and eat or drink circle, we could see each other and
something together. This way we encouraged to talk to each other.”
can talk to one another and get to
know our teachers better. In that The second important factor mentioned by
case, I would personally want to the students was the number of students in
talk more with my teacher in the a class. For instance, one comment was:
class.” “if, for example, there were 20 of us in one
class, I, very much, wanted to participate
External motivation is another reason and get engaged in class discussions”,
mentioned by at least 40 students (33%), another one said: “if we didn’t have so many
although except a few, most of the students people in our class, I probably wanted to
did not really mention what type of reward talk more in my class”. And the final factor
(for example, extra marks, or social reward mentioned was interior design of the class
which includes attention, praise, or thanks) (11 responses) – “classes should look nice,
they have in mind to be encouraged to with beautiful paintings or even plants;
participate more in classroom discussions. we don’t have anything in our class”, or
For example, a comment by one of the “it would be nice if we had more positive
participants was: “It would be great if atmosphere in our classes such as flowers,
teachers reward us any time we participate plants and even colourful more comfortable
in class discussions; most of our teachers chairs!”
don’t really care whether we talk or not.”
Teacher Factor. Last but not least are
Physical Factor. The physical layout factors that attribute to what teachers
was mentioned by 65 students (54%) can do to encourage more class activities
as an important factor for welcoming (63 responses). The most frequently
students who tended to participate more. mentioned factor was teachers’ teaching
In descending order “classroom space” style. Students believed that if teachers
was frequently mentioned by the students. followed communicative style, they would
One of the comments was “if our classes be more encouraged to actively participate
were bigger and nicer, I would feel more in classroom discussions. The following
comfortable even sitting in the class.” comments represent students’ voice in
Another student believed that: this matter: “only focusing on reading
skill, doesn’t really encourage anyone. We
“Our class was held in the want music, movie, videos, et cetera to
amphitheater, sometimes we didn’t be encouraged to even listen to teacher’s
even hear our teacher’s voice let lecture”, “our class is very boring, I guess if
alone our friends’ comments. I the class was fun and our teacher was fun, I
think if English classes were held personally wanted to contribute more”, and
in a place that we could sit in a
finally “if we had group work, I would be much in the class, my classmates
more comfortable participating in group; think I am showing off, why?”
our teacher never does that”. In addition,
63 students thought that teachers are the Textbook. Another very important factor
ones who need to make the lesson more that hinders students’ participation in class
interesting for students, while 25 students is their textbook. Textbook was mentioned
mentioned that they need more experienced by 51 students (42.5%) but this factor
teachers because they know how to manage can be classified as: (1) the content in the
class discussions professionally. One textbook; and (2) emphasis on only reading
comment for example, was: “our teachers skill in their textbooks. Many comments
are not very experienced. Sometimes represent the fact that ESP textbooks written
teaching us is their very first experience by university lecturers themselves have
in teaching at university. I guess more not been well-designed to meet students’
experienced teachers knew how to provide needs. For example, one participant said,
better opportunities for students to talk” and “I want to learn English in order to talk to
another one said, “teachers are key factors in native speakers; this book doesn’t teach
this; an experienced teacher knows exactly me that. I cannot relate to even one of my
what to do.” book chapters”, another remark was, “the
topics chosen for this book are very boring
Factors that Hinder Students’ Class and old. If topics were more relevant and
Participation updated, I would probably get encouraged
to search more about it and talk in the class”.
Cultural Norm. It is interesting to note
And others believe that the textbook that
that among all the other factors, 49% of
is written for reading skill, doesn’t really
comments (59 responses) were related to
provide an opportunity for students to talk:
cultural norms in participating in class
“Our book has 12 boring reading passages,
discussions. Many students believed
I don’t have any information regarding these
that they don’t even know how to voice
topics”.
their opinion both in Persian (their native
language) and in English. The following
Teacher Factor. Teacher factor was
are representative comments for this factor:
mentioned by half of the students (50
- “not knowing what to say and how to say
responses) as the factor that has discouraged
it is my major problem.” Another comment
university students to participate in class
made was:
activities. These factors have been further
“We haven’t been taught how to classified as the teacher’s trait, teacher’s
share our views in public. I guess, teaching style, and teacher’s professional
that is our biggest problem. We experience. Frequent negative teacher traits
need to be taught!” and “if I talk too (40 responses) which were cited were being
impatient, boring, without sense of humor, Finally, there were also comments regarding
demotivating, and unapproachable. The instructional pace (five responses):
following are representative comments for
“My teacher is always in a hurry
teachers’ negative traits:
to finish the book; we even have
“Teachers should allow their to go to make up classes to be able
students to think and answer the to finish the units assigned. I don’t
questions asked. Both my teachers think I am encouraged to talk when
in GE1 course and GE2 course teachers constantly tell us we are
always asked the question and behind the syllabus.”
answered it immediately. I think
teachers never allow us to try to Another participant said: “The amount
answer any of the questions.” of materials that we have to cover is too
much. My teacher teaches so fast that even
Another related comment was: “Teachers sometimes ask us to keep our questions for
should be motivated enough to encourage after class”.
us students to participate in class activities. There were several comments (10
In my class, my teacher was always responses) regarding teachers’ lack of
tired of working too hard. She was just experience and its link to class participation.
coming to finish the lessons and go” and Of all the responses related to this factor,
“what discourages students in the class is there were students who had compared their
teachers. All my English teachers were very current English teacher with their former
unfriendly. They did not know students’ English teacher at high school or language
names, they don’t tell jokes or laugh with us center they used to go. For example, one
and they just teach, teach and teach”. student said:
Instructional pace and teachers’
“ Te a c h e r s s h o u l d b e m o r e
method were also occasionally mentioned
experienced. My Kanoon [a famous
to be the reasons that hinder participation
language center] teacher had 25
(25 responses). Out of the 25 comments
years of experience and she knew
attributed to teacher’s teaching style, 20 of
how to make us talk about various
them mentioned teaching-centeredness as
topics, but this teacher is young
the factor that makes the students passive
and doesn’t seem to know how to
listeners with an end goal of testing. One of
handle the class.”
the comments was, “Teachers tell us that we
should talk but they are the only ones who
This comment was reverberated by another
talk in the class”, or “our class is always
participant: “Lack of teaching experience
quiet. My teacher is the only one who talks!”
can hinder class participation; I am sure our
class is my teacher’s first experience!”
Interview Responses that at the beginning of the semester, many

Although students were asked to explain teachers maintain a slow pace in teaching
about the factors that either encourage but from the middle till the end, teachers
or hinder their class participation, the teach as quickly as they can to complete
comments received on behalf of interviewees what is assigned in their syllabus and keep
were mainly about factors that hindered the course tightly structured. One of the
students’ class participation. It is worth comments for this factor is as below:
mentioning that this can be considered as a
“I don’t know why quantity is
limitation of the study because although the
more important than quality. We
interviewer asked the question regarding the
have to cover so many units while
factors that encourage students to participate
we don’t even have time to grasp
in the classroom, combining two factors
and understand many of them.
in one single question, or asking double-
My teacher is constantly worried
barelled questions (What would increase
about us finishing the units that
your participation level in class and what
sometimes she forgets we are not
do you think prevents you?) might have
English students [students majoring
unconsciously led students to talk more
in English like TESL].”
about the negative factors that hindered
their participation rather than the ones that Another comment was:
encourage their participation. As a result,
out of the 10 people interviewed, there “My teacher doesn’t ask us many
were only random comments as regard questions. He just goes on reading
to factors that encourage students’ class the paragraphs and calling some
participation like teachers’ teaching style, names to read the exercises without
more interesting books and class activity asking us any specific questions for
grade. us to discuss”, “…except for the
Of all the comments provided in the first few minutes before any unit,
interview about the factors that hinder we do not discuss or answer any
students’ class participation, lack of teaching questions, except the questions
management and books were the most about the meaning of certain words
frequently derived themes. Seven out of 10 in English or Persian.”
students interviewed (70%) believed that
lack of time management on the part of their Almost all the students (nine out of 10)
teachers created a major problem not only claimed that the topics included in their
in giving students a chance to participate books are not encouraging enough for
in class activities but also in learning the them to inspire them to talk more in
lessons in general. These students believed class. To describe their books, students
used adjectives like “boring”, “tiring”, this regard. Despite looking for repeated
“irrelevant”, “removed from our own words to come up with themes, the
modern experiences” and alike. researchers found only a few random
In response to the third question (Should positive comments (10 responses) and a
class participation be graded?), 45 % of the few negative comments (15 responses)
students believed that class activity should about grading criteria. The comments
not be graded, 5% believed it should be that were related to positive outcomes of
graded, and 51% of the students stated allocating any grade to class participation
that it did not really make a difference were “higher class participation”, “better
for them if their class activities were discipline on behalf of students”, “better
graded or not. By referring to the students’ prepared students” and “more attendance”.
interview response, it is believed that the Negative outcomes that would result from
most repeated key concept is “stress”. grading class participation were “rule-
Almost all respondents (nine responses) governed system”, “poor incentive”, “forced
said that they are already under so much attendance” and “poor assessment criteria”.
pressure from other professors, university Analysing the interviews, the first theme
staff, and parents as well as a large number which emerged was “attendance”. However,
of assignments and projects that they this theme seems to both positively and
cannot handle other types of pressure from negatively be the result of grading class
their English classes for attendance, class participation. About seven students (70%)
activities and alike. believed that the only good effect of grading
In order to answer the fourth research class participation was that it inspired
question (What do EFL students think about them to attend all the classes. For more
the effects (both positive and negative) of clarification, it is important to note that
grading class participation?), the researchers according to departmental regulations,
referred to both the open-ended questions medical university students are allowed
which the 120 students had to reply in a to be absent for only four sessions in the
written form as well as to the interviewees’ period of 17 weeks, of two classes per week.
responses since not many students had However, it is often seen that many students
written their comments in written form. at the end of the semester convince their
Although this question (If the class professors that their absenteeism is justified,
participation was graded in your English so trying to understand their students,
class, how do you think this would affect some professors tend not to be strict about
(both positively and negatively) your the university’s attendance policy. On the
performance in and out of classroom?) other hand, they were 40% of students
was placed on students’ paper in order to who mentioned “attendance” as a negative
be answered by all the 120 students, only factor that is brought about by grading
25 students had written short comments in class participation. One student said, “if
class participation is graded, we have to motivation for learning English. One reason
constantly be worried about our attendance; for this, especially for Iranian learners,
this causes anxiety for us”. may be the fact that they start learning
Another theme which emerged from English since junior high school, if not in
the positive outcome of grading was better early ages at private English institutions.
preparation on behalf of the students. Nevertheless, after all these years, many
It was found that six out of 10 students still cannot even handle the simplest English
(60%) agreed that if students knew class conversations. This as a result may lead to
participation would be graded, they would loss of motivation to learn English by the
prepare themselves better before they time they enter the university (Khojasteh,
attended their English classes. For example, Shokrpour, & Kafipour, 2015). Ryan and
one student stated: “My friends and I Deci (2000) believe that when students lack
usually use former students’ book to read enough interest in learning, they are unable
the exercises in the class if we are called to produce high academic achievement
on. If the class participation were graded, I and long-term retention of what they have
would spend some time before the class to learned.
prepare myself for the exercises we do in Another factor which was revealed
the classroom”. To clarify, we should add from interviews with students is that many
that, unfortunately, it is not compulsory students do not even know what active
for the students of this university to buy a participation really means. Based on
new book. Hence, it is often seen that many their reports, many think that reading the
students use their friends’ used books which answers of questions from the textbook is
contain written answers of all the exercises participation. This can be attributed to the
and the English or Persian meanings of the fault of teachers who sometimes assume that
vocabularies can also be seen all over the students already know how to participate
books. and how much participation is enough for
them to be graded (Meyer, 2009).
DISCUSSION T h e res u l t s o f s eco n d res earch
As regard to the first research question the question showed that among the factors
results showed that most of the students do that encourage students’ participation, we
not perceive themselves as active students can point to psychological factors such as
in their English classes. This result is in line knowing students’ names, having more
with Karp and Yoels’s (1976) study which approachable teachers and enhancing their
reported that only about 10 out of 40 students external motivation. The above mentioned
participated in class discussions, and factors can have other positive effects on
typically, just five dominated discussions. students’ participation which have been
This lack of participation in English classes reported by other similar studies such
could be resulted from students’ lack of as Dallimore et al. (2012) and Fassinger
(2000). In another study conducted by emphasised by Howard, James and Taylor

Mustapha, Rahman and Yunus (2010) in (2002).
Malaysia, the results showed that teachers The third factor that was considered
who are encouraging and approachable can encouraging to class participation by the
positively affect students’ participation in students is the teacher factor. While boring,
class. With regard to memorising students’ dry and unconvincing teaching style are
names and its association with better class discouraging, encouraging teaching style
participation, the result of this study is in enhances students’ reflective thinking and
line with that of Herzig’s (2002). problem solving skills which eventually
Physical appearance of the class was lead to better retention and better grades.
another factor considered effective by the Another teacher factor that encourages
students in encouraging participation. This student participation is having experienced
link has been verified by various previous teachers. This has been supported by a study
studies conducted in different countries all conducted by Doganay and Oztürk (2011)
over the world such as the United States who did a comparative study between
(Meyer, 2009), China (Peng, 2014), and experienced and novice teachers. The
Pakistan (Suleman & Hussain, 2014); all results revealed that experienced teachers
these studies came to the conclusion that use more metacognitive strategies in class
classroom physical environment has a which accordingly can have positive effect
significant effect on students’ academic on students’ class participation.
achievement. According to Suleman and Regarding factors that discourage
Hussain (2014), students who feel more student participation in the classroom and
comfortable in their learning environment cultural norms, textbooks and teachers,
can better retain information from class yet again, can be mentioned. According to
discussions. Seating position, classroom Girgin and Stevens (2005), students who
design, density, privacy, noise, and the come from non-participatory cultures are
presence or absence of windows are reluctant to participate in class discussions.
the factors that have been mentioned This as well as language factors are major
as integrating or mitigating factors reasons behind Asian students’ unwillingness
on students’ behaviour, attitudes, and in class participation (Nataatmadja, Sixsmith
achievement (Meyer, 2009). It is also stated & Dyson, 2007). Nataatmadja, Sixsmith
that by changing the classroom physical and Dyson (2007) stated that “most Asian
environment, students’ disruptive behaviours countries have large class sizes: if the
can be minimised (Gaurdino & Fullerton, students ask questions in class, the lecture
2010). The positive association between would not finish on time, and therefore the
appropriate class size and opportunity of instructor prefers students to discuss any
interaction and participation has also been issues that they have after class” (p. 74).
Insufficient English proficiency was another Shokrpour, 2016). Furthermore, it is stated

factor mentioned hindering students’ verbal that teacher’s lack of knowledge and
participation. This has been supported by teacher-centered teaching style are limiting
many studies including Davison and Trent factors to students’ participation (Fritschner,
(2007) and Gyungsook (2014). 2000). Equally true is the fact that impatient
Textbook was another factor that was teachers who are specially facing crowded
mentioned by many students discouraging classes seem to have shorter “teacher wait-
their class participation. Apart from time” which this results in teachers who
presentation of materials and textbook immediately answer their own questions
layout, suitability of materials for different before giving their students enough time
learning styles, appropriateness and to think and respond. Indeed, it has been
authenticity are among the factors that proposed in the literature that students are
motivate students to learn (El-Sakran, 2012). reluctant to participate in classes where the
For an English textbook, Deuri (2012) teachers wait “no more than a few seconds”
believes subject matter should be based on to answer the questions asked in class
students’ environment, psychological needs (Fritschner, 2000, p.356).
and interests. The result of this study also show that
The results of this study demonstrate that lack of teachers’ time management skills
while positive teacher traits can encourage and instructional pace can deter class
students’ participation in class, negative participation. While moving along too
teacher traits can negatively correlate slowly can be boring and distracting for
with participation. Teacher’s experience students, moving along too quickly can
and strategies he or she adopts to foster also be discouraging because students may
effective participation plays a fundamental feel defeated and unchallenged. So, it is
role in encouraging students, especially fundamental to align instructional content
Asians (Nataatmadja, Sixsmith, & Dyson, to match learners’ skill levels.
2007). In fact, according to Gorham and Considering the third research question
Christophel (1992), “motivation is perceived (Should class participation be graded?), the
by students as a student-owned state, while result of this study show that 45% of the
lack of motivation is perceived as a teacher- students believe that their class activities
owned problem” (p. 240). Teacher’s verbal should not be graded while about half of
and non-verbal behaviour has also been the students do not even care about whether
reported by Fritschner (2000) to have a their participation is graded or not. As it
significant effect on students’ degree of was mentioned earlier, “stress” is repeated
participation in class. Even sometimes as one of the main reasons why students
teachers’ own lack of motivation and job are reluctant about the idea of graded
dissatisfaction might lead to demotivated participation. University students today
students (Hekmatzadeh, Khojasteh, & experience high levels of stress in many
areas of life due to poor sleeping and eating Ideally, teachers can interactively motivate
habits, academic pressure, full schedules students; this leads learners to maximise
and many more. According to Behere, achievement. Therefore, teachers should try
Yadav and Behere (2011), some medical to instrumentally motivate learners to give
students experience stress in such level them a tangible reason to attend classes.
that needs medical interventions. Students Although the researchers of this study
should then adopt active coping strategies thought grading policies can motivate
instead of avoidance and they should receive students to be more involved in class
consultation on how to manage and cope activities, the results of this study show
with stress (Al-Dubai, Al-Naggar, Alshagga, that students who don’t like to participate in
& Rampal, 2011). class will still remain silent even if grading
Finally, the results of the fourth question is proposed to encourage better participation
(If the class participation was graded in (Fritschner, 2000). So according to Meyer
your English class, how do you think (2009), if participation grade is implemented
this would affect (both positively and for such students, they will be more
negatively) your performance in and out of disadvantaged because they probably
classroom?) reveal that improved attendance employ silence regardless of the grades
and better preparation are the positive associated with participation. Therefore,
aspects university students relate to when other motives should be considered apart
it comes to grading class activities. At from grades.
the same time, some students believe that The results of this study also show
attendance can be a daunting factor if class that 85% of our students do not assume
activities are graded. In either case, we themselves as active participants in their
can conclude that students seek external English classes. Since they are more or
factors in order to force themselves to sit less reluctant to be graded for their class
in their English classes. Indeed, it refers activities, it can be concluded that this
to external motivation. If students are not result doesn’t support the association
instrumentally motivated, they will not between grading class participation and
continue attending classes unless they find higher student motivation, as asserted by
them sensible and practical. This implies Rattenborg, Simonds and Hunt (2005). This
that the participants of this study are not is also in contrast with the link between
entirely aware of the rationale as to why using participation grades and more frequent
attendance is necessary. Moreover, it implies participation from a greater number of
they do not find classes useful and fruitful students proposed by Dallimore et al.
to be encouraged to attend classes regularly. (2012).
Therefore, it is important that instructors Hence, based on students’ remarks, there
change their teaching strategies and styles to are other measures that need to be considered
make students interested in English classes. to encourage students for more participation.
For example, smaller class enrolment, class discussions; sometimes, they talk to
better classroom environment and physical impress their teacher. Furthermore, the shy
appearance, appropriate instructional pace, students usually don’t speak up in class.
discussion-based instructional methods for Therefore, if the teachers plan to grade
creating more participation opportunities, class participation, they should probably
more communicative textbooks, are a few make their expectations clear to students.
pertinent considerations. It is also important They need a rubric that defines the elements
to culturally know our students because of quality class participation including
some students, like the ones in this study, attentive listening, preparation before class,
come from cultures that simply value and comments based on discussions. It
silence in the classroom. So for these type would also be useful for teachers to help
of students, Balas (2000) suggests instead students distinguish between speaking a lot
of monopolising the discussion, it is best in class and participating in a meaningful
to utilise small group activities to facilitate conversation. EFL teachers need to clarify
speaking in class. the grading policies, standards, criteria,
timeliness, consistency, and grade disputes.
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS to the students of the course so that these
The results of this study show that most students are adequately aware of what is
students do not perceive themselves as expected of them for real participation
active students in their English classes due in class. We also need to include grading
to physical appearance of the classrooms, policies, procedures, and standards in
textbooks in use, , and the characteristics the syllabus and distribute the grading
of teachers and their teaching styles. It is criteria to students at the beginning of
interesting to note that although it seems the term and remind them of the relevant
that the participants of this study looked for criteria. According to Ko and Rossen (2017)
external motives to increase their tendency whatever participation activities (such as
for class participation, about half of these contributing to discussions, answering and
students reported that they would not asking questions) are going to be included
prefer graded participation to be applied in the final grade of the students, teachers
in their English classes. According to them, should explicitly explain and elaborate these
this would add another hurdle to many in the syllabus, and make them known to
other existing problems they face in their students at the beginning of the course.
academic life. Finally, it is important not to consider
Given the pros and cons to grading grades as the only motivation to encourage
students on class discussion, EFL teachers students to attend class actively as it will not
should consider two important points. First, work definitely for all students. Although
the students who are active in class are not previous research found class participation
necessarily the most attentive students in difficult to assess, hence, even if graded
participation is implemented, assessment
experts who support fair and reliable scoring Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of
of any criteria should devise the rubrics to processing. A framework for memory research.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,
overcome the problems of teacher bias and
11(6), 671-684.
unfair penalisation of less vocal students
especially in countries like Iran, where Crawford, M., & Macleod, M. (1990). Gender in
the college classroom: An assessment of the
students have proficiency issues and need
“chilly climate” for women. Sex Roles, 23(3-4),
more time in organising their thoughts. It is
101-122.
also important to apply an assessment policy
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and
that actually evaluates students’ learning
research design: Choosing among five traditions.
and not students’ behaviour in terms of
USA: Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
frequency of participation. In summary,
Crombie, G., Pyke, S. W., Silverthorn, N., Jones, A.,
McDonald’s (2017, p. 311) contention that
& Piccinin, S. (2003). Students’ perceptions of
“it is unfair to grade a student on what could
their classroom participation and instructor as a
very well be a personality issue” holds true. function of gender and context. The Journal of
Higher Education, 74(1), 51-76.
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The Shadow Worlds that Run Parallel to the Real World:

Deleuzian Time-Images and Virtualities in Paul Auster’ Sunset
Park
Nasser Maleki and Moein Moradi*
Department of English Language and Literature, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
ABSTRACT
The present paper studies Paul Auster’s Sunset Park from the Deleuzian perspective.
Gilles Deleuze in his books on cinema introduces his theory of metaphysics of imagination
through which he analyses images of past as well as the crystal-images in the perceiver’s
[character’s] memory. Accordingly, the paper looks for new ways to apply Deleuze’s
analysis of cinematic images on literature. Such analysis enables us to study the mentalities
of Auster’s characters’ in terms of their relationship with their past memories, and their
rejoining of the society after a self-inflicted exile. As such, Deleuze’s treatment of the
images of the past through the crystalline narrations and flashbacks will be used to analyse
the past mindsets and memories of Auster’s characters. The findings will ultimately show
how these Deleuzian concepts can work as a new arena to critically evaluate literary works
in terms of the role of images of the past and virtualities in creating evolving fictional
storyworlds, using Paul Auster’s Sunset Park as the tool for analysis.
Keywords: Paul Auster, Gilles Deleuze, sunset park, time-images, crystal-images, virtuality
INTRODUCTION Miles Heller, his torn-apart family, and a

Paul Auster’s Sunset Park (2011) recounts bunch of unfortunate youngsters during
the story of the alienated New Yorker the collapsing world of economic ruin and
relentless, ever-expanding hardship of the
late 2010s. Miles is “twenty-eight years old,
ARTICLE INFO and to the best of his knowledge he has no
Article history:
Received: 03 March 2017 ambitions” (Auster, 2011, p. 4). He is also
Accepted: 09 January 2018
severely traumatised by an accident that
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Nasser Maleki), had claimed his brother’s life; therefore, his
[email protected] (Moein Moradi)
guilt-ridden memory hunts him by various

levels of the images of the past. However, Renzo’s philosophical contemplations that
the main themes of death, abandonment, encompass the issues of time and causality
and time-images of the past are the ones that might be better analysed through Deleuze’s
recur frequently in the novel. While each notion of crystal-image. Having applied
character is treated through a separate and Deleuze’s metaphysics of imagination
sometimes overlapping story, the common on this occasion, along with diagnosing
thread among all their accounts is Miles Miles’ frequent flashbacks to his troubled
Heller whose life has been affected socially, memories and Bing’s longing for the past
economically, and spiritually. Three years with Deleuzian lens will be extrapolated in
after Bobby’s death, Miles, a 21-year old the forthcoming sections of this paper.
student back then, had abandoned college
and a promised future to live in self-exile and THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
away from his family and his nightmarish To understand Deleuze’ transcendental-
past. Now after seven years of living a life, empiricism, or his middle stance between
and forced by events which have threatened actual and virtual sides of philosophy, it
his relationship with a Hispanic girl he is would be beneficial to refer to the term
planning to marry, he finds no choice but to intermezzo. David R. B. Kimbell in his
come back to New York and to join a band Italian Opera (1991) suggests that “between
of squatters who have illegally occupied 1700 and 1750 the Intermezzo was so
an abandoned wooden house in Sunset popular” (Kimbell, 1991, p. 303) in the
Park, Brooklyn. Miles’ subsequent reunion classic Italian opera; the term actually
with his parents is mediated through his referred to an “interlude” (1991, p. 166) or
confidant friend, Bing Nathan, with whom a piece that used to be played between two
and two other friends he shares the joy of musical acts. Deleuze and Guattari who are
living in a metropolitan Walden. On the famous for their clever borrowings, have
other hand, while everybody’s life has been made use of this Italian term to facilitate
disintegrated by the financial recession their philosophy. “Intermezzo” or inter-
and the cultural gap between generations, being is all about reconciliation and “to get
one can find Renzo Michaelson, Miles’ outside the dualisms” (Deleuze & Guattari,
godfather, an exceptional character who 2005, p. 277). Therefore, one can say that
can think beyond actualities and everyday Deleuze’s paramount legacy stands between
problems. Renzo believes that his mind is the above two opposing established schools
occupied with virtual and potential ideas, of thought. Such is his reconciliation
even those “things that don’t happen” between the truth and the self, as the
(2011, p. 153). Renzo is a novelist, who centers of traditional transcendentalism
mirrors Auster’s longing for virtualities by and empiricism respectively. Intermezzo is
brooding over impossible turns of the past also the key to understand the incorporeal
events through what seems to resemble materialism through which Deleuze
certain types of Deleuzian time-images.
Time-Images and Virtualities, Paul Auster’s Sunset Park
unites the distinct and the indiscernible, and modern cinema, published as two
the abstract and the concrete, as well as influential books respectively: Cinema I:
the actual and the virtual. Now, one can Movement Image in 1986, and Cinema II:
argue that the most interesting upshot Time Image, in 1997. The latter could be a
of such worldview is evident through valuable source for studying the imagery of
Deleuze’s treatment of images, where he the past and the portrayal of time through the
discovers both the actual and concrete chaos in which postmodern fiction is living.
images and the virtual ones in all the levels Nevertheless, as Auster seems to have made
and classification of his metaphysics of intricate use of modern cinematic imagery
imagination. Consequently, such an image in his last novel Sunset Park, it appears
that bears the dual characteristics of actual beneficial to draw on some of Deleuze’s
and virtual would be called time-image. As main arguments regarding his metaphysics
this paper endeavours to show this, various of imagination or simply put, his treatment
forms of such Deleuzian time-images could of images.
be found in Sunset Park. These instances Deleuze’s transcendental-empirical
are used to convey the dual nature of worldview leads him to draw on the relation
characters’ longing for their unfulfilled between the actual and the virtual in his
past. This duality is the inherent nature treatment of images. For this purpose, as
of time-images because they represent the present or actual descriptions along
Deleuze’s transcendental-empiricism. with descriptions about the past which add
As Trifonova (2004) notes, time-images a virtual condition to the actualities of our
mark “the end of representation” and “the concrete world, create a circuit between
annihilation of both subject and object” actual and virtual images. Such duality of
(2004, p. 135) to prove Deleuze’ intermezzo actual and virtual descriptions is among
between transcendentalism and empiricism. Auster’s narrative techniques in Sunset Park,
Therefore, we can argue that time-image and, insofar as the characters’ minds become the
in a general scale, Deleuze’s metaphysics subject of wrestling between various forces
of imagination as a whole derive from his from their past or their present environment.
general transcendental-empiricism. This situation, according to Deleuze, rubs
To expand and at the same time apply the stories off their “causality and linearity”
this general worldview, Deleuze draws on and paves the way for them to “go beyond
the role of cinematic images in shaping themselves in destiny” (Deleuze, 1997,
literary descriptions in the modern age. p. 49). Interestingly, Auster’s novel can
Cinema has invariably and permanently be a good example for such Deleuzian
changed our view of life. Thus, on the basis “inexplicable secret” of destiny and the
of his project of altering philosophical “fragmentation of all reality” (Deleuze,
concepts through studying new phenomena, 1997, p. 49). Therefore for Deleuze, the
Deleuze has done a detailed study of classic most authentic source of virtuality resides
in pure recollections which are “summoned imaginary, the physical and the
from the depth of memory” and “develop mental, or rather their images,
into recollection images” (1997, p. 54). continually followed each other,
Having surveyed these two forms of images running behind each other and
which he tends to call “time-image” (1997, referring back to each other around
p. 68), we can see how Delezuian theories a point of indiscernibility. But this
when applied on Sunset Park can treat point of indiscernibility is precisely
Miles’ never-ending nightmares of the constituted by the smallest circle,
accident that took his brother’s life. To this that is, the coalescence of the actual
end, it is valuable to note that Deleuzian image and the virtual image, the
time-images share one main characteristic: image with two sides, actual and
in all of them the circuit or passage between virtual at the same time … when
the actuality and the virtuality forms a kind the actual optical image crystallizes
of flashback. In this sense, the actual and the with its own virtual image, on the
virtual run after each other, and the present small internal circuit. This is a
fades into the past with either a normal or a crystal-image … (1997, p. 69)
slow pace. However, the advance generation
of time-images, emerging with the rise Therefore, in such “crystal-image or
of modern times, is completely different, crystalline description” we witness that
whereas the earlier forms “the broad circuit “each side is taking the other’s role in
of recollection in dream” (Deleuze, 1997, a relation which we must describe as
p. 68) incorporated “flashbacks” and pure reciprocal presupposition, or reversibility”
recollections as a whole, the new kind of (1997, p. 69). Such “mutual images” (1997,
time-image is born out of a “short circuit” p. 69) remind us of both the incorporeal or
between actualities and virtualities This the virtual and the actual or the material
“very specific genre of description” is sides to a crystal-image. Hence, it can
formulated in a way that “instead of being be argued that since the crystal-image is
concerned with supposedly distinct object, evolved between those planes of material
constantly both absorbs and creates its and immaterial descriptions, the crystalline
own object” (1997, p. 68). This project is descriptions are among the narrative parts
the “key or rather the heart of” Deleuze’s which one can transparently come across in
treatment of images in the modern era and a number of times in Sunset Park.
is called “crystal-image” (1997, p. 69). It is
worthwhile here to notice Deleuze’s own DISCUSSION
explanation:
Time-Images and Virtualities in Paul
We h a v e s e e n h o w, o n t h e Auster’s Sunset Park
broader trajectories, perception When Auster’s Sunset Park opens, Miles
and recollection, the real and the is residing in South Florida, trashing out
foreclosed and deserted houses, and getting there, asking him to be looked at one last
rid of the things left behind when the time” (Auster, 2011, p .5). Possibly he is
residents were evicted. Unlike his thuggish searching for the images of the general
colleagues, who help themselves to anything past, a “whole temporal panorama, an
of value, we find Miles Heller sentimentally unstable set of floating memories, images
photographing anything he finds in the of a past in general which move past at
abandoned houses. It seems that: dizzying speed, as if time were achieving a
profound freedom” (Deleuze, 1997, p. 55).
He has taken upon himself to
For Miles, such general presence of the past
document the last, lingering traces
is felt due to the virtual ghosts of the absent
of those scattered lives in order to
family members to whom he will never
prove that the vanished families
find the chance to be introduced. Therefore,
were once here and the ghosts
in Deleuzain terms, Miles’s photography
of people he will never see and
is about capturing the fragments of the
never know are still present in the
liberated time, somehow bringing the past
discarded things strewn about their
into the present. Yet the same effect of
empty houses. (Auster, 2011, p. 3)
time facilitates the representation of social
consequences of the economic recession.
Miles’ reference to the ghosts of people
As the houses of the bankrupt families
which are to be found in the abandoned
were evacuated by force, they didn’t have
things is somehow an evidence for his
sufficient time to pack and thus left in a
inclination toward virtual affinity. The
hurry. At this point Auster’s concern for
furniture and the appliances he finds in the
the plight of the contemporary American
evacuated houses are not of material value
society takes a larger-than-life turn, staging
to him, or at least their material appearance
itself through virtualities. In this regard,
is not the center of his attention. Evidently
Kukuljevic (2005) reads Deleuze’s virtual
he is able to think beyond the actuality of
as part of the real which “is not given in
their existence, to think about incorporeal
experience, but it is that by which experience
materialism. According to Lawley (2005),
is given” (2005, p. 145). Therefore, since the
“the virtual is a present that cannot be
Deleuzian virtual is preceding the actual and
captured by representation” (2005, p. 38).
experience, Auster refers to the magnitude
To think of the virtual is thus to think of the
of the modern predicaments with respect
past. Miles truly recognises that his photo
to their virtual status. He accordingly uses
taking is a pure virtual gesture, “an empty
metaphors to convey this issue, as Miles
pursuit, of no possible benefit to anyone”,
concludes that not “the most circumspect
because no material convenience will come
removal can erase the stench of defeat”
out of it. Yet he does not know why “things
(Auster, 2011, p. 5). Miles is right to some
are calling out to him, speaking to him in
extent. One might not be able to cure death,
the voices of the people who are no longer
abandonment, and such pure virtualities of the events surrounding Bobby, the
with actual means. This brings to mind reader gets more curious to know about it.
Lyotard’s concept of différend, the fact Bobby, Willa’s only child from his previous
that sometimes justice cannot be done and marriage to late Karl Bergstrom, was his
discourse is unable to present any remedy younger stepbrother. About 10 years ago,
or solution. The silence of discourse in its while Miles and Bobby were walking on the
Lyotardian implications could be paralleled shoulder of a deserted road in the country,
with Deleuze’s profound liberation of time they started a regular dispute, the kind of
through the narration of the general past. shouting and slapping that adolescent boys
When the past is gone too far, no present are familiar with. Bobby was walking on
action can help rectify its consequences, or the side of the road and when he said a
in other words, virtuality becomes so pure bad thing to Miles, he pushed Bobby in
that “it does not have to be actualized” anger, making him fall on the ground. The
(Deleuze, 1997, p. 79). As such, nothing road was clear but suddenly before Bobby
can simply fill the broad circuit or the gap could get up, a truck came down the turn
between the actual and the virtual, between and ran him over. “Even now”, Miles
the general past and the present. What then “can’t be sure if he did it on purpose or
remains would be a deep sense of nostalgia not” (2001, p. 17). And the precise thing
and despair. That is why Miles wants “his that has made him alienated from himself
pictures - not things, but the pictures of is that “he doesn’t know if the push came
things” (Auster, 2011, p. 6). Only pictures before or after he heard the oncoming car,
can capture a singular moment and tell which is to say, he doesn’t know if Bobby’s
Miles about the lost actualities, the defeated death was an accident or if he was secretly
families, and their current miserable lives. trying to kill him” (2011, p. 17-18). Such
Yet Miles’ sensitive attention to the are the complexities of Miles’ past. The
past, in general, somehow originates from suspension of justice is apparent here too.
his deliberate deviation from a particular And because the actual has been eliminated
moment in time: his own past. He has and Bobby is dead, all that remains is a
decided to propose marriage to Pilar strong sense of guilt, a pure virtual condition
Sanchez; however, he has vowed to tell her that is strong enough to push Miles out of
“next to nothing about himself”. This shows the track of his life for years – in isolation,
the depth of his alienation from his earlier wandering like a Deleuzian nomad around
life. “Least of all does he want her to know the country, running away from his actual
anything about his stepmother Willa Parks, life because he does not “know if he heard
who married his father 20 months after the car coming toward them or not”. For
the divorce, and nothing, nothing, nothing Miles “it seems certain that Bobby didn’t
about his dead stepbrother, Bobby” (Auster, hear the approaching car, or he wasn’t
2011, p. 16). As Auster stresses the secrecy concerned by it, … But what about you?
Miles asks himself. Did you know or didn’t of a Deleuzian time-image. However, the
you know?” (Auster, 2011, p. 25). So Miles’ incident of Herbert Jude Score’s (1933-
virtual journey begins with this simple 2008) death recurs again through the story
question. Therefore as Auster sketches out and Auster uses these occasions further to
the structure of his storyworlds in his 2008 mix actualities and virtualities. A lengthy
online audio interview, it seems that Miles’ report of Herb’s bad luck, the series of
inability to answer the above decisive injuries and misfortunes which ultimately
question makes him “hop off the tracks of took this Cleveland Indians player’s life, is
reality” and start “living in a parallel world” among Auster’s rare developments of the
(Miller & Auster, 2008). In other words, characters that are considered external to the
Miles’ real journey has been to graduate main story line. Moreover, Score’s account
from college and to possibly start work as is noteworthy, since we will learn that he
a literary agent in his father’s publication has been the subject of many childhood
house, yet his alternative life has ended up discussions between Miles and his father.
in being a simple worker with no degree and One can thus treat him as a symbolic icon of
no plans or ambitions. But since there is no their relationship. But now that Score is dead
remedy for the ambiguities of the past, what and Miles has not seen his father for the last
remain for him are painful flashbacks which seven years, for a second he is compelled to
he decides not to share with Pilar. call him and “chat with him about Herbert
Now “it is 2008, the second Sunday in Jude Score and the imponderables of fate,
November” and Miles and Pilar are going the strangeness of life, the what ifs and
to “grasp the Dickensian spirit”, searching might-have-beens, all the things they used
for “odd and amusing names” through “the to talk about so long ago …” (Auster, 2011,
baseball encyclopedia” (Auster, 2011, p. p. 34). Such a call never comes true and
31). Baseball has always had a special place the son meets his father a few months later
in Auster’s stories, and in Sunset Park the in Brooklyn. However, the significance
reader often comes across the real names of their regular discussions about fate,
of the stars of 1940s to 1960s who have “might-have-beens”, and “what ifs” will
been exemplary pitchers in the American extend through the story. Obviously, all
Major League of Baseball. A few days the possible impossibilities of fate are
later, Miles learns about the death of one connected to the notion of time in one way
of his childhood heroes: “On the eleventh, or another, and since such possible turns
he reads in the paper that Herb Score has of fate have never happened, they belong
died” (2011, p. 32). We can argue that the to those virtual conditions of the plane of
metafictional technique of bringing real reality which have never found appropriate
names into the fictional storyworld is a differentiation to be actualised. Such are
kind of adding an actual dimension to a the virtualities Auster frequently refers
virtual space which can have the effect to: the imponderables of fate. As Deleuze
favours the term “potentiality” (Deleuze breakfast twenty years ago and announced
& Guattari, 2005, p.142) over possibility, that Moore was dead” (Auster, 2011, p.
we can add that virtualities are actually 43). In the decisive match of October 12,
unthinkable because they have stayed as 1986, while Angels were about to win
potentialities but have never found the over Boston Red Sox and enter the world
chance to be materialised. But contingency series, “Moore delivered one of the most
does not always show its ugly face, and unfortunate pitches ever thrown in the
when Miles observes that Score’s story is annals of the sport” (2011, p. 44), and led to
making Pilar sad, he changes the subject Angels’ defeat. Afterwards, humiliation and
to New York Giants’ Jack Wayne Lorhke psychological pressure on Moore increased
(1924-2009), nicknamed Lucky, whose and made him retire early in 1989. A few
frequent escapes from deadly accidents had months later he shot himself dead. Moore’s
made him famous. “Lucky, is the mythic story is somehow significant insofar as Miles
embodiment of a theory of life that contends and Eddie would compare it with the life of
that not all luck is bad luck” (Auster, 2011, Brooklyn Dodgers’ Ralph Branca (1926-
p. 35). Miles suggests and adds: “Think of 2016) who had made a similar humiliating
the odds Pili. Death comes looking for him pitch but had never gone desperate. Instead,
three times, and three times he manages to he had kept his spirit up. The comparison
escape” (2011, p. 36). Thus, either good or between a desperate baseball player and
bad, contingency is one of Auster’s regular a cheered up one presents us with the fate
themes based on which he often introduces of an introvert versus that of an extrovert.
his virtualised accounts of his characters. While Moores’ obsession with his defeat
Later again, the fictionalisation of virtualities signals a transcendental gesture, Branca’s
through recounting the actual stories of indifference toward his bad luck and the
baseball players returns to spotlight when continuation of his social appearance can
Miles is invited to the Sanchez’ for dinner. reveal his empirical worldview. Despite
Having being introduced to one of Pilar’s the mirror Moore’s desperation creates for
relatives, Eddie Martinez, “in the aftermath Miles’ guilt-ridden mind, by juxtaposing
of Herb Score’s recent death, they fall into these two accounts, Auster seems to tell us
a conversation about the tragic destinies to what extent transcendental-empiricism
of various pitchers from decades past” can be a remedy for the predicaments
(2011, p. 41). Expanding their evaluation encircling modern humankind. Again, here
of the baseball players, they start talking we can recall the virtual questions. What
about the sad story of the late California if Miles had not fled from home, and like
Angels’ relief pitcher Donnie Ray Moore Branca had tried to cope with the disaster?
(1954-1997). Miles “can still remember We are again subjected to the suspension
the stunned expression in his father’s eyes of justice and a long silence in response.
when he looked up from his newspaper at That is why Miles has been silent for the
last 10 years, and cannot even tell Pilar and economic depression. Similarly, the
about his troubled past. Miles might not virtual call for Bush and Cheney’s execution
have attempted to commit suicide like his also resonates with Owen Brick’s story in
mirror character Moore, but still his self- Auster’s Man in the Dark (2008), in which
exile is nothing less than self-destruction. two different Americas lived parallel to
Fortunately, Miles’ story has not ended yet each other, one in peace, and the other in
and as we move on, he is coming out of conflict with the world and burnt inside
the shadows of virtualities. His decision to with a huge civil war. Therefore, while
join the Sunset Park squatters and a later Auster’s time-image has regularly covered
reunion with his parents can be regarded as particular cases, this time it enters the realm
his attempts toward the actualisation of his of crystallisation of time through a universal
repressed capabilities. reciprocal presupposition by referring to
The same night, Miles hears that Iraq war. It is not just the personal images
sergeant Lopez, Teresa’s husband (Teresa of the past which have differentiated Sunset
is Pilar’s older sister) has been in service in Park from other contemporary novels, but
Iraq for the last 10 months and everybody is the diversity of such images has made it
praying for his safety before meal. Hearing an exemplary case for studying Deleuze’s
this, Miles suddenly gets immersed into metaphysics of imagination. Moreover,
virtualities again. What if Bush and Cheney while the first observation is that Moore’s
would have been executed and no war story of guilt and suicide mirrors Miles’
could ever happen in Iraq? Lost between own retreat from the past, it seems arguable
actualities and virtualities he is creating for that they form the image of an interwoven
himself as time-images, Miles mirror. This type of narration thus falls
within the category of “work within work”
Looks down at the table cloth again
(Deleuze, 1997, p. 77), which has a striking
… He imagines George Bush and
significance in Deleuze’s treatment of time-
Dick Cheney being lined up against
images. For Deleuze, when two crystalline
a wall and shot, and then for Pilar’s
descriptions are mirroring each other and
sake, for the sake of everyone there,
especially when one contains the other,
he hopes that Teresa’s husband will
they have to be treated as a special “mode
be lucky enough to make it back in
of the crystal-image”. Such interwoven
one piece. (Auster, 2011, p. 46)
narration of crystalline descriptions “has
often been linked to the consideration of a
This again reminds us of Auster’s famous
surveillance, an investigation, a revenge, a
audio interview with Faber’s George Miller
conspiracy, or a plot” (1997, p. 77). And in
in November, 2008, in which Auster argued
the case of Miles and Moore, we can argue
that Bush’s era created a parallel world for
that their crystalline narration falls within
the Americans and that their actual world
the category of frame stories, helping the
should have been one without any wars
main crystal-image to link itself more persona. Therefore, Morris, infatuated with
efficiently to the main plot of the story. In the real distinction between both sides of
simpler words, Moore’s account empowers this mutual image and confused with their
the portrayal of the desperate situation of indiscernibility, finally vows to marry
Miles’ story and helps the reader to see Miles’ mother. But the image becomes clear
another dimension of alienation from the after a few months, and when the crystal
self, a fact bringing Miles seven years of shatters from inside, they discover their
retreat and making Moore commit suicide. deep differences and eventually divorce
But crystal images can sometimes when Miles is only six months old. Then
be deceptive too. In the other parts of the Willa comes into the picture and although
novel, as Miles is sitting on a bus, travelling she proves a caring stepmother for Miles,
from Florida to New York, he recalls the the absence of his real mother marks its
memory of a conversation with his father, excruciating effects on his soul.
in which he explained to him the account Now that Miles has moved to Sunset
of his marriage to his mother and their Park, other characters’ stories become the
subsequent divorce. It all started when locus of the novel as well. Bing Nathan is the
Morris saw one of Mary-Lee’s performances leader of the group and his contemplation
as Cordelia in Shakespeare’ King Lear. about the value of the past is related to the
“He was blinded by her talent, his father notion of the virtual:
continued. Anyone who could perform as
He takes it for granted that the
she had in that demanding, delicate role
future is a lost cause, and the present
must have had a greater depth of heart and
is all that matters now, then it must
a wider range of feeling” (Auster, 2011, p.
be a present imbued with the spirit
58). But what Morris had actually seen was
of the past. That is why he shuns
just an intricate image within another image;
cell phones, computers, and all
in fact, a crystal situation had deceived him
things digital – because he refuses
which was followed by a wrong marriage.
to participate in new technologies.
“But pretending to be a person and actually
That is why he spends his weekends
being a person were two different things”
playing drums and percussion in a
(2011, p. 58). Therefore, Morris obviously
six-man jazz group – because jazz
marries Cordelia, who is a virtual condition
is dead and only the happy few are
of Mary-Lee, but a few months later he
interested in it anymore. (Auster,
realises that the actual woman is someone
2011, p. 72)
with a different personality. Thus, Cordelia’s
image in Morris’ memory can be interpreted
Bing’s idea about the future comes from
as a crystal image which has entrapped
the recent economic depression and the
both the actual image of Mary-Lee and the
deflating financial statistics of the U.S.
virtual image of Shakespeare’s dramatic
market which have significantly decreased
people’s hope for a brighter tomorrow. place. Since it seems for Auster that people
Bing’s argument about the past, however, deserve more than the wreck of the country
is somehow pointed to transcendental they have actually inherited, in terms of
empiricism. Blending the present with the virtual reality, he wishes a better world.
shadow of the past, like Miles’ taking photos Renzo’s idea is similarly “about the things
from the discarded things, can be interpreted that don’t happen, the lives not lived, the
according to Deleuze’s constructivism. wars not fought, the shadow worlds that
Analyzing Bing’s ideas about the past in line run parallel to the world we take to be the
with our Deleuzian project of metaphysics real world, the not-said and the not-done,
of imagination, however, exhibits a subtler the not-remembered”. This kind of virtual
longing at work. As Konik’s (2015) study which belongs to the impossible and bleak
about Deleuze’s metaphysics of imagination past is limited to potentialities on the plane
shows, in time-images “the virtual past of the real. However, such “chancy territory”
always coexists with the actual present” might be “worth exploring” (Auster, 2011,
(2015, p. 108). Accordingly, Bing’s theory p. 153), because it brings to light the
of generating an assemblage between the inadequacies of the actual world, and instead
past and the present is somehow creating of wishing a mere utopia, it may enable us
a mutual image, a crystalline time-image with practical solutions toward change and
which refers to the adding of the virtual differences. Renzo’s contemplation thus
condition from the past to the present and moves in the line of the Deleuzian notion of
actual phenomena. Therefore, it would the virtual and tends to criticise the defects
neither be the past nor the present, but an of society and to search possible resolutions.
intermezzo between the virtual and the
actual planes. CONCLUSION
Another character whose intuition To put the findings of this research into
pushes him toward thinking about the a nutshell, we witness in Sunset Park,
virtual is Renzo Michaelson. As a novelist, the idea of virtuality is emerging through
he is influenced by his mother’s life story. different characters’ thoughts and actions,
When he recalls that she was engaged to a and is deeply linked to their image of time
would-be famous Hollywood actor whom and fondness of the past. Accordingly, a
she never married, Renzo decides to write crystalline description can well inform
an essay about such history, to realise what us of Miles’s parents’ meeting and their
could have come from such marriage. troubled marriage. Furthermore, Bing is
This makes him develop an interesting inclined toward old commodities, and Miles’
theory which coincides with Auster’s own aversion to take the picture of discarded
assumption about virtual reality, a reality appliances shows his sensitivity to the
in parallel with the American life today in manifestations of the virtual in life. Whether
which wars or capitalistic ventures have no through their contemplations about adding a
flavour of the past to their present situation, Deleuze, G. (1986). Cinema 1: The movement-
or through practical methods like playing image (H. Tomlinson & B. Habberjam, Trans.).
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota
jazz, taking photographs or taking care of
Press.
old typewriters, Miles and Bing share the
same concern. They want the virtual and Deleuze, G. (1997). Cinema 2: The time-image
(5th Ed.). (H. Tomlinson & R. Galeta, Trans.).
the actual, the material and the immaterial
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota
to be brought together. Ultimately, they
Press.
want something in between the past and the
Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (2005). A thousand
present at the same time, a crystal image
plateaus: Capitalism and schizophrenia (11th
per se. Furthermore, Renzo Michaelson is a
Ed.). (B. Massumi, Trans.). Minneapolis, MN:
writer who only uses an old typewriter for University of Minnesota Press.
creating his texts, and his upcoming essay
Kimbell, I. (1991). Italian opera. Cambridge:
is going to be about the virtual worlds that
Cambridge University Press.
run parallel to our actual and sensible one.
Konik, A. (2015). The politics of time: Deleuze,
Renzo is thus among the virtualists of the
duration and alter-globalisation. South African
story too. Therefore, as we delve deeper into
Journal of Philosophy, 34(1), 107-127.
the storyworld, the analysis of the characters
Kukuljevic, A. (2005). Deleuze’s metaphysics and the
in Sunset Park enables us to demonstrate
reality of the virtual. Philosophy Today, 49(1),
that they practise reconciliation between the
145-152.
transcendental and the empirical as a method
Lawley, S. (2005). Deleuze’s Rhizome and the study
of living. They are apt to bring meaning
of organization: Conceptual movement and
into their worldviews by adding a shadow
an open future. Tamara: Journal of Critical
of the virtual condition to the all-actual Postmodern Organization Science, 3(4), 36-49.
doctrine of capitalism. Thus, they rather
Miller, G., & Auster, P. (November, 2008). Discussing
use time-images to reach that virtual realm,
man in the dark with Paul Auster [interview
and ultimately, to be eligible to think about audio file]. Retrieved from www.faber.co.uk/
incorporeal materialism. site-media/audio-snippets/auster interview.mp3
Trifonova, T. (2004). A nonhuman eye: Deleuze on

REFERENCES cinema. SubStance, 33(2), 134-152.
Auster, P. (2008). Man in the dark. New York: Henry
Holt and Company.
Auster, P. (2011). Sunset park. London: Faber and

Faber Ltd.

Assessing Cyberloafing Behaviour among University Students:

A Validation of the Cyberloafing Scale
Koay, Kian-Yeik
Faculty of Management, Multimedia University, 63100 MMU, Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
With greater prevalence of Internet access, there is an alarming trend in the number of
students using the Internet in the classroom for non-class-related purposes. Cyberloafing
(defined as personal Internet use at work or during class) has been extensively studied by
researchers in workplace settings but not in education settings. Particularly, there is lack
of research on developing a valid and reliable scale to measure cyberloafing behaviour
among students. Hence, this study aims to examine the prevalence of cyberloafing
activities among university students and to validate the cyberloafing scale of Akbulut et
al. (2016) in the Malaysian context. A total of 238 usable data was collected from the 30-
item cyberloafing scale that assessed five dimensions of cyberloafing behaviour namely
sharing, shopping, real-time updating, access to online content and gambling / gaming.
Descriptive analysis shows that students spend more time on sharing- related activities and
least time on gambling / gaming-related activities in the classroom. Based on exploratory
factor analysis, five factors are retained with most of the items loaded on its intended
dimension factors, suggesting evidence of construct validity. The analysis also indicates
that convergent validity is achieved as the factor loadings of each set of items measuring
its intended dimension factors are above 0.5. Given that the correlations between extracted
factors are not highly correlated, discriminant validity is warranted. These results support
the investigated cyberloafing scale as reliable and valid.
Keywords: Cyberloafing, university students, Malaysia
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 18 April 2017
Accepted: 05 December 2017 Current Affiliation:
E-mail address: School of Business, Monash University Malaysia,
[email protected] (Koay, Kian-Yeik) 47500 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia.

Koay, Kian-Yeik
INTRODUCTION of PowerPoint compared to conventional

Over the past 15 years, the Internet has ’chalk-and-talk’ methods. Furthermore, in
caused significant changes in the way we a two-year research project conducted by
live. In particular, the widespread use of Project Tomorrow (2015), 127 students
technology and Internet connections has and their four assigned teachers were given
revolutionised the landscape of education Android tablets with Internet access for
in the sense that more emphasis has been use at both home and school. Interestingly,
placed on the use of information and the results of the study showed notable
communication technologies by educators improvements in the students’ reading,
to facilitate effective pedagogy. Given writing fluency and participation in the
that the current generation of students are classroom.
highly tech-savvy, effective utilisation of Today, students carrying digital devices
instructional technologies in the classroom such as tablets, smart phones and laptops
has the ability to entice students to pay more in the classroom is a common occurrence
attention and be more actively involved in for either class-related or non-class related
class (Lam & Tong, 2012). In recent years, purposes (Ragan, Jennings, Massey,
blended learning, a mode of learning that & Doolittle, 2014). Ideally, educators
incorporates face-to-face learning processes expect students to use digital devices
with online instruction and communication, in an appropriate manner, primarily for
has been widely adopted by educators due class-related purposes such as to look
to its positive ramification on the academic for information related to their lessons
performance of students (Rovai & Jordan, or answering online pop quizes, with the
2004). aim of facilitating the learning. However,
Nevertheless, recently, the use of digital despite the benefits, the use of digital
devices in the classroom has become a devices has led to some issues. Previous
debatable topic among researchers due to studies have reported that multitasking
potential positive and negative outcomes while attending lectures can lead to impaired
(Lam & Tong, 2012). For example, learning performance (Fried, 2008; Ravizza,
Mackinnon and Vibert (2002) discovered Hambrick, & Fenn, 2013). Moreover,
that the use of computers in classroom Sana, Weston, & Cepeda (2013) noted
instruction could potentially have a positive that multitasking poses a serious threat to
impact on student motivation to study student comprehension of class material.
and increase academic achievement when In addition to that, Hembrooke and Gay
appropriately utilised. Another study by (2003) also determined that students who
Apperson, Laws and Scepansky (2006) are not permitted to use their laptops during
found that students learn better and are class are able to recollect class content
more receptive to their instructors when significantly better than those who are
classes are conducted with the visual aids permitted to use them.
At the same time, it would not be by conceptualising cyberloafing as a three-

realistic to expect students to use digital dimensional construct namely personal
devices solely for class-related purposes. business, news follow-up and socialisation,
Cyberloafing, which refers to student Baturay and Toker (2015) found that
Internet use for non-class-related purposes gender, grade and Internet experience are
in the classroom, is a growing concern significant predictors of three dimensions
among educators with researchers viewing of cyberloafing. Additionally, Internet
it as roadblock to effectively imparting skills are reported to be only significantly
knowledge to students (Taneja, Fiore, & related to socialisation while Internet usage
Fischer, 2015). Examples of cyberloafing is significantly associated with personal
activities include browsing social business and socialisation but not news
networking sites, watching videos online, follow-up. Meanwhile, another study by
playing online games, posting tweets and Karaoglan-Yılmaz, Yılmaz, Oztürk, Sezer
listening to online music and sending and Karademir (2015) observed that the
emails (Akbulut, Dursun, Donmez, & frequency of cyberloafing is significantly
Sahin, 2016; McCoy, 2016; Taneja et al., different in terms of gender, departments of
2015). Based on these prior findings, it study and Internet use frequency.
appears that it is not unreasonable for some However, the results of these studies
instructors to disallow students to use digital (see Baturay & Toker, 2015; Karaoglan-
devices in the classroom. For example, Yılmaz et al. 2014) might be flawed, or
some professors have explicitly prohibited highly questionable, as the adaptation
students from using digital devices during of the cyberloafing scale from Kalaycı
their classes in the hope that students shall (2010) has been criticised for its content
pay more attention and take important notes validity (Akbulut et al., 2016). Firstly,
(Guessoum, 2016; Heyboer, 2016). the cyberloafing scale of Kalaycı (2010)
As the situation of university students’ was modified from the scale proposed
cyberloafing in the classroom becomes by Blanchard and Henle (2008) that was
increasingly severe, several studies developed for use in work-based settings
have attempted to examine factors that rather than education settings. It is important
influence such behaviour (McCoy, 2016; to recognise that the types of cyberloafing
Ragan et al., 2014; Sana et al., 2013). activities in which students engage can be
However, a review of existing literature completely different from employees (Koay,
on the subject reveals that empirical Saw, & Chew, 2017). Secondly, Kalaycı
studies on cyberloafing in educational (2010) removed too many items in adapting
environments are mainly exploratory in the scale to measure cyberloafing among
nature, using demographic characteristics students, resulting in a loss of excessive
as predictors of cyberloafing. For example, information from the original scale which
Koay, Kian-Yeik
could potentially lead to inadequacies in hours in a day. Similarly, some studies also
measuring the concept of cyberloafing found that Malaysian college students are
comprehensively. excessive Internet users, spending about
Given these weaknesses, Akbulut et three hours every day for various purposes
al. (2016) empirically tested the scale of including entertainment, social networking,
Kalaycı (2010) on four different samples education and others (Haque, et al., 2016;
and concluded that the scale was indeed Sian, Yamin, & Ishak, 2013; Teong & Ang
problematic and incomplete based on expert 2016). Yet, not many studies have explored
validations and confirmatory factor analysis. the types of cyber activities in which
Therefore, Akbulut et al. (2016) proposed students engage in the classroom, particular
a new cyberloafing scale specifically for in the Malaysian context.
use in education settings through a series This paper has the following objectives:
of rigorous scale development procedures. (a) to investigate the prevalence of
The final scale consists of 30 items ranging cyberloafing behaviour among university
across five different dimensions - sharing, students; (b) to examine the factor structure
shopping, real-time updating, accessing of the cyberloafing scale of Akbulut et al.
online content and gaming or gambling. (2016) in a sample of Malaysian university
To date, the cyberloafing scale of students by means of exploratory factor
Akbulut et al. (2016) has not been empirically analysis; and (c) to evaluate scale reliability.
validated or adapted in any study. In the The implementation of the proposed scale
work by Cowles and Crosby (1986), it is and its improvement are in the following
stated that validating a measure through a section.
single investigation may not be sufficient.
The construct validity of a scale should be METHOD
validated through different contexts with
Research Design
different population groups in order to
determine the psychometric merit of the The implementation approach in this study
instrument (Cowles & Crosby, 1986). This is empirical, which is quantitative in nature,
study aims to make contribution of validating aimed to validate the survey instrument.
the cyberloafing scale in the Malaysian The sampling population in this study
context. According to a survey report are university students. Such sampling is
published by Malaysian Communications selected since the main focus of this study
and Multimedia Commission (MCMC, is to examine cyberloafing behaviour among
2016), it is estimated that about 77.6% of university students in the classroom. Prior
the entire Malaysian population are Internet to distributing the final questionnaire to the
users. The report also indicated that school- target respondents, it was pre-tested on six
goers are those who spend most of their undergraduated and two academic experts
time on the Internet on an average of three with a good track record of international
publications on Internet-related research. Out of the 300 distributed questionnaires,

This was also done in part because pre- only 280 completed questionnaires were
testing was deemed an imperative step for received.
this research for two major reasons. Firstly, All analyses performed in this study
it was to assess the need to translate the were conducted using the Statistical Package
English version of the questionnaire into for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0
Malay, since some students might not be for descriptive analysis and exploratory
well-versed in English due to lack of English factor analysis. To ensure the quality of the
knowledge. Based on the feedback from pre- data, descriptive analysis was performed
test samples, it was concluded that it was to detect outliers and identify cases with
translation was not necessary, since all the serious missing values or silver lining
questions were in simple, easy to understand pattern (Bryman & Bell, 2015). Unreliable
English. Secondly, it was to ensure the face data were deleted leaving a total of 238
validity and psychometric properties of the usable data for further analysis. The final
instrument. sample size was deemed to be sufficient for
performing exploratory factor analysis based
Sample on five cases per measure recommendation
(Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2014).
It is vital that the university from which
The sampling population of university
student data is collected, provides wireless
students comprised 42.9% males and
access which allows students to connect
57.1% females. In terms of race, they were
to the Internet throughout the campus.
45.4% Malays, 26.5% Chinese, 14.3%
To achieve this, three lecturers working
Indians and 13.9% were of other ethnicities.
in a large private university, a high-tech
Furthermore, almost all the respondents
campus, in Malaysia were requested for
(98.7%) reported that they accessed the
their assistance to collect data from their
Internet on a daily basis. Two-third of the
classes over two semesters. Students were
respondents (62.9%) perceived themselves
given the choice to not participate in the
as competent Internet users (advance or
questionnaire. Participants were ensured
expert). The general profile of the survey
that their answers would have no subsequent
respondents is presented in Table 1.
impact on their coursework or final marks.
Koay, Kian-Yeik
Table 1
Profile of the survey respondents
Demographic Percentage Frequency (%)

Gender Male 102 42.9
Female 136 57.1
Race Malay 108 45.4
Chinese 63 26.5
Indian 34 14.3
Others 33 13.9
Internet Usage Everyday 235 98.7
Couple days in a week 3 1.3
Never 0 0.0
Internet Skills Novice 6 2.5
Intermediate 83 34.9
Advance 104 43.7
Expert 45 18.9
Measures mean values, the top three cyberloafing

The objective of this paper was to examine activities in the classroom among students
the prevalence of cyberloafing behaviours are chatting with friends”, giving a like
among university students and to validate to posts that are interesting and checking
the cyberloafing scale of Akbulut et al. friends’ posts. Meanwhile, the three least
(2016). The scale of Akbulut et al. (2016) performed cyberloafing activities are
consisting of 30 items was used to measure betting or gambling online, visiting betting
cyber activities commonly performed by or gambling sites, and shopping online.
students. Responses were rated on a 7-point However, downloading related activities are
Likert scale, varying from 1 = never, 2 = found to be less prevalent in the classroom
rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = sometimes, 5= among students as downloading music,
frequently, 6 = usually and 7 = every time. videos or mobile applications consumes
The Likert scale is defined according to the large amount of mobile data, which is
extent students engage in each cyber activity expensive and inconvenient for students.
in the classroom. Moreover, students seem to be more
active in social networking sites compared
RESULTS to other types of cyber activities in the
classroom, consistent with Akbulut et
The research objective of examining the
al. (2016). In addition, the results of this
prevalence of university student cyberloafing
study are similar to the study of Yusop and
behaviour was tested via the frequency of
Sumari (2013) reporting that Malaysian
each cyberloafing activity. This is reported
young adults use social networking sites
and shown in Table 2. According to the
mainly for socialisation (88%) followed Also, not surprisingly gambling-related

by information searching (65%), reading online activities are the least performed
(28%), sharing (23%) and online shopping cyberloafing activities for a few reasons.
(12%). Furthermore, almost half of the Firstly, the Muslim population comprising
respondents stated that they never use 60% of the Malaysian population are not
Twitter in the classroom while another permitted to gamble by Islamic legalities.
half admitted that they use Twitter in the Secondly, gambling requires concentration
classroom, in varying frequency, from rarely which may be difficult for students especially
to every time. during class.
Table 2
Prevalence of cyberloafing behaviour
Items Cyberloafing activities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean Std

Dev
Sa1 I check my friends' posts 25 50 48 82 20 12 1 3.261 1.331
Sa2 I check my friends' social networking 43 71 42 53 23 5 1 2.836 1.367
profiles
Sa3 I share content on social networks 56 67 35 55 15 6 4 2.748 1.465
Sa4 I like posts that are interesting 31 44 46 60 28 22 7 3.437 1.597
Sa5 I comment on shared photos 50 74 44 48 11 8 1 2.678 1.352
Sa6 I post status updates on social 80 86 30 30 9 2 1 2.210 1.228
networks
Sa7 I tag friends on photos 95 74 36 20 8 4 0 2.089 1.209
Sa8 I chat with friends 24 37 51 64 34 15 11 3.576 1.551
Sa9 I watch shared videos 73 60 34 52 11 6 2 2.555 1.433
So1 I shop online 158 47 15 11 4 1 0 1.555 0.973
So2 I visit deal-of-the-day websites 131 57 21 17 9 2 1 1.849 1.220
So3 I visit online shopping sites 116 58 24 24 11 4 1 2.042 1.337
So4 I visit auction sites (e.g. e-bay) 153 56 10 11 6 1 1 1.605 1.057
So5 I use online banking services 110 64 21 31 7 4 1 2.063 1.309
So6 I visit online shops for used products 144 44 20 15 11 3 0 1.793 1.237
So7 I check job advertisements 155 44 11 19 6 2 0 1.662 1.127
Aoc1 I download music during class 74 80 39 31 8 2 2 2.292 1.256
Aoc2 I watch videos online 88 62 37 36 6 7 2 2.324 1.393
Aoc3 I listen to music online 125 52 23 19 10 5 3 2.004 1.407
Aoc4 I download videos 144 51 16 20 4 2 0 1.713 1.106
Aoc5 I download applications I need 57 64 38 42 22 10 4 2.806 1.550
Gg1 I visit betting/gambling sites 214 14 5 2 1 0 2 1.193 0.744
Gg2 I bet/gamble online 216 13 4 2 1 0 2 1.181 0.733
Gg3 I check online sport sites 134 29 17 31 10 8 9 2.218 1.727
Gg4 I play online games 158 31 16 18 7 6 2 1.786 1.369
Koay, Kian-Yeik
Table 2 (continue)
Items Cyberloafing activities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean Std

Dev
Rtu1 I comment on trending topics 162 33 17 15 9 2 0 1.664 1.171
Rtu2 I post tweets 110 54 24 31 14 4 0 2.144 1.370
Rtu3 I read tweets 124 34 34 26 10 6 3 2.131 1.483
Rtu4 I favourite a tweet I like 105 33 31 32 22 12 3 2.500 1.681
Rtu5 I retweet a tweet I like 114 32 32 28 15 14 3 2.378 1.666
Exploratory Factor Analysis By evaluating the eigenvalues and by

The main purpose of performing exploratory observing the scree plot, five factors were
factor analysis (EFA) is to identify the retained, which accounted for 61.07% of
underlying structure among the variables. the total variance of the scale, reaching
In this present study, Bartlett’s test of a satisfactory level (Hair et al. 2014).
sphericity is significant (p<0.01), and the This is shown in Table 3 and Figure 1.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling The factor structure is similar to Akbulut
adequacy is 0.860, which is far higher than et al.’s (2016) consisting of five sub-
0.6 as the cut-point (Tabachnick & Fidell, dimensions of cyberloafing. The majority of
2007), suggesting the data is suitable the items are loaded in accordance to their
and appropriate for factor analysis. Next, intended factors; no major cross-loadings
principle component analysis was chosen were observed, showing evidence of uni-
as the method of factor extraction using an dimensionality for all the five factors. As a
orthogonal rotation of varimax on the data result, it can be concluded that convergent
to determine the underlying factor structure validity is achieved. Convergent validity
and to evaluate the construct validity of is the extent to which a measure correlates
Akbulut et al.’s (2016) cyberloafing scale. positively with alternative measures of
The criteria used to extract the factors the same construct. Furthermore, with
were according to: the correlation values between constructs
lower than 0.9, no sign of collinearity
1) Keiser’s criterion (eigenvalue must be
is shown, thus suggesting evidence of
greater than 1) (Kaiser, 1958)
discriminant validity. Constructs are distinct
2) Scree Plot (Cattell, 1966) and unrelated to each other. Discriminant
2) The loading score for each item >0.50 validity refers to the extent to which the
(Pallant, 2007) constructs are theoretically distinct from
3) Factors must have more than 3 items each other (Bryman & Bell, 2015).
loaded (Pallant, 2007)
Figure 1. Scree Plot

Figure 1. Scree Plot
Table 3
Rotated component matrix
Table 3
Rotated Component Matrix Component
1 2 3 4 5
Component
Sa5 .765 1 2 3 4 5
Sa2 .721
Sa5 .765
Sa1 Sa2
.710 .721
Sa1 .710
Sa7 .708
Sa7 .708
Sa4 .693
Sa4 .693
Sa6 .681
Sa6 .681
Sa3 Sa3
.670 .670
Sa8 .609
Sa8 .609
Sa9 .596
Sa9 .596
So3 .810
So3 So2 .810 .809
So2 So4 .809 .794
So5 .713
So4 .794
So6 .699
So5 So1 .713 .647
So6 Rtu5 .699 .939
So1 Rtu4 .647 .934
Rtu3 .898
Rtu5 .939
Aoc2 .681
Rtu4 Aoc5 .934 .658
Rtu3 Gg3 .898 .591
Aoc2 Aoc1 .681 .537
Gg2 .928
Aoc5 .658
Gg1 .908
Gg4 .547
Eigenvalue 9.360 2.680 2.638 1.920 1.723
% Variance 31.199 8.934 8.794 6.400 5.744
0.696
Cronbach’s alpha 0.890 0.886 0.958 0.682
12
Koay, Kian-Yeik
Table 3 (continue)
Component
1 2 3 4 5
Gg3 .591
Aoc1 .537
Gg2 .928
Gg1 .908
Gg4 .547
Eigenvalue 9.360 2.680 2.638 1.920 1.723
% Variance 31.199 8.934 8.794 6.400 5.744
Cronbach’s alpha 0.890 0.886 0.958 0.682 0.696
*factor loadings <0.5 are compressed
Table 4
Means, Standard Deviation and Intercorrelations
M Sd Sa So Rtu Aoc Gg
Sa 2.524 0.895 1
So 1.818 0.954 .469** 1
Rtu 2.336 1.548 .321** .252** 1
Aoc 2.410 1.066 .441** .496** .262** 1
Gg 1.387 0.784 .135* .272** .210** .335** 1
M = Mean, Sd = Standard Deviation, Sa= Sharing, So = Shopping, Rtu = Real-time updating, Aco = Accessing
online content, Gg = Gambling/ Gaming
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
DISCUSSION which is acceptable for establishing internal

Among the 30 existing items, five items consistency of factors (George & Mallery,
(Aoc3, Aoc4, So7, Rtu2, Rtu1) were deleted 2003; Kline, 2000;).
from the scale. The basis for the removal There were eight items (Sa1, Sa2, Sa3,
of these items is their low factor loading Sa4, Sa5, Sa6, Sa7, Sa8) which loaded
(lower than 0.5) or factors with less than under Factor 1, with an eigenvalue of 9.360,
three items, thus excluding the factors. explaining 31.199% of the total variance.
The internal consistency of each factor Sample items: “I share content on social
is assessed through Cronbach’s alpha (α) networks” and “I chat with friends”. All
method. The Cronbach’s alpha (α) values items were loaded on its intended factor,
of all the factors range from 0.682 to 0.958, consistent with Akbulut et al.’s (2016). This
suggests that the majority of students use the There were four items (Aoc1, Aoc2,
Internet mainly for socialisation and sharing Aoc5, Gg3) in loaded Factor 4, with an
information during class. Therefore, this eigenvalue of 1.92, explaining 6.4% of
factor is labelled as sharing. the total variance. This factor includes
Factor 2 consisted of six items (So1, So2, cyber activities such as watching videos
So3, So4, So5, So6), with an eigenvalue of online, downloading music online, using
2.680, explaining the 8.934% variance. This applications and checking online sport sites.
factor is mainly related to online shopping Hence, it was labelled as accessing online
activities and therefore labelled as shopping. content. In item Gg3, “I check online sport
Sample items: “I visit online shopping sites sites) is originally categorised under the
and I visit deal-of-the-day websites”. The factor of gaming/ gambling in Akbulut et al.
results indicate that some students may lose (2015). However, checking online sport sites
focus in class by diverting their attention is more related to the factor of accessing
to online shopping. Research has reported online content rather than gaming. For
that educated youngsters are the most loyal example, students often spend time checking
clients of e-shops, especially on clothing real-time scores for live sports events during
and shoes (PMR Research, 2012). Possible classes.
reasons why young people prefer to shop There were three items loaded in Factor
online includes convenience, availability 5 (Gg1, Gg2 and Gg3), with an eigenvalue
of information, product variety, and cost of 1.723, explaining 5.74% of the total
and time efficiency (Monsuwe, Dallaert, & variance. Sample items included “I play
Ruyter, 2004; Prasad & Aryasri, 2009). online games” and “I visit betting/gambling
Factor 3 was labelled as real-time sites”. Due to the nature of these activities
updating, consisting of three items (Rtu3, requiring a large amount of attention and
Rtu4 and Rtu5), with an eigenvalue of 2.638, concentration, students can easily get
explaining 8.794% of the variance. This distracted with short attention spans in the
factor focuses on reading, re-tweeting and classroom, subsequently affecting their
marking content updated by those whom ability to comprehend class material. It is
they follow as favourites on Twitter, which expected that cyber activities categorised
is a popular micro-blogging tool in which under this factor will not be widely indulged
people share small pieces of digital content by students as gambling is prohibited for
with their followers. These contents can be Muslims by Sharia law in Malaysia, and
in any form such as texts, pictures, videos, playing online games in the classroom is
or other forms of media. It can be noted seen as a form of disrespectful behaviour
that the number of active Twitter users in towards instructors.
Malaysia has been growing steadily and Despite elimination of several items,
is expected to increase up to 2.4 million in the results of this study confirmed the
2019 (Statista, 2016). original five-factor cyberloafing scale of
Koay, Kian-Yeik
Akbulut et al. (2015), showing evidence Toker, 2015; Karaoglan-Yılmaz et al.,

of reliability and stability of the scale in a 2015), all of which have been proven to
different context. It is highly recommended be incomplete and problematic (Akbulut
that future studies on cyberloafing in et al., 2016). This is because different
educational settings adapt the cyberloafing dimensions of cyberloafing have their own
scale developed by Akbulut et al. (2015) set of antecedents (Blau, Yang, & Ward-
instead of the previous cyberloafing scales Cook, 2006). For instance, boredom may
(e.g., Baturay & Toker, 2015; Kalaycı, be a strong predictor of the use of social
2010; Karaoglan-Yılmaz et al., 2015) which media but a weak predictor of online
are obsolete, and inadequate in capturing gambling behaviour in the classroom.
the conceptual domain of cyberloafing Therefore, a complete understanding
comprehensively without considering of students’ cyberloafing during class
contemporary cyber activities. It is important can only be acquired if researchers take
to acknowledge that the rapid pace of various dimensions of cyberloafing into
technological advancement has been a consideration. This work makes contribution
critical factor in the emergence of new types in adapting and validating the cyberloafing
of cyber activities. For example, when first scale in the Malaysian context. Further
launched, Facebook was mainly for posting studies are urged to follow Akbulut et al.’s
status and pictures. Subsequently, Facebook (2016) conceptualisation of cyberloafing as
added many new features such as “like” a five-dimensional construct.
button, live streaming, photo tagging and
others. These are important elements which LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE
need to be taken into consideration in the RECOMMENDATIONS
cyberloafing scale. The present research has several limitations
which should be taken into consideration.
CONCLUSION Firstly, the data was collected from a private
Extant studies on cyberloafing in educational university and therefore the findings may
contexts have mainly utilised outdated not apply to the entire Malaysian student
cyberloafing scales to measure the construct population. Secondly, the cyberloafing scale
of cyberloafing. Failing to incorporate of Akbulut et al. (2016) validated in this
new types of cyberloafing activities to study does not include latest cyberloafing
measure cyberloafing behaviour can lead activities such as live streaming, photo
to biasness in results. Previous studies editing, taking selfie and others. Future
have conceptualised cyberloafing as a research should incorporate all these
single general construct (Gerow, Galluch, elements into the scale so as to measure
& Thatcher, 2010; Taneja et al., 2015) cyberloafing more comprehensively.
or 3-dimensional construct (Baturay &
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Effectiveness of ToyBox Intervention to Reduce Sedentary

Behaviour among Pre-school Children: A Case in Malaysia
Hon, K. Y.1*, Chua, B. S.2 and Hashmi, S. I.2
1
Department Psychology and Counseling, Faculty of Art and Social Science,
University Tunku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Baru, 31900 UTAR, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
2
Faculty Psychology and Education, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 UMS, Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Children have been found to spend more time on gadgets in learning and passing leisure
time especially in the era of this new millennium. Besides, modern parents also claim that
gadgets possess additional education function for children in acquiring new information.
Nonetheless, on the flip side of using gadgets, little is known about the intervention in
reducing sedentary behaviour, which mainly refers to prolonged sitting, especially among
pre-schoolers. Thus, the present study investigates the effectiveness of ToyBox intervention
in Malaysia to reduce sedentary behaviour among pre-schoolers (n = 281) via primary
caregivers’ self-reports. In addition, the Mann Whitney U test displayed significant variances
between the experimental group and the control group in reducing sedentary behaviour
among five-year-old and six-year-old pre-schoolers. Besides, the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank
Test revealed significant differences in the experimental group before and after treatments
among four-year-olds, five-year-olds, and six-year-old pre-schoolers. Interestingly,
Split-plot ANOVA analysis showed that the interaction terms of groups and treatment
were significant, where the treatment for experimental groups was significantly lower in
sedentary behaviour after treatment. As a
result, the ToyBox intervention in Malaysia
is indeed a promising intervention to reduce
sedentary behaviour among pre-schoolers.
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords: Pre-schoolers, sedentary behaviour,
Article history:
Received: 20 December 2016 teachers, ToyBox intervention in Malaysia
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Hon, K. Y.),
[email protected] (Chua, B. S.),
[email protected] (Hashmi, S. I.)

INTRODUCTION (Tremblay, et al., 2011). In fact, sedentary

The traditional setting for children’s play, lifestyles and physical inactivity along with
either at home or at a childcare setting has increased access to junk food and drinks
undergone several primary changes among can be considered as major risk factor for
the new millennials. Back in the 90s, obesity among young children. According to
children were engaged actively in outdoor reports from the National Health Morbidity
activities and played traditional toys. Survey (2015), more than 7% of children
Meanwhile, in this new digital age, gadgets in Malaysia under the age of five can
are accessible for all ages. Children’s play be identified as overweight. The overall
activities have transformed from outdoor prevalence of obesity among children
physical time to indoor screen time. In fact, below the age of 18 years in Malaysia
younger children are performing better in was reported to be 30%, with Perlis and
tapping and swiping when consumed in Melaka having the highest prevalence rate
tablets or mobile phones instead of writing, of 36%. Furthermore, urban areas were
colouring, arranging blocks or sharing toys reported to have high prevalence rate (31%)
with peers. For instance, a whopping 98% compared to rural areas (29%). One of the
of parents in Southeast Asia allow children possible explanation for the differences
aged three to eight to use devices (the in obesity prevalence among urban and
Asian Parent Insight, 2014). This scenario rural areas could be sedentary lifestyle
illustrates that the children’s play world adopted by people in urban areas. Obesity
is influenced by adults (Kernan, 2007), can seriously affect a child’s development,
whereby adults agree that screen viewing overall health, and quality of life, and can
has helped improve children in learning, lead to further health related complications
and more importantly, to keep them silent. such as asthma, cardio-vascular problems,
As such, sedentary lifestyle among Type 2 diabetes, and sleeping disorders.
children is on the rise. Children, at present As sedentary lifestyle is considered one of
times, play gadgets in sitting or lying the most important causal factors related
position and are engaged in sedentary to obesity among children, therefore, it is
behaviour, where physical activities are necessary to intervene and make systematic
lacking (Dan, Mohd Nasir, & Zalilah, efforts to improve the quality of life of
2011; He, Piche, Beynon, Kurtz, & Harris, young children by encouraging an active
2011; Keating, 2011;). Moreover, it has lifestyle.
been claimed that sedentary behaviour may On the other hand, as for childcare
cause obesity behavioural issues (Manios, setting, Haelle (2015) reported that physical
et al., 2012; Ramirez, et al., 2011; Sharifah, activities engaged by pre-schoolers had
Nur Hana, Ruzita, Roslee, & Reilly , dramatically decreased and they had been
2011), and drop in academic achievement found to be no longer active within recent
years. Most of the time, they listened to
Effectiveness of ToyBox Intervention in Malaysia
their teachers in sitting position and lacked from Harokopio University. The manual
physical interaction with peers. Furthermore, consisted of drinking water, physical
in line with the statistics concerning gadget activity, eating and snacking, and sedentary
use, sedentary habits are rampant because behaviour. Nonetheless, this present study
children prefer sitting down to perform their only adopted the sedentary behaviour
daily activities. Hence, in order to prevent manual, which is relevant to the objectives
these negative consequences, there is a dire set, after permission was granted by the
need to introduce intervention to promote pioneer to conduct a test in Malaysia.
healthy living, especially for those who hate The intervention mapping protocol
exercising and love indulging in screen time (IMP) is a systematic evidence-based
(Alattraqchi et al., (2014). protocol for preschools from ToyBox
Indeed, several interventions targeted intervention. IMP practices are designed
to reduce screen time have been established to reduce sedentary behaviour among
(Bergh et al., 2014; Dwyer et al., 2013; Finch pre-schoolers (De Decker et al., 2014).
et al., 2014; Manios et al., 2012; Salmon, In fact, six steps are incorporated: 1)
2010). Some interventions have targeted conducting needs assessment, 2) preparing
parents (Birken et al., 2012; Haines et al., matrices of change objectives, 3) selecting
2013) while others involved both parents and theory-informed intervention methods
children (Carson et al., 2013; Verloigne et al, and practical strategies, 4) producing
2012). On the other hand, a few classroom intervention components and materials,
interventions only focused on children, and 5) planning programme adoption and
teachers were encouraged to be instrumental implementation, and 6) evaluation planning.
in providing these interventions. With that, This six-step guide explains the need and
the ToyBox (Manios et al., 2014) is one of the importance of conducting intervention.
the most systematic interventions that has This protocol also helps to plan and evaluate
focused upon preschool children in their the effectiveness of certain treatment in
classroom setting by involving teachers to reducing sedentary behaviour, especially
reduce sedentary behaviour. The original among pre-schoolers.
ToyBox was developed to build and to Hence, after determining the need for
evaluate a cost-effective kindergarten-based, treatment to reduce sedentary behaviour
family-involved intervention scheme, in via ToyBox intervention, the present study
order to prevent obesity in early childhood examined the following: 1) before and after
in Europe. Besides, the ToyBox involved the experiment between the experimental
ten European countries (Greece, Germany, groups and control groups in sedentary
Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Norway, behaviour among 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old
UK, Poland, Bulgaria, and Luxembourg) pre-schoolers, as well as 2) before and after
and it was coordinated by Yannis Manios the treatment between experimental groups
and control groups among 4-, 5-, and 6-year- true experiments are the most powerful
old pre-schoolers. As such, the following experimental designs in research due to
hypotheses were formed: the randomly assigned participants to
H1a: There is insignificant difference experiment and control groups equally
between the experimental groups to reduce potential threats (Campbell &
and control groups in their level of Stanley, 1963).
sedentary behaviour among 4-, 5-,
and 6-year-old pre-schoolers before Participants
the treatment. As suggested by Schulz and Grimes (2005),
H1b: There are significant differences by using type I error of 0.05 and power of
between the experimental groups 0.80, it is usually acceptable to apply in
and control groups intheir level of randomization, where 200 is acceptable for
sedentary behaviour among 4-, 5-, sample size. As a result, the sample size
and 6-year-old pre-schoolers after for pre-schoolers in the present study (n =
the treatment. 281) were well beyond the total estimated
H2a: There is significant difference in the intervention. Table 1 shows the
before and after the treatment within demographic of pre-schoolers and Table
the experimental groups among 4-, 2 shows the demographic of a total of
5-, and 6-year-old pre-schoolers. 42 pre-school teachers. Recruitment of
participants took place from October 2015
H2b: There is insignificant difference
until December 2015. Besides, the following
before and after the treatment
criteria were set to select the pre-schoolers
within the control groups among
as participants: 1) they were free from
4-, 5-, and 6-year-old pre-schoolers.
participating in any other clinical trial or
H3a: There are significant interaction other health-oriented project during the
effects before and after the treatment academic years (2015-2016) to prevent
for experimental groups. bias during intervention, 2) pre-schoolers’
participation rate was calculated, whereby
METHODS if the participation rate was lower than
The present study applied true experiment 50%, the pre-schooler(s) would be excluded
pre- tes t and post-test design after from the study, and 3) the ratio for teacher
considering the availability, advantages, and pre-schoolers is 1:25 in a class (Heng,
and disadvantages of experimental 2008).
design. According to Creswell (2014),
Table 1
Demographic variables of pre-schoolers
Variables Experimental group Control group

Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Frequency (N) Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 66 47.8 65 45.5
Female 72 52.2 78 54.5
Age
4-year-old 46 33.3 53 37.1
5-year-old 45 32.6 50 35.0
6-year-old 47 34.1 40 28.2
Total 138 100 143 100
Measures Table 2
Demographic variables of preschools’ teachers
Primary Caregiver Questionnaire (PCQ).
Sedentary behaviour was measured by using Variables Frequency Percentage
(N) (%)
subjective measurement (PCQ, self-report
Gender
with 15 items) from primary caregivers in
Male 6 14.3
order to understand screen based-sedentary Female 36 85.7
behaviour at home. The measurement Age
scales for each item ranged from 1 (strongly 20-25 8 19.0
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Besides, the 26-31 20 47.6
pre- and post-tests were evaluated by the 32-37 10 23.8
primary caregivers. Cronbach’s Alpha in 38-43 2 4.8
44-49 2 4.8
the present study was .60 and is acceptable
Education Level
in psychology (Loewenthal, 2004). The rule
SPM 15 35.7
of thumb of acceptable Cronbach’s Alpha STPM 2 4.8
values, according to George and Mallery Diploma 14 33.3
(2003), is below .50. Degree 11 26.2
Total 42 100
ToyBox Intervention. The ToyBox Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Poland,

intervention (Manios et al., 2012) was Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, UK and
adopted as a series of game-based approach Luxembourg). As such, the intervention
with involvement of teachers to reduce was approved by Manios et al. (2012) to
sedentary behaviour among pre-schoolers. be replicated in Malaysia. There were two
It is a reliable intervention as it has been types of movement breaks which were
tested in ten Europe countries (Belgium, involved: 1) short movement breaks (1-5
minutes), and 2) long movement breaks game from the classroom guideline (refer
(15 – 30 minutes). Short movement breaks Table 3).
comprise seven types of games, which are Long movement breaks consist of
intended to break sedentary lifestyle and four types of movements to introduce the
to help improve the interactions between benefits of playing fun games as a substitute
pre-schoolers. First, the spin the wheel to gadget use. Pre-schoolers are asked to
is compulsory for every morning before provide their opinions about gadget use
class starts. This is to generate an active and how they plan to reduce the usage at
mode before pre-schoolers learn something home. Teachers explain the benefits of
new. The second game is playing after two physical activity instead of screen time, and
lessons of class. Teachers can choose any token (sticker) is given if the pre-schoolers
actually decrease their screen time at home.
Table 3
Differences of ToyBox intervention in Europe and ToyBox intervention in Malaysia
Games ToyBox Intervention Europe ToyBox Intervention Malaysia

Short movement 15 games 7 games selected
breaks - Imitating marching - Spinning the wheel
(1-5 minutes)
- Playing puppets - Going around
- Belly drawing in the air - Playing statue
- Painting in the air - Flamingo
- Keeping the balance - Mirror image
- Hiding your belly! - Hands, you need to listen!
- Nothing seek, nothing found - My Friend is in the middle
- Picture game
- Fireworks
Long movement 12 games 5 games selected
breaks - I am sad because I don’t have a friend Weekly Calendar
(15-30 minutes)
- Walking a tightrope Gadget bingo
- Looking is stopping Alternatives to play gadgets
- Sit still! Don’t move! Find a friend
Celebrate breaking free of being
sedentary and increasing social skills
- Move, move, move!
- Collage of fun activities
- No tv signs
Kangaroo 3 stories (3 eliminated) none
storytelling - Adventure at the Forest
(30 minutes)
- Little Kangaroo and Friends Search for
Mrs. Owl
- Little Kangaroo’s Magic Socks
The original ToyBox intervention focused in Malaysia punish children by asking them
on four levels: 1) setting environmental to stand on desks, which is inappropriate to
changes in the classroom, 2) children be implemented as a classroom game; 2)
implementing the actual behaviour (water teachers were not confident in using puppets
consumption, healthy snacking, physical to teach pre-school children (playing
activity, and interruption of sedentary puppets); 3) pre-schoolers aged four and five
time) in the kindergarten, 3) teachers could hardly understand the steps to perform
implementing fun classroom activities (such the activities and lengthy time was required
as stories, experiments, games) with active to explain the pictures with body parts
participation of the whole class, as well as during pilot experiment (keeping balance,
4) active involvement of parents to apply hiding belly, picture games, nothing seek,
environmental changes and implement nothing found, fireworks). Therefore, the
these lifestyle behaviours, together with teachers suggested to exclude the nine
their children, at home (www.toybox- games to achieve better intervention results.
study.eu). The present study selected only In addition, the long movement breaks
children who implemented the actual were reduced from 12 games to five games
behaviour in sedentary behaviour and only due to the following reasons: 1) limited
teachers who implemented selected fun space to perform some activities (I am sad
classroom activities. Thus, the present study because I don’t have a friend, walking
employed a slightly different design method, along a tightrope, looking is stopping).
in comparison to the original ToyBox These activities require empty space to
intervention in Europe, due to several perform and pre-schoolers have to run in
limited resources in Malaysia. a circle; 2) pre-schoolers showed lack of
Furthermore, based on the original interest in some games (sit still, don’t move,
classroom activity guide in reducing move, move, move); and 3) some games
sedentary behaviour (Table 3), the ToyBox were similar to the others (collage of fun
intervention in Malaysia only selected activities, no tv signs).
seven short movement breaks and five Lastly, the kangaroo storytelling activity
long movement breaks for the seven- has varied cultural values in Malaysia
week intervention period. The reasons for compared to that in the European countries.
the games to be excluded during training Pre-schoolers preferred local stories and
workshop were: 1) teachers and pre- fairy tales during storytelling. Some
schoolers were not comfortable to perform teachers also revealed that they did not
the activities (belly drawing in the air, have storytelling time during lessons and
painting in the air), which require standing this posed a challenge for them to perform in
upright in the classroom. Besides, teachers classrooms. Therefore, the storytelling part
in the classroom guideline was withdrawn DATA ANALYSES

due to the low response obtained from the Non-parametric tests were used to analyse
teachers. the data as assumption-free tests were
employed with fewer assumptions (Field,
Procedure 2013). The data were ranked based on the
Ethical permission for the present study lowest scores up to the highest scores. The
was sought from the Malaysian Ministry data retrieved for the present study were
of Education. Furthermore, headmasters/ not normally distributed and therefore, the
headmistresses from selected preschools Mann-Whitney test was applied to compare
were contacted to discuss the intervention. before and after the experiments between
Upon teachers’ expression of interest to experiment and control groups. Other
participate, informed consents were gathered than that, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was
from the teachers and parents before the conducted to test within the experimental
study was carried out. Three preschools and control groups for before and after
from Pahang and Kuala Lumpur participated treatments. In order to test the interaction
voluntarily with full commitment. Data effect for the treatment, Split-plot ANOVA
collection started in February 2016 and analysis was used by using repeated measure
ended in September 2016. After the informed ANOVA. This was to test the interaction
consents were received from teachers and effect of the ToyBox intervention. All
parents, the teachers were given a one-day data were analysed using IBM SPSS
workshop and training on how to conduct statistics version 20. After that, the data
the intervention. Besides understanding the were screened for scores of mean, standard
goals of the intervention, the teachers were deviation, minimum, maximum, skewness,
asked to demonstrate ishare their methods kurtosis, and outliers.
with other teachers in order to improve the
intervention. Moreover, a pilot experiment RESULTS
was conducted (n= 20 for experimental For the first objective, the Mann Whitney U
group, n = 20 for control group) to test the Test was conducted to assess the before and
classroom activities guide and protocol. after experiments between the experimental
The results showed that the selected games and control groups in determining the level
were indeed suitable to be carried out in pre- of sedentary behaviour among 4-, 5-, and
schools and the teachers expressed positive 6-year-old pre-schoolers.
comments after treatment was carried out.
Table 4
Before and after experiment: Mann Whitney U Test between experimental groups and control groups in
levels of sedentary behaviour
Sedentary behaviour N Mean rank Z Sig

Before After Before After Before After
4-year-old 99
Experiment 46 55.02 44.21 -1.662 -1.909 .097 .056
Control 53 45.65 55.03
5-year-old 95
Experiment 45 45.13 40.53 -.974 -2.526 .330 .012
Control 50 50.58 54.72
6-year-old 87
Experiment 47 48.05 37.19 -1.675 -2.808 .094 .005
Control 40 39.24 52.00
Table 4 shows that before the treatment, On the other hand, for Objective 2, the
both the experiment and the control groups Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was applied to
were equal and insignificant for 4-year-old test the before and after treatment within
(U = -1.662, p> 05), 5-year-old (U = -.974, experimental and control groups. Based
p>.05), and 6-year-old (U = -1.675, p>.05) on Table 5, it was found that the treatment
pre-schoolers. On the other hand, 5-year- was able to reduce the sedentary behaviour
old (U = -2.526, p<.05) and 6-year-old exerted among the experimental groups for
(U = -2.808, p<.05) pre-schoolers were 4-year-old (Z = -5.491, p<.05), 5-year-old (Z
found to display significance in reducing = -4.206, p<.05), and 6-year-old (Z = -5.774,
sedentary behaviour in the experiment p<.05) pre-schoolers. However, surprisingly,
groups, compared to control groups after the control groups also exhibited significance
treatment. Hence, null hypothesis 1a was in reducing sedentary behaviour for 4-year-
accepted and insignificant difference was old (Z = -4.363, p<- .05) and 6-year-old (Z
discovered between experimental groups = -4.522, p<.05) pre-schoolers, but not for
and control groups for the level of sedentary 5-year-old (Z = -1.330, p>.05). Thus, null
behaviour among 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old hypothesis 2a was accepted and a significant
pre-schoolers before treatment. Meanwhile, difference was revealed before and after
null hypothesis 1b was partially accepted treatment within the experimental groups
as only 5-year-old and 6-year-old pre- among 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old pre-schoolers.
schoolers showed variances between the Besides, null hypothesis 2b was partially
experimental and control groups for their accepted and only 5-year-old pre-schoolers
level of sedentary behaviour after treatment. showed no difference for before and after
treatment within control groups.
Table 5
Experimental and Control Group: Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test before and after the treatment in sedentary
behaviour
Sedentary N Median Z Sig

Behaviour Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental Control
4-year-old 99
Before 46 43.00 43.00 -5.491 -4.363 .000 .000
After 53 42.00 42.00
5-year-old 95
Before 45 44.00 44.00 -4.206 -1.330 .000 .184
After 50 42.00 43.00
6-year-old 87
Before 47 44.00 44.00 -5.774 -4.522 .000 .000
After 40 42.00 43.00
Further investigation to probe interaction 279) = 225.396, p<.000. Interestingly, the

effects was conducted with a split-plot interaction term of groups and treatment
ANOVA. Table 6 summarises that the were found significant as well, F (1, 279)
between-groups factor was not found to = 74.454, p<.000, where the treatment for
be significant, whereas the within-subject experimental groups was significantly
factors was significant. In other words, lower in sedentary behaviour after treatment
there was a significant effect in reducing (refer Figure 1).
pre-schoolers’ sedentary behaviour, F (1,
Table 6
Summary of results of Split-Plot ANOVA
Source SS df MS F p
Between-subjects
Groups 13.357 1 13.357 1.879 .277
Error 1983.359 279 7.109
Within-subjects
Treatment 175.621 1 175.621 225.396 .000
Group x treatment 58.012 1 58.012 74.454 .000
Error 217.387 279 .779
which pre-schools should have quality staff

training (Puteh & Ali, 2013) in teaching with
a holistic game-based approach in classroom
learning. Besides, pre-schoolers learn
better in a cheerful environment through
positive interaction with peers and teachers
(Abu Bakar, 2010). In relation to this, the
majority of pre-school teachers is have only
high school qualification, with inadequate
teaching experience or a repertoire of good
teaching skills. In comparison, in Singapore,
most recently in 2013, the qualification
Figure 1. Graph of Cell Means for Sedentary
Behaviour
Figure 1. Graph of Cell Means for Sedentary Behaviour requirements for pre-school teachers were
increased from certificate to diploma level
(UNESCO, 2016). Prior to knowledge of
DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION
teaching, pre-school teachers have been
Objective 1: Before and After the Experiment for Experimental and Control Groups in
Objective 1: Before and After the unaware of the sedentary lifestyle of pre-
Sedentary Behaviour among 4-, 5-, and 6-Year-Old Pre-Schoolers
Experiment for Experimental and schoolers, which includes prolonged sitting
The seven-week intervention showed a small positive result in reducing sedentary behaviour
Control Groups in Sedentary Behaviour in the classroom.
among pre-schoolers.
among The 5-year-oldPre-
4-, 5-, and 6-Year-Old and 6-year-old pre-schoolers showed significant results
Based on the results, the 4-year-old
in reducing
Schoolers sedentary behaviour at home, as reported by primary caregivers.
pre-schoolers showed These
no findings
variance after
imply that game-based approach is indeed a promising treatment.method
Based to on
apply
a during earlyinterview
preliminary
The seven-week intervention showed a
childhood education in pre-schools. The teachers also play carried
a vital role
outinbypromoting healthy
small positive result in reducing sedentary study Hon, Chua and Hashmi
lifestyle, besides
behaviour amongfocusing on curriculum
pre-schoolers. (2016),One
during pre-school.
The 5-year- teachers reported
of the issues that 4-year-old
in pre-school
education
old in Malaysia as
and 6-year-old denoted by Mohd
pre-schoolers pre-schoolers
Majzub (2013),
showed lacked
is related to communication
teaching and learning skills
in pre-schoolresults
significant classrooms. The presentsedentary
in reducing and were quiet in pre-schools.
findings also help to add to the existing knowledge, Theyin showed
behaviour at home,
which pre-schools as reported
should have quality by staff
primarytrainingno response
(Puteh & Ali,during
2013) inclassroom learning
teaching with a and
caregivers. These findings
holistic game-based approachimply that game-
in classroom learning.their comprehension
Besides, wasbetter
pre-schoolers learn poor.in This
a was
based approach
cheerful is indeed
environment a promising
through positive method
due to the adaptation of pre-schoolers in
interaction with peers and teachers (Abu Bakar,
to2010).
applyInduring early
relation childhood
to this, education
the majority in the teachers
of pre-school
early stage and their comprehension
is have only high school
pre-schools. The teachers also play a vital of instructions was still at an alteration
qualification, with inadequate teaching experience or a repertoire of good teaching skills. In
role in promoting healthymostlifestyle, besides stage. Nonetheless, compared to older
comparison, in Singapore, recently in 2013, the qualification requirements for pre-
focusing on curriculum during pre-school. pre-schoolers, they performed better in
school teachers were increased from certificate to diploma level (UNESCO, 2016). Prior to
One of the issues in pre-school education communication, in expressing themselves,
knowledge of teaching, pre-school teachers have been unaware of the sedentary lifestyle of
in Malaysia as denoted by Majzub (2013), and in following instructions whenever
pre-schoolers, which includes prolonged sitting in the classroom.
is related to teaching and learning in pre- required. This finding demonstrates that
school classrooms. The present findings also 4-year-old pre-schoolers need more attention
help to add to the existing knowledge, in and efforts by pre-school teachers to educate
them with varied strategies through a variety a good comparison group before and
of games. Furthermore, in comparison, in after treatment. Surprisingly, both the
the Republic of Korea, the programmes experimental and control groups showed
organised for children aged 3 to 5 years significant results after treatments, as the
old in Early Childhood Care and Education control groups displayed a significant
(ECCE) focus on a holistic perspective decrease in sedentary behaviour for 4-year-
on child development, are centred on the old and 6-year-old pre-schoolers. Moreover,
child, and revolve around play activities according to Campbell and Stanley (1963),
(UNESCO, 2016). Additionally, the there is possibility for interaction between
combination of play activities and child selection and X even though the participants
development alleviates anxiety and stress were equally assigned into experimental
among pre-schoolers with poor cognitive and control groups. In precise, the greater
development. the amount of cooperation involved, the
Thus, the present study has helped to greater the amount of interference of
introduce an effective game-based approach routine, and the higher the refusal rate, the
in teaching to promote healthy lifestyle. For more opportunity there is for a selection-
example, in order to break the sedentary specificity effect. Simply put, the present
lifestyle among 4-year-old children, study lacked awareness concerning refusal
teachers can choose Flamingo, instead of rate and most of the teachers claimed that
Hands, you need to listen!. This is because, this treatment was hostile, along with extra
Flamingo helps to increase physical activity, work. In spite of that, the experimental
generate higher concentration, induce groups showed some positive results in
relaxation during stressful moments, and reducing sedentary behaviour, as depicted
offer improved motor coordination through in the primary caregivers’ self-reports.
soothing music. On the other hand, the latter Nevertheless, despite the positive results
requires a lot of instructions that make the observed in reducing sedentary behaviour
4-year-old pre-schoolers barely understand among children who participated in the
the movements in the game. experiment, the current study has limitation
in terms of its methodology. The limitation
Objective 2: Before and After the of the present study refers to the difficulty
Treatment within Experimental and in obtaining full commitment from the pre-
Control Groups among 4-, 5-, and schools to participate in the present study. Of
6-Year-Old Pre-Schoolers the 20 pre-schools approached, only three
pre-schools agreed to give full participation
It was found that the 5-year-old pre-
in the experiment, and the other principals
schoolers in the control groups showed
disagreed with the experiment. In fact,
insignificant results after the experiment
some principals addressed the objectives
between the experimental and control
of decreasing sedentary behaviour as being
groups. Thus, the control groups represented
opposed to their teaching, but they did Furthermore, it would have been
agree that gadget use among pre-schoolers interesting if the evaluation protocol of
has increased. For instance, a principal the present study had included a group of
argued that pre-school is a period for pre- policymakers to promote healthy lifestyle
schoolers to fulfil the criteria of readiness through collaboration with pre-schools.
before pursuing primary school. In addition, However, these preliminary results have
the children are encouraged to instil quiet helped to expose the importance of staff
attitude during class and to master writing training and the upkeep of quality among
simple alphabets. As such, there is no doubt the pre-schools. Beyond doubt, it is crucial
that Asian countries have adopted a holistic for early childhood teachers to promote play
curriculum for pre-schools to ascertain that in pre-schools (Tarman & Tarman, 2011),
these pre-schoolers can perform paper- besides increasing physical activities in
pencil activities, instead of focusing on the syllabus. Moreover, the teachers who
social development. participated in the present study displayed
Moreover, due to poor participation anxiety and stress about the content in the
of pre-schools, the cluster randomised syllabus and further neglected the aspect of
trial could not be carried out in the present social development for pre-schoolers. As
study and thus, generalisation of results such, it is utmost essential to determine the
could not be attained, in comparison to the quality of pre-schools in relation to social
original ToyBox intervention (Manios et al., skills (Broekhuizen, Mokrova, Burchinal,
2014). Moreover, objective measurement Garett-Peters, & the Family Life Project Key
was not adopted in the present study, as Investigators, 2016), and a vast untapped
inconsistency was present in monitoring area is open for researchers to explore the
the children’s activities within the seven- effectiveness of ToyBox intervention in
day period (Dwyer et al., 2013) during enhancing social skills in future studies.
the pilot experiment. Other than that,
Biddle, Petrolinim and Pearson (2014), CONCLUSION
Steeves, Thompson, Bassett, Fitzhugh, & As a conclusion, the results obtained from
Raynor (2012), and LeBlanc et al. (2012) the true experimental pre-test and post-test
emphasised that self-report could spell out design has been generally acceptable to test
the types of sedentary behaviour, especially the effectiveness of ToyBox intervention in
among younger children. However, the Malaysia, specifically among pre-schoolers.
pre-test and post-test design is proficient Furthermore, the guide for classroom
enough to provide some positive effects activities was revised, whereby only seven
upon reducing sedentary behaviour for games were selected for short movement
5-year-old and 6-year-old pre-schoolers, as breaks, and five for long movement breaks.
mentioned earlier. Besides, even though sedentary behaviour
is a new term for the teachers, sedentary Bergh, I. H., van Stralen, M. M., Bjelland, M.,
behaviour exerted by these pre-school Grydeland, M., Lien, N., Klepp, K. I., ... &
Ommundsen, Y. (2014). Post-intervention
children was successfully reduced through
effects on screen behaviours and mediating
the implementation of games in pre-schools
effect of parental regulation: The health in
on a daily basis. With that, a follow-up study adolescents’ study – a multi-component school-
for further intervention is underway. based randomized controlled trial. BMC Public
Health, 14(200), 1-12.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Biddle, S. J. H., Petrolinim, I., & Pearson, N. (2013).
The principal researcher would like to Interventions designed to reduce sedentary
express her deepest gratitude to her academic behaviours in young people: A review of
reviews. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 1-5.
study supervisors, Associate Prof. Dr. Chua
doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-093078
Bee Seok and Dr. Shazia Iqbal Hashmi
for their guidance and fruitful comments Birken, C. S., Maguire, J., Mekky, M., Manlhiot, C.,
Beck, C. E., & Degroot, J. (2012). Office-based
for this paper. Besides that, the researcher
randomized controlled trial to reduce screen
would also like to thank the Ministry of time in preschool children. Pediatrics, 130(6),
Higher Education, Malaysia for offering 1110–1115.
her sponsorship to pursue her PhD study
Broekhuizen, M. L., Mokrova, I. L., Burchinal, M. R.,
for three years. Gratitude is also owing to Garett-Peters, P. T., & the Family Life Project
Yannis Manios, Odysseas Androutsos and Key Investigators. (2016). Classroom quality at
colleagues for granting permission to use pre-kindergarten and kindergarten and children’s
the ToyBox materials with positive remarks. social skills and behaviour problems. Early
Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 212-222.
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To Go, or Not to Go: The Palestinian Realities of Exile in the

Works of Sahar Khalifeh
Priyanka* and Shashikantha Koudur
School of Management, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar Post,
Mangalore 575025, India
ABSTRACT
Palestinian exile under the Israeli occupation is one of the core themes in Palestinian
narratives. Exiles encounter multiple issues like dislocation, fragmentation of identity,
separation from the family and psychological anguish in their day-to-day life. Palestinian
writers have been engaged in writing extensively on the harrowing experiences of exile.
Simultaneously, they have written on the emerging challenges faced by the Palestinians
on return to their homeland. This article explores the theme of exile in the narratives of
Sahar Khalifeh through an interpretive lens of settler colonial theory. Exile, however is
experienced differently by both men and women. Indeed, women’s experience of exile and
impact of male exile on women has been marginalised in male narratives. The paper brings
out how the Palestinian writer Sahar Khalifeh broaches the impact of Palestinian exile on
both men and women as a negative and demoralising experience. The paper specifically
focuses on women who are the victims of exile and their suffering – from subtle to the
more conspicuous.
Keywords: Exile, Israeli occupation, identity, settler colonialism, space, time
INTRODUCTION has written many novels in Arabic. In the

Sahar Khalifeh, a Palestinian author from narratives of Khalifeh exile is a central
the occupied territories of the West Bank, and recurring motif. Her writings explore a
number of significant issues associated with
ARTICLE INFO
exile such as the hardships of dislocation,
Article history: homelessness, alienation, and waiting for a
Accepted: 29 September 2017 day of return. Apart from this, both male and
E-mail addresses: female characters of Khalifeh suffer from
[email protected] (Priyanka),
[email protected] (Shashikantha Koudur) the isolation and the pain of displacement,

expressing the agonising uncertainty of colonies; occupy the land, exploit their
living as a stateless citizen and the continual resources and eventually return home. On
fear of losing hope altogether. This paper the contrary, the settler colonialists come
focuses upon two of Khalifeh’s Arabic to the colonies to stay permanently in the
novels translated into English, namely occupied territories without any intention
The Inheritance (2005) and The Image, of returning home. “. . . settlers move
the Icon and the Covenant1 (2008), where across space and often end up permanently
the representation of Palestinian female residing in a new locale” (Veracini, 2010,
experience of exile and sufferings in the p. 3). Another theorist, Patrick Wolfe
works of Khalifeh is underlined. This article regards settler colonialism not merely as
addresses a number of questions - what is an event but as a structure (Wolfe, 2006, p.
the impact of exile on personal life; what 388). The settlers eliminate the natives to
is the difference between male and female own more and more land to expand their
experiences of exile; what is the impact settlements. The occupied land is utilised
of male exile on female. Accordingly, the for development and to accommodate the
structure of the paper begins with key settlers with the intention to stay and not to
historical moments in the history of the leave. This is a continual process of settlers.
Israeli-Palestinian conflict linking to the Veracini and Wolfe present their arguments
notion of Palestinian exodus of 1948 and citing primary examples of settler colonial
1967 enforced by Israeli settlers. Then it societies like Australia, the United States,
attempts to answer the above questions Canada, South Africa and Israel. Settler
through discussions on the above mentioned colonial theory is appropriate in this case to
novels. understand the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. It
helps in assessing the overarching power of
SETTLER COLONIALISM AND the settler colonial state in its exercises such
DISPLACEMENT as land appropriation, displacement of the
Lorenzo Veracini, the author of the natives, and the elimination of indigenous
monumental work, Settler Colonialism: A population. Israel engages itself in building
Theoretical Overview, discusses four themes numerous settlements and checkpoints on
– population, sovereignty, consciousness the occupied land. It imposes restrictions
and narrative associated with settler on the free movement of the Palestinians
colonialism. He considers colonialism and in order to curb the displaced Palestinians
settler colonialism as separate formations returning to their native land from exile.
that often intertwine. Veracini gives a strict In this way, Israeli colonial rule not only
warning that it is wrong to consider all marginalises the native population but
colonialism as settler colonialism (Veracini, also tries to maintain and normalise the
2010, p. 3). In the case of colonialism, occupation on a day-to-day basis.
the colonial rulers would go out to the
To Go, or Not to Go
The systematic transfer of population also put restrictions on the possibility of their
is one of the strategies used by the settlers return. The displacements led to the division
in order to settle on the occupied land of the Palestinian community between
(Veracini, 2010, p. 33). This act reduces those who left and those who stayed within
population of the natives in a particular the green line2. The best-known and most
locale; the settlers utilise the land, resources eloquent Palestinian spokesperson Edward
and properties of the indigenous people on Said has spoken on his own experience of
the conquered land. The process continues exile in his autobiography Out of Place. He
in the contiguous stretches. The settlers acknowledges the Palestinians’ collective
consider the presence of natives on the lands experience of exile in his narratives. He
as superfluous. explains in After the Last Sky, that the Nakba
was an outrageous event in the modern
ISRAELI OCCUPATION AND EXILE history of the Palestinians. He states that
Historically, Palestinians have experienced exile has caused fragmentation, dispersal
painful displacement in the wake of two and destruction of the Palestinian society.
wars they fought with Israel. The war It has had a deep impact in transforming
of 1948 – Al-Nakba, or ‘catastrophe’, Palestinian identity as an exilic one. Said
culminated in the establishment of the state states that the Palestinians’ exile has been the
of Israel as a new Jewish state. Further, the most extraordinary one: “. . . to have been
Israeli Occupation of 1967 has often been exiled by exiles, to relive the actual process
described as second stage colonisation of uprooting at the hands of exiles” (Said,
known as Al-Naksa when Israeli military 2000, p. 178). Indeed, Sahar Khalifeh stays
occupied the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. inside the occupied territories of Palestine,
Consequently, majority of the Palestinians being an eye witness to Palestinian exile.
turned homeless and took shelter in refugee In one of her interviews she says, “[t]he
camps. Palestinians were left with two first thing they did after Occupation is they
choices: to scatter around the globe or to stay kicked the people out of the villages and
inside the occupied territories compromising pushed them towards the bridge – they
with the situation where they were subjected wanted them to leave the West Bank and
to humiliation, oppression, and to a life of all Palestinian altogether” (Nazareth, 1980,
daily violence or at least, the risk of violence p. 71). Since then, they have not found
through military orders. They work in Israeli a permanent abode and are migrating
settlements and factories as labourers and continually suffering from displacement,
pay taxes. The inequitable distribution loss and agony.
of local resources has a huge impact on The largest part of Khalifeh’s corpus
Palestinian community and on the lives consists of a thematic compass on the
of individuals. Israeli occupation not only nightmares of exile and about the exiles
aggravated the exodus of Palestinians but living outside Palestine, yearning to return
to their motherland. Indeed, both men and also discusses the males’ experiences of the
women in Palestinian society share various same even as she presents a unique scenario
kinds of exilic experiences unceasingly. of the impact of male exile on female.
Other Palestinian writers and film makers Scholars who have earlier worked on the
too have articulated their painful experience narratives of Khalifeh have not identified
of exile. Muhammad Siddiq, a notable and focused on this issue adequately
Palestinian male writer, describes Palestine (Alhawamdeh, 2015; Angierski, 2014;
itself as a “refugee nation” (Siddiq, 1995, Mahmoud, 2014).
p. 87). Darwish, Adonis, & Al-Qasim,
(1984/2005, p. 30-31) say, “[w]e travel like MALE AND FEMALE EXPERIENCE
other people, but we return to nowhere” OF EXILE
As Said (2000, p. 173) rightly remarks, The Concise Oxford English Dictionary
“[e]xile is not . . . a matter of choice: you defines exile as “the state of being barred
are born into it, or it happens to you.” from one’s native country” (Pearsall, 1999,
Apart from these writers Raja Shehadeh, p. 499). Exile is entangled with various
Mourid Barghouti, and Fawaz Turki, also historical, political, and socio-economic
have written extensively on their personal issues. It comprises multiple binaries such as
experiences of exile and return. However, physical/psychological, liberated/confined,
the women’s experience of exile has been spiritual/material, individual/collective and
largely marginalised in these narratives personal/political. Each experience of exile
by the Palestinian male writers. Exile, in is distinct and varies from person to person.
terms of travel, displacement, physical and Khalifeh presents the male experience of
mental agony, usually gets associated with exile that differs from female experience of
men’s experience of exile. There are studies the same. More often the exile is voluntary
on these writers who have highlighted the and sometimes, non-voluntary. However,
pain of exile in terms of socio-political, in Khalifeh’s novels, majority of the male
economic ramifications of exile and in characters, irrespective of political reasons,
terms of return to homeland (Habib, 2013; take the voluntary decision to migrate.
Nasser, 2014; Mir, 2015). Notwithstanding Khalifeh describes vividly the multiple
the importance of the above issues, they challenges experienced by the migrating
have also created a vacuum in depicting the Palestinian community.
women’s experience of exile. The common In the novel “The Image, the Icon, and
tendency among the mainstream writers is to the Covenant”, Ibrahim is the narrator who
consign female experiences of exile mostly constantly shares his experience of exile.
to the realm of the metaphorical. Khalifeh, He works as a teacher at the convent in
on the other hand, represents women’s Jerusalem and aspires to become a political
experiences of exile extensively, which writer. He falls in love with Mariam,
remains unprecedented. Nevertheless, she yet abandons her when she becomes
To Go, or Not to Go
pregnant. His decision of exile from his writing. He says, “. . . the world of politics,
homeland is voluntary in order to escape exile, and worldly matters took me away
the personal responsibilities. Ibrahim is from it. If I hadn’t lost myself in politics
the best illustration for an expatriate who and wandered the world, I would have been
lives voluntarily in an alien country for the greatest writer in the world” (Khalifeh,
personal or social reasons. Expatriates feel 2002/2008, p. 244). As Ibrahim recounts,
lonely and estranged as exiles but they do his decision to go into exile is especially
not suffer from being barred. Ibrahim is painful because he has to be away from his
neither banished nor threatened by a specific family members. Barghouthi aptly remarks
political agenda, yet he chooses to live away “[i]t is enough for a person to go through
from homeland. He has been transferred to the first experience of uprooting, to become
many places as per his job requirements. uprooted forever” (Barghouthi, 1997/2000,
He marries several times, but does not have p. 11). Exile drains the natural sentiments
children. His voluntary exile is loaded with and inclination of the self that are deprived
melancholy. He is utterly lost in his tenuous of expressing itself which cause deep sorrow
atmosphere in which physical movement and alienation. Looking back at his exile,
from one place to the other is beyond his Ibrahim says, “I had lost my capacity to feel
control. Exile is a hypersensitive issue as and interact, my heart was rusty, my feelings
it has a deeper physical, emotional, and had died” (Khalifeh, 2002/2008, p. 172).
psychological impact on a person. “Exile is Mariam had fallen in love with an
dislocation, both physical and psychic. The Italian priest. This was before meeting
exile is a stranger, not seen, misperceived. Ibrahim, when she was in Brazil, where
The departure into absence of exile contains she was raised with many of her brothers.
and will foster a will to return to presence” Apparently, someone had noticed Mariam
(Kaminsky, 1992, p. 32). and the priest kissing each other inside
Displacement leads to alienation which the church’s premise. The priest then
in turn, makes exiles suffer. Certainly, the got transferred to another convent as a
condition of exile has had a direct impact punishment for his sinful act. After this
on the family and emotions of the individual incident, Mariam was expelled from the
who is in exile. Exile shatters the personal church and was put on house arrest for some
dreams and desires of a person. It restricts time. Later she resettled in Jerusalem with
the person’s willingness to exercise his free her blind mother. As Mariam develops a
will. Ibrahim wants to become a renowned relation with Ibrahim in Jerusalem, she tells
writer. More of his life is spent in exile him the story of her exile. Being exiled,
than in his homeland. He feels abandoned she misses her brothers, the nuns, and the
in the politics of his country and exiled life family home. Ibrahim describes her as “a
that would not allow him to become an stranger in her homeland, a stranger in
acclaimed writer and alienates him from the other land, an only girl among seven
brothers, lonely amid strangers” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 52). She envies the prosperous
2002/2008, p. 42). It is apparent that for both marital lives of her brothers. “. . . I spent
Mariam and the priest, exile acts as a severe my youth for – living in exile! . . . Each
punishment and social stigma. For Mariam, one of them has a large family, one or two
exile becomes a cage and she feels a deep wives . . .” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 50-51).
sense of separation, solitude, and boredom. Nahleh’s struggles to get married to fulfill
Indeed, Mariam is not only the victim of her her desire inflict psychological anguish.
own exile, but that of Ibrahim’s too, as we The marginalisation and the discrimination
shall see later. she suffers inside the family after her return
In the novel, The Inheritance, Nahleh from exile, leads to psychological ailment.
and Kamal are the siblings who share their She loses control over her emotions and
miserable experience of exile. Nahleh, a becomes shopaholic: wears strange clothes,
single woman, unveils her experience of spends a lot of time applying cosmetics
exile. She leaves her home at the age of 18 and utters strange words. Nahleh stands as
to work as a teacher in Kuwait. The period a metaphor for the psychological impact
of her exilic journey is for 30 years. She of exile. Van Leeuwen (1999, p. 268)
exiles in order to support her family and says, “[e]xile is a consciousness which is
her brothers’ education. She gets habituated imposed by external forces, but which has
to the life in Kuwait which offers an been internalized and transformed into an
opportunity for her livelihood. She becomes emotional and intellectual disposition which
financially independent, but her brothers affects every experience and every thought.”
communicate with her projecting pseudo Nahleh’s brother, Kamal, gets a scholarship
affection whenever they need money and to study in Germany. He decides to flee into
exploit her financially. She sacrifices her exile. After the completion of his education,
own personal life, and clears the family he starts his career as a civil engineer in
debts that had piled up. She anticipates that Germany and works there for many years.
in future her brothers would support her and The country provides him all material
take care of her. She spends her youthful comforts and medical benefits. However, he
days working in Kuwait. Consequently, never feels he is one among them. He feels
she wonders how her exilic years slipped a vacuum inside his being, as he is away
one after another without her realisation. from his home and homeland. He prioritises
Nahleh regrets not being married. She feels his work over other things and spends his
vulnerable being alone in her life without lifetime in the laboratory with machines.
marriage and children. She expresses her Yet, he is not happy with his life in the
desire for a conjugal bond. Nahleh says, “I exiled country. His life in Germany becomes
woke up and found myself old, without a tediously constant and eternally bland; he
husband, without a house, and no one to call defines it as “superficial” and “rootless”
me Mama. This is how it ended” (Khalifeh, (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 188). Therefore,
To Go, or Not to Go
Kamal tries to forget the awful experience IMPACT OF MALE EXILE ON

of exile and attempts to overcome the fear of WOMEN
being outside his land. Like other exiles, he The male exile has tremendous emotional
too feels he has been cut off from his roots. and psychological impact on women –
Exile makes the individuals lose their voice mother, wife, daughter, beloved or sister.
and identity. Kamal in the novel repeatedly Even though exile is a political rhetoric,
narrates his awful memories of exile and it has deeper impact on personal lives. In
homelessness. the novel, The Image, the Icon, and the
In the same novel Zayna, the narrator, Covenant, Mariam’s mother suffers for
is born in New York to a Palestinian father much of her life because of the exile of her
and an American mother. She grows up husband. She grows old waiting for her
listening to the attractive stories narrated by husband’s return. She brings up her children
her father, Hajj Muhammad Hamdan about singlehandedly, in the absence of their
the Palestinian community and home. “Most father. Her children grow up, only to get into
people are principally aware of one culture, exile overseas, except a son and a daughter.
one setting, one home; exiles are aware of She narrates her sorrowful life to Ibrahim
at least two, and this plurality of vision and says, “I put up with the absence of the
gives rise to an awareness of simultaneous father, but the children too! Their father
dimensions, awareness that – to borrow a lived for forty years in exile, maybe more,
phrase from music – is contrapuntal” (Said, while I stayed home. He would be gone for
2000, p. 186). Zayna says, “[a]s Zayna I two years and return for two months to visit.
was caught between two languages and Every year he would say it was the last year
two cultures – my father’s Brooklyn and until he died” (Khalifeh, 2002/2008, p. 65).
the West Bank on one side and my maternal Thus, exile also stands for repudiation of
grandmother’s American culture on the one’s own responsibilities from the males.
other. I was later left without any culture and This utter carelessness meted out is suffered
lived in a vacuum” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, by the female counterparts, who try to make
p. 9). She too experiences a sort of exile up for the ignored responsibilities.
in America with her dual identities; she In the absence of Ibrahim, Mariam gives
encounters cultural, linguistic, and religious birth to Michael. Mariam learns Arabic
alienation. Zayna, the Americanised version and writes a novel to express and deal with
of Zaynab, feels stark lack of belonging to her experience of exile and motherhood in
any place. She says, “[m]y language was lost a more creative way. She brings her son
before I was lost and so was my identity. My up without the support of Ibrahim. She is
name and address followed suit. My original unable to celebrate her motherhood or the
name was Zaynab Hamdan, and with time it birth of her son Michael and is sad about it.
became Zayna” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 8). She perceives her motherhood as a burden
and leads a reclusive life. She writes “[t] what I learned is that exile within is as brutal
hey say that motherhood is miraculous, pure as exile outside.” Therefore, the life within
love, pure affection, sacrifice, devotion, and the occupied territories could be likened to
gratefulness, but I only feel oppression and a kind of ‘internal exile’ that Palestinians
revolt, I want to run away from my heart. might experience in their own land. Both
Why should I be the only one tied down? . ways, the fate of a Palestinian is sealed – to
. . The pressure on my head is increasing, be an exile.
I am oppressed, I am lonely” (Khalifeh, Within occupied territories, outsiders
2002/2008, p. 179). Thus, Mariam remains are treated with respect in comparison to
a victim of dual exiles – her own and that the insiders. Ambitious parents aspire for
of Ibrahim’s, at different points in her life. the departure of their children in search
But she has to bear the burden of both these of ‘greener pastures’ for the safety of their
exiles, when the man in exile might actually life, for livelihood and their wellbeing.
be freed to carve out his own destiny even In the novel The Inheritance, Abu Jaber
as he is in exile. Hamdan expresses his happiness over the
fact that his sons and a daughter are in
FUZZY DICHOTOMY BETWEEN AN foreign countries. He is disappointed about
INSIDER AND AN OUTSIDER his younger son, Mazen, who was the one
Exiles isolate themselves from a particular without any education and a formal degree
historical period and geographical space, and who is still in the occupied territory.
and are lost in space between their homeland He is a revolutionary, a victim of a mine
and the migrated land. Khalifeh’s novels are explosion during the time of Intifada 3,
complicated by a peculiar fuzzy demarcation Mazen does not exile to another country to
between the insider and the outsider. earn his livelihood. The father calls Mazen,
Khalifeh’s project is rather to highlight “the real problem” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p.
both the experiences of Palestinians living 32). He feels his sons who are living outside
under the occupation and those in exile. In have a better life when compared to the son
Khalifeh’s narratives Palestinians are neither who is the victim of Israeli violence. Jaber
contented in their homeland nor in exile. discourages another of his sons, Kamal,
They have to struggle for their survival, both who wishes to return from Germany. Kamal
inside the occupied territories and outside the writes in a letter, “[f]ather, their world is
borders. Speaking about own experience of merciless” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 155).
exile, the well-known Palestinian historian, He receives an earnest reply from the father
Barakat (2013, p. 143) says, “[t]o be honest, saying, “[d]on’t make the mistake of coming
the cynicism I confronted in myself and back. I have enough dealing with Mazen and
others under Occupation in Palestine should his problems. Here, we have unemployment
have provided a kind of immunity for the and war worries. Please, please, for my sake,
cynicism of exile outside Palestine. But be wise and do not make rash decisions”
To Go, or Not to Go
(Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 155). Khalifeh’s need of immediate medical care. At this

novel emphasises contradictory ideas of critical situation, the Israeli soldiers at
the insider and the outsider. Mazen is an Kiryat Rahil checkpoint refuse to allow the
insider, a revolutionary and a staunch ambulance which carries Futna. Mazen is
follower of Guevara4. Kamal often narrates helpless because his efforts to convince the
his dreadful days of exile to Mazen. He calls Israeli soldier go in vain. After a prolonged
his brothers in exile as “merchants, slaves, wait, Futna dies at the checkpoint. This is a
opportunists, upstarts, and bourgeois” moment of remorse for Mazen as he feels
(Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 217). Mazen feels guilty, pessimistic and regrets not achieving
that living as an insider, he has balanced anything staying in the homeland. He says
his life in his homeland enduring pain and “[s]ometimes I feel as if I were suffocating
suffering under Israeli Occupation. and I wish I could get out of my skin
Mazen’s beloved Violet was born and and run away to Frankfurt or Berlin like
raised in Palestine, and wishes to leave Kamal, who ran off to save his skin. But I
the country. She had already worked with stayed inside my skin and my own skin is
Nahleh in Kuwait. After her return, she too tight for me” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p.
feels unhappy staying in her homeland. 242). Khalifeh’s characters express their
She dreams of migrating to America. She anxieties and existential dilemmas regarding
imagines that her life in America would their decision to be either an insider or
be extremely prosperous and peaceful in an outsider. They encounter a series of
comparison to the life in her country. She oppositions, antinomies and contradictions
feels Westerners have more freedom and regarding their decision to exile. An insider
liberty to enjoy their life. On the other wants to be an outsider and vice-versa. They
hand, she views her own people, especially are perplexed by their own decisions.
men as conservative and patriarchal in
their attitude, who try to fulfill their male TIME AND EXILE
fantasies through the institution of marriage. Exile has an intricate and hostile relationship
Mazen discourages her idea of migration with time. The exiles struggle against the
and tries to convince her that those who temporal conflicts of the past, present and
are in exile yearn for their return to their future. As Ilie (1980, p. 62) contends, “time
homeland. According to Mazen, leaving functions as a stifling force.” Exiles focus
one’s country is an offence and amounts to more on the past which dwells in nostalgic
deserting one’s duty. melancholy. On the other hand, the exiled
However, Mazen is forced to change person has been eventually absent from
his perspective in the course of time. His the present time of his or her country.
uncle’s wife Futna, who delivers a baby, Rather, they live in the present of their host
struggles between life and death at the country. “The time of the exile is different.
checkpoint. She bleeds heavily and is in Or rather, the exile lives in two different
times simultaneously, in the present and the future, and back into the past, and bursts
in the past” (McClennen, 2004, p. 32). through on every side at the place we’ve
Time and space have become a problem for dammed up with the dry straw of memories”
Khalifeh’s characters who return from exile. (Badr, 1979/1989, p. 74). Both Kamal and
The Palestinians try to forget the frustrating Nahleh remember their exilic past and
experiences of exile once they return to their they are unable to engage themselves with
homeland. Unfortunately, they suffer from the present in any manner. Their past is
nostalgia and are unable to engage with understood in the light of the present and
the present. In The Image, the Icon, and vice versa. The present is uncertain and
the Covenant, Ibrahim plans to return in they struggle hard to cope with the existing
search of his beloved Mariam and his son, situation of their country. For Nahleh, who
Michael whom he had left in the course of leaves her home as a teenager, time moves
his exilic life. He regrets his decision of in an expeditious manner without her
voluntary exile. He remembers his beloved realisation. As an exile, she is unable to have
and scribbles about his life without her. After control over the cyclical movement of time
20 years of exile, he recalls his past and his and consequently, on her own life. She is
beloved Mariam. “It was my memory, my not aware of the valuable time she has spent
first love, and a part of history. Today I am working in the exiled country. Her feelings
a man without a present, without Mariam of loneliness and her efforts to combat the
and without history” (Khalifeh, 2002/2008, signs of aging make her life miserable.
p. 1). Ibrahim is aware that his past life does She feels that her youth was stolen from
not fetch happiness, so he tries to forget his her by the years she spent in exile. She
exilic past. However, he is optimistic about experiences timelessness which makes her
his future and dreams to be with them for the lonely, loveless, and miserable. Zaynab
rest of his life. He says, “I began looking for notes that Nahleh “had once been beautiful,
the past and here I am looking for the future. fresh, young, and full of love and feelings,
Mariam was the thread of the past, and her then she had been hit with the realisation
son will be that of the future” (Khalifeh, that she was fifty, homeless, aimless, and
2002/2008, p. 157). Ibrahim’s character unsatisfied” (Khalifeh, 1997/2005, p. 72).
is an illustration of an exile who struggles The journey of exile never ends at a certain
between different time zones – that of the point. As Said rightly remarks, “Palestinian
past, present and future. life is scattered, discontinuous, marked by
Exiles have often been obsessed with the artificial and imposed arrangements
recording their past life spent in exile. One of interrupted or confined space, by the
of the prominent Palestinian women writers, dislocation and unsynchronized rhythms of
Liyana Badr, writes “[e]xile. Nothing is as disturbed time” (Said, 1986, p. 20).
painful as an exile; it stretches ahead into
To Go, or Not to Go
CONCLUSION winning novel “Surawaayqunawa

As a writer, Sahar Khalifeh not only ‘ahdunqadim”, written in 2002 has been
represents Palestinian suffering and translated into English as “The Image,
displacement but also the Palestinian the Icon and the Covenant.” This novel
lives under momentous consequences of is the winner of The Naguib Mahfouz
Israeli occupation. Every case of exile is Medal for Literature in 2006. These two
unique. Khalifeh’s depiction of female and novels have been translated by Aida
male characters reflects different contexts Bamia. She is a professor of Arabic
that provoked them to be in exile and the language and literature at the University
challenges they faced. They recall their of Florida in Gainesville.
sorrowful exilic days spontaneously from 2
The green line refers to the border
the captivation of memory. Mariam’s separating pre-1967 Israel from the
mother, Mariam and Nahleh, all suffer occupied Palestinian territories. It is an
from loneliness their entire life, longing internationally recognised border.
to attain the unattainable. Both Mariam 3
L i t e r a l l y m e a n s s h a k i n g o ff o r
and her mother suffer throughout their awakening; refers to the Palestinian
life because of the absence of their male uprising that began in December 1987.
counterparts. For Nahleh, both exile and 4
The well-known Argentinean born
return leave a deep psychological scar.
Cuban revolutionary leader, Che
Ibrahim and Kamal express a strong sense
Guevara.
of helplessness, self-pity, cultural isolation
and detachment from homeland. Mazen
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Alhawamdeh, H. A. (2015). Honor crimes in Sahar
for the absence of the males at home, long to
Khalifeh’s The Inheritance and Sean O’Casey’s
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(Eco) feminism in Sahar Khalifeh’s the
NOTES inheritance and the end of spring. (Unpublished
Master’s thesis). State University of New York
1
Khalifeh’s novel “al-Mirath”, written in
at Buffalo.
1997 has been translated into English
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The Curious Incidence of Individual Empowerment

Taraneh Houshyar and Bahee Hadaegh*
Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Faculty of Letters and Humanities, Shiraz University,
Iran
ABSTRACT
The literature on Autism has been considered marginal but developing. Various writers
and critics in the field have tried to set forth a more palpable attitude of this form of
disability while missing and/or escaping one crucial question: does Autism make possible
an advantageous ground for the autistic person? In other words, what is the semantic role of
the slash in dis/ability? This study directs this question through a literary case of the novel
“The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time” by Mark Haddon. The process and
result of such analysis is directive in both providing us with a new paradigm of autism, as
well as exemplifying strategies through which the autistic person performs progressively.
In this respect, the concept of individual empowerment, theorised by Elisheva Sadan,
holds the axle of analysis. In the scope of this research, Haddon’s novel proves to be a
formative ground for redefining autism in its current manipulation, a source of self-reliance
and inner-outer evaluator which processes socio-communal inputs given to it in order to
systematise the action/reactions of the autistic person. Meanwhile, this study concludes
with suggestions on how an autistic person can filter and organise his environment to
perform distinctly and productively.
Keywords: Autism, critical consciousness, Elisheva Sadan, empowerment, Mark Haddon, practitioner
INTRODUCTION
”We live today in what I call a ‘runaway
world’, a world marked by new risks and
ARTICLE INFO uncertainties [...] but we should place
Article history: the notion of trust alongside that of risk”
Received: 05 June 2017
Accepted: 15 August 2017 (Giddens, 2009, p. 99).
E-mail addresses: Rather than sparkling a perceptive
[email protected] (Taraneh Houshyar),
[email protected] (Bahee Hadaegh) consciousness of the dynamic world

surrounding each individual, Giddens’ in an ethnographical view which (re)situates

theory can operate as an impetus for projections of ability or disability, and ends
Christopher Boone, the protagonist-narrator in giving an affiliated definition of norm/al
of Haddon’s novel, to reflect on the exigency (Muller, 2006). Experiences of environment,
and possibility of building trust. Having limited by estimations of autism, have
encountered such equivocal of sociology, a undermined Christopher’s behavioural
normal1 participant starts searching for the assumptions to a state of ephemeral cognitive
proper partner/agent with whom the trust relations and decisions (Freißmann, 2008).
is established. However, considering ASD, His subordinate realisation is identical
Christopher’s character breaks through the with the genre of detective novel which
presuppositions around the susceptibility reinforces a condition of scepticism,
of interpersonal communication prior to his fortified by features of ASD as another
acceptance of any partner/agent2. reason for suspecting normalised ideas
Since autistic studies are controversial, of trust, social value and, in a large scale,
articles in this research invites readers to communal obedience (Ciocia, 2009). Third,
actively participate in the horizon of the to criticise Christopher of having a narrow
disclosure that this analysis addresses. The prospect of social conducts is a response
readers’ flexibility in adopting contextual developed by a surface reading of the novel,
positions is recommended: first, to activate although an ethical reading encourages
a mode of subjectivity parallel to that of the presence of a more responsive reader
Christopher’s; second, to facilitate reading who is less likely to misread symptoms of
disability (Wooden, 2011). Another verifier
of Christopher’s deficiency in associating
with environmental frames is the absence
1
The terms norm and normal in this article
deal with Foucault’s theory in “Truth of any tendency for expressing partnership;
and Power”. The triad of “normalization, the adamant inclination of the pronoun
sexuality, and power” is inclusively presented “I” extends the existing gap between him
as the contingent sequel of “ideology” and
and others (Semino, 2011). Eventually, the
“repression” anticipated by Marx and Freud,
respectively, which is dominant through all isolated image of Christopher is marked
aspects of interpersonal and/or communal to be a consequence of his attempt to
relationships (Foucault, 1980, p.117) penetrate the internalised social norms, in
2
Communication-crisis is a pivotal concern in
maintaining independence from the rigid
major discussions of ASD. The insistence on
sameness, resistance to change, and behavioral forums of social life (Blackford, 2013). The
inflexibility have been defining characteristics semi-delusional aspect of autism amplifies
of ASD and linked to social impairment the improbability of the establishment of
(Cotugno, 2009). Nevertheless, the emphasis on
certitude and/or a reciprocal relationship
augmentative communication suggests that the
agent of communication is more fundamental through separating the affected person from
than the termination (Perry & Condillac, 2003) the culturally presumed facts.
Despite the supposed discernment normalisations 3 rather than focusing on

of ASD which is destined to enclose stigmatising emblems of autism that force
the volition and practice of an autistic the person to be dependent on mediums of
person, Haddon’s novel conceives potential communication.
interpretations of disability beyond the
naturalised surveillances of society. Indeed MATERIALS AND METHODS
to violate a simplistic understanding of the
Transcribing the Social Environment:
work, it is vital to bring up the question
Christopher’s Role-Structuration
whether Christopher is an amenable social
figure with no intentions or authority The inclination of social environment, as
or a mutant, but distinct participant? milieu for bringing up and schematising
Consequently, the answer would direct us individuals, has obtained instructive and
toward a more practical concept of disabled irrefutable significations. The environmental
people that exceeds the prevailing attitudes trend is prone to suppress individual
about disablement. The current paper discrepancies, in order to adjust and control
benefits from theoretical grounds signified interpersonal relationship, and replace
by Elisheva Sadan through proficiencies of them with conceptualisations of unison.
empowerment, since her explanation sets In Mannheim’s view: “Every individual is
forth the idea of social functioning and therefore in a two-fold sense predetermined
political connectedness of all individuals: by the fact of growing up in a society:
“Since empowerment is not a particular on the one hand he finds a ready-made
quality of a person, but an important situation and on the other he finds in that
condition for his existence, its realization situation performed patterns of thought
must correspond to the most diverse and conduct” (Mannheim, 1954, p. 3).
(theoretically, at least, the infinite) number Societal administrations of interpersonal
of human variations” (Sadan, 2004, p. 79). performances are established on the
Subsequently, the objective of the presumption that people are supposedly
current discussion is to highlight those
manifest comportments and character- 3
Opposition to socially approved alignments,
descriptions in the novel that elucidate argued within Christopher’s character, resembles
supersessions of Christopher’s ASD as an common configurations of isolated individuals
advantageous condition through which he in gender studies. In textual projections of
“hegemonic” gender (masculinity/femininity)
actualises forms of individual empowerment
most adolescent members question and criticise
within a self-developed agency. Here, it normalised provisions of the hegemonic group
is discussed that Christopher relies on his (Gill, 2008). Repugnancies of this kind are the
supposed difference and exalts its favourable main causes of seclusion and bewilderment that
lead in “reshaping of identity”, applied by the
attributes to extricate himself from exclusive
individual him/herself (Malaby & Esh, 2012,
dispositions of trust-in-communal-norms/ p. 40)
obliged to act analogously to regain or his surroundings; a type of self-reflexive

consolidate order. This form of adaptability conduct that ends in the confirmation of the
is declared by Giddens through the term first introspective I-statement: “I like dogs.
“socialization”: You always know what a dog is thinking.
It has four moods. Happy, sad, cross and
The process whereby the helpless
concentrating” (Haddon, 2003, p. 4). While
human infant gradually becomes a
empathising with the dog, Christopher
self-aware, knowledgeable person,
implicitly expresses further angles of
skilled in the ways of the culture
communal practice: firstly, his readiness for
into which he or she was born.
building up social rapport with an external
All societies have characteristics
element, Wellington, and second, his
that endure over long stretches of
demand for a cohesive relationship which is
time, even though their existing
reflected by the insistence on predictability.
members die and new ones are born.
No matter how radical the choice of a
(Giddens, 2009, p. 284)
dead dog seems in the evaluations of more
normalised practitioners, the realisation
Each person is thrown into a labyrinth of
illuminates a hidden potency in Christopher
prescribed formulations that regulate his
to leave his isolation, even though it is done
behaviour and frame his future decisions and
through a non-human entity. This mode of
pertaining attitudes. Meanwhile, Corbett’s
unification with the other exemplifies the
(1965) analysis of this function of social life
ironic point in Sadan’s (2004) study of both
sheds light on the notion of generalisation
the primary step toward empowerment as
wherewith behavioural anticipation is
well as its ultimate goal: “Empowerment
activated: “We cannot act in the world or
means coming out of the limited boundaries
think about it without implicitly relying
of the I into the expanse of possibilities of
on the validity of some generalizations;
we” (p. 81).
it is largely on their rationality that the
Despite the fact that stages of self-
rationality of my life depends. But, what
presentation and self-stabilisation are
supports a generalization? Experience” (p.
interconnected with the actions of outside
158).
inductors, Christopher advances to set his
Christopher’s initial experience of
personal conduct(s) aloof of expectations
social environment is pictured in finding
of social normalisation to confine his
the dead Wellington. His camera-like
possible interpretation of the communal
description of the murder scene followed
trust. While alluding to classifications of
by the struggle with the two officers and
collective-loneliness, Christopher shows
other swift occurrences evoke Christopher’s
diverse products of communication once he
latent, though fixed, rationalisation of
distinguishes himself from any other child at In addition to Siobhan’s attempt for
school reaffirming that, “I’m not a spazzer, stimulating a ground of textual connection4
which means spastic, not like Francis, with Christopher’s autism, the act of writing
who is a spazzer” (Haddon, 2003, p.15). reveals tacit facts about the inadequacies
Looking at illness innovatively, aspects of of people in charge of Christopher. Among
disability can be productive for disabled various instances of misunderstanding
and/or abled bodies: “The world of illness within social relationships, Christopher’s
provides a repertoire of constructs which can experience with his father is crucial for
be employed in setting out our attitudes to having a more accurate analysis of the limits
other matters of social significance” (Billig, of communalisation in disability. Results
Condor & Edwards, 1988, p. 86). Thereupon, connotes to the theory of interactional
further specifications of prudence are carried vandalism which appears through lingual
out along with Christopher’s generalisation artefacts more persistently than physical
on communicative discourse. violations (Giddens, 2009, p. 262). Bilateral
Another module for ascertaining order failure of interaction results in Christopher’s
(ability to rationalise) is the procedure refusal of the father, as a factual medium,
through which Christopher approbates and invokes alternatives for his role. Since a
members of his community. Christopher is more flexible member is needed to act based
withheld of the ability to perceive meanings on restrictions of Christopher’s community,
in metonymic or imperative dialects due to Sadan’s authorisation of sensitizer proves
constraints of autism. The research done by to be an adequate candidate, the inductor
Milne and Griffiths on this autistic paradigm who performs “in a variety of methods of
shows that children with ASD display a very intervention, with the objective of providing
literal, pragmatic understanding of the spoken people with the maximal opportunities
word (Milne & Griffiths, 2007). Therefore, of understanding themselves and their
Christopher’s choice of Siobhan as the environment” (Sadan, 2004, p.122). The
trustee who understands the complexity of introverted, self-reliant attributions of
his situation introduces the first practitioner Christopher while facing mysteries, on the
of his community. While planting the idea one hand, and his formulation of facts and
of writing about Wellington’s case and science(s), on the other, exhorts him toward
encouraging Christopher all through the choosing the fictional character of Sherlock
process, Siobhan performs correspondently
to Sadan’s description of advocate who
“must not neglect her responsibility as
4
Literature, and especially books directed to
adolescent, establishes an atmosphere of mutual
a leader, and she must not incline in the
understanding between the abled and disabled
opposite direction, of excessive directing parties of communication which broadens their
and taking control of people” (Sadan, 2004, attitudes of the concept of ability regardless of
p. 123). more normalised definitions (Curwood, 2013)
Holmes as the sensitiser. Christopher The disciplines have their own

harmonises elements of the advocate and discourse. They engender [. .
sensitiser as he merges them with his .] apparatuses of knowledge
proficiency and expectation of the client. (savoir) and a multiplicity of
Regarding the tenets of empowerment, new domains of understanding.
primary stages of change are conveyed They are extraordinarily inventive
through the client’s emancipation from participants in the order of these
normalised constraints as he invalidates knowledge-producing apparatuses.
them and through the redefinition Disciplines are the bearers of a
(recitation) of his preference(s) (Sadan, discourse, but this cannot be the
2004, p.121). Representations of the client- discourse of right, the discourse of
role enables Christopher to express not only discipline has nothing in common
his discontent with the environment, but with that of laws, rule, or sovereign
also possible incompetence in hegemonies will [...] The code they [disciplines]
of social conduct. come to define is not that of law
but that of normalization. Their
RESULTS reference is to a theoretical horizon
which of necessity has nothing in
Awakened Critical Consciousness:
common with the edifice of right.
Christopher’s Performance in
(Foucault, 1976, p. 106)
Community
Society is permanently alert and attentive The father character as a representative of
toward utilising efficient mediums in social components is a bearer of certain
order to acculturate and subjugate more presumptions about how to behave through/
marginalised individuals. The essence of with disability, albeit the fact that his
routine implemented in this process protects establishment of familial disciplines is more
it from being noticed (or criticised) easily affined to his desolate condition. Father’s
by the mediums who are performing to its inconsistency in codifying productive
advantage. In other words, the persistency modules of interpersonal relation with
of cultural and national morals together Christopher, and his mere focus on the
with more universal depicts depend on subversive hypotheses of communication
the existence of such inductors who assist via discipline, ends in conflicts which
the formation and institutionalisation threaten their existing interrelationship.
of social disciplines. But in his article, Some outcomes of physical tension
“Two Lectures”, presented in January between the two characters are caused by
1976, Foucault explains about the inherent the incoherent manners conveyed by Father
opposition to the social configuration by in his arguments; like the times he starts
emphasising the dual role of normalised shouting at and interrupting Christopher,
codifications:
ignorant of the false impact such behaviours the killer. His persistence is accentuated
have on an autistic child. Distortions of with the father’s confession: “I killed
auditory-process and sensitivity to loud Wellington, Christopher” (Haddon, 2003,
voices which are dominant among people p. 69). Evidently, the exploration succeeds
with ASD have been discussed as influential in discovering the truth about Wellington’s
stimulus for provoking extreme oppositions death and the absence of his mother, as
to environmental disturbances (Tomchek & well as disjointing Christopher from the last
Dunn, 2007). Having observed instances of strings of trust in external mediums.
environmental (familial) malfunctioning, Excessive unveiling of errors in
Christopher engages in methods of re- communal factors surrounding Christopher
evaluating his community by extending his negates the functioning of the supposed
reliability on roles of advocate and sensitiser. equilibrium necessary for his interaction.
His first rebellious decision is pictured Grievous scenes of reinforced ASD is
through re-starting to search and write about thus presented in his impotent attempt to
Wellington’s death-mystery. With regard to regain balance. The expression “extreme
Sadan’s analysis of progressing individuals autistic aloneness”, as Sula Wolff defines,
and communities, types of resistance to is allocated to this kind of disorder which is
external strains prove to be inseparable from followed by indications such as “abnormal
the frames of individual empowerment: speech with echolalia, pronominal reversal,
literalness and inability to use language for
Empowerment is a process of
communication; and monotonous, repetitive
internal and external change. The
behaviours with an ‘anxiously’ obsessive
internal process is the person’s
desire for the maintenance of sameness”
sense of belief in her ability to
(Sadan, 2004, p. 203). For Christopher to
make decisions and to solve her
procure the former quiescence means to
own problems. The external change
leave the source of tumult, his Father, and
finds expression in the ability to
seek refuge in his personal code of security
act and to implement the practical
(balance). Since no other external element is
knowledge, the information, the
qualified or permitted to enter his domain of
skills, the capabilities and the other
re-establishing order, Christopher explicates
new resources acquired in the
a course of solace in his community, that
course of the process. (Sadan, 2004,
is, observing the stars. This method of
p. 76)
meditation also gives him the courage to
criticise the culturally accepted opinion on
Proven to be capable in solving puzzles
one specific group of stars named Orion,
(modelling after Sherlock Holms) and
which marks a man holding a bow and
determined to act like a qualified detective,
introduce other convenient alternatives for
Christopher remains meticulous about
the same shape.
any clues that might guide him to find
xplicates a course of solace in his community, that is, observing the stars. This
editation also gives him the courage to criticise the culturally accepted opinion
ic group of stars named Orion, which marks a man holding a bow and introduce
ent alternatives for the same shape. Taraneh Houshyar and Bahee Hadaegh
The community’s ideological acceptance

of this habit of naming-after-stars, its
obedience to religion and perception of
metaphysical concepts are objected by
Christopher through his trust in science and
genealogical thinking. The allusive usage
of stars in this narrative highlights the fact
that there is no absolute value incarnated in
social representations, yet labelling stems
from a national or ethnic relativism within
that society.
Individual Figure
Empowerment in case of Autistic Children
Figure 1. Constellation of Stars as Orion Doubt in familial bonds blends with a
1. Constellation of stars as Orion
re-evaluation of more general threads in the
society; while providing Christopher with
the opportunity to criticise the worldview5
of those exterior to his conduct. Sadan’s
appreciation of the indispensable and
prominent criticism of interactional
presuppositions gives credit to the
configuration of critical consciousness,
“[which] is the process by means of
which people acquire an increasingly
greater understanding of the cultural-
social conditions that shape their lives, and
Figure 2. Christopher’s constellation of stars as a
Figure 2.dinosaur
Christopher's Constellation of Stars as aofDinosaur the context of their ability to change
these conditions” (Sadan, 2004, p. 82).
Immediately after Christopher liberates
But this is really silly because it is himself from the bondages of such cultural-
really silly becausejust
it isstars,
justand you and
stars, couldyoujoincould
up the join up the segments,
social dots in any his way
critical consciousness
dots in any way you wanted, and
d, and you could make you it lookmake
could likeitalook
ladylike
with an umbrella who is waving, or
a lady
maker which Mrs Shears with an has,
umbrella whoisis from
which waving, or with
Italy, 5 a handle and steam
Worldview (Weltanschauung) that facilitates
the coffeemaker which Mrs Shears the way to create a unified view of the
t, or like a dinosaur has,
(Haddon,
which 2004,
is from p. Italy,
71). with a people within a society, those who share a
handle and steam coming out, or common history and culture; a careful study
of worldview may, also, lead us to criticise the
like a dinosaur (Haddon, 2004, p. false evaluation or devious perceptions of the
ty's ideological acceptance
71).
of this habit of naming-after-stars, its obedience to
social participants (Macrae, 1961, p. 64)
perception of metaphysical concepts are objected by Christopher through his
ce and genealogical thinking. The allusive usage of stars in this narrative
fact that there460is no absolute value incarnated in& Hum.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. social
26 (1): representations,
453 - 468 (2018) yet
s from a national or ethnic relativism within that society.
ilial bonds blends with a re-evaluation of more general threads in the society;
is awakened to tranquilise the condition p. 211). Accordingly, rather than being

for seeking a method of problem-solving content with a shallow functionality of
appropriate to his current dilemma. Hence, critical consciousness, each person is
when his gratification of the stars relieves obliged to apply it within a progressive
him from the chaotic entrapments of the plan for transcending his empowered state.
environment, Christopher works out the fear Attentive notifications on the synthesis of
of being close to his father, now considered plan and practice render the centralisation
as the source of danger (insecurity) through of pragmatics essential for having a stratum
his distinguished skill in mathematics6; of empowering-jargon. Pragmatic thinking
the closure of this phase is noticed by and performance, in this sight, rises
Christopher’s decisiveness to leave for his against the classical exacerbations of the
mother in London. individual’s dependence on the presence(s)
of external mediums which carry the
DISCUSSION credibility for activating and directing the
impact(s) of planning through the process
Relief in Praxis: Empowered
of empowerment. The differentiation Sadan
Christopher
makes between the already-existing role of
Pondering the scope of empowerment, the external motivator and the newly-born idea
individual is destined to abolish his current of internal collaborator is understood through
social partialities and suspend weakening the contextual division she establishes by
adherences of the cultural-social custom in describing them as expert and reflective
order to reflect on the acquisitive schemes practitioner respectively:
of his new community. However, each
participant envisages a definite status The expert presents a total
for the maintenance and progress of his knowledge in planning and solutions
conduct together with organising a pattern despite his own uncertainty, while
to reach the ultimate objective. The efficacy the reflective practitioner sees
of the performance of such regulation is his uncertainty as a source of
maintained by Sadan in the manipulative learning for himself and for others
idea of “Praxis”: “[. . .] a way of learning possessing relevant knowledge
that integrates activity and thinking on the situation. While the expert
about activity. In this method, the critical keeps a professional distance and
conscious is integrated into social activity, transmits warmth and sympathy
and is not separated from it” (Sadan, 2004, in what he considers the requisite
dosage, the reflective planner
seeks an emotional and intellectual
“Feartotal = Fearnew place X Fearnear
6 connection with people. (Sadan,
Father = constant” (Haddon, 2003, p. 77). 2004, p. 189)
Sadan’s empowerment offers an are showing distress or unhappiness”

exposure to the practitioner-role in the sense (Happé, 1994, p. 78).
that its subject-formation is realised by the With respect to the authorities of
individual’s agreement in lieu of the official a practitioner, propagating knowledge
compromise. Performance of the reflective proceeds other factors in order to restore
practitioner is, thus, circumscribed to the a promising state for the actualisation of
responsibilities assigned for the individual in praxis. Managing to stabilise mental order
his interaction with the collected knowledge/ over the turmoil of the status quo requires
experience of the environment as well as his Christopher to probe and recollect his
success in self-consolation. consciousness of the tactics of sociability.
Upon his decision to leave home, During the time Christopher reflects on his
Christopher substitutes the client position survey of the communicational knowledge,
with that of a practitioner; schemes of not only does he approve of the individual
praxis are visible through his endeavour authentication within the environment, but
to find the Swindon train station and cope also adopts proper codes transferred from
with the difficulties thereafter. While his advocate/client principles. Concerning
searching for the station, Christopher shows the first trial of praxis, Siobhan’s advice is
social intrusions through his interactional declared as a resort upon which Christopher
convulsion with the world outside. There, starts disentangling himself from penetrative
the influx of different sounds and the hurried forces in the milieu. The following
crowd agitate impulses of nervous disorder description traces Christopher’s furtive
in Christopher and cause him an intense manner of linking with and appreciating his
feeling of environmental anxiety. In line advocate the moment he feels threatened
with his experience of communicating with by social interferences. “So I took lots of
others, Christopher is incapable of building deep breaths like Siobhan says I have to do
trust in other passengers. Hence, few scenes if someone hits me at school, and I counted
that escape Christopher’s obsessed narrative 50 breaths and I concentrated very hard on
provide us with images of people offering the numbers and did their cubes as I said
to help him, though all is rejected either them. And that made the hurt less painful”
through a sort of mind-blackout or by his (Haddon, 2003, p. 78). Intuitive examination
emotional seclusion. Emotional impairment of the self and others sets forth apparatuses
is studied and acknowledged by Happé’s of community, and results in Christopher’s
observation of ASD since she describes insistence on the disclosure of the available
autistic applicants to be “rarely seeking and and valid paradigms which can assist him
using other people for comfort and affection in tackling with the environmental stress.
at times of stress or distress and/or offering Christopher adjusts the other module
comfort and affection to others when they of praxis, concurrent to that of the
advocate’s assertion, while displaying visual aids. Environmental-observation is

signs of being reconciled with the situation. treated as a filtering custom in the quest
The statement ends up by revealing the for receiving intensive delegations of
fact that the prerequisite task of the order. Therefore, absorbing replicas of
advocate is intertwined with the salient stability conveys the alteration of what is
knowledge of numeration. The second perceived to a more eligible mediator which
agency of praxis, thus, emerges from the advances the liberation of the individual
orientation of Christopher’s ingenuity (client). The NCSE research contributes
in simulating numerical metonyms so as to the remedial supplementation of visual
to be displacements of/from the social utterances elucidating that:
burden. The absence of consistency in the
Studies employed visual techniques
comportment(s) of the external operant on
or video modelling procedures
the one hand, and the credence he grants
in interventions to facilitate play
to inner deductions on the other, invites
and/or social initiations and
Christopher to look for more subjective
interactions [...] They build on
reliefs. The premium role of the subjective
current good practice in the field,
(self)-relief is activated once the individual
promoting use of visual support
applies it intelligently, as a strategy of
and video modelling and taking
confrontation against the nuisance of
into account the relative strength in
his environment. Ultimately, further
visual skills of children with ASD.
registrations of math problems are given
These approaches also recognize
as codes of praxis wherewith Christopher
the importance of developing
claims control over his agonised mental
observation skills in children and
state. It is through one such example that
that observation and imitation may
Christopher allows the reader to engage in
be important avenues for learning.
a more precise analysis of what it means to
The studies indicate that video
solve a math problem, as he explains about
modelling can present different
the game, “Conway Soldier”, a collaborative
social situations in a predictable and
process is shaped through Christopher’s
controllable way, thereby allowing
narration. “It is a good maths problem to do
extraneous features to be filtered
in your head when you don’t want to think
out and thus potentially making
about something else because you can make
learning easier for the child with
it as complicated as you need to fill your
autism (Parson et al., 2009, p. 60).
brain” (Haddon, 2003, p. 85).
The subsequent emprise of Christopher
Although in their encounter with
in order to finalise the course of praxis is
environmental fluctuations there is a great
to concentrate on the implementation of
probability of invoking perplex responses,
constitutions of society into the tranquilised sphere of pictures is represented by
on his way to Willesden Junction. Being unnerved under the chaotic bustle of
cabin, Christopher says:

And there were 11 people in the carriage and I didn't like being in a room
autistic practitioners are predicted to, first, so I concentrated on things in the
people in a tunnel, so I concentrated
select visual segments of social coercion
on things in the carriage [...] And th
carriage [...] And there was a pattern
and, next, startpattern on the upon
rationalising walls the
which was likewalls
on the this:which was like this:
schema of images in eradicating a conflict
by focalising their (practitioners’) attention
on something favorably organised.
Detestable circumstances within the
prospect of Christopher compels him to
employ visual designs in order to regulate
and frame the environment. His vigilant
choice of patterned pictures or objects
Figure 3. Patterns of walls in the train
fabricates a sovereign mode for assigning Figure 3. Patterns of Walls in the Train
prototypes of cohesion. The binary impact
of this selection leads in Christopher’s And there was a pattern on the seats like this:
Andfrom
therethewas Individual
a pattern on Empowerment
the seats in case
likep. this: of Autistic
(Haddon, 2003, p. Children
108-109)
disconnectedness, complaints (Haddon, 2003, 108-109)
inherent in lingual associations 7, while
setting a personalised dialect whereby
therapeutic communication is validated.
One unique projection of his switch from
the immobilising constitutions of society
into the tranquilised sphere of pictures is
represented by Christopher on his way to
Figure 4. Patterns on seats in the train
Willesden Junction. Being unnerved under Figure 4. Patterns on Seats in the Train
the chaotic bustle of people in the cabin,
Christopher says: Metonyms of order are visible through
Metonyms of order are visible thethrough
organised thelayouts
organised of these photos
layouts of these photos wh
And there were 11 people in the whose repeated patterns correspond to
carriage patterns correspond
and I didn’t like being toin Christopher's urge
Christopher’s for
urge formental systematisation of the envi
mental systematisation
a room with 11 people in a tunnel, of the environment. As claimed
claimed by the meditative supervisions upon societal inputs,bypostulates
the of praxis
meditative supervisions upon societal
in the instant Christopher manages to arrive at his mother's apartment in L
inputs, postulates of praxis are fulfilled in
7
Stefania Ciocia’s article demonstrates the
performance of triumphant feeling
visual aids within Christopher
Christopher’s the acquires through finding
instant Christopher manageshis to mother
arrive in London is
manipulation of his surrounding(s), emphasising at his mother’s apartment in London. The
equivalent to a powerful authentication testifying to his merit in the community.
that “the text also relies on a variety of media triumphant feeling Christopher acquires
and visual effects - charts, graphs, drawings, through finding his mother in London
logos, photographs, etc., in what is perhaps its
most immediate,Stages following
if implicit, the is discussed as
theofaccomplishment
indictment equivalent to a powerful
of praxis denote the construction of an
representational limitations of conventional authentication testifying to his merit in the
invoked
linguistic signs” by the individual within
(Cioca, 2009) his self to redefine and relocate his potencies a
community.
The individual, now, has achieved peculiar indicatives of capability that le
464
imminent identity-formation. To this aim Sadan argues that affirmative and
attachments of self are kindled along with the process of individual empowermen
Individual empowerment is a process of personal development. The process

Stages following the accomplishment Since the practitioner has exposed his
of praxis denote the construction of another success, he is certified to ascertain personal
quest invoked by the individual within his approvals, disciplines, concerns, as well as
self to redefine and relocate his potencies being discharged of the deterrent effects of
and abilities. The individual, now, has self-condemnation. In short, the concluding
achieved peculiar indicatives of capability grades of individual empowerment magnify
that legitimise his imminent identity- and revolve around the flourishing of self-
formation. To this aim Sadan argues that respect.
affirmative and productive attachments of Whilst Christopher recalls one of his
self are kindled along with the process of recurring dreams, the elegant conduct of
individual empowerment: self-respect is summoned by sophistications
on the premises that celebrate his separation
Individual empowerment is a
in the society. Indeed, the dream’s
process of personal development.
content allegorises the superiority of self
The process involves both a
(Christopher) over normalised attendants
development of skills and abilities,
Individual Empowerment in case whose of performances
Autistic Children and their very
and a more positive self-definition.
dissimilarities have been sources of anxiety.
People testify to a better feeling
Thus through a widespread and deadly
about themselves, a sense of more
disease in his dream, Christopher’s desire in
Whilst Christopher recallsand
self-respect oneself-esteem.
of his recurring
A dreams, the elegant conduct of self-respect is
the day-time turns into a comforting reality in
summoned bynew self-confidence on
sophistications andthe
a feeling
premises that celebrateHere,
the night-time. his the
separation in the society.
genuine disclosure
of self-efficacy are connected
Indeed, the dream's content allegorises of the dream reveals itself in Christopher’s
with a redefinition of the self, the
and superiority of self (Christopher) over normalised
appreciation of the elimination of otherness
the latter
attendants whose is closely linked
performances and theirwithvery dissimilarities have been sources of anxiety.
as he recollects, “ … and eventually there
a real improvement in personal
Thus throughknowledge,
a widespreadabilities,
and deadly disease inishis
skills,
no dream,
one left Christopher's
in the world except
desirepeople
in the day-
who don’t look at other people’s faces and
resources
time turns into and life reality
a comforting opportunities.
in the night-time. Here,
who don’t knowthewhatgenuine disclosure
these pictures mean” of the
A higher level of personal activity
dream revealsmakes
itselfpossible
in Christopher's (Haddon,
appreciation of the2003, p. 117).
elimination of otherness as he
more effective
recollects, " … and eventually
inter-personal there (Sadan,
relations. is no one left in the world except people who don't look
2004, p. 84)
at other people's faces and who don't know what these pictures mean" (Haddon, 2003, p.
117).
Figure 5. Simplified jargons of facial expressions communicated within a society

Figure 5. Simplified Jargons of Facial Expressions Communicated within a Society
In this regard, validating personal distinctions and favoring his variant cognition are manifest
within Christopher's satire of the ambiguity in/of social communication(s), which is taken for
granted by its abundant usage and normative presumption upon interpersonal relations.
Individual Empowerment in case of Autistic Children
In this regard, validating personal we invited to take part in Christopher’s

distinctions and favoring
empowering his variant
processes. Throughsatisfaction of his selfnotes,
the following and environment,
not only are but we invited to t
cognition are manifest within Christopher’s we can also picture his delight in the sequel
satire of Christopher's
the ambiguitysatisfaction
in/of social of his
of self andfor
thriving environment,
being empowered, but we “AndcanI also picture his
communication(s),
the sequelwhich is taken
of thriving for for
beinggot the results of"And
empowered, my maths
I gotAthe level and Iof my maths A
results
granted by its abundant usage and normative got an A grade, which is the best result, and
presumptiongotupon
an Ainterpersonal
grade, which is the best
relations. result,
it made meand
feel itlike
made
this”me feel like
(Haddon, this" (Haddon, 20
2003,
129). attributions of self and p. 128-129).
Having reassessed
environment, Christopher acknowledges his
opportunity to dispense with figments of the
exaggerated self and delve into a feeling of
self-consent wherewith future arrangement
is conceivable. One persuasive yield of this
course is shown in Christopher’s persistence
on having math A-level exam. Fig.6: Christopher'sFigure 6. Christopher’s
Expression expression
afterafter Math A-level
Math A-Level Exam
exam
The expedition of the individual
empowerment motivates the decisive
of the client’s efficacy for CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
stabilisation
performing ex cathedra. Validation of the Upon its way to declare confrontation with
participant’s empowered state is actualised environmental repressions, Haddon’s novel
Upon its way to declare confrontation with environmental repressions, Haddon's n
through his inspection of the result. In offers unconventional techniques of change
unconventional
Sadan’s formulation, techniques
the ultimate practiceof change whichpeculiar
which represent represent peculiar
methods methods of fidelity
of fidelity
of empowerment
approachis on proclaimed to Sadan’s approach
in theempowerment.
the individual Regardingon thetheindividual
exceptional circumstanc
word “evaluation” as she clarifies, “This empowerment. Regarding the exceptional
forth through
stage is supposed to bethe autistic character
implemented of Christopher,
circumstances brought theforthcurrent
throughdiscussion
the has stepp
at the conclusion of the studies
the prevalent project, of it autisticempowerment,
andindividual character of Christopher,
more or theless
current
grounded on norm
examines whether, and to what extent, the discussion has stepped beyond the prevalent
communityinto the project
planning criteriahasofachieved
supposedly disordered
studies characters.
of individual empowerment, Thusmoresaying, three fu
its goals” (Sadan, 2004,ofp.individual
structures 257). Thereby, it or less grounded
empowerment within on
ASD normal clients intoare
practitioners the framed as:
depends on the participant’s(s’) mark that criteria of supposedly disordered characters.
the productivity of an empowering process Thus saying, three fundamental structures
is justified. For a) Concentrating
Christopher, on of
the activation the of
specific capabilities
individual empowerment of the autistic
within ASDcharacter that p
the evaluating stage occurs as a consequence practitioners are framed as:
individual with an outlook of the things he is able to do without the interfere
of his passing math A-level exams, which is a) Concentrating on the specific
both a verification offorce of an outside
the competence withinmedium. In the case
capabilities of autistic
of the Christopher, this paradigm was
character
the agency and a support to his planning for
his meticulous analysis ofthat theprovide the individual
objects/places with an along with his
he observed
objectives of further empowering processes. outlook of the things he is able to do
Through the following science
notes,and logic.
not only are By focusing on how characters learn to explore
without the interference or the force
efficacies, the threats of getting indulged in the dichotomies of disem
466
conducts are removed since the character is encouraged to reason upon the
posit himself accordingly.
b) Determining replacements for real advocates is essential to ensure

of an outside medium. In the case makes the ASD character responsible

of Christopher, this paradigm was for the survival of his conduct. Through
shown by his meticulous analysis of these responsibilities, the client learns
the objects/places he observed along how to identify with irreplaceable
with his interest in science and logic. competencies that cannot be transferred
By focusing on how characters learn to to any other participant. Thus, the
explore their own efficacies, the threats character realises the need for remaining
of getting indulged in the dichotomies of active in order to fulfil the procedure
disempowering conducts are removed of change from the disempowered
since the character is encouraged to situation.
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An Economic Valuation of Urban Green Spaces in Kuala

Lumpur City
Nur Syafiqah, A. S.1, A. S. Abdul-Rahim1*, Mohd Johari, M. Y.2 and
Tanaka, K.3
1
Department of Economics, Faculty Economics and Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
2
Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
3
Research Centre for Sustainability and Environment, Shiga University, Japan
ABSTRACT
An economic value of urban green space (UGS) in Kuala Lumpur (KL) city is estimated
in this study. A global model and a local model are formulated based on hedonic price
method. The global and local models were analysed with an Ordinary Least Squares
(OLS) regression and a Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) respectively. Both
the models were compares to see which model offered a better result. The results of OLS
regression illustrated that Titiwangsa and Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM)
offer the highest economic value for model 2 and 3 respectively. The results of GWR
determined that the economic value of an UGS can be analysed by the region. The GWR
result revealed that FRIM provides high economic value to all the residential areas in KL
city. However, the economic value of Titiwangsa is not valuable for the residential areas in
KL city including Mont Kiara Pines, Jinjang Selatan, Segambut Garden, Bandar Menjalara
and Taman Bukit Maluri. As a conclusion,
even though Titiwangsa generates the
highest economic value, it is only significant
at certain residential areas as proved by the
local model. In terms of model application,
ARTICLE INFO the local model performed better than the
Article history:
global model.
E-mail addresses: Keywords: Economic valuation, geographically

[email protected] (Nur Syafiqah, A. S.), weighted regression model, hedonic pricing model,
[email protected] (A. S. Abdul-Rahim),
[email protected] (Mohd Johari, M. Y.), urban green space
[email protected] (Tanaka, K.)

INTRODUCTION that KL has lost nearly 50% of its green

The urban green space (UGS) can be defined spaces, mainly to residential development to
as the range of urban vegetation, including cater for the population increase and some
open spaces, parks, residential gardens, industrial development. Tyrvainen (2001)
street trees and any other vegetation located also beleived that industrial development
around the urban environment (Pietsch, activities could diminish the values of UGS.
2012). According to Saphores and Li (2012), As reported in KL Structure Plan 2020,
the position of the UGS in cities is increasing currently, the total areas of UGS in KL city
worldwide as a result of the expansion of only represents 6.5% of total land use and
urban land fueled by urbanisation. City the amount that is available as public UGS is
areas with a lot of greenery are aesthetically even less when private green spaces such as
pleasing and attractive to residents and field golf are excluded. This issue has caused
investors. general concern among local authorities.
Based on the Kuala Lumpur (KL) City Various efforts have been taken by them
Plan 2020 in The Star Online (2008), the to protect and maintain the existence of
city expressed a vision of a network of UGS. However, it is noticed that existing
high quality, accessible parks and economic statutes and policies over a recent decade
generation to assist KL in becoming a were not sufficiently strong with regard
more attractive city to live in and work to the protection they afforded to green
at. The implementation of the greening spaces in KL. Luttik (2000), and Zhuo and
city may create a more comfortable living Parves Rana (2012) claimed that it is not
environment and provide space for healthy easy to come to a clear conclusion about
recreational activities. Moreover, the the effectiveness of existing arrangement
beautification of KL has been one of the for protecting UGS without much more
factors that attracted significant foreign information, especially in terms of monetary
investments to Malaysia and boosted value.
the country’s rapid economic growth. In the case of Malaysia, Mohd Noor,
Overall, urban green spaces have provided Asmawi and Abdullah (2015) is one of
indispensable elements of aesthetic, the earliest ones that have a concern about
ecological, recreational and economic this issue. They conducted a study about
values. The economic values include the economic valuation of UGS in Subang
property prices (Sadeghian & Vardanyan, Jaya, Selangor. However, KL city which
2013). Due to the demand and benefits of is the highest percentage of diminished
UGS, the UGS in KL should be preserved. green area was not included in their study.
In Malaysia, Yusof (2012) stated that It would be much useful if an analysis of
the urban area of KL has almost tripled in economic valuation of UGS is conducted
area since the 1950s; it is currently 243 km2. in KL city. At least it will offer valuable
Unfortunately, Yaakup (2005) predicted information especially in terms of monetary
Economic Values of Urban Green Spaces
value of urban green space to the real estate (Kong, Yin, & Nakagoshi, 2007). House
developers. Other than that, it will help the prices are regressed against sets of control
government authorities to improve their variables. It includes structural attributes
future policy specifically about land use of a house, neighborhood variables, and
and development part by developing a environmental attributes.
comprehensive improvement of monitoring Chin and Chau (2003) believed that
the provision, extent, and condition of the property prices are associated with
green space more thoroughly based on the their structural attributes. It includes size of
monetary information. building lot, number of rooms and building
Therefore, the economic value of age (Saphore & Li, 2012; Kong et al., 2007;
the UGS, specifically in KL city, will be Morancho, 2003). However, Morancho
estimated in this study. By using the hedonic (2003) mentioned that size of ancillary in the
pricing method (HPM), the economic value building is also relatively important to the
obtained in this study will prove the value house price. Forrest, Glen, and Ward (1996)
of UGS in monetary value. The HPM stated that lot size also has a significant
based on the ordinary least square (OLS) effect on house price. All of them concluded
regression and geographically weighted that any functional space is considered to
regression (GWR), together with geographic have a significant relationship with the
information systems (GIS) are employed. house price. Other than structural attributes
This study reveals the specific residential of the house, Geoghegan (2002) mentioned
areas in KL city which are able to generate that the shortest distance between town
economic value of UGSs. At the same time, and the house which is considered to be
this study also helps the local authorities neighborhood variable also has a significant
to develop a comprehensive improvement relationship with the house price.
of monitoring the provision, extent, and Additionally, most of the previous
condition of green space more thoroughly studies proved that environmental attributes
based on monetary information. Lastly, work well towards the house price. They
this study will contribute to the literature believed that there is an inverse relationship
since there are limited studies conducted in between distance and property price (Boyer
Malaysia regarding the economic valuation & Polasky, 2004; Cho, Bowker, & Park,
of UGSs using GWR. 2006; Cho, Poudyal, & Roberts, 2008;
Gibbon et al., 2013; Morancho, 2003;
LITERATURE REVIEW Tajima, 2003;). Most of them also proved
HPM is widely used to measure the economic that there is a positive relationship between
value of UGS (Zhuo & Parves Rana, 2012). the size of UGS and property price (Boyer &
Its value can be predicted from the prices Polasky, 2004; Cho et al., 2008; Morancho,
of related actual market house transaction 2003). It shows that UGS has an important
economic value.
Based on previous studies, all the Pines, Mont Kiara the Residents, Bandar
reviewed variables seem to have a significant Manjalara, Kepong Baru, Taman Bukit
effect on the house price. Previous studies Maluri, Jinjang Selatan, Jinjang Utara,
outside Malaysia have proven that the urban Kepong Garden, Segambut Garden, and
green space attributes including the size of Desa Park City. The urban green spaces
urban green space and its distance to the included Bukit Nanas, Batu Caves, Bukit
residential area are important factors for Lagong, Dataran Merdeka, Desa Park
house price. Therefore, all these variables City, Forest Research Institute Malaysia
are used to estimate the economic value of (FRIM), KL City Centre (KLCC), Taman
UGS in KL city. Tasik Permaisuri, Pudu Ulu, Rimba Bukit
Kiara, Taman Tasik Perdana, Taman Tasik
METHODS Titiwangsa, Taman Sains Rimba and
The house price is used in order to measure Universiti Malaya Forest (UMF).
the implicit value of UGS based on UGS There are six strategic zones in KL.
attributes (that is, the distance between the However, the residential areas of this study
residential area and the UGS and the size focused on Sentul-Menjalara zone for
of the UGS). several reasons, one of which is that it has
Based on Valuation and Property the largest population (445,000 persons),
Service Department, the total number of land size (4657 hectares) and highest
residential units in Kuala Lumpur in 2013 residential units (137,097 units of houses).
was 424,324. Although it would be useful However, due to data availability, there
to utilise all the 424, 324 units of house, the are only ten residential areas involved in
data collection cost would be prohibitive and this study, while the list of UGSs in this
take very long. Hence, a random sampling study focused on public green space with
scheme was employed. The sample size four subcategories known as district parks,
was calculated based on a 95% confidence city parks, local parks and neighborhood
level within a ± 5% range of accuracy of the parks. These parks are classified as well
total housing units. Based on Krejcie and known parks, have good physical structure
Morgan’s (1970) specification, the minimum of facilities, level of naturalness, safety and
number of sample size was 384. However, are easily accessible by the public.
due to data availability, the final sample size The data for independent variables were
in this study was 372 units of houses. divided into three parts, namely, housing
Cross sectional data for 372 sample structures, neighborhood attributes, and UGS
housing units in 2013 was used in this attributes. The data about housing structures
study. This includes data from 10 residential and UGS attributes were gathered from the
areas and 14 urban green spaces (two Valuation and Property Service Department
forest reserves and 12 recreational parks). while the neighborhood attributes and UGS
The residential areas included Mont Kiara attributes data were gathered from GIS
Software. GIS software was used in this The shortest distance to town (km) is
study because the availability of GIS data categorised as neighborhood attribute. The
on environmental attributes has increased distance between the residential area and the
the detail and flexibility with which these UGS (km), as well as the size of the UGS
attributes can be associated with house per house (m2) is categorised as the UGS
locations. The data about the number of attributes. The coordinates of the center of
rooms, size of the ancillary (m2), size of the each UGS and 372 housing unit are captured
building lot (m2), size of the lot (m2), age of to measure the distance between UGS and
house (year) and shortest distance to town residential areas. The size of UGS per house
(km) are categorised as housing structures. is measured as follows:
[1]
The house price represents dependent Based on equation [2], the appropriate
variable. Any type of apartment, semi- equation can be formulated as:
detached house, and terraced house is
considered as house in this study. [3]
An economic valuation of the UGS is
estimated using the HPM. The traditional However, the logarithmic specification is
HPM model takes on the following form: formulated in this study since there are no
reasons to expect the relationship between
[2] the price and the environmental variable or
attribute to be linear (Kong et al., 2007).
where P is the house price, x i,x 2,x n are In addition, it is able to normalise the data
the housing structures and E i is the and reduce the numbers; this makes the
environmental attribute variables. In this interpretation easier. Thus, equation [3] can
study, environmental attributes are reflected be expressed as:
as UGS attributes.
[4]
In this study, the HPM is formulated in two models are the spatial disaggregation of
types of models: the global model and the global models, the results of which are
local model. Global models are statements location-specific. The purpose of using two
about processes which are assumed to be types of HPM model is to examine whether
stationary and location independent. Local the local model offers an improvement over
the global model. In this study, six models the UGS and the housing price. Model 3
are formulated based on the global model represents the relationship between the
and local model. housing structure together with the size
Three global models based on the of the UGS and the housing price. All
HPM are formulated in this study. Model these three models can be written based on
1 represents the relationship between the equation [4]. The global model is regressed
housing structure and the housing price. by using OLS regression.
Model 2 represents the relationship between The implicit economic value (EC) of the
the housing structure together with the UGS is measured by using the house price.
distance between the residential area and The EC of UGS are evaluated based on the
following calculation:
[5]
The GWR technique is a statistical [6]

methodology useful in exploring and
describing spatial data, especially when where
spatial non-stationary relationships prevail
Yi = dependent variables at location i
(Brunsdon, Fotheringham, & Charlton,
1998; Jaimes, Sendra, Delgado, & Plata, xk,i = kth independent variables at location i
2010; Yu, 2007). This regression is εi = Gaussian error at location i
conducted using localised points within the (ui, vi) = x-y coordinate of the ith location
geographic space. Thus, it is assumed that
βk(ui, vi) = coefficient of kth independent
the relationship may present variations that
variables at location i
are dependent on the location, which is well-
defined by a pair of prototype coordinates
T h e c o e ff i c i e n t s β k ( u i , v i ) v a r y i e d
(u,v) (Fotheringham et al., 2003).
conditionally at the location.The first
Fundaentally, the GWR specification
variable is usually constant by setting
is similar, except that the coefficients are
x 0i=1, after which β 0(u i, v i) becomes a
estimated at each observation point (Bitter,
geographically varying ‘intercept’ term.
Mulligan, & Dall’erba, 2006):
As adopted and modified by Jaimes et
al. (2010), the GWR involved in this study
can be formulated as:
[7]
Based on equation [7], Model 4,5 relationship between the housing structure
and 6 were developed. Model 4 represent together with the size of the UGS and the
the relationship between house structure housing price. All these three local models
and house price. Model 5 represents the are regressed by using GWR.
relationship between the housing structure The expected sign and detailed
together with the distance between the explanation for each variable involved in
residential area and the UGS and the all the models are illustrated in Table 1.
housing price. Model 6 represents the
Table 1
Expected sign and explanations for each variable
Variables Definition of the variables Expected sign

Size of ancillary self-contained living accommodation on the same lot as +/-
a single house that may be attached or detached from the
single house occupied by members of the same family as
the occupants of the main dwelling (Residential Design
Codes, April 2008)
Size of building lot Size of house itself +
Size of lot Size of total land for each house area +
Number of rooms Number of rooms per house +
Age of house Age of house counting from completed build until year -
2013
Shortest distance to town The shortest distance between the residential area and -
central town
Distance between UGS The distance between central of UGS and each of house -
and residential areas location at all residential areas in KL city
Size of UGS per house Size of UGS for each 372 houses +
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2 presents the summary of the variables’

The adjusted R2 and t-statistics values for statistics.
all the global models were examined. Table
Table 2
Model variables and basic statistics
Variables Mean Standard Minimum Maximum

deviation
Dependent Variable
Housing Price (RM) 682864 784512.9 32000 7700000
Housing Structure Variables
Size of ancillary (Sa) 26.53 27.74 0 252
Size of building lot (Sbl) 139.80 69.32 9 595
Table 2 (continue)
Variables Mean Standard Minimum Maximum

deviation
Size of lot (Sl) 178.70 112.64 80 894
Age of house (A) 26.13 13.02 3 62
Number of room (Nr) 3.42 0.69 1 8
Shortest distance to town (Sdt) 14.38 3.33 8 18.32
Environmental Attribute Variables
Distance between UGSs and residential areas (km)
1. Bukit Lagong (Dbl) 10.72 2.67 7.2 16.2
2. Bukit Nanas (Dbn) 12.97 2.04 5.9 16.04
3. FRIM (Dfrim) 9.55 2.63 5 15
4. Desa Park City (Ddpc) 4.90 2.85 0.2 11.23
5. Taman Tasik Perdana (Dttp) 12.89 2.28 6.6 15.84
6. Taman Tasik Titiwangsa (Dttt) 12.67 2.20 4.9 16.04
7. KLCC (Dklcc) 15.20 2.05 7.5 19.2
8. Dataran Merdeka (Ddm) 12.28 2.03 5 15.44
9. Batu Caves (Dbc) 11.28 1.64 5.9 13.34
10. Taman Tasik Permaisuri(Dtp) 21.23 2.18 14.9 24.43
11. Pudu Ulu (Dpu) 19.99 2.43 12.7 24.3
12. Rimba Bukit Kiara (Drbk) 10.11 2.16 7.5 14.9
13. Taman Sains Rimba (Dtsr) 5.88 2.76 1.5 12.2
14. UM Forest (Dumf) 14.96 2.68 9.4 19.23
Size of UGS per house (m2)
1. Bukit Lagong (Sbl) 116963 159145 9868.5 755550.2
2. Bukit Nanas (Sbn) 375.06 504.98 98 2403.15
3. FRIM (Sfrim) 18535.8 24956.43 4843.28 118766.1
4. Desa Park City (Sdpc) 1594.43 2146.72 416.61 10216.1
5. Taman Tasik Perdana (Sttp) 1910.51 2572.30 499.2 12241.39
6. Taman Tasik Titiwangsa (Sttt) 97.32 131.35 25.07 614.76
7. KLCC (sklcc) 617.86 831.88 161.44 3958.87
8. Dataran Merdeka (Sdm) 1265.30 1703.58 330.61 8107.24
9. Batu Caves (Sbc) 60927.81 90717.9 13598.1 1026784
10. Taman Tasik Permaisuri (Stp) 1805567 12309979 4851.18 1.03E+08
11. Pudu Ulu (Spu) 15064.76 22430.54 3362.21 253878.5
12. Rimba Bukit Kiara (Srbk) 107546 160129.6 24002.52 1812416
13. Taman Sains Rimba (Stsr) 6752.69 10054.35 1507.09 113799.5
14. UM Forest (Sumf) 11313.2 16844.7 2524.92 190655.6
Note: These statistics are for 372 observations of housing units in the city of KL
The results of the three global models restaurants, which could increase the house
are illustrated in Table 3. Based on model 1, price. In addition, Saphores and Li (2012)
half of the house structures were found to be found that the opposite effect is reflected in
statistically significant with expected sign. the landscaping taste.
These are size of lot, size of building lot and Residential areas close to Batu Caves,
age of house. The results also show that the Rimba Bukit Kiara, UM Forest, KLCC,
housing price grows by 0.5%, 0.06%, and Desa Park City, FRIM and Bukit Lagong
2.2% for every unit increase in size of lot, would increase the value of the housing
size of building lot, and decrease in the age price. However, these coefficients were
of house respectively. statistically insignificant. The distance
Based on model 2, the house structures between the residential area and Permaisuri,
were only statistically significant for the size Dataran Merdeka, Tasik Perdana and Bukit
of ancillary, size of lot and size of building Nanas were also statistically insignificant.
lot with the expected sign. For environmental For model 3, all housing structures
attributes, only two UGS were statistically were statistically significant with expected
significant with negative sign. They were sign. For environmental attributes, only four
Pudu Ulu and Titiwangsa. From model 2, the UGSs were statistically significant with
results show that a reduction of 50 meters of positive sign. They were FRIM, Permaisuri,
distance from residential area to the nearest Pudu Ulu, and UM Forest. From model
UGS (Titiwangsa) increases the price of 3, the results show that an increase in the
house by RM6600. The reduction of 130 size of the FRIM by 60,000 m2 led to RM
meters of distance from residential area to 323,000 increase in the house price. An
the nearest UGS (Pudu Ulu) increases the increase in the size of the Pudu Ulu by
price of house by RM1000. The distance 3500 m2 led to RM 69,000 increase in the
between the residential area and Taman Sains house price. An increase in the size of the
Rimba was also statistically significant, but UM Forest by 2600 m2 led to RM 100,000
with a positive sign. Donovon and Butry increase in the house price. An increase
(2011) state this may occur for two possible in the size of the Permaisuri by 5100 m2
reasons. First, although parks are generally led to RM340 increase in the house price.
viewed as a positive amenity, Troy and This expected result was supported by
Grove (2008) found that neighborhood Ishikawa and Fukushige (2012). The size
proximity to a park reduced the sales price of UGS (Bukit Lagong, KLCC, and Dataran
of a house in high-crime locations. Second, Merdeka) was also statistically significant
the distance to a park may correlate with an but with negative sign. The size of UGS
omitted, positive neighborhood amenity. (Desa Park City and Tasik Perdana) would
For example, houses that are further away increase the house price but these variables
from parks may tend to be closer to shops or were statistically insignificant. The size of
UGS (Taman Sains Rimba, Rimba Bukit results of the GWR model are presented in
Kiara, Batu Caves, Titiwangsa, and Bukit Tables 4 and 5, respectively.
Nanas) was also statistically insignificant. The AIC and adjusted R 2 values in
The rationale of regressing three models Table 4 clearly illustrate that each local
for OLS Regression is to do a robustness model exhibited a significant improvement
test. Based on the estimated coefficients for over the global model. The AIC for all
model 2 and model 3, the house structure local models was smaller than the global
attributes are robust. It can be seen through models. This finding suggests that the local
the coefficient of house structure attribute model performed better than the global
for model 2 and 3 is not much different model, even after the complexity of the
with house structure attribute for model 1. GWR is taken into account. These findings
Then, this study intends to compare which are consistent with the empirical work by
variable offers the highest house price. In Yu (2007). In addition, the increase in the
other words, the environmental attributes adjusted R2 clearly confirms that the local
that have high economic value are probed. model explains the variance considerably
Based on these three models, it proved better than the global model. The level
that the house prices are more influenced of the variance explanation increased
by the size of UGS (model 3) that is, the considerably, obtaining an adjusted value
size of FRIM compared to the distance of 76%, 74%, and 73% which were 13%,
between UGS and residential area (model 3%, and 3% more than the global model
2). It is determined based on the largest respectively.
value of increasing house price. Model 3 Table 5 exhibits the results of the local
also attained the highest significance level. model. The local parameter estimates vary
Overall, the performance of all the global at each of the 372 observation points. They
models were satisfactory, as reflected by are described by their median, minimum
adjusted R2 and AIC in the analysis. (min) and maximum (max) values, as well
The results of the global models exposed as their interquartile range. For model 4, the
a significant relationship between the house geographical variability was only significant
prices and some of the housing attributes, for certain house structures. There were size
together with the UGS attributes. However, of ancillary, size of building, size of lot, and
the relationship was constructed upon the age of house. For model 5, the geographical
theory of a stationary housing price, which variability was significant for the distance
is likely untenable. Hence, a GWR model between UGS and residential areas except
was conducted to examine and explore such the distance between UGS (Bukit Nanas,
non-stationarity. The ANOVA Test of local Pudu Ulu, and FRIM) and the residential
model against the global model and the areas there.
Table 3
Global OLS regression result
Statistic Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Intercept Estimate Std t-value Estimate Std t-value Estimate Std t-value
error error error
Sa 12.91 0.0010 -0.2849 -0.0021 0.0012 -1.7716* -0.0024 0.0012 -2.0417**
Sbl 0.15 0.0006 8.0922*** 0.0033 0.0006 5.5847*** 0.0039 0.0006 6.8930***
Sl 84.27*** 0.0003 2.0384** 0.0016 0.0003 5.5310*** 0.0010 0.0006 1.8122**
A 20.43 0.0022 -10.1321*** -0.0026 0.0035 -0.7364 -0.0177 0.0028 -6.2241***
Nr 4.85 0.0391 0.2135 -0.0307 0.0392 -0.7816 -0.0512 0.0405 -1.2627
Sdt 4.21*** 0.0068 0.5446 -0.0017 0.0112 -0.1501 -0.0117 0.0087 -1.3527*
Dbl -133.57 -0.5092 0.7287 -0.6987
Dbn 44.79 0.0066 0.3462 0.0191
Dfrim -2.98*** -0.1851 0.7073 -0.2617
Ddpc -0.0003 -0.0672 0.1166 -0.576
Dttp 0.0046 0.5985 0.7724 0.7748
Dttt 0.0006 -1.5372 0.6809 -2.2575**
Dklcc -0.0219 -0.0687 0.4874 -0.1410
Ddm 0.0083 1.1591 1.1591 1.0389
Dbc 0.0037 -0.2687 0.4021 -0.6680
Dtp 0.4861 0.5988 0.8117
Dpu -0.2252 0.1032 -2.1834**
Drbk -0.5770 0.5127 -1.1254
Dtsr 0.8162 0.3406 2.3960***
Dumf -0.2327 0.4599 -0.5060
Sbl -0.2935 0.1509 -1.9457**
Sbn -4.2522 8.1268 -0.5232
Sfrim 47.2509 8.002 5.9049***
Sdpc 19.0545 15.9890 1.1917
Sttp 20.3375 15.9335 1.2764
Sttt -0.0358 0.1508 -0.2371
Sklcc -29.6269 11.6713 -2.5384***
Sdm -52.1317 10.169 -5.1265***
Sbc -13.2153 14.5025 -0.9112
Stp 0.0535 0.021 2.5434**
Spu 10.1484 7.0325 1.4431*
Srbk -2.1820 6.1972 -0.3521
Stsr -9.518 14.4195 -0.6600
Sum f 14.6387 6.0631 2.4144***
Adjusted 0.6279 0.7078 0.6870
R2
AIC 389.1325 312.5860 338.1722
Note: ***, ** and * denote significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% significance levels, respectively The value
in parentheses ( ) contain the t-values. A critical value for t-test is assigned on 372 degrees of freedom =
1.282 (10%), = 1.645 (5%), and = 2.326(1%).
Table 4
ANOVA test of GWR against global model
Source SS DF MS F
Model 1
Global Residuals 59.386 365.000
GWR Improvement 25.389 46.099 0.551
GWR Residuals 33.997 318.901 0.107 5.166
GWR Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) = 266.221649 (OLS = 389.132530); GWR adjusted R2 =
0.756110 (OLS =0.627926)
Model 2
GWR Residuals 38.582 337.992 0.114 4.212
GWR Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) = 275.355 (OLS = 312.586); GWR adjusted R2 =0.739
(OLS =0.708)
Model 3
GWR Residuals 40.559 336.757 0.120 4.354
GWR Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) = 294.103 (OLS = 338.172); GWR adjusted R2 =0.725
(0.687)
SS = Sum of Squares; DF = Degree of Freedoms; MS = Residual Mean Square
Table 5
Test for non-stationarity and GWR result
Independent Min Lower Median Up Max DIFF of F-value

variable quantile Quantile criterion
Model 1
Intercept 11.6375 11.7518 12.1799 12.4386 13.7666 -679.031 -27623.6673
Sa -0.0148 -0.0017 -0.0013 0.0022 0.0102 -31.0068 6.8236***
Sbl 0.0015 0.0025 0.0027 0.0063 0.0110 -13.7546 4.428***
Sl -0.0057 0.0010 0.0019 0.002 0.0021 -20.992 5.5809***
A -0.0490 -0.0289 -0.0098 -0.006 0.0761 -7.1581 3.4766
Nr -0.2723 -0.0071 0.0509 0.1446 0.1989 4.4442 1.6952
Sdt -0.0001 0.0091 0.0246 0.027 0.0518 3.8525 1.5593
Model 2
Intercept 10.9657 13.9874 21.0262 24.1640 54.110 -99.1152 111.739***
Sa -0.0097 -0.005 -0.0033 0.001 0.0022 -25.1992 17.7596***
Sbl 0.0025 0.0027 0.0033 0.004 0.0022 -2.3433 4.1063**
Sl 0.0007 0.0014 0.0017 0.0021 0.0021 -3.578 5.6717***
A -0.0060 -0.0049 -0.0013 0.0008 0.0154 -1.6627 3.9901**
Nr -0.0682 -0.0140 0.0145 0.0430 0.0566 -0.2878 2.4793*
Table 5 (continue)
Independent Min Lower Median Up Max DIFF of F-value

variable quantile Quantile criterion
Sdt -0.0078 -0.0013 0.0008 0.0013 0.0041 0.5564 1.1656
Dbl -4.129 -2.1120 -1.1463 -1.0218 -0.200 -9.1192 31.7538***
Dfrim 0.0657 0.7299 0.8717 2.0481 3.5974 -604.110 -582.6205
Ddp -1.0225 -0.8646 -0.2671 -0.0095 0.0721 -5.3178 10.4874***
Dbn -0.0988 0.0065 0.0184 0.0501 0.1646 -150.151 -6761.983
Dttp -2.7482 -1.3898 0.6734 1.1508 1.8029 -14.4125 290.8893***
Dttt -5.3459 -1.4665 -1.1492 5.1116 9.428 -1.0083 5.3178**
Dklcc -0.594 -0.2099 0.2009 0.2279 0.574 -11.7649 83.0954***
Ddm -8.1182 -4.0478 0.2813 0.569199 8.1693 -2.4090 8.6606***
Dbc -7.4072 -4.0478 0.2813 0.5692 0.0331 -3.6660 18.0748***
Dtp -0.3436 -0.0691 -0.0393 0.0372 0.5957 -721.872 2706.575***
Dpu -0.5785 -0.303 -0.0802 -0.0596 0.1944 -16.1198 -126.2818
Drbk -2.4675 -1.6797 -0.9878 -0.8692 -0.394 -25.768 82.878***
Dtsr -1.6824 -0.6603 0.5408 0.6143 6.8997 -1.7978 9.3244***
Dumf -0.2439 0.1797 0.27 1.8712 2.4611 -26.7893 41.7936***
Model 3
Intercept -207.501 -190.8124 -152.572 -115.4952 -87.524 -413.925 773.8182***
Sa 0.0031 -0.0040 -0.0029 0.001 0.0042 -15.9717 17.083***
Sbl 0.0031 0.0033 0.0036 0.0039 0.0042 -5.7907 9.8140***
Sl -0.0002 0.0001 0.0014 0.0020 0.0027 -15.3969 20.3295***
A -0.0277 -0.019 -0.0144 -0.0099 -0.006 -10.9431 17.5488***
Nr -0.0678 -0.0252 -0.0144 0.0058 0.0150 -12.522 19.4233 ***
Sdt -0.0178 -0.0006 0.0021 0.0043 0.0084 -7.912 14.122***
Sbl -0.5556 -0.4119 -0.2817 -0.0540 0.0047 -175.719 654.1582***
Sbn -17.5303 -13.1024 -7.8798 -3.987 7.2103 -323.021 -905.1021
Sfrim 28.8429 36.7713 47.468 61.6104 65.766 -48.0939 108.2666***
Sdpc -2.6411 8.1367 11.368 14.0194 18.381 -178.109 544.8212***
Sttp 12.3921 18.3222 28.0636 33.8624 42.648 -238.689 735.1984***
Sttt -0.0443 -0.0416 0.0380 0.0981 0.1906 -160.979 8292.6535
Sklcc -45.6123 -40.1537 -34.051 -27.9376 -18.04 -252.99 1642.355***
Sdm -50.4571 -45.3933 -43.204 -40.5432 -38.40 -20.1147 48.0169***
Sbc -29.4896 -22.2096 -15.530 -9.9963 -6.659 -531.785 1039.391***
Stp 0.033 0.03726 0.0457 0.0477 0.0618 -19.1422 315.6145***
Spu 0.079 5.2236 7.6526 9.2014 13.732 -575.722 842.7798***
Srbk -7.8332 -4.7726 3.7241 9.6962 15.109 -630.795 4730.081***
Stsr -13.2033 -10.1062 -8.5584 -5.7247 2.2695 -1710.41 576642.0631***
Sumf 5.3269 12.1906 12.5049 15.2889 20.264 -1352.88 50541.27***
Note: Positive value of diff-Criterion (AICc, AIC, BIC/MDL or CV) suggests no spatial variability in terms
of model selection criteria
F test: in case of no spatial variability, the F statistics follows the F distribution of DOF for F test.
For model 6, geographical variability certain locations. For model 5, the min and
was significant for most sizes of UGS except max values for the UGS attributes (distance
Bukit Nanas and Titiwangsa. The result between UGS and residential areas) were
justifies that the significant non-stationarity also found to be counterintuitive at most
relationships between the house price and of the distances between them (UGS and
house attributes, together with the UGS residential areas). They were the distance
attributes, exists in certain locations in KL between residential areas and UGS (FRIM,
city. This indicates strong evidence that Desa Park City, Bukit Nanas, Tasik Perdana,
house prices are not constant and can vary Titiwangsa, KLCC, Dataran Merdeka, Batu
over space and locations within KL city. Caves, Permaisuri, Taman Sains Rimba,
For model 4, the interquartile ranges and UM Forest). The positive values for
of the local GWR estimates were the the distance between them depicts that
possible magnitudes. However, the min the raising of the distance between UGS
and max values were counterintuitive in mentioned above and residential areas will
some of the cases. They were the size of increase the house price at certain locations.
ancillary, number of rooms and shortest For model 6, the min and max values for
distance to town. It is estimated that the environmental attributes (size of UGS)
size of ancillary, number of rooms, and were also counterintuitive. It consists of
shortest distance to town ranged from the size of Bukit Lagong, Bukit Nanas, Desa
-0.015 to 0.01, -0.272 to 0.2, and -0.001 Park City, Taman Tasik Titiwangsa, KLCC,
to 0.05 respectively. The negative values Dataran Merdeka, Batu Caves, Rimba
for size of ancillary and number of room Bukit Kiara, and Taman Sains Rimba. The
reflects that reduction in the size of ancillary negative values for environmental attributes
and number of rooms increase the house show that reduction in the size of UGS
price at certain locations. Meanwhile, the will increase the price of house at certain
positive values for the shortest distance to locations.
town depicts that increase in the distance One advantage of the GWR is that spatial
to town will increase the house price at distribution is inherent in the parameter
estimates and can easily be visualised. relationship between the UGS attributes and
Figure 1, Figure 2 andd Figure 3 illustrate the house price.
the parameter estimate surfaces of each For model 4 as illustrated in Figure 1,
individual attribute’s coefficient that were the size of ancillary and size of building lot
significant at different significance levels were statistically significant with expected
(1%, 5%, and 10%). These results were sign at each of the residential areas. For
determined by the F-value. The local R2 the size of lot and age of house, statistical
surfaces for each local model are presented significance with expected sign was also
in Figure 4. found at each residential area in KL city
The map in Figure 1, Figure 2 and except in the south west. For model 5 as
Figure 3 reveal that the relationship between illustrated in Figure 2, the distance between
the house structures and the house prices is the residential area and Bukit Lagong, Desa
not necessarily significant with the expected Park City, Batu Caves and Rimba Bukit
sign at each of the residential areas (house Kiara were negatively significance in each
locations) in KL city. The same goes for the of residential area in KL city.
Figure 1. Spatial distribution of the parameter estimates of each variable that is statistically significant on
geographical variability for Model 4
Figure 4. Spatial distribution of R2 values for each local Model
It shows that the house price at each of negatively significant at residential areas
residential areas in KL city was influenced located in the south east of KL city. For
by the distance of UGS (Bukit Lagong, Desa model 6 as illustrated in Figure 3, the size
Park City, Batu Caves and Rimba Bukit of UGS (FRIM, Tasik Perdana, Permaisuri,
Kiara). This result illustrated that these UGS Pudu Ulu, and UM Forest) were positively
have high economic value for all residential significant at all of the residential areas in
areas in KL city. Tasik Perdana and Dataran KL City. Size of Bukit Lagong and Taman
Merdeka were negatively significant in the Sains Rimba were positively significant at
west, north west, and south west. Taman residential areas located in the north east
Tasik Titiwangsa was negatively significant of KL city. Size of Desa Park City was
in most of the residential areas in KL city positively significant at all the residential
except in the west of KL city. Permaisuri areas in KL city except in the south east.
was also negatively significant in most of Size of Rimba Bukit Kiara was positively
the residential areas in KL city except in the significant at residential areas located in the
east and south. KLCC was only negatively north, east, and south of KL city. Meanwhile,
significant at the residential areas located the size of KLCC, Dataran Merdeka, and
in the east and west of KL city. Taman Batu Caves was negatively significant at all
Sains Rimba and UM forest were only the residential areas in KL city.
For model 4, the local R2 values shown house price due to environmental attributes.
in Figure 4 present a variation of 0.3 to 0.98, However, there is a little difference with the
which means that the fit explained 30% to results obtained of the local model. Overall,
98% of the data variance. For model 5, the the result of the local model illustrated
local R2 values showed a variation of 0.59 that most UGS attributes are statistically
to 0.83, indicating the fit explained 59% to significant and have positive impact on
83% of the data variance. For model 6, the house prices.
local R2 values presented a variation of 0.69 On average, global model proved that
to 0.8, that is, the fit explained 69% to 80% Taman Tasik Titiwangsa offers the highest
of the data variance. The highest R2 values economic value due to the distance between
for all local models were obtained in the UGS and residential area. However, local
north west of KL city, which suggests that model shows that the economic value of
the conclusion between the variables was Taman Tasik Titiwangsa is only valuable
better with GWR in this region. for certain residential areas in KL city,
that is Mont Kiara The Residence, Kepong
CONCLUSION Baru, Jinjang Utara, Kepong Garden and
This study economically valued UGS in Desa Park City. This situation is due to the
relation to housing price. In general, it existing spatial non-stationarity. For the size
shows the economic benefits associated with of UGS variables, local model shows that
environmental amenities such as proximity the economic value of FRIM is significant
to recreational parks and size of parks. The and has positive impact for the whole
house price is valued based on two types residential area in KL city.
of models. For global model, model 2 was By using GWR, this study offers
found to be the best, as it indicated the information about where real estate
highest adjusted R2 value and the lowest developers would gain benefits by targeting
AIC value. For local model, model 4 offerrd the best locations to build houses or
the best model. However, by comparing residential areas. Besides that, the results
the global and local model, it was found recommend that policy makers should
that local model is better than global model protect UGS in the urban environment
as indicated by the adjusted R2 and AIC and design zoning and land-use regulation
values. Hence, it is proven that geographic policies accordingly.
coordinates play an important role in valuing However, this study has its limitation in
the economic benefits of UGS. regard to the variables and quantity of data.
The global model proved that Taman This study only included one neighborhood
Tasik Titiwangsa and FRIM are the UGS variable, that is the distance to town. It
that offer the highest economic value for would be useful if other neighborhood
model 2 and model 3 respectively. This variables such as information about school,
finding is based on the highest increase in hospital, crime rate, airport and place of
worship could be included. In addition, Brunsdon, C., Fotheringham, S., & Charlton, M.
instead of regressing individually the (1998). Geographically weighted regression.
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series
environmental variables, the house structure
D (The Statistician), 47(3), 431-443.
variables, neighborhood variables and all
of the environmental variables also need Chin, T. L., & Chau, K. W. (2003). A critical
review of literature on the hedonic price model.
to be regressed in one model. As for the
International Journal for Housing and Its
quantity of data, hedonic pricing analysis
Applications, 27(2), 145-165.
will be more accurate with a large number
Cho, S., Poudyal, N. C., & Roberts, R. K. (2008).
of sample size (more than 1000 samples). By
Spatial analysis of the amenity value of green
considering all of these limitations, a future
open space. Ecological Economics, 66(2-3),
study will be valued. 403-416.
Cho, S. H., Bowker, J. M., & Park, W. M. (2006).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Measuring the contribution of water and green
The authors are thankful for the research space amenities to housing values: An application
grants, Fundamental Research Grant Scheme and comparison of spatially weighted hedonic
(FRGS) under the Ministry of Education, models. Journal of Agricultural and Resource
Economics, 31(3), 485-507.
Malaysia (Project Code: FRGS/1/2014/
SS07/UPM/02/3). Grateful thanks is also Geoghegan, J. (2002). The value of open spaces in
owing to the anonymous reviewers for residential land use. Land Use Policy, 19(1),
91-98.
their valuable comments that helped to
considerably improve the manuscript. Ishikawa, N., & Fukushige, M. (2012). Effects of
street landscape planting and urban public parks
on dwelling environment evaluation in Japan.
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655.

Preliminary Assessment and Prioritisation of Demand

Management Strategies for Reducing Train Overcrowding
Department of Psychology, International Islamic University Malaysia, 50728 IIUM, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Train overcrowding has been associated with psychological stress, adverse health effects,
negative behavioural reactions, and spillover effects. However, there is little agreement
on the appropriate demand management strategies to deal with the increasing passenger
numbers, especially on rail services in Malaysia. To begin addressing this issue, a
preliminary study involving 13 participants (Male = 8; Female = 5) from an organisation
under the Ministry of Transport, Malaysia focusing on demand management issues and
transportation research and development activities was conducted. Participants ranked three
sets of demand management strategies (pricing, service quality, and policy) based on their
feasibility, effectiveness and cost. Using Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (Kendall’s
W), findings showed a relatively weak, but consistent agreement rate among participants
across all strategies on their feasibility, effectiveness and cost. In particular, high priority
was placed on four strategies namely, free early bird incentives, discounted early bird or
off-peak fares, increasing train frequency, and travel demand management programme,
implying their potential applications for peak smoothing in Malaysian urban rail systems.
The implications for practice and limitations of this study are discussed. It is suggested
that the identified strategies should be targeted for intervention and evaluation to further
refine our understanding of sustainable, effective, and cost-efficient ways in addressing
current and future train overcrowding issues.
Keywords: Rail, crowding, demand management, peak period, Malaysia
ARTICLE INFO
INTRODUCTION
Article history:
As the demand for rail travel continues
Accepted: 29 September 2017 to grow, along with traffic congestion,
E-mail address: supply constraints, urban sprawl, as well
[email protected] (Nor Diana Mohd Mahudin)

as employment and population growth Despite the widely admitted seriousness

(Gil Sander, Blancas Mendivil, & Westra, of this issue, there is no definitive agreement
2015), overcrowding of rail services is fast on the appropriate demand management
becoming a pressing concern worldwide, strategies to deal with the increasing
including in Malaysia. Current statistics passenger numbers. Demand management
indicate that the total passenger numbers refers to the collection of operational,
for light rail transit services (that is, LRT administrative, and economic policies
Kelana Jaya Line, LRT Ampang Line, KL designed to ensure that demand for the
Monorail, KLIA Ekpress, and KLIA Transit) utilisation of rail transportation resources is
have increased from 129.9 million in 2006 kept at a manageable level, especially during
to 180 million in 2015 while an increase of peak commuting periods (Online TDM
about 40.5% was observed over the same Encyclopedia, 2016). A number of viable
period for the KTM Komuter service, that strategies have been proposed to address
is, from 34,975 in 2006 to 49,960 in 2015 this issue. These include trip suppression,
(Ministry of Transport Malaysia, 2015; see trip redistribution, shifting demand, mode
Appendix 1 for the comparison). Reports switch, and peak fare pricing (Online TDM
have also shown that the main rail lines in Encyclopedia, 2016).
Malaysia are functioning at over 140% and While studies exploring the potential
180% of design capacity (Palansamy, 2016; of establishing demand management as a
Performance Management and Delivery legitimate resource option for crowding
Unit (PEMANDU), 2010). The notion that mitigation have been conducted elsewhere
passengers are being crammed into trains (for example, in Australia by Henn,
like cattle or cramped like sardines in a Karpouzis, & Sloan, 2010; in the USA by
small tin on the trains is also not uncommon Nelson Nygaard Consulting Associates,
elsewhere (Cox, Houdmont, & Griffiths, 2008; and in the UK by Maunsell, 2007),
2006). These scenarios present a daunting less attention has been paid to the more
issue for train companies because operating immediate concerns in the Malaysian
overcrowded trains has been associated rail industry. This is an important deficit,
with delays in services (Lam, Cheung, & especially since researchers have observed
Lam, 1999), injuries to staff and passengers a connection between demand management
(Turner, Corbett, O’Hara, & White, 2004), strategies and service quality improvements.
as well as a number of negative outcomes For instance, in the case of Australia and the
such as psychological stress and spillover United States, Hale and Charles (2009) show
effects (Mohd Mahudin, 2012), wider how pricing and communication strategies
health and safety issues (Cox, Houdmont, & can be effectively used to address peak
Griffiths, 2006), and a vehicle for the spread demand and reduce train overcrowding.
of illness and disease (Gershon, Qureshi, As yet, however, little is known about the
Barrera, Erwin, & Goldsmith, 2005). existence and feasibility of such strategies
Preliminary Assessment, Prioritisation, Train Overcrowding
in Malaysia, other than the observation that balancing the mismatch between demand and
train overcrowding is indeed stressful for capacity (Henn, Karpouzis, & Sloan, 2010).
the commuters and has the potential to spill Capacity enhancement strategies, such as
over into other aspects of their life and work adding more train coaches, building new rail
(Mohd Mahudin, 2012). infrastructures, constructing new rail lines,
One reason for the current state of the or redesigning existing infrastructures, are
field is that existing research is generally usually investment intensive and require long
restricted to individual country case studies time frames. Furthermore, these strategies
with a limited comparison of different cases may not be feasible in several situations
or over time. Besides, some of the identifiable due to geographical, environmental, socio-
strategies suggested in previous work economical, or political issues associated
are mainly in the early stages and only at with such large projects. On the other hand,
discussion level among the rail stakeholders demand management strategies that aimed
in the localised areas. As a result, there at distributing the peak period demand to
is little information about the feasibility, before and after the critical period have the
effectiveness, or cost-effectiveness of potential to improve the demand-capacity
these demand management strategies in balance over a medium to a short period
the Malaysian setting. The questions of with relatively less investment. As a result
what measures would be most effective in of renegotiating the demand distribution,
mitigating train overcrowding and whether a general flattening of the travel demand
they are feasible in administrative terms are profile across a broader period is obtained
of theoretical and substantive importance. (Holyoak & Chang, 2006).
To address these questions, the current study Other types of demand management
focuses on one broad area of contention: strategies have also been discussed in the
a preliminary exploration of stakeholders’ literature. For example, Henn, Karpouzis,
perspectives on the feasibility, effectiveness, and Sloan (2010) identified five broad
and cost of demand management strategies categories of strategies in their review
for reducing train overcrowding in Malaysia. that examined how peak demand is
However, before proceeding with the study, addressed in Australian urban rail systems.
it is sensible to discuss the existing rail Of these categories, the financial and
demand management strategies that have pricing strategies, which vary from peak
been reported in the literature. Hence, this fare pricing, station-specific surcharges,
discussion is presented in the next section. and fare pass programmes to market rate
parking pricing and peak parking pricing,
Existing Rail Demand Management are regarded as easy to implement, but
Strategies politically unpopular, hence mixed success
was reported. On the other hand, service
Increasing the capacity and decreasing the
delivery strategies, such as improving
demand are the two common strategies for
service frequency as well as enhancing campaigns and employer incentives and

wayfinding and passenger flow mechanisms, disincentives would be able to address
have the potential for peak smoothing the range of factors contributing to train
and expansion of rail capacity but need overcrowding. Second, the strategies need
careful consideration for implementation to be customised according to context. This
as they involve considerable cost (Henn, is because it is possible that strategies that
Karpouzis, & Sloan, 2010). Another two work effectively in one situation may fail
categories of strategies, which are reducing in another. One such example is by Cervero
the underlying need for the service (for (1990) who reported that geographically
example, land use and transit oriented targeted free fare programmes have been
development policies) and changing the more successful than system wide free fare
way needs are met (such as promotion of programmes. Other studies that investigated
integrated transport policy framework) rail demand management such as Nelson
are deemed as essential strategies with Nygaard Consulting Associates (2008) in
longer term spatial impact. However, the US and Maunsell (2007) in the UK also
rail operators have limited control over reported similar strategies. Therefore, based
these policies as it is challenging to foster on the past studies, it is evident that various
coordination and cooperation with non- demand management strategies are available
transport organisations and other competing and practised at a range of scales.
transport mechanisms (Henn, Karpouzis, & Nevertheless, within the Malaysia’s
Sloan, 2010). Finally, education, particularly context, policies and strategies relating to
dissemination of information about peak rail demand management and passenger
fares and crowding levels, has strong load remain a grey area. For example,
potential to shift passenger behaviours by neither the Railways Act 1991 nor the
making them aware of crowding conditions Land Public Transport Act 2010 contained
or alternative transport or route options specific policies associated with the
(Henn, Karpouzis, & Sloan, 2010). maximum allowable passenger load or
Although these strategies are useful guidelines on how to manage congestion
individually, Henn, Karpouzis, and Sloan in carriages and at railway stations. In
(2010) suggest that two criteria should particular, the Railways Act 1991 just states
be placed for maximum impact. First, that the Minister who is in-charged with the
instead of applying the strategies singly, responsibility for railways “shall only grant
a combination of strategies tailored to the his approval for the opening of a railway
particular circumstances of each urban after he has received a written report from an
area is a better way to manage congestion. engineer appointed by the Director General
For example, combining fare and pricing that (a) he has made a careful inspection of
strategies with office hour flexibility the railway; (b) the weight of rails, strength
of bridges, general structural character of METHOD

the works, and the size of and maximum
Study Design and Participants
gross load upon the axles of any rolling-
stock are such as have been prescribed by Because the current study is a preliminary
any regulations made under these Acts; and work and exploratory in nature, purposive
(c) in his opinion the opening of the railway sample of stakeholders from the rail
will not cause any danger to the passengers industry was selected. More specifically,
or any damage to the goods to be carried 13 participants (Male = 8; Female = 5)
thereon” (p. 26-27). from an organisation under the Ministry
A similar vagueness is also noted of Transport, Malaysia participated in this
concerning the implementation of other study; the criterion for their selection was
types of rail demand management. Apart that they are transport professionals and
from giving a 50% discount on the fare to experts who are directly involved in demand
those who commute between 6:00 a.m. to management issues and transportation
7:00 a.m. (Anand, 2016) and purchasing research and development activities. The
new trains in stages (Palansamy, 2016), use of this criterion in this study is consistent
other efforts to reduce peak hour congestion with the wider literature, which suggests
and manage the peak demand have been that stakeholders are those organisations
less reported to date. This raises the who are likely to affect and be affected
question of whether rail stakeholders are by the demand management issues - these
adequately aware and know about the may include transport professionals, rail
strategies that are viable for the longer run. operators, and regulatory authorities.
Therefore, what is lacking in the literature
are investigations into what is perceived as Measures
demand management strategies in Malaysia A list of potential demand management
and to what extent is the consensus on strategies in rail industry along with their
their feasibility, effectiveness, and cost descriptions was generated from the review
within the rail industry in the country. An of past studies. Eight broad categories of
overview of demand management strategies, approaches for managing peak demand were
which warrants further investigation in identified - these include pricing approaches,
addressing Malaysia’s urban rail issues, is service quality approaches, management-
thus required. As a start, the current research based approaches, policy approaches,
attempts to address this gap by conducting educational approaches, communication
an exploratory study on how stakeholders approaches, engineering-design approaches,
perceive and prioritise the demand. and infrastructure-based approaches. These
approaches were further categorised into rail industry, particularly the light rail transit
three groups of strategies: pricing, service and commuter services.
quality, and policy, which then formed
the final strategies to be ranked by the Data Analysis
participants in the survey. Consequently, the
In each group of strategies, the one that
final survey items consisted of six strategies
received the highest ranking (1 = most
related to pricing, ten strategies about
preferred) is regarded as the most prioritised
service quality, and six strategies associated
strategy for managing peak demand and
with policy.
overcrowding. The ranked strategies
obtained were examined in terms of their
Procedure feasibility, effectiveness, and cost, with
Each participant was contacted via e-mail the level of agreement among the raters
and face-to-face meeting, in which they determined using Kendall’s coefficient
were provided with an explanation of of concordance (Kendall’s W). This
the purpose of the study, its procedure, statistic is recognised as the best metric for
and the details of the questionnaire. After measuring non-parametric rankings (Okoli
the permission to conduct the study was & Pawlowski, 2004). Kendall’s W ranges
granted, participants were asked to rank the from 0 (no agreement) to 1 (Full Agreement)
items for each of the identified strategies (Kendall & Gibbons 1990). In this study,
listed in the questionnaire by order of what Kendall’s W values are interpreted using a
they believe to be “most” to “least” based on guideline set by Schmidt (1997) (see Table
their feasibility, effectiveness, and cost. For 1).
pricing and policy strategies, these values
were ranked using a scoring system that Table 1
ranged from 1 to 6 (1, being most preferred, Kendall’s value interpretation (Schmidt, 1997)
6, being least preferred). Meanwhile, for
W Interpretation Confidence
service quality strategies, these values were in Rankings
ranked using a scoring system, ranging from 0.1 Very weak agreement None
1 to 10 (1, being most preferred, 10, being 0.3 Weak agreement Low
least preferred). In providing their ratings, 0.5 Moderate agreement Fair
participants were asked to focus on the 0.7 Strong agreement High
0.9 Unusually strong agreement Very high
specific demand management strategies in
RESULTS agreement among the participants. Kendall’s

From Table 2 on feasibility, it can be seen W also shows very weak agreement among
that Kendall’s W values for pricing and participants in the policy strategies (0.092).
service quality strategies are 0.216 and
0.213 respectively, which suggest weak
Table 2
Kendall’s W results for feasibility
Category Item Mean Rank Kendall’s W df p

Pricing Increase peak period fares 3.88 0.216 5 .016
Free early bird incentives 2.58
Discounted early bird or off-peak fares 2.65
Surcharges at specific stations 4.35
Reduce or restrict parking availability at 4.35
stations
Employer incentives and disincentives 3.19
Service Quality Increase train frequency 3.75 0.213 9 .006
Increase seating capacity 6.71
Redesign standing and seated areas 5.88
Enhance passenger flow 6.67
Standardise entry and exit protocols 6.33
Efficient ticketing systems 4.92
Traveller information services 3.92
Express services 3.54
Provide feeder services and park-and- 7.04
ride facilities
Build more transport infrastructure 6.25
Policy Policy-induced change in travel time 3.58 0.092 5 .311
Flexible working hours’ policy 3.46
Land use and population policy 4.31
Travel demand management 3.04
Policy-driven traffic management 3.77
systems
Public awareness and educational 2.85
campaigns
Participants also ranked the strategies pricing = 0.129, service quality = 0.243,
according to their perceived effectiveness, and policy = 0.098, indicating again less
as shown by the results tabulated in Table 3. agreement among the participants.
Kendall’s W values obtained are as follows:
Table 3
Kendall’s W results for effectiveness

stations
Service Quality Increase train frequency 3.08 0.243 9
ride facilities
systems
campaigns
A similar pattern of results was obtained values of 0.042 for pricing, 0.342 for service
in cost (see Table 4), with Kendall’s W quality, and 0.172 for policy.
Table 4
Kendall’s W results for cost

stations
Service Quality Increase train frequency 4.65 0.342 9 .001
ride facilities
systems
campaigns
To facilitate easy understanding of Table 5

Summary of Kendall’s W results
participants’ level of agreement results, all
Kendall’s W values obtained are summarised Category of Kendall’s W
in Table 5. Strategies Feasibility Effectiveness Cost
Pricing 0.216 0.129 0.042
Service 0.213 0.243 0.342
quality
Policy 0.092 0.098 0.172
The rank of all strategies was then were ranked as most costly, but third
tabulated in Table 6. In pricing strategies, in feasibility and effectiveness. In this
free early bird incentives were ranked first category, the least feasible strategy but less
for feasibility, but third in effectiveness, costly for rail industry is to increase peak
and cost. Meanwhile, discounted early period fares whereas the least effective is
bird or off-peak fares were ranked first for to reduce or restrict parking availability at
effectiveness, but second for feasibility and stations.
cost. Employer incentives and disincentives
Table 6
Final rank for all strategies based on feasibility, effectiveness and cost
Category Item Final Rank

Feasibility Effectiveness Cost
Pricing Increase peak period fares 6 4 6
Free early bird incentives 1 3 3
Discounted early bird or off-peak fares 2 1 2
Surcharges at specific stations 4 5 4
Reduce or restrict parking availability at 4 6 5
stations
Employer incentives and disincentives 3 2 1
Service Quality Increase train frequency 2 1 5
Increase seating capacity 9 3 3
Redesign standing and seated areas 5 7 2
Enhance passenger flow 8 9 7
Standardise entry and exit protocols 7 10 10
Efficient ticketing systems 4 2 6
Traveller information services 3 5 8
Express services 1 6 9
Provide feeder services and park-and-ride 10 8 4
facilities
Build more transport infrastructure 6 3 1
Policy Policy-induced change in travel time 4 5 5
Flexible working hours’ policy 3 4 6
Land use and population policy 6 2 2
Travel demand management 2 1 4
Policy-driven traffic management systems 5 2 3
Public awareness and educational 1 6 1
campaigns
For service quality strategies, Finally, in the policy strategies, public

providing express services was ranked awareness and educational campaigns were
first for feasibility but sixth and ninth for ranked first in terms of feasibility and cost
effectiveness and cost respectively. The but last in effectiveness. Meanwhile, travel
most effective strategy as perceived by the demand management was ranked first for
participants is increase train frequency, effectiveness but second and fourth for
which was ranked as second and fifth for feasibility and cost respectively. Among the
feasibility and cost. Building more transport strategies, land use and population policy
infrastructure was ranked first in cost, sixth are the least preferred for feasibility; public
in feasibility, and third in effectiveness. awareness and educational campaigns are
Participants rated providing feeder services the least preferred for effectiveness; and
and park-and-ride facilities as the least flexible working hours’ policy was ranked
feasible strategy and standardising entry and last for cost. To summarise these results,
exit protocols to manage crowds as the least the rank of the most and least preferred
effective but least costly. strategies is tabulated in Table 7 below.
Table 7
Rank for most and least strategies based on feasibility, effectiveness, and cost
Categories Feasibility Effectiveness Cost

of Strategies Most Least Most Least Most Least
Pricing Free Increase peak Discounted Reduce Employer Increase
early bird period fares early bird or restrict incentives peak period
incentives or off-peakparking and fares
fares availability disincentives
at stations
Service Express Feeder Increase Standardising More Standardising
quality services services and train entry transport entry
park-and-ride frequency and exit infrastructure and exit
facilities protocols protocols
Policy Public Land use and Travel Public Public Flexible
awareness population demand awareness awareness working
and policy management and and hours’ policy
educational educational educational
campaigns campaigns campaigns
DISCUSSION pricing, ten strategies about service quality,

In this study, a set of demand management and six strategies associated with policy
strategies that could address train have been identified from the existing
overcrowding has been examined regarding literature and tested using Kendall’s W
their feasibility, effectiveness, and cost. coefficient of concordance. The results
More specifically, six strategies related to showed a relatively weak, but consistent
agreement rate among participants across all research. In light of the findings too, rail
strategies on their feasibility, effectiveness, stakeholders are recommended to pursue
and cost. This consistency of agreement was a judicious loading policy that not only
particularly observed on four strategies: (1) restricts passenger loading levels to within
free early bird incentives, (2) discounted the current capacity of the rail system but
early bird or off-peak fares, (3) increasing also requires the rail operators to enforce
train frequency, and (4) travel demand adequate measures to reduce overcrowding
management programme, hence, reinforcing and improve punctuality and reliability
their importance in managing overcrowding targets. Such policy initiatives should also
issues. It can be seen that the two strategies include procedures for implementing good
ranked the highest focus on pricing, which practice approaches to crowd management
is consistent with previous studies showing and crowd monitoring on the railways as
that pricing and financial strategies are the well as specify appropriate penalties for
most effective way to reduce peak demand non-compliance.
(see Hale & Charles, 2009; Liu & Charles, Another implication arising from the
2013). The third and fourth strategies, which findings is that there is a need for a feasible
concern service quality improvement and and cost-effective, if not cheap, measure
urban transport planning and travel demand for addressing issues associated with
management programme also echoed the peak demand and passenger growth. With
literature (for example, Hale, 2011; Henn, an understanding of the financial and
Karpouzis, & Sloan, 2010) that highlighted management constraints affecting the
the effectiveness of such strategies. These industry, an integrated approach of cost-
results, therefore, suggest that these four effective strategies tailored to the particular
strategies have the most potential for peak circumstances of each rail system seems
smoothing in Malaysian urban rail systems to offer the best prospect for managing
and rail stakeholders are recommended to passenger crowding. One way of doing this
consider them when making decisions on is to use psychologically targeted strategies
passenger loading and overcrowding. that are both cost-effective in managing the
One unexpected finding was that growing demand on the rail services and
strategies such as reduction or restriction in contributing to improvement in service
of parking availability at stations, provision (Cox, Houdmont, & Griffiths, 2006; Mohd
of feeder services and park-and-ride Mahudin, 2012). The potential use of
facilities, and standardisation of entry psychological or non-engineering strategies
and exit protocols were ranked as less that can effectively mitigate peak demand
important in mitigating overcrowding growth should be further explored.
issues. It is unclear as to why participants A preliminary work as the present
ranked these strategies in this way - this one is not without its limitations. It is
suggests another area of focus for future recognised that the main drawback of
this study is the small sample size, which in advocating rail stakeholders and relevant
renders the weak agreement among the authorities in Malaysia on the importance
rankings of the participants. It is also likely of managing peak crowding and passenger
that the lack of consensus in the rankings demand within the rail transport sector.
occurred because the research area is a It follows that the identified strategies
largely unexplored domain in Malaysia in should be targeted for intervention and
which there is no background to provide evaluation. Confirmation of these results
structure to ensuing works. To overcome through additional research and assessments
this limitation, a larger sample size with are needed to refine the understanding of
more diverse stakeholders is recommended sustainable, effective, and cost-efficient
as it may yield stronger agreements among ways to address current and future train
participants. Another future work that can overcrowding issues.
also be done is to conduct an in-depth It is important that future studies
survey with the stakeholders to (1) explore evaluate the prioritised interventions for
the justification for their rankings, (2) know their effectiveness in managing passenger
whether there are any institutional issues demand and peak train crowding. One
behind such rankings, and (3) understand the such study could be a quasi-experimental,
barriers associated with the implementation longitudinal research that implements
of the strategies from their perspective and and tests the prioritised strategies along
their thoughts on how to remove them. the existing rail lines. In this way, the
Alternatively, conducting a study from effectiveness of these strategies could be
the users’ perspective would be helpful in assessed over time. An investigation into
identifying feasibility issues and developing strengthening the successful strategies is
comprehensive demand management likewise recommended to be added to the
strategies. Further studies are warranted to future plan of the research project. This
explore this possibility. line of work is essential to ensure that
the effectiveness of the strategies can be
CONCLUSIONS sustained and even enhanced.
To conclude, this research provides
preliminary yet valuable information that ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
can inform the literature on the specific The author acknowledges the support of
strategies that are deemed high priorities the Ministry of Education, Malaysia for
in addressing train overcrowding, and, by funding this research through Research
extension, improving service quality and Acculturation Grant Scheme (RAGS 12-
passenger satisfaction with rail services. In 058-0058).
particular, the findings could be instrumental
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trains catalogue/pb009485
APPENDIX 1
506
Total Passenger Numbers for Light Rail Transit and Commuter Services from 2006 to 2015
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
KTM 34,975 36,959 36,557 34,683 34,995 35,510 34,847 43,942 46,957 49,960
Komuter
Kelana Jaya 56,747,136 56,965,258 58,168,337 55,580,190 58,037,633 68,398,561 71,574,675 78,702,931 81,971,322 82,144,674
Line
Ampang 49,727,909 52,434,883 51,009,480 49,375,077 51,572,177 53,568,672 56,809,978 60,207,397 63,270,432 62,809,412
Line
KL Monorail 19,322,170 22,197,169 21,765,233 21,021,390 22,108,308 24,200,299 24,435,931 25,437,621 24,303,465 25,067,866
KLIA 1,839,226 1,780,384 1,578,706 1,419,827 1,508,734 1,581,476 1,649,410 2,063,419 2,928,302 3,470,710
Ekpress
KLIA Transit 2,369,864 2,449,842 2,508,884 2,441,736 2,626,119 3,238,389 3,713,536 4,374,219 6,310,323 6,496,617
Source: Transport Statistics Malaysia, 2015


SMEs Development and ASEAN Economic Integration: An

Analysis of Singapore and Malaysia
Thanawat Pimoljinda* and Ritthikorn Siriprasertchok
Graduate School of Public Administration, Burapha University, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand
ABSTRACT
This article aims to examine the role of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) member states in enhancing the capability of small and medium enterprises
(SMEs) for the purpose of achieving their ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint. A
comparative case study between Singapore and Malaysia was adopted whereby multiple
sources of data and information were gathered and synthesised using content analysis.
Quantitative data were also used to support the qualitative analysis. An essential result
indicates that even though Singapore and Malaysia have collectively agreed to develop
regional economic community using SMEs as a tool, their strategic-oriented economic
policies seem to be affiliated outside the group. They are more open to trade and investment
with countries outside the group than their ASEAN partners. Additionally, besides the
internal restrictions and differences on productive resources, market demands, workforce
skills, and even technology and innovation for SMEs development, a paramount challenge
stems from the aspiration of being the key economic player at both regional and global
levels. Therefore, the pursuit of economic power has practically undermined the collective
agreement mentioned above, and has simultaneously put the ASEAN regional economic
integration process in jeopardy in face of the inconsistency of its member states’ strategies
and policies.
Keywords: ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint,

ASEAN Economic Community, economic integration,
regional cooperation, small and medium enterprises
development, strategic orientation
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
INTRODUCTION
E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (Thanawat Pimoljinda), The initiative and development of small
[email protected] (Ritthikorn Siriprasertchok)
*Corresponding author and medium enterprises (SMEs) has been a

prominent matter on the agendas of ASEAN states, including paving the way towards
member states. In the context of developing a common market and production base
countries, it has particularly been placed (ASEAN Secretariat, 2015a; Kawai &
as part of the bottom-up approach for Naknoi, 2015). With an aspiration of
national economic development strategies, bolstering domestic economic development
with the aims of increasing employment from the bottom, each member state has put
rates, household incomes, and, as the enormous effort into strengthening their
ultimate goal, national economic stability SMEs capacity by investing in science and
and competitiveness. At both national and technology, social infrastructure, marketing
regional levels, the increasing productivity channels, and human resource development
of SMEs has widely become an agenda in order to produce more skilled labour
of regional economic cooperation aimed and productive workforce, for instance.
at bridging the economic development Nevertheless, there has been a matter for
gap among member states (Economic consideration regarding the consistency of
Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia economic-led regional integration and the
[ERIA], 2014; Kone, 2012; Samaratunga & strategic orientation of each member state,
Weerasinghe, 2002). ). reflected and discussed further below.
In the case of the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) Economic Scope of Analysis
Community (AEC), the development of Theoretically, different contexts of
SMEs has, since the 13th ASEAN Summit international circumstances lead to different
held in Singapore on November 20, 2007, concerns of national interests which in
been highlighted in the third pillar of the turn, have affected the policy choices of
ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint governments (Jackson & Sorensen, 1999).
as a path towards the creation of equitable This perspective rests on the assumption that
economic development. Besides narrowing the policy direction of government is always
the economic gap between member states, oriented toward the changing system of
its aim is to encourage SMEs to participate international relations. At the same time, the
in regional and global value chains, and policy choices of governments also clearly
focus on efforts to build the capacity of influence the existing regional organisations
ASEAN member states to ensure their they join (Kimura, 2013; Narine, 2005;
effective integration into the economic Rai, 2010). As shown in Figure 1, domestic
community (ASEAN Secretariat, 2015a; demand for economic development is more
Tay & Kiruppalini, 2015). or less related to foreign policy, thereby
Also included in this regard is to shaping the form of inter-state relations and
achieve balanced and sustainable economic regional cooperation (Tay & Kiruppalini,
development among ASEAN member 2015).
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of this cooperation and the direction of regional
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interaction between the domestic and foreign with changes in international relations
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of ASEAN 5B8 ;CJ9FBA9BHGS 97CBCA=7 GHF5H9;M G9FJ=B; 5G H<9 ?9M 5B5@MH=75@ DC=BH ,C
member states and the (Rosellon & Yap, 2010; Samaratunga &
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ASEAN economic integration process in Weerasinghe, 2002; Tay & Kiruppalini,
9AD@CM98
the course of the intercalation of SMEs 2015).
development and governments’ economic Equally important, a mutual

strategy serving as the key analytical point. collaborative agreement, which is made
To clarify these points, a comparative case by governments at the regional level, does
study between Singapore and Malaysia has not infer that it would be manifested in
been employed. a collective action at the local level and
accomplished through a shared vision.
THEORETICAL DISCUSSIONS In so far as there is deliberation about
The years of rising of regionalism and the importance of cross-border economic
attempts towards regional integration linkages as a solution mechanism for
among developing countries began in regional cooperation processes, the role of
the 1960s. In view of all the variations in government alone cannot make it possible.
regional formations, there is copious amount On the contrary, the role of local economic
of substantive literature on regionalism actors and the readiness of their operative
providing both conceptual and analytical resources are required to fulfill these
frameworks for diagnosing its nature. processes (Anderson, 1991).
Nevertheless, obviously, substantial Theoretically, as discussed above,
variables affecting the pattern of interstate it refers to as the complex network of
flows across state boundaries, involving attempt to strengthen their internal stability
the movement of goods and services, at both the local and national levels to cope
capital, technology, information, and people with the external challenges of complex
(Hurrell, 1995; Noble, 2005). In the sense interdependence at both regional and global
of the creation of regional cooperation, levels (Narine, 2005; Noble, 2005).
as based on constructivist concepts, In this regard, the momentum of the
regionalisation does not come about unless ASEAN economic community will come
the states and people of each state in a about only if the sense of community, or at
particular region desire it to do so (Wendt, least regional cooperation, is substantially
1992). Regional cooperation may come encouraged (Hwee, 2005; Kawai & Naknoi,
into existence through a spontaneous or 2015). This leads to a caption idea that the
unintended convergence of political regime economic community could be established
and economic policy, but often one can by member states through their economic
identify a triggering political event which interdependence, together with the role
sets the process in motion (Katzenstein, of their local economic actors which are
2000). already destined in the ASEAN Economic
In view of these arguments, there Blueprint to play a more meaningful role.
are two critical theoretical debates. The With this proposal, it can be said that
first issue is that successful economic integration in one policy area would pervade
cooperation in one area would permeate to other areas of the economy and spill over
other areas, and eventually be integrated into connected areas.
as a whole. This implies the important In particular, in driving the ASEAN
roles of the market and economic actors economic community, as it has been
in stimulating closer regional cooperation defined in the ASEAN Economic Blueprint,
(Wendt, 1992). The second argument issue developing the capacity of SMEs as a bottom-
is that regional integration cannot succeed up approach to economic development
unless states decide to promote it. The strategy is recognised to be an important
possibility of regional integration implied factor for the achievement of a common
in this statement requires an active role for market and production base, or at least of
states (Katzenstein, 2000). equitable economic development (ASEAN
In the case of ASEAN, the shared vision Secretariat, 2015a; Kawai & Naknoi, 2015).
of member states is to enhance ASEAN As mentioned in the 2016-2025 ASEAN
as a dynamic regional association. As a strategic action plan for SMEs development
code of conduct, member states explicitly (ASEAN Secretariat, 2015b), light is shed
prescribe the right of every state to lead on the creative initiatives that encourag
its national existence free from external SMEs to participate in regional and global
interference, subversion, and coercion. value chains, and focus efforts to build the
This is because the member governments capacity of ASEAN’s most recent member
states to ensure their effective integration governments’ policies on SMEs capacity

into the economic community. Equally development, and the documents which
important is that the collective action must relate to the ASEAN Economic Community
be in accordance with collective strategy Blueprint. Also included were academic
and should be in line with shared vision research and relevant reports of professional
accordingly. organisations. Quantitative data, such as
key economic indicators and volume of
MATERIALS AND METHODS trade and investment, were also utilised
In accordance with the circumstances to support the qualitative analysis. In the
presented above, this investigation contains course of selection, these documents were
mainly qualitative research conducted by thoroughly distilled by means of the method
means of a comparative case study: the role of content analysis.
of Singapore’s and Malaysia’s governments
in developing their SMEs in line with the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint Generally speaking, Singapore and Malaysia
(ASEAN Secretariat, 2015a; 2015b). have similar economic systems. Both of
Specifically, analysis is devoted to shedding them emphasise mixed economies in which
light on the consistency between domestic free-market policies and practices have come
and foreign policies, particularly in regard hand-in-hand with government intervention
to SMEs development. This comparative (WEF, 2015). Also included is the economic
approach is deployed analytically so as to activity of SMEs. In a similar manner, the
provide inductive inferences regarding the aims of SMEs capacity development in
influences of the policy decision-making these two states are to stabilise their local
of ASEAN member states on the ASEAN economies on the one hand, and to increase
Economic Community. their economic leverage at the regional and
Importantly, according to the global global markets, on the other.
competitiveness index surveyed by the In these two states’ local economic
World Economic Forum (WEF) (Jones, contexts, both of them have put enormous
2015), selecting these two competitive effort into increasing SMEs capacity,
ASEAN member states as a comparative which acts as a catalytic agent for domestic
case study can help to clearly reflect the economic development (Rosellon & Yap,
realisation of whether or not ASEAN 2010; Tay & Kiruppalini, 2015). The
member states might be able to achieve the SMEs in both states are dominated mainly
goal of the ASEAN economic community. by the service sector, while other major
In doing so, secondary sources of industries such as electronic, electrical
data were systematically gathered and products and chemicals are also promoted.
synthesised. These consist of relevant In doing so, Singapore and Malaysia
official documents regarding the have initiated various sources of financial
assistance, tax treatment, and funding as technology and innovation, human

for the provision of factory construction, capital, productivity, and service quality
research and development for innovation (“Innovation, technology and talent - Keys
and technology, as well as human resources to grow your business, Singapore”, 2016).
development. These are parts of SMEs Singapore has also put enormous effort into
development strategies for both newcomers encouraging both domestic and overseas
and existing SMEs. investment in industries with particular
Nevertheless, the results reveal that emphasis on technological capacity-building
there are some inconsistencies in SMEs and creating national intellectual property
development and relevant policies of (Business Catalyst Group, 2016). This is in
the two countries which explicitly and line with the concept of “from value creation
implicitly impose obstacle to the process of toward value-added”.
ASEAN economic integration. An important In doing so, as it is a part of the ‘smart
difference is grounded in their policy nation’ scheme, financial and tax measures
content and implementation processes. In have been rearranged in order to bolster
order to encompass all essential related the capacity of local business operations,
issues, discussions are divided into domestic together with machines and equipment which
and foreign policy perspectives, which can are needed for production. In particular, the
be explained as follows. focal point is on innovative technology
for production. Such a policy area aims
Domestic Policies for SMEs at increasing the economic leverage at the
Development: Singapore regional and global levels, as indicated by
Ministry of Trade and Industry (2011) in
According to the collected data, Singapore’s
the national economic development strategy
SMEs account for up to 99% of all domestic
in the following: “Supporting stronger
enterprises, which contribute about 50% to
alliances between large and small players
the increase in gross domestic product (GDP)
to promote technology transfer, test-bedding
(“Innovation, technology and talent - Keys
and commercialization so as to help SMEs
to grow your business, Singapore”, 2016).
build up capabilities to enter international
The Standards, Productivity and Innovation
markets, as well as anchor larger foreign
Board of Singapore (SPRING), which is
players in Singapore.”
an important public organisation under the
At the same time, Prime Minister Lee
supervision of the Ministry of Trade and
Hsien Loong, on December 1, 2015, also set
Industry, has arranged key objectives for
up the Committee on the Future Economy
SMEss development strategies that cover
(CFE) to push development policies,
productivity and innovation as well as
covering the young entrepreneurship project
standards and quality of labour skills.
for the younger generation as well as paying
In 2016, Singapore supported SMEs
special attention to attracting highly-skilled
development in various aspects such
labour and professionals from abroad (Tan to what is mentioned above, there are
& Tan, 2014). also efforts laying great emphasis on
human resources development. According
Domestic Policies for SMEs to SME Corporation Malaysia (2012),
Development: Malaysia the government tries to develop labour
skills, focusing on technical and vocational
In the case of Malaysia, the number of SMEs
education and training as well as education
is up to 97% of all domestic enterprises,
system reform as a whole.
contributing to almost 40% of GDP (Salikin,
Nevertheless, even if Malaysia is not
Wahab, & Muhammad, 2014). Specifically,
as limited by geographical area and natural
almost 98% of all SMEs in Malaysia are in
resources as Singapore, it is striving for
the service sector. This is partly a legacy
technology transfer from foreign investors in
of the 1971 New Economic Policy of the
order to enhance the productivity of SMEs.
government (Lean & Smyth, 2014). In
According to research by SME Corporation
order to develop the capacity of SMEs,
Malaysia (2012), this is mainly due to the
the National SME Development Council
lack of participation of SMEs in the national
(NSDC), which is an important government
innovation system. While universities
agency working on policy and strategic
and public institutions undertake applied
direction for SMEs, has placed emphasis on
research, there is lack of alignment to
productivity-driven SMEs.
market demands. Most SMEs still recognise
Importantly, unlike Singapore, Malaysia
productivity improvement activities as a
tries to stabilise its internal economy by
cost rather than as a long-term investment,
attracting only large-scale foreign direct
thereby also hesitating to invest in more
investments in response to the vision of
advanced technologies.
being a high-income country by 2020
which is a part of the economic policy
announcement of Prime Minister Najib Foreign Policies for SMEs Expansion
Razak in 2015 (Ramli, Kamarunzaman, & In principle, regionalism is defined as a
Ramli, 2013; SME Corporation Malaysia, dynamic political process characterised
2016). It is somewhat different from the by economic policy cooperation and
case of Singapore in which the Malaysian coordination among states within a given
government still has high autonomous region (Hwee, 2005; Katzenstein, 2000).
control over domestic affairs, and gives According to theoretical discussion,
priority to domestic investment (Salikin et collective action must be in accordance with
al., 2014). collective strategy, and should additionally
In addition, an important factor be in line with collective vision. This
encouraging this is the low price of domestic means that a sense of community should be
products together with high demand for encouraged together with mutual agreement
domestic goods and services. In addition between states and people. However,
the economic data shows that the policy developed countries outside the region such
choices of Southeast Asian countries are as China and the Middle East, Malaysia pays
more outward-oriented in conjunction attention mainly to stabilising its domestic
with the main stream of global political economy. This has partly resulted from
economy. This implies that defining the high domestic market demand. In addition,
position of the state at the regional or global Malaysia still needs to develop its system of
levels is relevant to the shaping of regional information and communication technology
cooperation patterns. which is needed for domestic economic
In regard to economic direction, development.
Singapore pursues a liberal economic system The different strategically-oriented
and encourages a proactive economic policy foreign policies of both Singapore and
by focusing on regional and international Malaysia, as such, could lead to an
markets. This has resulted mainly from the ambiguous feature of regional integration
limitations of geographical area, natural processes in general, and the creation of the
resources, and domestic market demand. ASEAN Economic Community in particular
As mentioned above, the Ministry of Trade (Hwee, 2005; Kawai & Naknoi, 2015;
and Industry (2011) of Singapore has set a Kimura, 2013). Evidence for this are the
vision for the country to be a leading global economic linkages of both Singapore and
city with a dynamic economy, world class Malaysia which are, as obviously displayed
enterprises and innovative and productive in Table 1 and Table 2, more extensive
SMEs. Relevant to this is the aspiration with extra-ASEAN economic powers than
that Singapore has positioned itself to be with intra-ASEAN economic partners.
the regional hub in various sectors such as The values of trade and investment are
aviation, medical care, and finance. also included with the economic activities
On the contrary, even if Malaysia contributed by SMEs.
emphasises economic links with more
Table 1
Intra and Extra-ASEAN Trade of Singapore and Malaysia (up to 10 June 2016) (US$ million)
Country Intra-ASEAN Export Extra-ASEAN Intra-ASEAN Import Extra-ASEAN

Export Import
Value Share Value Share Value Share Value Share
to total to total to total to total
export export export export
Singapore 118,271.4 32.3 248,072.9 67.7 63,779.3 21.5 232,985.6 78.5
Malaysia 56,200.4 28.1 143,668.8 71.9 46,690.1 26.5 129,270.9 73.5
Note: From ASEAN Secretariat (2015c)
Table 2
Foreign direct investment net inflows, Intra and Extra-ASEAN, of Singapore and Malaysia (up to 3 June
2016) (US$ million)
Country 2013 2014 2015

Intra- Extra- Total net Intra- Extra- Total net Intra- Extra- Total net
ASEAN ASEAN inflow ASEAN ASEAN inflow ASEAN ASEAN inflow
Singapore 4,556.2 55,823.4 60,379.6 5,214.1 69,206.2 74,420.3 3,416.3 57,868.5 61,284.8
Malaysia 2,187.5 10,109.9 12,297.4 2,284.0 8,591.3 10,875.3 2,719.0 8,570.6 11,289.6
Note: From ASEAN Secretariat (2015d)
The overall volume of trade and investment technological transfer for manufacturing, on
reflects the inconsistency of economic the other. Singapore is defined by the former
policy, on the one hand, and implies the context, while Malaysia is characterised by
different strategic positioning of ASEAN the latter. In view of these circumstances,
member states, on the other. As mentioned it can be argued that even though the
earlier, the collective economic agreements collective goal of SMEs development
made by governments cannot guarantee strategy is manipulated to decrease the
viable regional economic cooperation. In development gap that existed between
the meantime, initiatives of government member states, the readiness and ability of
alone cannot drive regional economic the SMEs themselves are, partly or totally,
cooperation processes. On the contrary, dependent on the economic strategies of
regional integration necessitates collective their governments.
action together with the participation Second, a parallel issue is the limited
of local economic actors to fulfill such economic potential and market demand
processes (Kawai & Naknoi, 2015; Noble, of ASEAN member states which might
2005; Wendt, 1992). become a propelling factor for them to
take a more outward-looking approach in
CONCLUSIONS attempting to deal with the mainstream at
As discussed above, the results of this a global market level. With reference to the
research show that even if Singapore and economic data shown in Table 1 and Table
Malaysia demonstrate their willingness to 2, it could be argued that even if ASEAN’s
develop their SMEs in line with the ASEAN market seems to be widening, it might be
Economic Community Blueprint, potential the result of foreign investments rather than
factors in driving regional integration internal expansion. This is evident when we
processes are still open to debate. consider the inconsistencies of individual
The fundamental factor is the direction member states’ domestic and foreign
of domestic affairs which is limited by policies, on the one hand, and their foreign
natural physical barriers, on the one hand, policies, on the other.
and domestic economic demand and
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Where is East Asian regionalism heading?
Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined communities:
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The Impact of School Context on the Construction of Female

Mathematic Teachers’ Professional Identity in a South African
Primary School
GM Steyn
Department of Educational Leadership and Management, University of South Africa, Preller Street,
Muckleneuk Campus, Pretoria 0003, South Africa
ABSTRACT
The overall aim of the study was to use the stories of four Mathematics teachers in a South
African primary school to understand the influence of their current school context on their
professional identity at a given point in time. This study forms part of a larger project
that has been a narrative inquiry, undertaken as its research design to explore the identity
construction of two experienced and two less experienced teachers. Data were collected
by means of written accounts and individual interviews with these teachers. Although the
participants’ stories revealed previous personal and professional experiences as children,
students and teachers in other school contexts, the positive impact of the current school
context on their professional identity emerged as a central theme. The major finding of this
investigation speaks of the dominance of the school context that seems to be a powerful
force in the construction and reconstruction of teachers’ professional identities.
Keywords: Professional identity, narrative inquiry, school context, teacher collaboration, primary school,
South Africa
INTRODUCTION teachers’ professional identity (Gu, 2015;

Numerous international studies have Hamman et al., 2013; Lou, 2013; Pinho
recently focused on the development of & Andrade, 2015; Williams, 2014). The
necessity of a competent teaching course has
been a major concern in various countries
ARTICLE INFO
(Vanassche & Kelchtermans, 2014). In
Article history: this regard Smit and Fritz (2008) affirm
Accepted: 11 August 2017 that without the prominence of teachers’
E-mail address: professional identity all other initiatives
[email protected] (GM Steyn)

GM Steyn
will not improve the quality of education. on their behaviours, the effectiveness of
As such, Hsieh (2010, p. 106) succinctly their teaching and the quality of the whole
state that “who teachers are, inform how school system.
they teach” and that they are embedded Studies on professional identity
in workplace discourse that impact their inter alia focused on the construction of
teaching. professional identity among preservice
For the purpose of this article teachers (Akerson, Pongsanonb,
professional identity is considered to be Weiland, & Nargund-Joshid 2014), the
a social entity that is constructed and characteristics of teachers’ professional
reconstructed within a particular social identity (Pinho & Andrade, 2015), the
setting, such as a school and which is complex relationship between teachers’
influenced by professional communities in experiences of continuous professional
which teachers are involved (Izadinia, 2013). development and their construction of
It generally relates to how teachers perceive professional identity (Williams, 2014),
themselves as teachers which is based on the ways in which professional identity is
their interpretation and reinterpretation of co-constructed with colleagues (Busher,
their continuing interaction with particular Wilkins, Kakos, Mohamed, & Smith, 2012;
contexts (Canrinus, 2011). As a result, Pinho & Andrade, 2015), the challenges
teachers create a descriptive framework of that teachers face in building up their
their professional identity that reflects the professional identity (Vloet & Van Swet,
successive stages of transformation during 2010), and complexity of teacher identity
their career and which is constructed into involving the integration of teachers’
professionalism within existing conditions in personal and professional experiences and
school contexts (Jamil, Petras, & Mohamed, the application of “conscious/rational and
2014). intuitive/tacit thought processes” (Bukor,
Regarding teachers’ professional 2011, p. 1).
identity Day, Kington, Stobart and Sammons A survey in the South African context
(2006), Beaucamp and Thomas (2009) and shows that limited studies were done on
Canrinus (2011) found that teachers consider the identity of teachers. The studies of
three constructs when defining their identity: Smit and Fritz (2008), and Smit, Fritz and
a personal dimension that reflects their life Malabane (2010) focused on an inquiry to
outside school, a professional dimension portray teacher identity in the context of
which reveals their expectations of what educational change in South Africa while
represents a ‘good’ teacher and a situational the study by Cross and Ndofirepi (2015)
dimension which refers to a teacher’s focused on strategies for developing the
immediate particular working context. For professional identity of prospective and
Jamie et al. (2014), teachers’ experiences of employed teachers. Francis and Le Roux’s
their working conditions have a huge effect study (2011) focused on the emerging
Impact of School Context on Teachers’ Professional Identity
identities of pre-service teachers, Nel’s school system may add to the existing body
study (2012) investigated the identity of knowledge.
development of teachers by involving them
in a Mathematical literacy programme, while CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Oswald and Perold’s study (2015) showed For this study, the conceptual framework was
the influence of educational and socio- viewed through three lenses: professional
economic changes within a historically identity, identity development and personal
disadvantaged community in the Western interpretative framework.
Cape.
Against this background, there
Professional Identity
was a need to gain greater insights into
professional identity by contributing Studies on teachers’ professional identity
to a better understanding of what this during the past two decades have embraced
phenomenon means in teaching and also several conceptual underpinnings (Pinho
to assist in stimulating discourse about & Andrade, 2015). Olsen (2008) views
this phenomenon. The fact that the South professional identity as the collection
African government aims at improving of effects and stimuli from a teacher’s
the competence levels of Mathematics immediate context, previous constructs
teachers and thereby enhancing the poor of the self and meaning systems which
performance of students in Mathematics become interconnected when the teacher
in primary schools (Republic of South simultaneously reacts to and negotiates
Africa, 2015) explains why this study given contexts and human relationships
was situated in the field of Mathematics. at given relationships at given moments.
The gap identified in the current research It is important to keep in mind that the
literature concerned the construction or construction of teachers’ professional
reconstruction of Mathematics teachers’ identity is an ongoing, complex process in
professional identity within their current which they attempt to understand the values
school context. The research question and practices in the school that “enable them
that guided from this study was: How to ‘belong’” to this school (Wilkins et al.,
did Mathematics teachers experience the 2012, p. 72). A clear understanding of the
construction and reconstruction of their school culture and the power processes in
professional identity within their particular the school is therefore necessary in order
school context? This study on teachers’ to comprehend the way in which teachers
experiences of their professional identity construct and reconstruct their identities.
within a particular school context, especially Moreover, the construction of teachers’
in light of the numerous educational changes identity is considered to be a dynamic process
and challenges within the South African in which teachers interpret and reinterpret
meaningful experiences throughout their
GM Steyn
lives and within professional practices and to build relationships with colleagues, they
in surrounding school contexts (Beijaard, can help to develop the substantive self
Meijer, & Verloop, 2004; Jamil et al., 2014). It and bring it in line with the situational
implies that a teacher’s professional identity self (White, 2013). Moreover, the concept
fluctuates and involves the construction of situated learning (Wenger, 2000) is
and the reconstruction of meaning through important in understanding the role of the
a person’s stories over a period of time workplace in constructing professional
(Jamil et al., 2014; Kelchtermans, 1993; identity (Cross & Ndofirepi, 2015). Bukor
Vloet & Van Swet, 2010). Bukor (2011), (2011) elaborates on this view by stating
however, emphasises the fact that a person’s that although the personal identity theory
beliefs, perceptions and interpretations of investigates the influence of the social
his or lived experiences are interconnected context on individuals, it does so from
which implies that everything is linked to individuals’ perspective when they fulfill
everything else, which then exerts a mutual their various roles in that context. Cross and
influence on one another. Ndofirepi (2015) succinctly explain how
circumstances through the negotiation of
Identity Development meaning around situations, activities and the
environment may become an essential part
The ideas of Vloet and Van Swet (2010) on
in negotiating the self. Once professionals
identity development rely on the work of
focus on their meaningful experiences they
Hermans and Hermans-Jansen (1995) which
are able to construct and also reconstruct
indicates that two motives play an important
their sense of professional self and their own
role in the process of constructing a meaning:
professional identity (Cross & Ndofirepi,
(1) the self-motive which strives towards
2015; Vloet & Van Swet, 2010).
self-enhancement, such as self-expression,
self-maintenance and self-development, and
(2) the motive which strives for contact and Personal Interpretative Framework
collaboration with others in order to be part Kelchtermans (2009) identifies two
of a larger entity. Their identity development interconnected domains regarding the
view is in line with that of White (2013, p. personal interpretative framework: (1)
84) who uses the notion of “substantive and the representations and professional self-
situational self”. In essence, the substantive understanding of the self as a teacher,
self is based on fundamental beliefs that and (2) the personal system of beliefs and
develop from life experiences that define knowledge about teaching as a profession.
who a person is, while the situational self Teachers’ conception of the self means that
forms through relationships and contexts although they may have a shared identity
that may change when a person faces in their teaching profession, their identities
new circumstances (White, 2013). When could differ as a result of their personal
opportunities for collaboration are provided attributes, experience in the teaching
profession, beliefs and perspectives on METHODS

their particular context (Canrinus, 2011). The type of design selected to investigate
Kelchtermans (2009) distinguishes between the influence of the current school context
five different components of teachers’ on Mathematics’ teachers’ perceptions of
professional self: Self-image based on their professional identity, was a qualitative
self-perception and which is closely linked approach, in particular a narrative inquiry
to the evaluative component of the self- design (Caine, Estefan, & Clandinin, 2013;
understanding refers to the way in which Clandinin & Huber, 2010) that studied the
teachers portray themselves through their experiences of teachers in a particular school
career stories; Self-esteem refers to the context) within the interpretive paradigm
way in which teachers evaluate their actual (Terre Blanche, Kelly & Durrheim, 2014;
teacher behaviours and how they are defined White, 2014). The narrative inquiry was
by the self or others; Task perception refers based on the epistemological supposition
to the way in which teachers describe their that the teachers constructed stories to make
responsibilities and tasks; Job-motivation sense of their lived experiences (Clandinin,
signifies the reasons for choosing or Murphy, Huber, & Orr, 2009; Hendry,
remaining committed to the teaching 2010; Tateo, 2012), while the interpretive
profession (or leaving the profession); and paradigm attempted to understand these
Future perspective which is a prospective stories within the school context in which
component reveals teachers’ expectations they worked (Terre Blanche et al., 2014).
about their future in the teaching profession In this study the teachers’ professional
(Vanassche & Kelchtermans, 2014). identity was captured as narrative portraits
The key conceptual foundation on which within an inviting school culture in the
this study is based is the Personal Construct primary school. Being an inviting school
Theory of Kelly (2003). This theory presents means that the school intentionally created
a systematic description of the way in which a school environment that was based
people construct their reality that is based on respect, trust, care and optimism for
on their existing interlinked systems. The increased student learning outcomes and
concept “construct” is appropriate since it personal and professional growth (Shaw,
involves two equally important meanings Siegel, & Schoenlein, 2013). This study
(Bukor ,2011, p, 40). One meaning which formed part of a larger project in which
is retrospective refers to a construct the school was purposefully selected since
that represents how the individual has professional development of teachers
constructed his or her previous experiences. was viewed as a crucial strategy to attain
The other meaning which is forward-looking quality teaching and learning. They also
refers to a construct that represents how the emphasised that the improvement of
individual employs his or her predisposition students’ Mathematics performance and
to construe the future (Bukor, 2011). the professional development of teachers
GM Steyn
to attain this goal played a key role. The Table 2

Particulars of participants
school’s success was evident from students’
Mathematics performance in the Annual Participant Teaching Number
National Assessment in 2014 (Table 1). Experience of Years at
This School
Dorothy 37 36
Table 1 (Head of
Annual National Assessment Results (2014) for Department)
Mathematics in South Africa, in Gauteng and in the Christina 20 4
school studied (with an
interruption
South Africa School in the Study
in her
Grade 4 37.3% 68% career)
Grade 5 37.3% 68% Alice 9 5
Grade 6 43.0% 80% Betty 4 4
Note: Table 1 shows that the average performance
in Grades 4 – 6 was significantly better than the
average performance in South Africa, which Data Collection
confirmed the department’s motto: “Mathematics
is tops” Data collection included written accounts
and in-depth individual interviews with these
teachers, which ensured trustworthiness
Sample and Participant Selection
of the data (Gu, 2015; Vanassche &
Four teachers were purposefully selected Kelchtermans, 2014; White, 2014). Both
for this study and pseudonyms were used these methods had an open structure that
to protect their identity: two teachers had allowed participants to give a narrative
more than 10 years of teaching experience account of their previous professional
(Dorothy and Christina) and the other experiences (Vanassche & Kelchtermans,
two had less than 10 years’ experience 2014) in order to understand the influence
(Alice and Betty). In previous studies these of their current school context on the
teachers presented information-rich written construction of their professional identities
and verbal accounts of their experiences (Bukor, 2011; Cross & Ndofirepi, 2015;
related to professional development and Hodges & Cady, 2012). Ethical measures
professional identity. Similar to the findings included informed consent from the
of Hsieh’s study (2010), participants were principal of the school, the four participants
in the same department and school, but they and permission by the Gauteng Department
constructed varying individual perceptions of Education to conduct the study.
of professional identity within this context.
Table 2 reveals their teaching experience
Data Analysis
and number of years in the school.
The data were analysed through two lenses:
(1) the three-dimensional narrative inquiry
space which included the dimensions of and socially. The school identified five
place, sociality and temporality (Saleh, major values as five pillars on which it
Menon, & Clandinin 2014), and (2) based its inviting approach: love, faith,
professional identity development where excellence, respect and integrity. These
the influence of the school context and the five values were depicted as pictures on the
self were acknowledged (Akerson et al., doors of the school hall, staff room and in
2014). The transcripts were coded by using the administration offices. To make these
descriptive codes which summarised the values implementable, they were expressed
content of a fragment and interpretative codes in explicit behavioural terms for staff and
that reflected the conceptual framework of students in the school, for visitors to the
the study (Vanassche & Kelchtermans, school, on the sports field or during cultural
2014). The accuracy of the transcripts, their activities and even outside the school.
interpretation and identity portraits were At the time of the study, there were 1848
checked by the four participants (Vanassche learners with 91 teachers and seven staff
& Kelchtermans, 2014; White, 2014). members who provided special services,
such as remedial teaching, English speaking
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and Music in the school. The school is
In analysing the data in the narratives a situated in a middle class suburb where a
central theme, that is, the impact of the few students were totally exempted from
current school on their professional identity paying school fees. Their vision was stated
emerged. Situating the development of as “the barefoot, fun, performance school
teachers’ identity within a particular school with a Christian character that strives
context implied the necessity to be aware towards excellence and aims to develop each
of the influence this context could have child in totality” (Steyn, 2013, p. 7).
on the construction and reconstruction Apart from Dorothy who had a positive
of their identities (Beaucamp & Thomas, experience during her first year of teaching,
2009). As an inviting school that adhered the other three participants expressed their
to the assumptions of invitational education, negative experiences in other schools.
it strived to create and enhance their Christine’s previous experience in a
environment to cordially invite all role disadvantaged school where students had
players to realise their potential in all areas many problems and her colleagues who
of human development (Purkey & Novak, felt threatened with her competence made
2008). The ideal objective was that the five her very unhappy. Christine almost ‘lost’
factors, namely, people, places, policies, herself and therefore took a ‘break’ in her
programmes and processes in the school career to ‘recover’ from her disillusionment
should be intentionally inviting where of being a teacher. Similarly, Alice had
every person was kindly summoned to negative experiences of her previous school,
grow intellectually, emotionally, morally while Betty was demoralised about the
GM Steyn
profession during her two years of teaching excellence. It gave her “unbelievable
practice; “this is not what I wanted in opportunities” to develop her self-confidence
teaching”. They agreed that struggling in and leadership skills. This was supported
unpleasant school contexts led to negative by Christine who acknowledged the many
perceptions of teaching, and therefore opportunities that the school offered her
negative professional identities at that to develop and also prevented her to be in
time. The previous negative experiences of a groove. Moreover, the school allowed
Christine, Alice and Betty were supported her to be the best she could be. For Betty,
by studies of Gur (2013) and Akerson it was a huge advantage to be a teacher in
et al. (2014), that showed the impact of this school, because without it she would
previous contextual challenges on identity have been behind in her professional
development. However, once teachers development. The participants’ views also
engage in a new school environment with gave their interpretation of the self as
more conducive circumstances as was supported by White (2013). Moreover, the
shown in this study, it is possible that findings link up with Cross and Ndofirepi‘s
they reconstruct their professional identity study (2015) that showed the motivational
(Beaucamp & Thomas, 2009; Wilkins et al., impact of a conducive school environment
2012). In this regard Cross and Ndofirepi on teachers’ professional identity.
(2015, p.109) succinctly state that with a new For Christine and Dorothy, the school
school environment and new experiences, a context and its conditions were totally
“negotiation of meaning” occurs which form different from other schools. Alice valued
an important part of negotiation of the self. the wonderful vibe or spirit and believed that
What was important, however, was that the hardworking climate was ‘contagious’
these teachers were open and also “made in the school: “I can’t sit behind my desk;
their hearts ready to change” to overcome this does not work here.” She also referred
their negative feelings towards teaching to “a few unwritten rules” that teachers
(Mason, 2012, p. 178). The findings also had to abide by and certain expectations
support the conceptual framework that how teachers should behave in classrooms.
shows professional identity is not stable, but For her, this had an impact on the “higher
is based on the substantive and situational standard” of professionalism among staff
self that may change, depending on certain members. Christine elaborated on this view:
experiences and contexts (Bukor, 2011;
“The professionalism of the people,
White, 2013).
how things happen, that it works
According to Dorothy the school in the
in the right way, makes it easier to
study placed a strong focus on empowering
teach, because you do not need to
teachers for the sake of improved student
try and solve other problems … You
performance and teaching and learning
can teach and you know that you
will get help if needed. The staff communication and monitoring systems to
here is an unbelievable group; they be “great” and “wonderful”, especially with
are really wonderful.” the many people in the school. The way
in which “things occurred, that they work
All participants had similar, yet different correctly” in the school, made it easier for
interpretations of the running of the school. Christine to teach and not to be concerned
Betty said that the operational systems and about other problems that she had to solve.
the running of the school were “brilliant and Participants identified the important
unbelievable”. She explained: role of leadership, school rules and
policies that guided staff in executing their
“The school system is right and the
responsibilities in the school. This enabled
people managing it are wonderful.
Dorothy as the Head of Department to
Everything is controlled and
lead members in her department as a role
managed on a high level. Because
model to understand and even accept
many things in the school are in
new provincial and national departmental
place, things run smoothly. They
policies and rules. All participants expressed
always keep an eye one you,
their gratitude for the principal’s leadership
making sure your work is done
style who did his very best to run the school
right and keeps me up to date about
effectively. Christine in particular referred
my progress.”
to him as a “fantastic manager” who was
involved in all school activities, listened to
The participants’ account of the conditions
all role players who were in total contrast
and school culture provide a brief overview
to principals in her previous schools. The
of their situational self as supported by
findings are in line with the study of Oswald
White (2013). As such, it also links up with
and Perold (2015, p. 7): “A school leader
Kelchterman’s (2009) system of beliefs and
with the capacity to act as a positive role-
knowledge about teaching as a profession.
model for teachers can inspire feelings of
Although they had a shared identity in their
value and safety, empowering them to take
teaching profession and also the school,
risks and to strive to become the best they
they had different opinions based on their
can be”. With regard to the school rules and
personal attributes and previous experiences
policies, Christine believed that all schools
in other schools (Canrinus, 2011).
had similar school rules and policies, but that
According to Alice the school used
their execution differed. The way in which
numerous systems and “many umbrellas”
rules and policies were realised in the school
to support teachers and other role players to
made her feel “protected and safe”. Betty
attain their goal of excellence in teaching and
attributed her “tremendous” professional
learning. She cited the effective functioning
growth to the smaller Mathematics classes
and fixed structure of the administration,
of 15 students per class.
GM Steyn
Betty repeatedly appreciated the strategies, supported each other, solved

assistance of the teaching corpse who problems that occurred and “searched for
provided the necessary guidance and the best for each learner”. Moreover, it was
assistance for her to learn and develop every a great advantage that the classes of teachers
day. She said: in a particular grade were near each other
that facilitated their informal collaboration.
“The teaching corpse is really great
Christine viewed their collaboration in
people with caring hearts and they
teams as pleasant and the team members
want to know where they can help.
even helped her to get another perspective
There are mentors everywhere, you
on many other teaching related issues. Alice
can go anywhere and there will be
on the other hand experienced a healthy
someone to help.”
competition among team members that
motivated her to improve her performance
Similar to the study of Hodges and
in her classroom. Although Dorothy was the
Cady (2012) participants noted the
Head of Department and had many years
value of dialogue with colleagues about
of teaching experience in Mathematics,
Mathematics and the teaching thereof. It
her colleagues had higher Mathematics
was the existence of the formal and informal
qualifications that she had. This compelled
collaborative structures in the school
her to have frequent academic conversations
that had a major impact on participants’
with them, formally and informally to ask
professional development. The current
for assistance and suggestions. Like in
principal who believed that the success in
Christine’s case she valued the pleasant
teachers’ classrooms depended 100% on
collaboration among team members.
teacher collaboration instituted vertical
Moreover, she appreciated the enthusiasm
and horizontal teams for collaboration
and motivation of teachers that made it easy
since 2011 (Steyn, 2015). He removed the
for her to lead them.
previous system of isolation among teachers
This is in line with the findings by
and also ensured continuity among grades.
Castañeda (2011, p. 2) that a teacher’s
Teachers in the Mathematics Department
“identity develops as a trajectory of
formally met once a term, while grade level
participation and interaction in a teacher
teams convened once a week to focus on
community”. However, it implied that each
topics that were relevant to their teaching.
team member had to contribute to the team
The purpose during formal and informal
and “work and grow together” to ensure
interactions was for teachers to share ideas
effective learning in their teams (Mason,
that would support and improve their
2012, p. 186). The findings showed that
practice. For Betty, the grade 7 Mathematics
the participants used the collaboration
team was “an unbelievable team”. They
opportunities to improve their practice for
worked together on a daily basis, constantly
the sake of their own performance and that
shared the subject content and their teaching
of their students (Vähäsantanen, Hӧkkä,
Eteläpelto, Rasku-Puttonen, & Littleton, identity showed that the school context
2008). For Cross and Ndofirepi (2015), such played a major role in her current positive
situations in a collaborative environment are identity. She experienced “absolute trust”
an essential part in negotiating the self. This in her professional abilities and was even
view links up with that of White (2013) who appointed as Cluster leader for Mathematics
refers to the situational self that develops in the District. However, even after 17
and also changes through relationships in years in the Mathematics Department she
contexts. Wenger’s (2000) notion of situated realised that she had not yet “arrived”
learning is also supported in this study and that she needed to be open in her
which shows that social interaction among development because there was still room
team members is critical for individuals’ for improvement. In a similar way, Christine
professional development. Similar to felt quite satisfied and confident about
White’s study (2014) the participants her current professional identity. She was
indicated that their understanding of school nevertheless open to adapt and to develop
related issues increased when working with when faced with new circumstances in the
more experienced teachers. It was in their profession. With not that many years of
interaction and relation with others that teaching experience, Alice believed that
participants realised “what they need or her identity was of a high professional
want to be” (Mason, 2012, p. 165). Dorothy, standard which she attributed to the school
the only participant who experienced the context. However, she did not want to
change to teacher collaboration elaborated: stagnate and also felt responsible for her
own identity development to become a
“Team work is very important for
better teacher. Alice’s view was echoed by
effective learning, to teach the
Betty who acknowledged the unbelievable
subject effectively and lead learners
role of the school, the principal and staff
effectively through opinions and
in her current positive identity. Yet, she
guidance, and commentary form
recognised many areas that required further
colleagues. You can always learn
development and expressed her eagerness
from the younger ones. I love it,
to become the best Maths teacher she could
because sometimes you fall into
be. The accounts of participants clearly
a rut by doing things in the same
show that a professional identity is an
way.”
unstable an ongoing process and that it is
constructed and reconstructed depending on
Even with the conducive school context an individual’s stories over a period of time
and participants’ positive experiences of (Bukor, 2011; Jamil et al., 2014; Wilkins
its impact on their professional identity, et al., 2012). Their unique identities also
they expressed a strong, yet unique sense reveal the five components of Kelchtermans’
of professional identity (White, 2014). (2009) personal interpretative framework:
Dorothy’s account of her professional self-image, self-esteem, task perception,
GM Steyn
job-motivation and future perspective. experiences of teachers, and ultimately

I n r e l a t i o n t o B u k o r ’s ( 2 0 11 ) to a positive professional identity in
interpretation of the personal construct which they can be more effective in
theory, the participants revealed a their classroom practice.
retrospective and forward-looking construct • Formal and informal teacher
of their professional identities. In their collaboration opportunities as well
retrospective construct they showed how as supportive working conditions in
they reconstructed their previous stories which teachers share and debate their
as a result of impact of the current school classroom experiences and challenges
context. With regard to the forward-looking are central to teachers’ construction of
construct they all expressed a desire to a positive teacher identity.
develop and become better teachers.
• Being members of collaborative
structures allows not only for an
CONCLUSIONS
individual, but also as a collective
This study focused on the impact of the recognisable phenomenon.
school context on the perceptions of teachers’
professional identity at a particular point in This study focused on the impact of
time. The construction and reconstruction the school context on the construction
of individuals’ professional identities are, of Mathematics teachers’ professional
however, a complex reality which makes development. Compared to other classes
it difficult to isolate it from other personal in the school, these Mathematics teachers
and professional influences at a given stage. worked in classrooms with 15 students
The following conclusions can be drawn per class. A study that focuses on the
from the study: professional identities of other teachers
• The professional identity of teachers in the school is recommended. Such a
is an active and ongoing process in study could identify the factors in the
which multiple experiences influence school environment that play a key role
its development. in the construction of teachers’ identity.
• Contextual factors within the school I also recommend narrative enquiries to
environment were found to have a huge determine how challenging conditions
impact on teachers’ identity. It means in disadvantaged schools can be adapted
that the complexity of professional to enhance the professional identity of
identity needs to be taken into account teachers in those schools. Such narratives
by reform designers because teachers which focus on the self and the contexts
are the ones who embrace, reinterpret may be enlightening to assist other schools
and develop such efforts. in supporting the development of positive
professional identities of teachers.
• A conducive school environment has
the potential to contribute to positive
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Caine, V., Estefan, A., & Clandinin, D. J. (2013).

A return to methodological commitment:
This work is based upon research supported
Reflections on narrative inquiry. Scandinavian
by the National Research Foundation in Journal of Educational Research, 57(6), 574-
South Africa. 586. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2013.798833
Canrinus, E. T. (2011). Teachers’ sense of their

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co.za

Export Tax Policy in Indonesia: The Impacts on Competitiveness

and Price Integration of Cocoa Products
Abdul Muis Hasibuan1* and Apri Laila Sayekti2
1
Indonesian Industrial and Beverage Crops Research Institute, Indonesian Agency for Agricultural
Research and Development, Sukabumi, Jawa Barat, 43357 Indonesia
2
Indonesian Centre for Horticultural Research and Development, Indonesian Agency for Agricultural
Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Until 2010, the Indonesian cocoa exports had been dominated by cocoa beans, which led
the government to stimulate the processing industry by implementing cocoa export tax
policy. This study aims to determine the impact of cocoa industrialisation policy on the
competitiveness of cocoa beans and processed products as well as the integration of cocoa
prices. The implementation of export tax policy significantly decreases cocoa bean export
competitiveness, contradictory with intermediate products. Export tax policy also has no
impact on the integration of domestic and international cocoa market. In developing the
cocoa downstream industry, on-farm support in producing fermented cocoa beans is vital.
Keywords: Cocoa, comparative advantages, price, industry, Indonesia JEL classification F1 H2 H3 Q1
INTRODUCTION has gained government incentives for its

As one of the largest cocoa bean producers development. The policy which is regulated
in the world, the cocoa based industry is by Presidential Regulation No. 28/2008, is
one of the priorities in the agro-industry subject to Indonesia’s National Industry
sector in Indonesia. As such, the industry Policies and followed by the particular
instrument which is the implementation
of export tax for cocoa beans in 2010. The
major consideration of this policy is to
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
develop cocoa based downstream industry
Received: 22 May 2017 which is value added (Kemenkeu, 2010).
E-mail addresses:
The importance of industrialisation
[email protected] (Abdul Muis Hasibuan), policy can be explained by the trade
[email protected] (Apri Laila Sayekti)
*Corresponding author performance and competitiveness of

Indonesian cocoa. Some studies have industries that will eventually generate a
shown that Indonesian cocoa exports were positive impact on the farm gate price (Rifin,
dominated by cocoa beans which were 2015). Nevertheless, some researchers
more competitive than processed products believe that the market structure of cocoa
(Hasibuan, Nurmalina, & Wahyudi, 2012a; beans tends to be oligopsony where traders
Lubis & Nuryanti, 2011; Rifin, 2013). The have a dominant role in the price setting
policy was expected to deliver advantages process (Ermiati, Hasibuan, & Wahyudi,
to the national economy such as increasing 2014; Sisfahyuni, Saleh, & Yantu, 2011;
in value-added and export competitiveness, Yantu, Juanda, Siregar, Gonarsyah, & Hadi,
opening employment opportunities, 2010).
improving cocoa farmers’ welfare, and The changes in the structure
eventually enhancing the contribution of this of Indonesian cocoa trade after the
commodity to the economic growth (Arifin, industrialisation policy have had an impact
2013; Drajat, 2011; Lubis & Nuryanti, 2011; on export competitiveness. Tresliyana et
Sa’id, 2009; Syam et al., 2006). al. (2015) examines that the Indonesian
The impact of these policies have cocoa bean competitiveness is showing
been widely studied, both before and after a declining trend, whereas the processed
implementation (Arsyad, Sinaga, & Yusuf, cocoa is becoming more competitive. In
2011; Hasibuan, Nurmalina, & Wahyudi, price integration context, Rifin (2015)
2012b; Permani, 2011, 2013; Rifin, 2015; found that the international price was
Syadullah, 2012; Tresliyana, Fariyanti, & transferred entirely to the domestic
Rifin, 2015). For example, the cocoa export price. On the other hand, price or market
tax might encourage the growth of domestic integration could establish competitiveness
cocoa processing industry, as well as the (Barrett, 1996). Products which have better
use of domestic cocoa beans as its raw market integration tend to obtain higher
materials. Hence, it has resulted in a high competitiveness (Munch & Sørensen, 2000).
demand for local cocoa beans, eventually However, there are gaps in the literature,
effecting a significant decline in the export particularly in the comparison assessment
(Hasibuan, Nurmalina, & Wahyudi, 2012c; of pre and post policy, with regard to
Syadullah, 2012). Furthermore, there is a competitiveness and price integration.
possibility that Indonesia will become a Thus, this study aims to determine the
net importer of cocoa beans in the future impact of cocoa industrialisation policy on
(Permani, 2013). At on-farm levels, Arsyad the competitiveness of the export of cocoa
et al. (2011) cautions that the policy could beans and processed products as well as the
decrease the production of cocoa beans. integration of cocoa prices in the domestic
However, it will increase competition and international markets.
between exporters and domestic processing
The Impact of Cocoa Export Tax Policy in Indonesia
MATERIALS AND METHODS Xijt donates the cocoa export value from
Indonesia to the world market, Xjt is total
Data
value of Indonesian export to the world
Competitiveness analysis used annual market, Wit is cocoa export value from the
export and import data (2001-2015) from whole world, and Wt is the total value of
International Trade Center and Indonesian world export. The RCA index may have
Statistics Agency. For market integration a value from 0 to infinity. If the value is
analysis, monthly price data from January between 0 to 1, it will indicate that Indonesia
2005 until December 2015 was used. is not competitive for particular products.
International cocoa beans’ monthly price The measurement of RCA is asymmetric,
data were collected from World Bank, which is considered as a major problem of
while the domestic data was obtained from this index. However, a method to address
the Ministry of Trade. In consideration this issue has been developed using RSCA
to adjustments in the international and (Laursen, 2015; Nath et al., 2015). So,
domestic prices, this study used USD-IDR RSCA is an improvement measurement
monthly exchange rate from the Bank of of RCA in determining the comparative
Indonesia. advantage of trade. RSCA is formulated as:
Data Analysis
Competitiveness Analysis. The changing
of Indonesian cocoa export competitiveness In regards to determining the impact of
(cocoa bean, cocoa paste, cocoa butter, industrialisation policies on competitiveness,
cocoa powder and chocolate) was measured t-test was performed on the RCA through
by Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) 2-sample t-test, which is mathematically
and Revealed Symmetric Comparative formulated as follows:
Advantage (RSCA) criteria, for before and
after the industrialisation policy in 2010.
These criteria are commonly used to measure
product competitiveness of a country in the
international market (Leromain & Orefice,
The value of and are average of RCA
2014; Mallick & Marques, 2016; Nath, Liu,
before and after the export tax policy,
& Tochkov, 2015; Stângaciu & Harja, 2013;
respectively while S1 dan S2 are standard
Startienė & Remeikienė, 2014; Wahyudi,
deviation and N1 dan N2 are total series data.
2016). RCA is formulated as follows:
Integration of Domestic and International

Market Analysis. The measurement of
market integration is used to assess the price
interaction in different markets (domestic
and international) where the movement of to determine the interdependence of the

prices in each market indicates the degree variable time series. Data were analysed
of market integration (Goletti, Ahmed, & with Eviews software package.
Farid, 1995). Price integration is used as
an indicator of market integration through RESULTS
testing co-integration between the prices
Impact of Industrialisation Policy on
which is econometrically considered to
Cocoa Trade Competitiveness
be a better approach (Adiyoga, Fuglie,
& Suherman, 2006). In examining the Cocoa industrialisation policies have been
integration of the international and implemented by the Indonesian government
domestic market, it is important to analyse where the main instrument is cocoa export
the integration of cocoa bean prices of tax. This policy has led to significant
both markets. The study analysed the changes in the structure of Indonesian
interdependence between domestic and cocoa exports. In the period of 2001 to
international markets before and after 2010, Indonesian cocoa exports were still
implementation of the industrialisation dominated by cocoa beans. However, the
policy of cocoa. The method used is the opposite occurred for the period between
vector auto-regression (VAR) and vector 2011 and 2015 which showed the volume of
error correction model (VECM), adapted export of processed cocoa (intermediate and
from Rifin (2014). VECM is used if the final product) exceeded cocoa beans (Figure
variable is not stationary and co-integrated 1). Thus, in general, the implementation of
at the data level (Hahn, Stewart, Blayney, tariff policy cocoa exports in 2010 increased
& Davis, 2016). The method is suitable export of processed products.
1
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
Cocoa beans Processed Cocoa
Figure 1. Cocoa bean and processed cocoa export volume, 2001- 2015
Figure 1. Cocoa bean and processed cocoa export volume, 2001- 2015
25.00
20.00
The changes in export structure had that Indonesia still had a comparative 1
an impact on the shifting of volume and advantage as an exporter of cocoa beans.

competitiveness
600,000 of Indonesian cocoa However, there was a significant decline
exports, for500,000
both cocoa beans and processed in comparison to the period before and
products. In the period of 2001 to 2010, after export tax implementation. The
the average400,000
export volume of cocoa beans average value of RCA cocoa beans prior
reached 369,992
300,000
tonnes per year, while in to implementation of the policy was 14.55,
the period of 2011 to 2015, only 132,989 even in 2002, it reached 22.55 (Figure 2).
tonnes were 200,000
exported annually. With the On the other hand, the average value of
criteria of 100,000
revealed comparative advantage RCA after the policy only reached 4.20
(RCA), the export competitiveness of cocoa (Figure 2). Statistically, RCA values before
beans (4-digit HS- Code 1801) experienced a and after the application of the export tax
significant decline after the implementation policy was significantly different at the level
of the export tax policy. In the period of of 5%
Cocoa beans (t-statistic
Processed Cocoa = 7.53; p-value = 0.000)
2001 to 2014, the RCA value of cocoa bean (Figure 3).
exports was greater
Figure than
1. Cocoa bean1,and
which indicates
processed cocoa export volume, 2001- 2015
25.00
20.00
15.00
RCA
10.00
5.00
0.00
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
1801 1803 1804 1805 1806
Figure 2. Dynamics of RCA for cocoa bean (1801), cocoa paste (1803), cocoa butter (1804), cocoa powder
(1805), and chocolate and food preparation containing cocoa (1806) export
Figure 2. Dynamics of RCA for cocoa bean (1801), cocoa paste (1803), cocoa butter
(1804), cocoa powder (1805), and chocolate and food preparation containing cocoa
(1806) export
2
25.00
20.00
15.00 14.55
10.00
8.80*
7.02* 7.00
5.00 4.43
4.20*
4.05
1.61
0.00 0.26 0.19
Before After Before After Before After Before After Before After
Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy
1801 1803 1804 1805 1806
FigureFigure
3. Box3.plot
Boxt-test
plot before and after
t-test before andexport tax policy
after export for cocoa
tax policy bean (1801),
for cocoa cocoacocoa
bean (1801), paste (1803), cocoa
butterpaste
(1804), cocoacocoa
(1803), powder (1805),
butter andcocoa
(1804), chocolate and(1805),
powder food preparation containing
and chocolate cocoa (1806)
and food
preparation containing cocoa (1806)
The decline of cocoa bean competitiveness is tests (t-test) which significantly rose after
inversely related to cocoa paste (HS 4-digit the implementation of the policy (t-statistic
Before Policy
1801
code 1803). Since

After Policy the implementation of = -9.26; P-value = 0.003) (Figure 3).
cocoa export tax
Before policy, cocoa paste export
Policy Cocoa butter (HS 4-digit code 1804)
1803
as one of the
Afterintermediate
Policy cocoa products is another intermediate product of cocoa
has increased significantly.
Before Policy The annual which has the largest proportion of the
1804
average volume of exports of cocoa paste Indonesian export volume of processed

After Policy
from 2001 to 2010
Before Policy reached only 16,091 cocoa. The cocoa butter industry had
1805
tonnes, yet After

increased
Policy
to 75,994 tonnes after developed well before the introduction of
the implementation
Before Policy
of the policy (2011- the export tax policy, thus further grew
1806
2015). Regarding competitiveness, in the after its implementation. As shown by

After Policy
period between 2001 and 2010, the average the average volume of exports of cocoa
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
value of RCA cocoa paste only reached butter, from 2001 to 2010, it reached
1.61; in 2009 the RCA value dropped 0.99 44,345 tonnes, whereas after the policy the
Figure 4. Average RSCA of cocoa export product (HS 4 digit) before and after cocoa
which indicated
export that
tax policy the product was not export volume doubled to 95,543 tonnes.
implementation
competitive. On the contrary, following In terms of competitiveness, the RCA
the policy, the competitiveness increased value increased from 7.00 to 8.81 which is
significantly with an annual average of 7.03 statistically significant at 5 percentile level.
RCA. The increasing competitiveness of Another intermediate cocoa product, cocoa
cocoa paste was also confirmed by statistical powder, also found a positive impact of the
export tax policy on export volume. This Indonesian chocolate products as not
is indicated by the increase in the average competitive, even the RCA values 2 tended to
annual export volume from 30.142 tonnes decrease. The average value of RCA before
to 68,720 tonnes per year. Unfortunately, the the policy was 0.25, but subsequently fell
competitiveness
25.00 based on RCA did not see a to 1.875 (Figure 2). However, statistically,
significant improvement, even though it was there was no significant difference at the
still valued to have a comparative advantage level of 5 percentile (Figure 3).
20.00
(Figure 2 and Figure 3). The RCA average measurement for
Chocolate and other food preparations each product of cocoa exports showed that
15.00
containing cocoa 14.55
(HS 4-digit code 1806) prior to the implementation of the export
are cocoa final products. Exports of tax policy, cocoa beans had the highest
these products
10.00 also increased after the comparative advantage, followed by cocoa
8.80*
implementation of the export tax policy. The 7.02* butter,
7.00 cocoa powder and cocoa paste.
average 5.00
annual export volume prior to the However, after the implementation of the
4.20* 4.43
policy amounted to 14,444 tonnes, rising to policy, the largest 4.05 comparative advantage
1.61
15,976 tonnes. However, the policy has not was owned by cocoa butter,0.26 followed
0.19
by
0.00
been able to raiseBefore the competitiveness
After Before After of cocoa
Before Afterpaste,
Beforecocoa
After powder
Before and
After cocoa
Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy Policy
Indonesian chocolate products. During the beans. Meanwhile, chocolate and other
1801 1803 1804 1805
analysis period, the value of this product food containing cocoa did 1806 not have any
RCA never reached
Figure 3. Box plot one
t-test which indicated
before and after export comparative advantage
tax policy for cocoa (Figure
bean (1801), cocoa4).
paste (1803), cocoa butter (1804), cocoa powder (1805), and chocolate and food
preparation containing cocoa (1806)
Before Policy
1801
After Policy
Before Policy
1803
After Policy
Before Policy
1804
After Policy
Before Policy
1805
After Policy
Before Policy
1806
After Policy
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure 4. Average RSCA of cocoa export product (HS 4 digit) before and after cocoa export tax policy
Figure 4. Average RSCA of cocoa export product (HS 4 digit) before and after cocoa
implementation
export tax policy implementation
3
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Malaysia Indonesia Singapore

Viet Nam Philippines Thailand
(a)
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(b)
The Impact of Cocoa Export Tax Policy in Indonesia 4
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(c)
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(d)
5
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(e)
Figure 5. Dynamics of RCA for (a) cocoa bean (1801), (b) cocoa paste (1803), (c) cocoa butter (1804), (d)
cocoa powder Figure 5. and
(1805), Dynamics of RCA
(e) chocolate andfor (a) preparation
food cocoa beancontaining
(1801), (b) cocoa
cocoa pastebetween
(1806) (1803),ASEAN
(c)
cocoa butter (1804), (d) cocoa powder (1805), and (e) chocolate and food preparation
countries, 2001-2015
containing cocoa (1806) between ASEAN countries, 2001-2015
Comparing the position of Indonesia with cocoa powder (1805), despite Indonesia’s
other ASEAN countries, export tax policy increasing competitiveness. Unfortunately,
has changed the competition structure of none of the ASEAN countries showed any
cocoa and its preparation (Figure 5). Before competitiveness for cocoa final products,
the policy, Indonesia was very dominant as with the RCA index lower than 1. In
a cocoa bean exporter, but since 2014, RCA comparison, , Singapore had the highest
of Malaysia has been higher than Indonesia, value (0.83), followed by Malaysia (0.45),
even though its cocoa bean production Indonesia (0.18), the Philippines (0.15),
is lower than Indonesia. The increasing Thailand (0.09), and Vietnam (0.05).
RCA for cocoa downstream products could
increase the competitiveness of Indonesia Impact of Industrialisation Policy on
in the ASEAN region. In 2015, RCA value Domestic and International Market
of Indonesia cocoa paste (1803) was the Integration
highest, that was 10.07, compared with
Unit Root Test. The variables used in this
Malaysia (3.12), and Singapore (0.71). The
study was cocoa price in the domestic and
same pattern was also seen for cocoa butter
international market. The international price
(1804), where the RCA value of Indonesia,
was price-adjusted with IDR-USD exchange
Malaysia and Singapore in 2015 was 14.24,
rate. Unit root test results on both variables
8.19, and 1.42, respectively. However,
showed that the domestic and international
Malaysia was still the most competitive for
cocoa prices have a unit root, or are not policy. However, on the first difference, all
stationary at the data level, both before and the variables tested were stationary at the
after the implementation of cocoa export tax level of 5 percentile (Table 1).
Table 1
Augmented Dickey – Fuller test for cocoa price in domestic and international market
Before policy After policy

Level 1st Difference Level 1st Difference
t-Statistics Prob.* t-Statistics Prob.* t-Statistics Prob.* t-Statistics Prob.*
PDOM -0.809 0.810 -6.897 0.000 0.009 0.956 -9.044 0.000
PWRLD -0.628 0.856 -6.238 0.000 0.437 0.983 -8.035 0.000
Note: Bold text means significant at 5% level
Lag Optimum Test. The test based on lag was achieved at lag 1, both before and
three criteria, Akaike Information Criterion after cocoa industrialisation policy (Table
(AIC), Schwarz Criterion (SC) and Hannan- 2). So, lag 1 was used in the VAR model.
Quinn Criterion (HQ), indicates that optimal
Table 2
VAR Lag optimum test result
Lag Before policy After policy

AIC SC HQ AIC SC HQ
0 36.524 36.599 36.553 37.069 37.141 37.097
1 33.438* 33.663* 33.524* 33.313* 33.530* 33.397*
2 33.511 33.886 33.654 33.3156 33.677 33.4556
3 33.502 34.028 33.704 33.348 33.855 33.5445
4 33.560 34.235 33.818 33.452 34.103 33.704
5 33.701 34.527 34.018 33.440 34.236 33.748
6 33.602 34.577 33.976 33.491 34.431 33.856
7 33.577 34.703 34.009 33.603 34.688 34.024
8 33.717 34.992 34.206 33.668 34.898 34.145
9 33.771 35.197 34.317 33.723 35.097 34.256
10 33.878 35.454 34.482 33.606 35.125 34.194
Note: AIC = Akaike Information Criterion
SC = Schwartz Criterion
HQ = Hannan-Quinn Criterion
* indicates lag order selected by the criterion
Price Co-Integration. Co-integration test implementation of the policy), there was

for domestic and international prices was one co-integration equation of domestic
conducted by Johansen Co-integration Test and international prices at the level of 5
with specification models ‘no deterministic percentile in the long term (Table 3). The
trend’ and lag interval 1, both before and existence of co-integration indicates that
after implementation of the export tax in the formation of domestic cocoa prices,
policy. Max-Eigen Statistics criteria shows world cocoa prices are used as a reference.
that in each tested period (before and after
Table 3
Co-integration test between cocoa price in domestic and international market
Hypothesised No. Eigenvalue Max-Eigen 0,05 Critical value Prob.**

of CE(s) statistic
------------ Before Policy ------------
None * 0.245 17.424 15.892 0.028
At most 1 0.029 1.816 9.164 0.814
------------ After Policy ------------
None * 0.275 21.259 15.892 0.006
At most 1 0.017 1.123 9.1645 0.935
Note: * Max-eigenvalue test indicates 1 cointegrating equation(s) at the 0.05 level
Co-integration of domestic and world cocoa by 1%, boosted domestic cocoa price of
prices is also evidenced from the equation 0.9683%. Meanwhile, after the policy was
estimation of vector error correction model, in practice, the increase in world cocoa price
before and after policy implementation of 1% was only responded with an increase
(Table 4). Before implementing export tax in the domestic price of 0.7678%.
policy, the increase in world cocoa prices
Table 4
VECM Estimations, before and after Export Tax Policy Implementation
Co-integrating equations Coefficient Standard error t-statistics

PWRLD1(-1) 0.968 0.020 47.202*
PWRLD2(-1) 0.768 0.019 39.951*
Notes: *) Significant at 5% level
DISCUSSION Other facts known from the results of

With the RCA and RSCA criteria, it can be this study indicate that export of Indonesia
determined that the application of cocoa processed cocoa is dominated by cocoa
export tax policy as the main instrument butter which can be produced using raw
for the government to develop the cocoa materials of non-fermented cocoa beans.
industry was able to encourage growth of This can be considered as a consequence
intermediate cocoa products such as cocoa of at least three factors. Firstly, Indonesia
paste, cocoa butter and cocoa powder. The cocoa beans production is mostly in non-
policy also increased the competiveness fermented cocoa bean forms (Hasibuan,
of Indonesian intermediate products et al., 2015; Perdew & Shively, 2009).
among ASEAN countries. Meanwhile, Secondly, Towaha, Anggraini, and Rubiyo
competitiveness of final products (chocolate (2012)’s study revealed that the cocoa bean
and other food preparations containing fermentation process does not affect the
cocoa) remained unchanged. This means quality of the cocoa butter. Thirdly, one of
that the policy was only able to encourage the advantages of Indonesian cocoa beans
the cocoa export structure of raw materials is its high butter content (Neilson, 2007).
into intermediate products. The domination However, Neilson (2007) believes this may
of intermediate product exports indicates cause Indonesian cocoa to relatively have
that the added value derived from the limited product diversification in the world
cocoa industry development policy was market. In addition, the effort to increase
lower than projected. In line with the cocoa paste and cocoa powder production
assertion made by Liefert and Westcott is restricted by the availability of fermented
(2016), export tax policy could give an beans. On the other hand, attempts to import
advantage for certain economic groups, fermented cocoa beans is less profitable
such as downstream industry. On the other because it is subject to 5% import duty.
hand, there was an increase in the volume Previous studies showed that cocoa bean
of import of chocolate and other food fermentation process is essential to produce
preparations containing cocoa. During the high quality of cocoa paste and cocoa powder
period between 2010 and 2015, there was (Joel, Pius, Deborah, & Chris, 2013; Towaha
an annual increase of 21.15% for imported et al., 2012). In addition, in producing good
chocolate and other cocoa containing food quality chocolate, raw material of fermented
preparations. In tandem, its yearly exports cocoa beans is essential (Lima, Almeida,
decreased by 3.78%, thus, implying a rise in Nout, & Zwietering, 2011; Misnawi &
domestic chocolate consumption. However, Ariza, 2011). Thus, the low production
this opportunity has not been utilised by the of fermented cocoa beans has been the
domestic industry in the manufacturing of cause of undeveloped chocolate industry in
final products, because they are still focused Indonesia.
on producing intermediate products.
There is a significant opportunity The formation of domestic prices of cocoa

for improving the quality of cocoa beans beans is reliant upon international prices as
domestically through fermentation process. reference. This integration occurs because
The main problem lies in the reluctance of the disclosure of information price of cocoa
farmers to produce fermented cocoa bean is good enough. The results of the study by
due to the very low price incentive compared Rifin (2015) also showed that farmers obtain
with non-fermented cocoa beans (Drajat, pricing information from exporters based on
2011; Hasibuan et al., 2015). Through the reference price of the New York Board of
profits earned from export tax policy, the Trade (NYBOT). Matous, Todo, and Pratiwi
domestic cocoa processing industry should (2015) believe that the ownership and
be able to provide attractive price incentives mobile phones can help farmers to acquire
for farmers to produce fermented cocoa pertinent pricing information so as to avoid
beans (Listyati, Wahyudi, & Hasibuan, dishonesty in pricing practice, as occurs in
2014). Farming institutions need to play a Ghana where buyers do not reward farmers
more effective role to strive for higher price with the true value of cocoa (Peprah, 2015).
for better quality (Hasibuan et al., 2015). In the case of Indonesia, however,
In turn, this will encourage improvement export tax caused a lower price transmission
in the quality of national cocoa beans as after application of the policy, which is
well as increase farmers’ income while indicated by a lower coefficient of co-
supporting the development of the national integrating estimation. This might be due
cocoa industry to be more value-added and to tariff scheme for cocoa export which
competitive (Hounkonnou et al., 2012). follows the fluctuation in international
As stated by Martin and Anderson price. Permani (2013) estimated that export
(2011), export restriction policy, such as tariff implemented by the government
export tax, has an impact on price surge was higher than the optimal rate, causing
and prevents farmers to obtain higher the competitiveness of cocoa beans to
world price (An, Qiu, & Zheng, 2016). decrease significantly, even lower than
For example, the government will raise Malaysia. This finding was previously
export tax to reduce the domestic price as a supported by Barrett (1996), and Munch
response to increasing international price. and Sørensen (2000), where lower market
On the other hand, farm level prices tend to integration decreased competitiveness.
show asymmetric price transmission, where Hence, it needs to be considered that export
they are likely more reactive to price decline tax is not a single instrument to spur the
than rise (Hahn et al., 2016). These findings development of an industry. Yilmaz (2006)
reveal that the implementation of cocoa reminds that export tax should be maximised
bean export tax policy since April 2010 to increase the welfare, particularly for
has not made an impact on the integration countries which have significant market
of domestic market and the world market. power such as Indonesia. It is important to
consider that cocoa farming can be a crucial to stimulate the development of chocolate
strategy to increase income growth for industry.
poor rural farmers (Arsyad & Kawamura,
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usaha. Jurnal Teknologi Industri Pertanian, 10.1080/09638190500523360
16(1), 18-27.

A Path Analysis of the Relationship between Job Stress and Care

for Ageing Parents in Thailand: A Case Study of Thai Migrant
Workers
Kaewanuchit C.1* and Kanwal, N. D. S.2
1
Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University, Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya province, 13000 Thailand
2
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This study examines internal labour migration in Thailand to study the stress level of
workers who have to care of and look after their ageing parents. A cross-sectional survey
was administered to 300 Thai migrant labourers who continuously have to attend to their
ageing parents. Thai Job Content Questionnaire (Thai-JCQ) was used to gather information
on job stress level using the Job Demand Control (JDC) model developed by Karasek.
Findings show that distance, wages, and working conditions have a direct effect on job
stress. Wages had the most direct relationship with job stress with a standardised regression
weight of 0.400 (p-value<0.01). In conclusion, distance, wages, and working conditions,
each directly impacts job stress. However, caring for ageing parents is a mediator and a
moderator of job stress levels.
Keywords: Job stress, Thai migrant labour, path analysis, ageing parents
INTRODUCTION of living especially after the AEC (Asian

Thailand has experienced rapid economic Economic Community) was established
growth in recent years and a rise in the cost by ASEAN in 2015. This has particularly
affected internal labour migration in
Thailand (Ministry of Social Development
ARTICLE INFO and Human Security, 2013; Niyomsilpa,
Article history: 2011). A survey by the Ministry of Social
Received: 12 July 2017
Accepted: 07 December 2017 Development and Human Security in
E-mail addresses: 2013 showed that Thai migrant workers
[email protected] (Kaewanuchit C.),
[email protected] (Kanwal, N. D. S.) experienced high levels of job stress and

tend to work in the same regions rather than dimension and the social determinants
in different regions in Thailand (Bureau of of health have shown the causes of job
Policy and Strategy, 2015). stress among migrant workers are directly
This is heightened with the stress associated with the complexity of working
of looking after ageing parents, some of conditions such as heavy workload
whom suffer from mental illnesses, thus, (Amponsah-Tawiah, Leka, Jain, Hollis,
escalating the emotional and financial costs & Cox, 2014; Dunlavy & Rostila, 2013;
for the migrant workers. As Thai culture Filiz, 2014; Kaewanuchit & Sawangdee,
places great importance on looking after 2016a; Kaewanuchit & Sawangdee, 2016b),
ageing parents (Yodthong, Seeherunwong, high job responsibility (Levy, Wegman,
Kongsuriyanavin, & Au-Yeong, 2014), Baron, & Sokas, 2011), or different job
this would have a tremendous effect on the characteristics such as job stress among
mental health of migrant labourers that is Thai farm workers under globalisation
further aggravated by job stress. In Thailand, (Kaewanuchit, Muntaner, Labonte, &
there is significant cultural emphasis placed Johnson, 2015), poor wages (Gatchel
on caring for elderly parents which is quite & Schultz, 2012) and logistics, namely
different from the Western culture. As most distance to the workplace (Kaewanuchit &
of them are migrants, it makes it harder Sawangdee, 2016).
for them to look after their sick and ageing A study validated the link between job
parents (Yodthong et al., 2014). Studies conditions and occupational stress was
have shown that poor working conditions, verified using a psychosocial occupational
job insecurity, poor career opportunities, stress model among academics in Thai
distance, and transport problems are linked government universities. The model showed
to job stress, anxiety, and depression that teaching tasks had the most direct effect
(Georges, et al., 2013; Grzywacz, et al., on stress among the academics. Another
2011; Hiott, Grzywacz, Davis, Quandt, & study investigated the causal relationship
Arcury, 2008). between occupation and stress among
A study in China found that working 200 male academic university employees
hours, wages, family support, housing (200 cases) in Thailand. The results of this
conditions, age, and work characteristics are study showed that job and environmental
associated with mental health problems such condition, which is one of the psychosocial
as stress (Wong & Leung, 2008). There are dimensions of occupational health, has the
both physical and psychological effects of most direct effect on stress (p<0.05) while
heavy workload and emotional stress on an variables such as family support and periods
individual (Arcury, Grzywacz, Chen, Mora, of duty are occupational stress at the low
& Quandt, 2014). level (Kaewanuchit, 2015).
Previous studies from the public A cross-sectional survey on
health perspective under the psychological occupational stress using Thai-JCQ among
Job Stress and Care for Ageing Parents among Thai Migrant Workers
Thai Immigrant Employees in Bangkok one or two weeks or once a month) thus,
using path diagram (Kaewanuchit, 2017a) reducing stress levels as they are in the
was undertaken. It was found that working company of their family. Therefore, it is
conditions have the most direct relationship important to examine job stress among Thai
on occupational stress while workload has migrant labourers who are simultaneously
an indirect relationship (Kaewanuchit, looking after their ageing parents.
2017a).
Another study focused on psychosocial METHODS
issues faced by migrant workers and their
Sample and Recruitment
families and findings found the former
faced many family conflicts in raising This study was conducted in 2016
their children, and looking after their among selected Thai migrant workers,
ageing parents. This psychosocial stress aged between 20 and 59, who were also
problem is directly linked to poor mental looking after their ageing parents. The
health (Hettige, Ekanayake, Jayasundere, respondents were working in Bangkok
Rathnayake, & Figurado, 2012). A study and in Nonthaburi province which borders
on male Mexican migrant labour separated Bangkok. Stratified random sampling was
from their families for long periods showed used to select the respondents who consisted
they suffered from poor mental health of Thai immigrant employees who were
issues, such as, fear, anxiety, and depression caring for their ageing parents (300 cases).
(Letiecq, Grzywacz, Gray, & Eudave, The researchers invited the same population
2014). The same effects were noted among who fulfilled the following criteria: self-
female migrant labourers in Sri Lanka, who identified as Thai migrant workers who
were employed as maids, leaving behind looked after their ageing parents and
family members to work in other countries who worked in Nonthaburi province and
such as, Europe and the American regions Bangkok. An exclusion criterion was Thai
(Siriwardhana et al., 2015). Their ageing migrant workers who worked and lived
parents faced physical and mental health in other provinces. The sample size was
issues, while caring for their children left calculated using the M-plus guideline. It
behind in Sri Lanka. considered no less than 10-20 times the
Meanwhile, a research in Thailand number of parameters for the path model
showed that job conditions were linked to ((p* (p+1)) / 2) X (t ≤ (p* (p+1)) / 2)). Thus,
mental health problems among Thai migrant the sample size of 300 participants was
labourers (Kaewanuchit & Sawangdee, enough to reduce proportional errors.
2016). However, the distance between home
and workplace was negatively associated Research Instruments
with mental health. This is because the Research instrument was a questionnaire
workers regularly returned home (every which contained 76 closed items (three
parts): individual characteristic in first their jobs to meet physicians to discuss

part (eight questions), working conditions health of their parents, and (viii) how
while supporting ageing parents in second supporting their ageing parents affect
part (14 questions), and Thai Job Content their job performance. Cronbach’s alpha
Questionnaire (Thai-JCQ) in the final part coefficient was 0.75.
(54 questions). The details below were (3) Job stress was measured using 54-items
analysed: version of the Thai-JCQ (Phakthongsuk,
(1) Individual characteristics such as 2009) and items were modified based
province of the workplace, sex, on the Demand-Control-Support
education, marital status, age, Model (Karasek, 1979). There were six
occupation, wages and distance. dimensions: job control, psychological
(2) Working conditions, namely, whether job demands, physical job, job security,
they were exploited by their employer, social support, and hazard at work.
job stress, poor work environmental 51 of the items in the scale used a
condition, heavy workload, and 4-point Likert-type of scale of “strongly
difficult job assignments. Moreover, disagree” (coded as = 1) through to
the perceived potential of an employer “strongly agree” (coded as = 4), except
to affect the working conditions is a for items 32-34. For item 32 (Do you
perception of employer control too. work continually throughout the year?),
Items in the second part were answered the answers ranged from “No, I am
using a 4-point Likert-type scale of sometimes an employee and sometimes
“none” (coded as = 1), “less” (coded I am laid off” (coded as = 1), “No, I
as = 2), “more” (coded as = 3), and am always being laid off” (coded as
“most” (coded as = 4). Cronbach’s = 2), “No, I work sometimes” (coded
alpha coefficient of working conditions as = 3), to “I work the whole year”
among Thai immigrants who cared for (coded as = 4). For item 33 (Did you
their aging parents was 0.80. There were face unemployment in the past year?),
also eight applied questions namely the answers ranged from “I was an
(i) travels undertaken to take care of unemployed person/ laid off last year”
aging parents, (ii) care for them, time (coded as = 1), “always” (coded as = 2),
spent on caring for them, (iii) their “sometimes” (coded as = 3), to “never”
direct responsibility in caring for their (coded as = 4). For item 34 (Will you
parents, (iv) time spent on caring for become unemployed in the next two
their parents, (v) distance between years resulting from action by your
their workplace and their home (far employer?), the answer ranged from
distance) in order to support their “high” (coded as = 1), “sometimes”
ageing parents, (vi) self-care by their (coded as = 2), “seldom” (coded as = 3),
ageing parents, (vii) time off from to “none” (coded as = 4). The total Thai-
JCQ test was calculated by summing 5.2 of the M plus program (Hair, Black,
the items (α = 0.84). An interpretation Babin, & Anderson, 2009). Researchers
of the total score of Thai JCQ test is < considered p-values less than 0.01, and
60 scores (low stress = coded as 1), 60 0.05 as statistically significant. The path
-80 scores (medium stress = coded as 2), analysis was used to analyse r square and
and > 80 scores (high stress = coded as measure the fit of the path analysis. The
3). rule for the test of the path model fit for
a population of over 250 and variables <
Data accuracy, content and construct were 12 is “chi square and degrees of freedom
validated by five professors. Item Objective ≠ 0, P-value > 0.05, CFI (Comparative Fit
Congruence Index (IOC) was 0.84. The Index) > 0.95, RMSEA (Root Mean Square
value of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient Error of Approximation) < 0.08, and SRMR
(reliability score) of the questionnaire was (Standardized Root-Mean-Square Residual)
0.82, using SPSS program version 20. The <0.05” (Hair et al., 2009).
questionnaire consisted of multiple choice
and single-choice items and had a high RESULTS
response rate of 80.86%. General geographic data in this study (n=
300) are presented (Table 1). The model
Data Collection fit of the path analysis was accepted by M
Data was collected via self-administered plus program (Table 2). In this path analysis,
questionnaire. Respondents took about 60 the addition of various factors explained
minutes to complete the questionnaire. All variance in job stress by 33.6% (p-value <
the completed questionnaires were placed 0.01) (Table 2). This path analysis showed
in a sealed box. a mediating effect of causal factors, such
as, Thai migrant workers caring for ageing
parents on the relationship between working
Data Analysis
conditions, wages, distance, and job stress
Data was analysed for percentages,
(Figure 1). Findings show distance, wages,
minimum scores, maximum scores, mean,
and working conditions have a direct effect
and standard deviation. The link between
on job stress. Wages had the most direct
job stress and caring for ageing parents
relationship on job stress with a standardised
was verified by path analysis using version
regression weight of 0.400 (p-value < 0.01).
Table 1
General data (n= 300)
Data Percentage Minimum Maximum Mean Standard

deviation
Previous workplace Nonthaburi 33.4% - - - -
Bangkok 66.6%
Gender Females 73.3% - - - -
Males 26.7%
Education Primary school 8% - - - -
Secondary school 40.4%
Bachelor degree 50.6%
Master degree 1%
Marital status Single 66.7% - - - -
Widowed 30.3%
Married 3.0%
Age 20-29 years old 10% - - - -
30-39 years old 50%
40-49 years old 26.7%
50-59 years old 13.3%
Occupation Civil servants 10% - - - -
Permanent employees 56.7%
Temporary employees 33.3%
Wages (baht/ month) ≤ 5,000 = 5.0% Code as Code as - -
5,001-10,000 = 10.5% =1 =7
(≤ 5,000 (30,001-
10,001-15,000 = 30.2%
baht/ 35,000
15,001-20,000 = 33.3% month) baht/
20,001-25,000 = 16.0% month)
25,001-30,000 = 3.0%
30,001-35,000 = 2.0%
Distance (km) 1-30 = 1.0% Code as Code as - -
31-60 = 6.4% =1 = 14
(1-30 km) (391-420
61-90 = 7.4%
km)
91-120 = 28%
121-150 = 9.2%
151-180 = 19.5%
181-210 = 1.1%
211-240 = 2.0%
241-270 = 3.1%
271-300 = 13.3%
Table 1 (continue)
Data Percentage Minimum Maximum Mean Standard

deviation
301-330 = 3.2%
331-360 = 3.7%
361-390 = 1.1%
391-420 = 1.0%
Working condition None = 10.5% Code as Code as - -
With rearing ageing Less = 25.5% =1 =4
parents (none) (most)
More = 34.0%
Most = 30.0%
None = 0.0% Code as Code as - -
Less = 10.7% =1 =4
(none) (most)
More = 45.0%
Most = 34.0%
Job stress Low stress = 15.3% Code as Code as 88.7 0.8
Medium stress = 30. 0% =1 =3 scores
(low stress) (high
High stress = 54.7%
stress)
Table 2
Overall Test of Model Fit for Path Model
Criteria Value with looking after ageing parents

Chi-Square 0.384
Degrees of freedom 1
P-value 0.5354
CFI 1.000
TLI 1.020
RMSEA 0
SRMR 0.006
R-square (with looking after ageing parents) 0.277*
R-square (job stress) 0.336*

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case study of Thai migrant workers
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DISCUSSION and working conditions, wages, and mental

Previous studies found that migrant health problems (such as stress), and health
workers who looked after left-behind among migrant workers did not provide in-
family members, especially, their ageing depth understanding of this link (Grzywacz,
parents, spouse, and children experienced Quandt, & Arucry, 2008; Grzywacz et al.,
relatively high levels of stress (Perry-Jenkin 2012; Kaewanuchit & Sawangdee, 2016;
& Wadsworth, 2013; Siriwardhana et al., Swanberg, Clouser, & Westneat, 2012). The
2015). It was also noted that wages are findings of this study showed the importance
most consistently associated with job stress of causal factors, especially, path analysis
among Thai migrant workers. Nevertheless, for understanding and improving public
there was no significant association of health perspective based on the occupational
working conditions with job stress showing health of vulnerable Thai migrant workers
its negative direct effect on job stress (Figure who looked after their ageing parents. The
1). However, it could be considered that Thai culture clearly plays a role in defining
distance variable had the least direct effect on the filial duties of a son or daughter. This
job stress in this group (Figure 1). Therefore, is different from the western culture. In
it can be surmised that working condition addition, a recent study (Siriwardhana et al,
and distance variables had little effect or 2015) examined the health impact on family
association with job stress compared with members left behind by migrant workers.
wages in this study. Earlier studies that This was done through in-depth interviews
looked at the relationship between job stress with affected parties. The findings indicated
a negative overall health effect (such as low of job stress, and caring for ageing parents.
moods, cheerlessness, and anxiety) among Based on these findings, better mental
family members as a result of their parents health promotion and better health policy
taking up job offers abroad. The present for migrant labour can be formulated by
study was different in that it examined the government from the public health
the link between job stress and caring for perspective. Future research should look at
ageing parents in the context of Thai migrant the link between working conditions, and
labourers. job stress as this study has shown a negative
The findings are consistent with those direct effect on job stress. A qualitative
of previous studies (Rubalcava, Teruel, method based on in-depth interviews and
Thomas, & Godman, 2008) and the negative observation should be adopted.
health effects of international migration
on families in Indonesia (Hugo, 2002). In ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
contrast, (Hsich et al., 2016; Kaewanuchit The authors thank all the respondents who
& Sawangdee, 2016b) found that working participated in this research. They also
conditions had a direct positive effect on job express their gratitude to the National
stress (Kaewanuchit & Sawangdee, 2016b). Research Council of Thailand (NRCT),
This study had several limitations. It Thailand for funding this research project
examined the link between job stress and under the title, “The comparison of causal
migrant labour caring for their ageing parents relationship of job stress between Thai
but it did not examine its impact on those immigrant employees with and without
left behind. This can be explored in future rearing their ageing parents”.
studies especially the impact on children
and spouse in the context of Thai society. ETHICS APPROVAL AND CONSENT
Another limitation is its methodology which TO PARTICIPATE
only uses path analysis to understand the This study was part of a research entitled
real causes of this phenomenon. Thus, this “The comparison of causal relationship of job
study could have benefited from in-depth stress between Thai immigrant employees
interviews, and observation. What was with and without rearing their aging parents”
interesting in the study is the fact working which was accepted by the Human Ethics
conditions have a negative direct effect Committees (Social Sciences) from Mahidol
on job stress contrasting earlier literature University, Thailand. The human ethics code
findings. was COA. No. 2016/254.0507 and the Thai
The strengths of this study are its Clinical Trials Registry code was TCTR
contribution to knowledge on this topic 20160712002 of Thailand.
especially in explaining the causal factors
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Kahoot! It: Gamification in Higher Education

Debbita Tan Ai Lin, Ganapathy, M.* and Manjet Kaur
English Language Studies Section, School of Languages, Literacies and Translation, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Play is a social-centred process, able to boost motivation and promote learning across
all levels and ages. With the growing push for creativity in the classroom as well as the
application of effective technology in teaching and learning, it can be a daunting task for
educators to find fitting competitive or game-based learning platforms. Foremost, educators
need to consider elements such as motivation and whether the platform is likely to foster
and reinforce learning. In the present study, a cohort of undergraduates at a public university
in Malaysia were exposed to the use of Kahoot!, a game-based learning platform, during
their weekly lectures for one semester. The participants were students of English for the
Media, which covers theoretical and practical dimensions. The latter dimension includes
the learning and application of media language features and devices. Survey data (51
respondents) on the whole, indicated that the students found Kahoot! to be beneficial in
terms of: 1) inducing motivation as well as engagement, and 2) fostering and reinforcing
learning (for both theoretical and practical aspects). The 33-item questionnaire created by
the researchers was also tested for reliability, with returned values indicating high internal
consistency, thus making the instrument a reliable option for use in future studies. The
findings of this study are of relevance to researchers, educators, course designers, and
designers of game-based learning applications.
Keywords: Kahoot!, gamification, game-based learning, higher education, motivation, learning, knowledge
reinforcement

Article history:
Received: 23 August 2017 Technological advancement and its
E-mail addresses:
continuous progress has transformed how
[email protected] (Debbita Tan Ai Lin), activities are performed on a daily basis. In
[email protected](Ganapathy, M.),
[email protected] (Manjet Kaur) the context of education, especially learning,

educators now have the opportunity to with new technological solutions. Kahoot!
introduce and integrate play-based learning is a digital game-based student response
activities via technology in their instruction. system that allows teachers and learners
The incorporation of play in learning in classroom settings to interact through
has seen the emergence of a very unique competitive knowledge games using existing
concept of game-based learning. According infrastructure. Wang, Zhu and Sætre (2016)
to Zarzycka-Piskorz (2016), it is basically pointed out that Kahoot! represents a new
the use of game elements and game design generation of student response systems
techniques in non-game contexts. Game- that focuses on student motivation and
based learning or gamification rests on the engagement through gamification. This
experiential nature of a game that allows platform is apt for increasing motivation and
learners the opportunity to be fully involved engagement (which promotes learning), and
in the learning cycle. Game-based learning for assessing students’ understanding of a
also garners learners’ full attention and lesson. Furthermore, gamification develops
promotes knowledge retention due to its learners’ metacognitive abilities, promotes
‘play nature’. empathy, and builds teamwork skills.
Platforms that are play-oriented and Additionally, a recent study on
infused with learning elements are often Kahoot! by Wang and Lieberoth (2016),
designed with defined outcomes related involving almost 600 students, reiterated
to the teaching and learning aims of a the advantages of using the game-based
particular lesson or series of lessons. platform for learning; specifically, they
Although games are play-oriented, the reported that variation in the use of
designing principles behind such games are audio and points affected concentration,
based parallel to relatively specific teaching engagement, enjoyment and motivation,
and learning context aims. The principles and that Kahoot!’s audio and music features
allow for more engagement and fun during affected classroom dynamics in a significant
the learning process. The engagement and and positive manner.
fun factors of game-based learning have In short, Kahoot! purportedly offers
been found to boost learner motivation a host of benefits and allows educators to
and sustain retention. Zarzycka-Piskorz be creative and students to be motivated,
(2016) highlighted that there exists strong intrinsically and extrinsically. Game-
evidence showing a relationship between based learning provides a thrill from the
game-playing and increased motivation as ordinary, a thrill which is absent from
well as persistence. traditional instruction and everyday life.
Game-based learning tools such as Tools like Kahoot! can make students
Kahoot! supplement pedagogical practices enjoy and continue doing tasks that they
normally would not. In her commentary often causes real problems in getting our
on gamification, McGonigal (2011, p. 124) otherwise highly-stimulated students to
quite aptly stated the following: learn.” (p. 1)
In essence, students do not experience
The real world just doesn’t offer
effective learning when there is no
up as easily the carefully designed
motivation to do so, and it can be a daunting
pleasures, the thrilling challenges,
task for educators to find fitting methods
and the powerful social bonding
that are highly engaging and likely to foster
afforded by virtual environments.
and reinforce learning. In this advanced
Reality doesn’t motivate us as
and technology-saturated age, gamification
effectively. Reality isn’t engineered
is an emergent approach to tertiary-
to maximize our potential. Reality
level instruction. Gamification promotes
wasn’t designed … to make us
motivation and facilitates effective learning
happy. Reality, compared to games,
through the employment of game elements,
is broken.
mechanics and game-based thinking (Kapp,
2014), thus making it indispensable for
It is therefore viable to look into the impact of
the teaching and learning of content that
Kahoot! on the motivation and engagement
students term as ‘dry’ and ‘boring’. The
of learners as well as its influence on their
problem, however, lies in the selection of
learning, not only at the school level but
suitable platforms that can truly engage our
also within the context of higher education
learners and help them learn.
to gauge if the platform would prove to be
Closer to home, results from a survey
useful for tertiary learners.
conducted among lecturers and students of
Universiti Putra Malaysia demonstrate that
Problem Statement both parties agree that the lecture method is
It is said that “a motivated learner can’t the least favoured and is therefore not very
be stopped” (Prensky, 2003, p. 1). effective (Ismail, Elias, Mohd, Perumal, &
Unfortunately, much of the content that Muthusamy, 2010).
university learners today have to acquire, Similarly, Yap (2016) in her paper
be it theoretical or practical, is hardly on transforming conventional teaching
motivating. According to Prensky (2003), classrooms into learner-centred, multimedia-
the words ‘boring’, ‘dry’ and ‘technical’ mediated classrooms, pointed out that
are often associated with the teaching many lecturers are still using conventional
and learning process in general. He even teaching and that in such classrooms, “while
noted that “It is probably safe to say that the lecturer is explaining and writing on the
today’s teachers, trainers and educators board, students will be copying the same
are rarely as effective as they might be thing onto their notes, some day-dreaming
in the motivational department, and this and some sleeping.” (p. 106).
Thang et al. (2016), in their study such studies within the Malaysian context
involving four different Malaysian public specifically in relation to the use of game-
universities, highlighted that Malaysian based learning in higher education, thus
students prefer using technology for social making the present study both timely and
networking rather than for academic significant.
purposes. They noted, however, that the
students do have a favourable view towards Research Objectives
the adoption of more technology into the
The present study focuses on examining the
classroom but tend not to invest time and
suitability of Kahoot!, a game-based learning
energy in it. The researchers suggested
platform, for use in higher education within
a possible explanation for this, that this
the Malaysian context. Specifically, the
phenomenon could be attributed to the
study looks at the effectiveness of Kahoot!
manner in which technology is used in
in terms of its ability to:
the classroom. This implies that while
technology is abundant, the real challenge 1) induce intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
rests in educators selecting the correct 2) foster and reinforce learning (theoretical
technological platforms for use in their and practical aspects)
classrooms (that is, gaming platforms that
can effectively motivate students to pay In addition, the study is a platform to test
attention and learn, as well as encourage the reliability of the 33-item questionnaire
sustained learning within the Malaysian created by the researchers.
context).
This is in tandem with Yunus et al.’s Research Questions
(2012) position that “It is now a challenge The present study is guided by the following
for educators to be able to choose the right research questions:
game, and to create an effective learning
RQ1: Does the use of Kahoot! during
environment suited for our Malaysian setting
lectures induce intrinsic motivation
...” (p. 360). The researchers suggested that
among learners?
educators in Malaysia work to manipulate
gaming aspects for educational purposes, RQ2: Does the use of Kahoot! during
and take advantage of the entertaining lectures induce extrinsic motivation
and addictive qualities that are generally among learners?
inherent in gaming tools. RQ3: Does the use of Kahoot! during
In addition, despite a plethora of studies lectures help foster learning?
on learning and gamification, there is RQ4: Does the use of Kahoot! during
an unfortunate paucity with regard to lectures help reinforce learning?
Research Significance young children” (p. 48). In relation to

This findings contribute to the emerging Piaget’s theory, Vandenberg (1986), utilising
field of game-based learning, and offer Vygotsky’s theory, pointed out that “play
direction in terms of selecting suitable does not only reflect, it also creates thought”
gamification platforms for use in the (p. 21).
Malaysian higher education among adult In the context of education, the
learners. The findings also provide direction penetration of games into learning activities,
with regards to educational policy-planning also widely known as gamification, refers
and are on the whole, of relevance to to the use of pedagogical systems that
educators, learners, and course designers. are developed with gaming designs but
Additionally, the questionnaire designed by implemented within non-game contexts,
the researchers (with all constructs tested for including education (Deterding, Dixon,
reliability) is also a contribution to the field, Khaled, & Nacke, 2011). The advent of
and is of significance to scholars engaged in computing and the Internet has allowed
game-based learning research. videos and computer games to be used in
classroom activities for the enhancement
LITERATURE REVIEW of learning processes. Of late, Internet-
accessible digital tools have made gaming a
Gamification mobile learning tool that can accommodate
The growth of personal computing and the many participants in a single game, via a
Internet has brought about gaming diversity single platform. Thus, this does not only
in the field of education. New opportunities work towards enhancing learning but
for play to foster learning are now widely also, practically, makes the teaching and
available, and one aspect of play, that it learning process much more efficient and
influences learning , cannot be denied. Piaget contemporary.
(1962) asserted that play is a crucial element
in one’s cognitive development from birth Kahoot!: An Introduction
through to adulthood. More recently,
The use of technology has been proven to
Piaget’s theory was further supported by
foster learning and reinforce learning. The
Fromberg and Gullo (1992). According
fostering and reinforcement of learning
to them, language development, social
through the use of computers, smartphones
competence, creativity, imagination, and
and tablets have improved learners’
thinking skills are fostered and enhanced
engagement and active participation in
through play. Concurrently, Frost (1992)
classrooms. The use technology is also
also stressed that “play is the chief vehicle
undoubtedly a great assistance to teachers
for the development of imagination and
in terms of helping to increase motivation
intelligence, language, social skills, and
as well as increase the level of student
perceptual-motor abilities in infants and
participation in class, and in terms of
evaluating students’ overall comprehension fosters learning and also results in

and development. In addition, learners sustainable learning. According to Suzanne
also get to enjoy the opportunity to engage (2013), gamification is sustainable or
themselves in their learning and monitor is enhanced based on the desire of an
their own progress and understanding (Koile individual to achieve the expected outcome.
& Singer, 2006). However, this desire is conditional to the
Kahoot! is a unique game concept, the individual’s sense of excitement. In essence,
result of the Lecture Quiz Research Project games in any form have the potential
initiated in 2006 at the Norwegian University to increase motivation in the classroom
of Science and Technology (NTNU). It is a through engagement. Zarzycka-Piskorz
free game-based learning platform that aims (2016) further described Kahoot! as an
to make learning fun across all subjects online game that promotes both cooperation
in any language, and can be used with and autonomy in the classroom.
many types of digital devices. Kahoot! can Kahoot! as a game-based student
also be programmed to suit learners of all response system, can be aligned to Thomas
ages. The platform enables teacher-learner Malone’s theory of intrinsically motivating
interaction in classroom settings of various instructions (Malone, 1980). This theory
sizes via competitive knowledge games indicate three categories that make learning
using existing infrastructure (which should fun: 1) challenge (goals with uncertain
include good Internet connection). The outcomes), 2) fantasy (captivation through
embedded graphical interfaces and audio intrinsic or extrinsic fantasy), and 3)
elements present a gaming experience that curiosity (sensor curiosity through graphics
can potentially promote motivation and and audio, and cognitive curiosity). As
learning among students, including adult the theory is contextualised within the
ones. classroom learning setting, the second
category, fantasy, is transformed into a game
Kahoot!: Gamification for Student show with the teacher and students playing
Motivation and Learning the role of game host and competitors
respectively. The initial category, challenge,
Zarzycka-Piskorz (2016) underscored
involves the students being challenged to
that gamified education builds upon
answer questions and compete against other
motivation, especially intrinsic motivation
players. The final category, curiosity, is
that encourages an individual’s engagement.
displayed via graphics and audio and getting
Game-based learning approaches increase
the students to solve cognitive puzzles.
learners’ interest in the subject matter
The competitive nature of play among
because they enjoy (or experience pleasure)
the students in getting the correct answers
as they learn, and thus are more engaged
compensates for the lack of variety during
and focused in the subject. This eventually
game play (should there be any).
Several researchers have studied the augment learning in a variety of contexts

effects of educational games with regards and subject areas, and promote participatory
to learning outcomes and motivation levels. approaches, collaborations, self-guided
Papastergiou’s (2009) study’s respondents study, efficient completion of assignments,
indicated that the game-based learning and make assessments more effective
approach created more engaging, effective and easier to conduct. The integration of
and active learning. They also indicated exploratory approaches into learning also
that they enjoyed a more relaxed learning facilitates student creativity and retention.
environment. A study by Anderson and With regards to reinforcing learning,
Barnett (2011) on pre-service teachers’ Bonde et al.’s (2014) study on the effects
understanding of electromagnetic concepts of combining gamification elements with
using a game called ‘Supercharged!’ simulations to improve the motivation and
compared to students who conducted a more learning effectiveness of biotechnology
traditional inquiry of the same concepts students showed that a gamified laboratory
found that the group that used video games simulation can increase motivation levels
outperformed the group that did not in and learning outcomes when compared
terms of learning outcomes. However, there with traditional teaching. Furthermore, in
are also contrasting studies. For instance, higher education, games such as Kahoot! are
Squire (2005) found that introducing games suitable for various instructional practices
in the classroom does not necessarily such as lectures, tutorials, assignments,
produce positive results and can instead projects, lab activities, class exercises and
result in complaining students and a lack discussions, as presented by Dichev and
of motivation. Dicheva (2017) in their work on gamifying
According to Dichev and Dicheva education.
(2017), as games engender motivation and
engagement, the proposal to gamify learning How does Kahoot! work?
is enticing. In relation to this position,
Learning games such as Kahoot! are
research has indicated that motivation is one
channels to evaluate whether learning
of the more crucial predictors of academic
objectives have been achieved. Therefore,
achievements (Linehan, Kirman, Lawson,
game-based learning activities such as
& Chan, 2011) as it is linked to learning-
quizzes serve the purpose of reviewing
related concepts such as engagement, effort,
content based on information taught.
goals, focus of attention, self-efficacy,
Prensky (2005) emphasised that learning
confidence, achievement, and interest.
games can serve multiple functions such as
Therefore, gamification’s benefit in terms
the teaching of various theories, skills and
of fostering and reinforcing learning is
behaviours, as well as languages, creativity
multifold. As highlighted by Caponetto, Earp
and communication.
and Ott (2014), the benefits of gamification
Additionally, research by Zarzycka- ways. In the context of the present study,

Piskorz (2016) indicated that winning a they were included as an integrated part
game in learning shapes an environment of traditional classroom lectures over
based on the needs of the students and the course of one semester to improve
to a certain extent, the requirements of a motivation and learning, in line with past
course. In this context, multiple objectives studies by Carver, Howard, and Lane
can be targeted at and eventually achieved, (1999), Carnevale (2005), Wang, Øfsdahl,
for example, introducing, revising and and Mørch-Storstein (2007), Wang, Øfsdahl,
consolidating theoretical as well as practical and Mørch-Storstein (2008) and Wu, Wang,
knowledge or content. Børresen, and Tidemann (2011).
Kahoot! (https://getkahoot.com) is a
free platform which provides teachers the Related Research
opportunity to: 1) create their own quizzes
A research project was conducted at the
and surveys, or 2) use existing quizzes and
Norwegian University of Science and
surveys made accessible for public use.
Technology (NTNU) by Wang et al. (2016)
Scores are displayed at the end of each game
to investigate the effects of a traditional
and teachers are able to save the information
non-gamified response system (Clickers), a
in a digital document. As for the learners
game-based response system (Kahoot!) and
(players), they are not required to register
paper-form formative assessment for a quiz
for a Kahoot! account and will instead be
in lectures. The results were significantly
provided with a game PIN prior to joining
inclined towards the use of Kahoot!.
a specific game at https://kahoot.it/#/ as
Students were found to be more motivated
directed by their teacher (game host).
by Kahoot! as compared to Clickers and the
A learning classroom also functions as a
paper-form quiz. The students’ responses
game show, where the teacher’s role is that
also indicated a higher level of satisfaction
of a game show host and the students, the
and engagement. However, a positive effect
players or competitors. Without neglecting
on learning outcomes was not evident as no
the learning elements, Gee (2003) indicated
significant differences were found.
that well-designed video games are learning
In a K-12 study, games were also found
machines that are able to increase student
to improve motivation, classroom dynamics,
motivation and engagement. The strength
and academic achievement (Rosas et al.,
of these games lies in having learning occur
2013). Sharples (2000) asserted that game-
naturally without the students realising that
based learning has a similar effect in higher
learning is actually taking place.
education. This was evident in Tüysüz’s
Wang (2011) noted that games can
(2009) study which demonstrated that
mainly be integrated in education in three
using a game-based learning approach can
result in better achievement in chemistry as METHODS

compared to traditional learning methods. The present study implemented the survey
Improved learning outcomes were also approach, and reports results using a
detected in studies by Miller, Schweingruber, descriptive design based on quantitative and
Oliver, Janice and Smith (2002), and Liao, qualitative data. The researchers designed
Chen, Cheng, Chent and Chan (2011). and utilised a comprehensive questionnaire
These findings are in line with past studies comprising close-ended (five-point Likert
that highlight the importance of games in scale) and open-ended items. According
learning. to Nelson (2008), in her work on survey
On the whole, when educators plan research methods, such measures in a survey
to integrate gamification into learning, it instrument enable researchers to investigate
is vital that they realise the importance of both quantitative and qualitative empirical
motivation and thus, refrain from merely premises.
incorporating the gaming element into However, the subjective nature of survey
their lectures or lessons superficially. Their measures can present a problem – reliability.
efforts should take into account motivation, The researchers therefore, sought to remedy
(intrinsic as well as extrinsic), as the driving this problem by conducting a reliability
factor behind students’ engagement and analysis. The questionnaire consists of
interest. In other words, when gamification 33 items (four for demographic data)
is intended as part of the teaching and measuring different constructs, as reflected
learning process, it is crucial to ensure that in the research questions presented earlier.
one’s students will actually favour the game The reliability analysis was conducted using
and that the game can actually sustain their the SAS 9.4 software platform to measure
interest for a considerable period of time. the internal consistency of the instrument
Gamification in higher education brings as a whole.
in the fun element for students involved The study was conducted in Universiti
in academic programmes. Tools such Sains Malaysia and purposive procedures
as Kahoot! display good potential for were adhered to, taking into account the
application in teaching and learning at researchers’ knowledge of the population
the tertiary level as it can potentially of interest as well as the aims of the study.
induce motivation as well as engagement, Undergraduates of English for the
and promote learning and knowledge Media, a four-unit course which covers
reinforcement. It is possible that educational theoretical and practical dimensions, were
transformation with the use of tools like invited to participate in the study and access
Kahoot! may eventually make methods like to the online questionnaire was via a Google
rote-learning entirely obsolete. Forms key. The portal remained accessible
for two weeks. There were 51 out of 54
possible participants of various ethnicities The respondents selected for this study
who completed the questionnaire after comprised a mixed age group as shown in
being exposed to the use of Kahoot! in their Table 2. The majority (45.1%) were 23 years
weekly lectures for one semester (14 weeks). old while the second highest range were
Each Kahoot! session was conducted post- respondents aged 22 years old. A total of 5
lecture, and comprised one interactive respondents were 24 years old, 4 were 21
multiple-choice quiz with approximately years old and 1 was 27 years old.
10 to 14 items or questions based solely on
the day’s lecture. Each Kahoot! session also Table 3
Respondents’ gender, race and hometown
lasted no more than 15 minutes to prevent
the possibility of a wear-out effect. Category Group
Number of Percentage
respondents (%)
(n)
RESULTS Gender Males 11 21.6
Females 40 78.4
Table 1 51 100
Result of reliability analysis Race Malay 28 54.9
Chinese 20 39.2
Construct Cronbach’s Level of Internal
Measured Alpha (α) Consistency Indians 2 3.9
(Reliability) Foreigners 1 2
Kahoot! .97 Excellent 51 100
Questionnaire Hometown Urban 23 45.1
Semi- 22 43.1
urban
As shown in Table 1, the reliability of the Rural 6 11.8
questionnaire as a whole is excellent, with 51 100
α = .97. Interpretation of the obtained value
is based on the commonly accepted rule of Table 3 highlights the respondents’ gender,
thumb for interpreting Cronbach’s alpha (α) race and hometown. 78.4% (n=40) of the
readings (George & Mallery, 2003). respondents were females and 21.6% (n=11)
were males. This table also classifies the
respondents’ race breakdown. The majority
Table 2
Respondents’ Age Range (n=28) were Malays, followed by Chinese
(n=20), two Indians, and one foreign
Age (years) Number of Percentage
Respondents (n) (%)
respondent. The last section of Table 3
21 4 7.8 illustrates the respondents’ background in
22 18 35.3 terms of their hometown; there appears to
23 23 45.1 be a near equal proportion of respondents
24 5 9.8 originating from the urban (n=23) and semi-
27 1 2 urban (n=22) areas. Only six respondents
51 100 were from rural areas.
Table 4 A significant number (78.4%) of the

Respondents’ prior exposure to Kahoot!
respondents conveyed that they had never
Item True (%) False (%) played Kahoot! or experienced such
I have never played 78.4 21.6 exposure prior to taking the English for
Kahoot! before this year. the Media course. About 21.6% of the
respondents indicated their prior exposure
to Kahoot!.
Table 5
Respondents’ attitudes towards Kahoot!
Item 1 (%) 2 (%) 3 (%) 4 (%) 5 (%)

1. I look forward to playing Kahoot! 2 0 5.9 27.5 64.7
2. I find Kahoot! interesting. 2 0 3.9 11.8 82.4
3. I find Kahoot! fun. 2 0 3.9 13.7 80.4
4. I get annoyed when I can’t connect to Kahoot! 5.9 3.9 21.6 25.5 43.1
5. I feel excited when playing Kahoot! 2 2 3.9 31.4 60.8
6. I enjoy playing Kahoot! 0 2 5.9 27.5 64.7
7. I feel positive when playing Kahoot! 2 5.9 2 35.3 54.9
8. I focus on the items or questions in each Kahoot! 2 0 3.9 35.3 58.8
session.
9. I respond to each item or question in each Kahoot! 2 2 3.9 29.4 62.7
session.
10. I respond as quickly as possible to each item or question 0 2 2 35.3 60.8
in each Kahoot! session.
11. I respond as accurately as possible to each item or 0 0 15.7 41.2 43.1
question in each Kahoot! session.
12. I like the competitiveness in our Kahoot! sessions. 0 2 11.8 31.4 54.9
13. I am motivated by the prospect of winning in these 2 5.9 11.8 29.4 51
Kahoot! sessions.
14. I pay more attention during lectures because I hope to 3.9 9.8 13.7 37.3 35.3
win in the Kahoot! sessions.
15. I am eager to learn via Kahoot! 2 0 13.7 37.3 47.1
16. There is value in using Kahoot! for teaching and 0 2 5.9 27.5 64.7
learning purposes.
17. Kahoot! should be used in higher education. 0 7.8 7.8 21.6 62.7
1: Strongly Disagree; 2: Disagree; 3: Slightly Agree; 4: Agree; 5: Strongly Agree
Table 5 reflects the respondents’ focusing on each item or question eagerly;

attitudes towards Kahoot!. It is noteworthy being fond of the competitiveness in each
that 100% of the students expressed their Kahoot! session; preferring to learn via
positive regard for the effectiveness of Kahoot!; recognising the value of using
Kahoot! in the academic context. An Kahoot! for teaching and learning purposes,
insignificant proportion of 2% strongly and in higher education. About 96% of
disagreed to nearly all the items listed in the respondents also perceived Kahoot! as
Table 5. An interesting trend of 98% of exciting and were thus motivated to make
similar responses was recorded for nine the effort to answer every item or question
items which supplies evidence with regard during each Kahoot! session. A total of
to the popularity of Kahoot! among the 92% acknowledged their positivity towards
respondents – students looking forward playing Kahoot!, and were especially
to the sessions; finding it interesting, fun motivated by the prospect of winning.
and enjoyable; responding quickly to and
Table 6
Respondents’ perceptions of Kahoot! for learning and knowledge reinforcement
Item 1 (%) 2 (%) 3 (%) 4 (%) 5 (%)

1. Our Kahoot! sessions help me learn the gist of: A) 0 2 5.9 29.4 62.7
Theoretical frameworks that I might have missed during
lectures.
2. Our Kahoot! sessions help me learn the gist of: B) 0 2 9.8 37.3 51
Analysis models that I might have missed during
lectures.
3. Our Kahoot! sessions help me learn the gist of: C) Media 2 0 7.8 35.3 54.9
concepts that I might have missed during lectures.
4. Our Kahoot! sessions help me learn the gist of: D) 2 0 5.9 41.2 51
Media language features or devices that I might have
missed during lectures.
5. Our Kahoot! sessions help me learn the gist of: E) Media 0 2 7.8 37.3 52.9
writing techniques that I might have missed during
lectures.
6. Our Kahoot! sessions help reinforce (consolidate) my 0 2 7.8 47.1 43.1
learning of: A) Theoretical frameworks.
learning of: B) Analysis models.
learning of: C) Media concepts.
learning of: D) Media language features or devices.
10. Our Kahoot! sessions help reinforce (consolidate) my 0 5.9 9.8 47.1 37.3
learning of: E) Media writing techniques.
1: Strongly Disagree; 2: Disagree; 3: Slightly Agree; 4: Agree; 5: Strongly Agree
According to Table 6, the respondents’ responses also demonstrate the inducement

perceptions of Kahoot! account for their of extrinsic motivation in the students:
learning and knowledge reinforcement. “enjoy the competitiveness”; “really look
An interesting trend was again captured forward to Kahoot!”; “Kahoot! makes me
for the first five items with 98% of the feel more motivated and focus”; “write more
students communicating that Kahoot! did comprehensive notes based on the lectures
help foster their learning. They indicated in order to answer Kahoot! at the end”;
that the Kahoot! sessions assisted them in “Subconsciously, it feels like a flash revision
learning the gist of information that they that makes me remember the lecture more,
had missed during lectures in terms of the winning or losing the quiz”.
following aspects – theoretical frameworks, Students also highlighted that the use
analysis models, media concepts, media of Kahoot! during lectures help foster and
language features or devices, and media reinforce learning: “I am always enjoying
writing techniques. the learning process by playing ‘Kahoot!’
A similar trend of 98% agreement was as it gives me the chance to recall and to
found for items 6 to 9 in Table 6, in relation retain what I’ve learned during lectures”;
to the students’ positive affirmation of “very interesting way to revise after the
the Kahoot! sessions helping to reinforce lecture”; “good recap session”; “It is useful
their learning with regards to theoretical as it refreshes my memory of whatever I
frameworks, analysis models, media learned in class and tells me where are the
concepts, and media language features or main points of the lecture to be focused on”;
devices. A significant portion (94.1%) of the “Kahoot helps me recall all info that was
students affirmed that the Kahoot! sessions learned during class”; “reinforce students’
helped reinforce their knowledge of media memory of the particular topic, very helpful
writing techniques. for learning and also recapping the lecture
The final item of the questionnaire is and really helpful method to learn and also
open-ended, allowing the researchers to revise”.
garner a diverse array of qualitative data. Nevertheless, the students did highlight
The final item is as follows: “Please provide the limitations of using Kahoot!: “The
a comment about your experience with limitation of playing Kahoot! is only the
Kahoot! in this course.” internet. Means that if the internet is slow
The students reiterated that they found then it will be difficult for me to click on the
Kahoot! to be intrinsically motivating: answer. Hence, I lost the game”; “great app,
“One of a kind learning experience”; “fun but the wifi connection sometimes sucks
learning experience”; “highly effective”; and we can’t connect into the app”; “just
“increases interest in the course”; “nice the internet connection affects my mood to
and engaging experience”; “Damn fun”; play Kahoot”; “it would be better if Kahoot
“enjoyable”; “Awesome!”. The following has more features to make it a little more
challenging (for example, able to pick more a new style of learning that promotes
than one answer)”; “It would be better if we motivation and facilitates engagement.
can get faster wifi connection”; “just need More importantly, Zarzyeka-Piskorz (2016)
better internet connection and we’re good”. postulated that when learning incorporates
any form of gamification, the learning
DISCUSSION process becomes more engaging as intrinsic
This study is grounded in the theory motivation is induced. Indeed, 98% of the
of intrinsically motivating instructions present study’s students indicated their high
(Malone, 1980). The first element (challenge) level of intrinsic motivation when engaging
of Malone’s theory is reflected in terms of with Kahoot!, affirming it as a tool that
the students being challenged to engage has enhanced their learning experience in
in the Kahoot! sessions despite certain the English for the Media course. In fact,
limitations (such as no prior exposure to one student pointed out that “Most lectures
Kahoot!, Internet connectivity issues) and especially in theoretical-based courses will
the fact that the outcome of each session have less interactive lecture sessions, where
was uncertain. The second element (fantasy) students only read and write notes. Seldom
was met through the students’ evident are the lecture sessions interactive, due to
captivation with Kahoot!, as demonstrated attitudes from both lecturers and students. I
by their motivation and engagement towards find that this type of lecture tend to make me
Kahoot! in the findings. Lastly, the element lose focus during the lecture. But Kahoot!
of curiosity was met through their interaction makes me feel more motivated and focus …
with Kahoot!’s graphics and embedded Thank you Dr. for using Kahoot! Love it!”.
audio features; this third element was also Interestingly, the results also showcased
realised when the students experienced the high level of extrinsic motivation
learning and knowledge reinforcement via induced by Kahoot!. This aspect is reflected
Kahoot! (see Table 6). in terms of the students indicating high
The purpose of this study was to levels of competitiveness during their
examine the effectiveness of Kahoot! in Kahoot! sessions, their motivation at the
terms of its ability to induce intrinsic and prospect of winning, and their eagerness
extrinsic motivation while determining if to learn via this platform. This strongly
this form of gamification is able to foster suggests that Kahoot! should be integrated
and reinforce learning. The results of the into the teaching and learning cycles in
present study provide evidence of Kahoot! higher education courses. These findings
as a gamification tool that is able to induce are testimonies to Papastergiou’s (2009)
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among research in relation to the effectiveness
tertiary students. These positive findings of games in encouraging better learning
are in line with Wang et al.’s (2016) study, outcomes and better motivation at grasping
which concluded that Kahoot! advocates academic concepts, which further concurs
with Linehan et al. (2011) who highlighted data plans when they experienced wi-fi
gamification as a significant predictor of connection issues.
students’ academic success.
The results of this study support the CONCLUSION
notion that Kahoot! is effective in terms of Although the findings of this study cannot
its ability to foster and reinforce learning, be generalised to the entire population of
especially with regards to theoretical tertiary students in Malaysia, partly due to the
frameworks, analysis models, media diverse nature of different tertiary courses,
concepts, media language features or the key findings offer significant insights
devices, and media writing techniques. The into the effectiveness of using Kahoot! in
present findings are in tandem with past higher education, among adult learners. It is,
studies (Rosas et al., 2003; Tüysüz, 2009) however, recommended that future studies
that emphasise the effectiveness of Kahoot! employ samples from other academic
in the academic context. The key findings of courses and also from other universities.
this study explicate the students’ intrinsic To have a more thorough understanding
and extrinsic motivation in using Kahoot! of the benefits of using Kahoot!, it is
as a platform to foster and reinforce their further recommended that future research
learning, with most of them affirming that in this area be more qualitative. While
the Kahoot! sessions had not only helped such recommendations are made, it is
them learn whatever they might have missed incumbent on stakeholders to realise that
during the lectures, but that the sessions educators, students and administrators all
had also helped them significantly in terms play equally important roles in the creation
of knowledge reinforcement and retention. of teaching and learning environments that
However, the students did point out the are conducive, contemporary and relevant
limitations of using Kahoot!, particularly to today’s generation of learners.
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Short Communication
Tourists with Dementia – A Unique Challenge for the Tourism

Industry
Blanka Klímová
Department of Applied Linguistics, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove,
Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT
Currently, due to the increase in life expectancies and the number of aging populations
worldwide, there is a rise of aging illnesses, out of which the most common is dementia. At
present, there are both pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches which attempt
to help the affected people in their fight against dementia. One of these approaches seems
to be travelling. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to explore the current literature
which deals with accessible tourism with special focus on tourists with dementia and their
caregivers. In addition, the author attempts to detect difficulties tourists with dementia and
their caregivers might face during their travels.
Keywords: Ageing, barriers, dementia, needs, tourism, travel
INTRODUCTION suffer from dementia and by 2050, this

Due to the increase in life expectancies and number is predicted to triple (Prince,
the number of aging populations worldwide, Guerchet, & Prina, 2013). As Pohanka
there is a rise of aging illnesses, out of (2011) states, dementia is one of the main
which the most common is dementia. At causes of incapability and dependency
present, more than 44.3 million people of elderly people. The most common
symptoms of dementia are: a considerable
loss of memory, orientation problems,
impaired communication skills, depression,
ARTICLE INFO
behavioral changes and confusion (Klimova
Article history:
Received: 07 January 2017 & Kuca, 2016). The most frequent type
Accepted: 22 August 2017
of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease which
E-mail address:
[email protected] (Blanka Klímová) covers 70% of all dementia cases.

Blanka Klímová
Currently, there are both pharmacological of findings from selected studies. The search
and non-pharmacological approaches which was based on key words: accessible tourism,
attempt to help the affected people in their dementia tourism, tourists with dementia,
fight against dementia (Klimova & Kuca, and tourism for people with dementia in
2015). One of these approaches seems to be the period of 2010 till December 2016. In
tourism. As Roberts (2011) states, tourism addition, findings from the relevant studies
can positively contribute to the improvement cited in the detected studies on the research
of the well-being and strengthen relationship topic were used. The author also used the
between the patient with dementia and his/ information from 10 web pages which were
her caregiver (usually a family member). In relevant to the research topic, for example,
fact, many patients with dementia diagnosis Accessible Tourism (2016), Crampton,
enjoy travelling for several years after they Dean and Eley (2012), or Department of
have been diagnosed (Page, Innes, & Cutler, Health (2012).
2014). Travelling, with respect to tourism
can contribute to their social inclusion when LITERATURE REVIEW
interacting with others and improve mental In 2009, Darcy and Dickson experts
well-being when having an intellectual in accessible tourism, provided a
stimulation (Innes, Page, & Cutler, 2015). In comprehensible definition of accessible
addition, it can keep them physically active tourism. This concept enables people with
and improve their mood as research studies access requirements such as cognitive
indicate (Terri, Logsdon, & McCurry, 2008). impairments, to function independently
Therefore, the purpose of this article and with equity through the delivery of
is to explore the current literature which universally designed tourism products,
deals with accessible tourism with special services and environments.
focus on tourists with dementia and their Dementia tourism or tourism for people
caregivers. Furthermore, the author of with dementia is part of accessible tourism.
this article attempts to detect difficulties However, there is still a lack of studies on
tourists with dementia and their caregivers this topic in comparison with general studies
might face during their travels. Based on on accessible tourism (Accessible tourism,
the literature, the author also provides 2016). The reason is that most of the studies
characteristics of a tourism product for concentrate on mobility disability (Darcy,
senior travellers with dementia. 2010; Israeli, 2002; Yau, McKercher, &
Packer, 2004). The key researchers in the
METHOD field of dementia tourism are researchers
The methods used for this article include from Bourmouth University in England
literature review conducted in Web of represented by Page, Innes, and Cutler and
Science, Scopus, Science Direct and Canadian researchers, Dupuis and Genoe.
Springer, and comparison and evaluation
Tourists with Dementia
The concept of tourism for people for people with dementia which can hinder
with dementia was first introduced by their travelling: intrapersonal, interpersonal
Page et al. (2014) in their exploratory and structural. The intrapersonal barrier
study as “Dementia-Friendly Tourism is connected with the psychological
(DFT).” Their definition results from the aspects, that is, the fear of getting lost. The
concept of Dementia-Friendly Communities interpersonal constraint is connected with
(Department of Health, 2012; Genoe & social aspects, that is, whether the person
Dupuis, 2014). These are defined as an with dementia is able to get involved in
environment where people can access local travelling activities. The structural barrier
services and facilities, which if extended to then reflects the accessibility of destination
tourism will extend to the wider destination or cost of travel insurance.
resource base (e.g., transport) and the wider As Genoe and Dupuis (2014) claim,
destination infrastructure (e.g., leisure there is a need to physically and socially
settings). prepare communities to prepare and
Page et al. (2014) in their study list the understand the needs of older travellers
key issues in the area of tourism for people with dementia and their caregivers. Genoe
with dementia or DFT: (2010) in her study shows that in the present
• a lack of reliable public transport society people with dementia have stigma of
patients or their caregivers who can no being old, mentally ill and having dementia.
longer drive They are accepted by society as incompetent
individuals. However, Genoe claims that
• a lack of confidence with respect to
leisure activities such as travelling have
access to suitable public toilets
a very positive impact on their life. She
• a lack of signage for public areas, such presents a resistance concept in which she
as toilets, restaurants or bars, used by states that leisure might be a potential space
people with dementia who can easily for resistance against the ageing process
get lost and especially the stigma of dementia. This
• a lack of specialist travel companies approach should also enable these people
who can offer tailor-made holidays for to find ways to experience empowerment.
people with dementia
• a lack of understanding of this disease SPECIFICATIONS OF A TOURISM
PRODUCT FOR PEOPLE WITH
among general public, including travel
DEMENTIA
providers.
On the basis of the findings in research
On the basis of the concept developed by studies by Crampton et al. (2012), Cutler,
Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991), Innes Innes and Page (2016), or Innes et al. (2015),
et al. (2015) in their study list three barriers the following tourism product characteristics
Blanka Klímová
relevant for a senior traveller with dementia CONCLUSION AND

can be deduced: RECOMMENDATIONS
• it should include spatially safe The findings of this article indicate that
locations, that is, the locations which although there is a gradual interest in the
are adequately equipped with signage issue of DFT, research in this field is still
in its infancy and much more work has
• it should comprise quieter places in
to be done in this area. The best practices
which senior travellers with dementia
conducted in England and Canada can be
can calmly enjoy their new experiences,
an inspiration, besides other exploratory
but also find something reminding them
studies (Crampton et al., 2012; Cutler et
of their past
al., 2016).
• it should offer destinations which However, it is necessary to conduct more
are easily accessible in respect of research in the field of DFT, especially in the
transportation and transitions form of case studies which would illustrate
• it should also take into account the the best practices in this area. Furthermore,
senior traveller’s companion who in there is a need to establish guidelines for
case of need, especially in the later the development of DFT so that people with
stages of dementia, is usually her/his dementia and their caregivers could enjoy
caregiver and can handle all difficulties their holidays. Finally, businesses should get
• it should be of high quality, as they involved in the DFT policy, and the general
value quality during their travel and are public should become aware of the needs of
willing to spend more on it the senior travellers with dementia (Page et
al., 2014; Peterson, 2015).
• it should have medical facilities within
an easy reach because it makes people
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
with dementia and their caregivers more
secure about their travel The paper is supported by Project
Excellence (2017) and SPEV (2017) run at
• ideally, it should be a package travel,
the Faculty of Informatics and Management
which senior travellers with dementia
of the University of Hradec Kralove, Czech
would definitely appreciate
Republic. The author would like to thank
• it should also aim at staff qualifications Petra Henclová for her help with data
and their understanding of the needs of compilation.
people with dementia, as well as the
needs of their caregivers.
Tourists with Dementia
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REFEREES FOR THE PERTANIKA
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
VOL. 26 (1) MAR. 2018
The Editorial Board of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities wishes to thank the following:
A.A. Ananth Chua Yan Piaw Kamsiah Ali

(Annamalai University, India) (UM, Malaysia) (UNIMAS, Malaysia)
Adarsh Kohli Dede Rosyada Kim Keum Hyun

(PGIMER, India) (UIN, Indonesia) (UM, Malaysia)
Afida Mohd Ali Eric Eberlein Kiranjeet Kaur Dhillon

(UPM, Malaysia) (University of Pretoria, South Africa) (UiTM, Malaysia)
Ahmad Hilmy Abdul Hamid Farzana Quoquab B. Habib Lee Yok Fee
(USM, Malaysia) (UTM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia)
Alexander Sboev Fatimah Omar Lijie Yang

(Kurchatov Institute, Russia) (UKM, Malaysia) (Hebei University, China)
Ambigapathy Pandian Ghada Sasa Alawneh Mahirah Kamaludin

(USM, Malaysia) (Yarmouk University, Jordan) (UMT, Malaysia)
Ang Chin Siang Hamilton Mchunu Majeed Mohammed Midhin

(UCSI, Malaysia) (Ekurhuleni South District, South Africa) (University of Essex, England)
Ang Lay Hoon Hardev Kaur Jujar Singh Manimangai Mani

(UPM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia)
Anita Harris Satkunananthan Haslinda Abdullah Marcus B. Griffin

(UKM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) (CLS, USA)
Arbaayah Ali Termizi Ho Chui Chui Mohamad Rashidi Mohd

(UPM, Malaysia) (UiTM, Malaysia)
Pakri
(USM, Malaysia)
Azhar Noori Husna Johari
(UOB, Iraq) (UUM, Malaysia)
Mohd. Mansor Ismail
(UPM, Malaysia)
Azizan Marzuki I Nyoman Nurjaya
(USM, Malaysia) (FH-UB, Indonesia)
Munir Shuib
(USM, Malaysia)
Azlina Abd Aziz Izawati Wook
(UMT, Malaysia) (USIM, Malaysia)
Nabilah Abdullah
(UiTM, Malaysia)
Bahman Gorjiyan Jacqueline Sim
(IAU, Iran) (Phoenix Academy, Australia)
Nailul Morad Mohd Nor
(USM, Malaysia)
Carol Elizabeth Leon Jatswan S. Sidhu
(UM, Malaysia) (UM, Malaysia)
Ng Sor Tho
(UM, Malaysia)
Chew Cheng Meng Josef Zelenka
(USM, Malaysia) (UHK, Czech Republic)
Nik Rafidah Nik Muhammad
Christine Coombe Juliana Abdul Wahab Affendi
(UPM, Malaysia)
(DMC, United Arab Emirates) (USM, Malaysia)
Noor Rohana Mansor Rohany Nasir Suzana Muhammad
(UMT, Malaysia) (UKM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia)
Noor Sulastry Yurni Ahmad Saravanan Devadoss Suzanna Mohamed Isa

(UM, Malaysia) (AAU, Ethiopia) (UKM, Malaysia)
Nor Ba’yah Abdul Kadir Shaffe Mohd Daud Tuomo Rautakivi

(UKM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) (Burapha University, Thailand)
Noraien Mansor Shahrul Mizan Ismail Vahid Nimehchisalem

(UMT, Malaysia) (UKM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia)
Noresah Mohd Shariff Siti Akmar Abu Samah Wan Ahmad Amir Zal Wan
(USM, Malaysia) (UiTM, Malaysia)
Ismail
(UTM, Malaysia)
Normah Che Din Sivamurugan Pandian
(UKM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia)
Zahid Emby
(SIRIM, Malaysia)
Pooja Terasha Stanslas Somayeh Khodabakhsh
(Malaysia) (UCSI, Malaysia)
Zakaria Kasa
(UPSI, Malaysia)
Rabi N. Subudhi Stephen James Hall
(KIIT, India) (Sunway University College, Malaysia)
Zulnaidi Yaacob
(USM, Malaysia)
Ravi Kant Supakrit Sopikul
(MANUU, India) (Mahidol University, Thailand)
Ravichandran Vengadasamy Suresh Kumar N Vellymalay

(UKM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia)
AAU – Addis Ababa University UHK – University of Hradec Králové UPSI – Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
CLS – Cultural learning Solutions UIN – Universitas Islam Negeri USCI – University College Sedaya International
DMC – Dubai Men’s College UiTM – Universiti Teknologi MARA USIM – Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
FH-UB – Fakultas Hukum Universitas Brawijaya UKM – Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia USM – Universiti Sains Malaysia
IAU – Islamic Azad University UM – Universiti Malaya UTM – Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
KIIT – Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology UMT – Universiti Malaysia Terengganu UUM – Universiti Utara Malaysia
MANUU – Maulana Azad National Urdu University UNIMAS – Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
PGIMER – Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research UOB – University of Baghdad
SIRIM – Standard and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia UPM – Universiti Putra Malaysia
While every effort has been made to include a complete list of referees for the period stated above, however if any
name(s) have been omitted unintentionally or spelt incorrectly, please notify the Chief Executive Editor, Pertanika
Journals at [email protected].
Any inclusion or exclusion of name(s) on this page does not commit the Pertanika Editorial Office, nor the UPM Press or
the University to provide any liability for whatsoever reason.
Pertanika Journals
Our goal is to bring high quality research to the widest possible audience
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
(Manuscript Preparation & Submission Guide)
Revised: June 2016
Please read the Pertanika guidelines and follow these instructions carefully. Manuscripts not adhering to the instructions
will be returned for revision without review. The Chief Executive Editor reserves the right to return manuscripts that are not
prepared in accordance with these guidelines.
MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION
Manuscript Types
Pertanika accepts submission of mainly four types of manuscripts for peer-review.
1. Regular article
Regular articles are full-length original empirical investigations, consisting of introduction, materials
and methods, results and discussion, conclusions. Original work must provide references and an
explanation on research findings that contain new and significant findings.
Size: Generally, these are expected to be between 6 and 12 journal pages (excluding the abstract,
references, tables and/or figures), a maximum of 80 references, and an abstract of 100–200 words.
2. Review article
These report critical evaluation of materials about current research that has already been published
by organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published materials. It summarizes the status of
knowledge and outline future directions of research within the journal scope. Review articles should
aim to provide systemic overviews, evaluations and interpretations of research in a given field.
Re-analyses as meta-analysis and systemic reviews are encouraged. The manuscript title must start
with “Review Article:”.
Size: These articles do not have an expected page limit or maximum number of references, should
include appropriate figures and/or tables, and an abstract of 100–200 words. Ideally, a review article
should be of 7 to 8 printed pages.
3. Short communications
They are timely, peer-reviewed and brief. These are suitable for the publication of significant technical
advances and may be used to:
(a) report new developments, significant advances and novel aspects of experimental and theoretical
methods and techniques which are relevant for scientific investigations within the journal scope;
(b) report/discuss on significant matters of policy and perspective related to the science of the
journal, including ‘personal’ commentary;
(c) disseminate information and data on topical events of significant scientific and/or social interest
within the scope of the journal.
The manuscript title must start with “Brief Communication:”.
Size: These are usually between 2 and 4 journal pages and have a maximum of three figures and/or
tables, from 8 to 20 references, and an abstract length not exceeding 100 words. Information must
be in short but complete form and it is not intended to publish preliminary results or to be a reduced
version of Regular or Rapid Papers.
4. Others
Brief reports, case studies, comments, concept papers, Letters to the Editor, and replies on previously
published articles may be considered.
PLEASE NOTE: NO EXCEPTIONS WILL BE MADE FOR PAGE LENGTH.
Language Accuracy
Pertanika emphasizes on the linguistic accuracy of every manuscript published. Articles must be in
English and they must be competently written and argued in clear and concise grammatical English.
Contributors are strongly advised to have the manuscript checked by a colleague with ample experience
in writing English manuscripts or a competent English language editor.
Author(s) must provide a certificate confirming that their manuscripts have been adequately edited.
A proof from a recognised editing service should be submitted together with the cover letter at the time
of submitting a manuscript to Pertanika. All editing costs must be borne by the author(s). This
step, taken by authors before submission, will greatly facilitate reviewing, and thus publication if the
content is acceptable.
Linguistically hopeless manuscripts will be rejected straightaway (e.g., when the language is so poor
that one cannot be sure of what the authors really mean). This process, taken by authors before
submission, will greatly facilitate reviewing, and thus publication if the content is acceptable.
MANUSCRIPT FORMAT
The paper should be submitted in one column format with at least 4cm margins and 1.5 line spacing
throughout. Authors are advised to use Times New Roman 12-point font and MS Word format.
1. Manuscript Structure
Manuscripts in general should be organised in the following order:
Page 1: Running title

This page should only contain the running title of your paper. The running title is an abbreviated
title used as the running head on every page of the manuscript. The running title should not
exceed 60 characters, counting letters and spaces.
Page 2: Author(s) and Corresponding author information.

This page should contain the full title of your paper not exceeding 25 words, with name(s) of
all the authors, institutions and corresponding author’s name, institution and full address (Street
address, telephone number (including extension), hand phone number, and e-mail address) for
editorial correspondence. First and corresponding authors must be clearly indicated.
The names of the authors may be abbreviated following the international naming convention.
e.g. Salleh, A.B.1, Tan, S.G2*., and Sapuan, S.M3.
Authors’ addresses. Multiple authors with different addresses must indicate their respective
addresses separately by superscript numbers:
George Swan1 and Nayan Kanwal2
1
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,
2
Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
A list of number of black and white / colour figures and tables should also be indicated on
this page. Figures submitted in color will be printed in colour. See “5. Figures & Photographs” for
details.
Page 3: Abstract
This page should repeat the full title of your paper with only the Abstract (the abstract should
be less than 250 words for a Regular Paper and up to 100 words for a Short Communication), and
Keywords.
Keywords: Not more than eight keywords in alphabetical order must be provided to describe
the contents of the manuscript.
Page 4: Introduction
This page should begin with the Introduction of your article and followed by the rest of your
paper.
2. Text
Regular Papers should be prepared with the headings Introduction, Materials and Methods,
Results and Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgements, References, and Supplementary data
(if avavailble) in this order.
3. Equations and Formulae

These must be set up clearly and should be typed double spaced. Numbers identifying equations
should be in square brackets and placed on the right margin of the text.
4. Tables
All tables should be prepared in a form consistent with recent issues of Pertanika and should
be numbered consecutively with Roman numerals. Explanatory material should be given in the
table legends and footnotes. Each table should be prepared on a new page, embedded in the
manuscript.
When a manuscript is submitted for publication, tables must also be submitted separately as data
- .doc, .rtf, Excel or PowerPoint files- because tables submitted as image data cannot be edited for
publication and are usually in low-resolution.
5. Figures & Photographs

Submit an original figure or photograph. Line drawings must be clear, with high black and
white contrast. Each figure or photograph should be prepared on a new page, embedded in the
manuscript for reviewing to keep the file of the manuscript under 5 MB. These should be numbered
consecutively with Roman numerals.
Figures or photographs must also be submitted separately as TIFF, JPEG, or Excel files- because
figures or photographs submitted in low-resolution embedded in the manuscript cannot be
accepted for publication. For electronic figures, create your figures using applications that are
capable of preparing high resolution TIFF files. In general, we require 300 dpi or higher resolution
for coloured and half-tone artwork, and 1200 dpi or higher for line drawings are required.
Failure to comply with these specifications will require new figures and delay in publication.
NOTE: Illustrations may be produced in colour at no extra cost at the discretion of the Publisher;
the author could be charged Malaysian Ringgit 50 for each colour page.
6. References
References begin on their own page and are listed in alphabetical order by the first author’s
last name. Only references cited within the text should be included. All references should be in
12-point font and double-spaced.
NOTE: When formatting your references, please follow the APA reference style (6th Edition). Ensure
that the references are strictly in the journal’s prescribed style, failing which your article will not be
accepted for peer-review. You may refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association for further details (http://www.apastyle.org/).
7. General Guidelines
Abbreviations: Define alphabetically, other than abbreviations that can be used without definition.
Words or phrases that are abbreviated in the introduction and following text should be written
out in full the first time that they appear in the text, with each abbreviated form in parenthesis.
Include the common name or scientific name, or both, of animal and plant materials.
Acknowledgements: Individuals and entities that have provided essential support such
as research grants and fellowships and other sources of funding should be acknowledged.
Contributions that do not involve researching (clerical assistance or personal acknowledgements)
should not appear in acknowledgements.
Authors’ Affiliation: The primary affiliation for each author should be the institution where the
majority of their work was done. If an author has subsequently moved to another institution, the
current address may also be stated in the footer.
Co-Authors: The commonly accepted guideline for authorship is that one must have substantially
contributed to the development of the paper and share accountability for the results. Researchers
should decide who will be an author and what order they will be listed depending upon their
order of importance to the study. Other contributions should be cited in the manuscript’s
Acknowledgements.
Copyright Permissions: Authors should seek necessary permissions for quotations, artwork,
boxes or tables taken from other publications or from other freely available sources on the Internet
before submission to Pertanika. Acknowledgement must be given to the original source in the
illustration legend, in a table footnote, or at the end of the quotation.
Footnotes: Current addresses of authors if different from heading may be inserted here.
Page Numbering: Every page of the manuscript, including the title page, references, tables,
etc. should be numbered.
Spelling: The journal uses American or British spelling and authors may follow the latest edition
of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary for British spellings.
SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS
Owing to the volume of manuscripts we receive, we must insist that all submissions be made electronically
using the online submission system ScholarOne™, a web-based portal by Thomson Reuters. For
more information, go to our web page and click “Online Submission”.
Submission Checklist
1. MANUSCRIPT: Ensure your MS has followed the Pertanika style particularly the first four pages as
explained earlier. The article should be written in a good academic style and provide an accurate
and succinct description of the contents ensuring that grammar and spelling errors have been
corrected before submission. It should also not exceed the suggested length.
COVER LETTER: All submissions must be accompanied by a cover letter detailing what you
are submitting. Papers are accepted for publication in the journal on the understanding that the
article is original and the content has not been published either in English or any other
language(s) or submitted for publication elsewhere. The letter should also briefly describe
the research you are reporting, why it is important, and why you think the readers of the journal
would be interested in it. The cover letter must also contain an acknowledgement that all authors
have contributed significantly, and that all authors have approved the paper for release and are in
agreement with its content.
The cover letter of the paper should contain (i) the title; (ii) the full names of the authors; (iii) the
addresses of the institutions at which the work was carried out together with (iv) the full postal
and email address, plus telephone numbers and emails of all the authors. The current address of
any author, if different from that where the work was carried out, should be supplied in a footnote.
The above must be stated in the cover letter. Submission of your manuscript will not be accepted
until a cover letter has been received
2. COPYRIGHT: Authors publishing the Journal will be asked to sign a copyright form. In signing the
form, it is assumed that authors have obtained permission to use any copyrighted or previously
published material. All authors must read and agree to the conditions outlined in the form, and
must sign the form or agree that the corresponding author can sign on their behalf. Articles cannot
be published until a signed form (original pen-to-paper signature) has been received.
Please do not submit manuscripts to the editor-in-chief or to any other office directly. Any queries must
be directed to the Chief Executive Editor’s office via email to [email protected].
Visit our Journal’s website for more details at http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/home.php.
HARDCOPIES OF THE JOURNALS AND OFF PRINTS

Under the Journal’s open access initiative, authors can choose to download free material (via PDF link)
from any of the journal issues from Pertanika’s website. Under “Browse Journals” you will see a
link, “Current Issues” or “Archives”. Here you will get access to all current and back-issues from 1978
onwards.
The corresponding author for all articles will receive one complimentary hardcopy of the journal in
which his/her articles is published. In addition, 20 off prints of the full text of their article will also be
provided. Additional copies of the journals may be purchased by writing to the Chief Executive Editor.
Effectiveness of ToyBox Intervention to Reduce Sedentary Behaviour among Pre- 425
school Children: A Case in Malaysia
To Go, or Not to Go: The Palestinian Realities of Exile in the Works of Sahar 441
Khalifeh
The Curious Incidence of Individual Empowerment 453
An Economic Valuation of Urban Green Spaces in Kuala Lumpur City 469
Preliminary Assessment and Prioritisation of Demand Management Strategies for 491
Reducing Train Overcrowding
SMEs Development and ASEAN Economic Integration: An Analysis of Singapore and 507
Malaysia
The Impact of School Context on the Construction of Female Mathematic Teachers’ 519
Professional Identity in a South African Primary School
GM Steyn
Export Tax Policy in Indonesia: The Impacts on Competitiveness and Price 535
Integration of Cocoa Products
A Path Analysis of the Relationship between Job Stress and Care for Ageing Parents 553
in Thailand: A Case Study of Thai Migrant Workers
Kahoot! It: Gamification in Higher Education 565
Short Communication
Tourists with Dementia – A Unique Challenge for the Tourism Industry 583
Blanka Klímová
Students’ Perspective on the Impact of English Teacher Development Programs on 199
Teaching Quality in Indonesia
Azkiyah, S. N., Doolaard, S., Creemers, Bert P. M. and Van der Werf, M. P. C.
(Greetje)
Orang Asli Student Icons: An Innovative Teaching Method for Orang Asli Students 219
Rohaida Nordin, Muhamad Sayuti Hassan @ Yahya and Ibrahim Danjuma
Impact of Commuter Families on Adolescent Development: An Evaluation of the 239
Adolescent from Peninsular Malaysia
The Influence of Demographic Profile on Work Life Balance of Women Employees in 259
Tannery Industry – An Empirical Study
Rape Talks Louder Than Guns Feminising Men via Wartime Rape in Judith 285
Thompson’s Palace of the End
The Nature of ‘Nature Tourism’: Exploring the Role of Images and Imagination in 299
Ecotourism
Kalpita Bhar Paul
Gender Differences in Behaviourally Fractionated Omitted Stimulus Reaction Time 317
Task using Visual, Auditory and Somatosensory Stimuli
Effect of Phase-based Instruction Using Geometer’s Sketchpad on Geometric 329
Overcoming The Shadow and Achieving Individuation through a Hero’s Journey in 345
Tunku Halim’s “A Sister’s Tale”
Integration of Values and Culture in Malay Folklore Animation 359
Normaliza Abd Rahim, Awang Azman Awang Pawi and Nik Rafidah Nik
Muhamad Affendi
Iranian Medical Students’ Perception about Classroom Participation in General English 375
Course and its Grading Criteria
The Shadow Worlds that Run Parallel to the Real World: Deleuzian Time-Images and 397
Virtualities in Paul Auster’ Sunset Park
Assessing Cyberloafing Behaviour among University Students: A Validation of the 409
Cyberloafing Scale
Koay, Kian-Yeik
Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 26 (1) Mar. 2018
Contents
Foreword i
Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Articles
1
Common Issues and Challenges of Breast Cancer Awareness in Malaysia: A 21
Contemporary Scenario
Psychological and Social Factors of Depression Recovery: A Narrative Review 41
Regular Articles
59
The Resistance of Local Wisdom Towards Radicalism: The Study of the Tarekat 75
Community of West Sumatra, Indonesia
Welhendri Azwar
103
Features
The Characteristics of Entrepreneurs with Successful and Sustainable Small 113
Businesses in Northeastern Thailand
Nath Amornpinyo
Debunking the Myth of Money as Motivator in a Multigenerational Workforce 129
The Effect of Self-Transcription and Expert Scaffolding on the Accuracy of Oral 149
Production of EFL Learners
Recent Challenges for the Enforcement of Wildlife Laws in East Malaysia 167
Smartphone Usage Capabilities among Younger and Elderly Users 181

Raywadee Sakdulyatham, Somjaree Preeyanont, Rajalida Lipikorn and
Rewadee Watakakosol
Pertanika Editorial Office, Journal Division

Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I)
1st Floor, IDEA Tower II
UPM-MTDC Technology Centre
Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia
http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: +603 8947 1622

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Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities

VOL. 26 (1) MAR. 2018

About the Journal

Recognized internationally as the leading peer-reviewed interdisciplinary journal devoted to the

The Journal is available world-wide.

Aims and scope

Abstracting and indexing of Pertanika

Citing journal articles

Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities

The Journal’s peer-review

most appropriate and highest quality material for the journal.

Operating and review process

Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities

Chief Executive Editor

SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

The Influence of Religiosity on Safety Behavior of Workers: A

Keywords: Occupational safety behaviour, religiosity,

E-mail addresses: In any high-risk industry, safety is of

ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

2 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

4. Falls and the impact of moving objects or maintenance, normal tool or

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 3

developed by Reason (1999), is classified OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

4 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

of safety performance outcome variables to accidents in the workplace was broken

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 5

6 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 7

8 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 9

     

Figure 1. Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991)

Attitude would produce negative outcomes (Ajzen,

10 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

Subjective Norms Behavioural Intention

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 11

12 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

    ,5:9HM

Figure 2. The extended

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 13

Perceived Behaviour Control Safety Behaviour

14 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 15

REFERENCES Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2000). Social cognition

16 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 17

18 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 1 - 20 (2018) 19

SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Common Issues and Challenges of Breast Cancer Awareness in

Keywords: Breast cancer awareness, Breast Self-

ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

INTRODUCTION Breast cancer is identified as the

22 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 21 - 40 (2018)

Year Incidence (Number) Increase (%) Mortality (Number) Increase (%)

24 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 21 - 40 (2018)

The establishment of breast cancer (free of charge) at all public hospitals in

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (1): 21 - 40 (2018) 25

A total of 38 articles related to breast applied methodologies, outcome and

Research Paper (n=31)

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