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BATTLE OF YARMUKH
INTRODUCTION
"To those against whom war is made, permission is given to fight because they are
wronged and varily Allah is most powerful for their aid". (Sorah Al Haj Verse-39)

1. The Holy verse of Al-Quran by which war was permitted by Almighty for self
defence and protection of Islam and its followers. Since then Muslim fought many
battles. Battle of Yarmukh stands as unique in the series of wars fought by the Muslim.
YARMUKH is the name of a river which rises in the mountain Hareer and joins the
Jordan river below the sea of Galilli. This famous battle of Islam was fought in a place
known as the plain of Yarmukh. At present this place is located in southern portion of
Syria. Though this battle was fought after the death of Holy Prophet (SM), yet it was the
time of rise and expansion of Islam. It was also a Jihad against the Non-Muslim.

2. The battle of Yarmukh was fought in 636 AD. After the death of the Holy Prophet
(SM) Arab Christians and Jewish tribes refused to pay Jizya (tax for non- Muslim) any
more. When it became an open rebellion, the Caliph Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) started
sending his forces to restore law and order. At this time, Roman Emperor Heraclius
became the unchallenged ruler of Constantinople, Greece, North Africa and Persia. Some
of the dissident Arab Christians sought military support from the Roman Emperor against
the Muslim rule. At this stage after evaluating the overall situation, Heraclius became
furious and decided to organize a massive force and gain an overwhelming superiority
over Muslim. In the mean time the first Caliph of Islam Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) died.
Thinking this to be the correct time, Heraclius decided to mobilise a large well trained
force to destroy the Muslim once for all. At this time war became essential for the
Muslim, because-

"Jihad (holy fighting in Allah's Cause) is ordained for you (Muslim) though you
dislike it, and it may be that you dislike a thing which is good for you and that you
like a thing which is bad for you. Allâh knows but you do not know.” (Sorah Al-
Bakarah Verse-216)

3. Though this battle was fought about 1400 years ago yet it was classical from
military point of view. Imperial Roman Army was highly trained and professional. This
highly formidable Army was defeated by ill equipped and divided Arabian tribes who of
course were the masters of movements in the desert and highly skilled in mobile cavalry
operation. Both armies could advance, retreat, carry out flanking operation or cut
communication lines in swift lightening movements. But the wish of Allah and
Generalship of Muslim ruled the supreme. The battle was preceded by a strategic
withdraw and had combined many tactical forms for the first time like the frontal attack,
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penetration, outflanking, envelopment, counter attack, flanking attack, attack from rear.

AIM
4. The aim of today's presentation is to describe the battle of Yarmukh.

SCOPE
5. The presentation will be unfolded in following sequence:

a. Causes of the Battle.

b. Description of the battle field.
c. Plan of the Both Forces.
d. Order of Battle.
e. Deployment.
f. Conduct of the Battle.
g. Leadership of Khalid-bin-Walid.
h. Significance.
j. Causes of Muslim Victory.
k. Causes of Roman Defeat.
l. Lessons Learnt.
m. Principles of War Applied.
n. Lessons Applicable for Our Army.

CAUSES OF THE BATTLE

6. The causes of the battle of Yarmukh are as following:

a. Deny to Pay Tax (Jizya). After the demise of Prophet (SM); Hazrat Abu
Bakar (RA) was made the Caliph of Islam. Non Muslim thought that the Muslim
state under Abu Bakar will soon collapse. As a result some of the Arab Christians
and Jews tribe refused to pay Jizya anymore. It caused tremendous effect on the
national economy. Thus the battle was inevitable to bring back the order.

b. Strategic Reason. Yarmukh was located in SW part of Syria. The whole

Syria, Palestine, Jordan and present day Israel was under Muslim rule. The area
being located close to the junk of Asia, Europe and Africa had Strategic imp.

c. Financial gain. Muslim empire was not rich and sound in financial
aspect. On the other hand Byzantine Empire was famous for its wealth and
richness. In order to improve the weak economic position it was necessary for
Muslim to conquer the north west of Arab.
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d. Expansion of Islam. As a result of expansion of Islam Muslim army

was deployed all over Syria. This also allured Roman leader to destroy Muslim in
piece meal.

e. Death of Abu Bakar (RA). After the repeated victory of Muslim against
Roman, Herclius decided to gather a vast confederacy to launch an offensive on
Muslim. During this time the first Caliph Hazrat Abu Bakar (RA) died. Thinking
this as an opportunity, Raman Empire decided to mob a large well trained force to
destroy the Muslim once for all.

f. Killing of Muslim Envoys. Enmity between the Muslim and

Byzantine started in 629 AD; during the life time of Prophet (SM). Prophet’s
envoy was killed by the Ghassan tribe of Syria.

g. Division in Muslim. The Bedwins took Prophets’ death as green

signal for their wild life style. Some tribes remained Muslim but denied to pay
Zakat. Second group remained normal Muslim and denied to pay taxes. Third
group reverted to paganism. Fourth group left Islam and became disciple of
pseudo Prophet.

h. Border Conflict. Border skirmishes between the Muslim and Byzantine

were a common phenomenon during that time. Retaliatory raids of each other
post/castles ultimately became a long demand issue of hostility.

j. Re-establishment of Roman Empire into its Former Glory. For over

four centuries, the Roman legion had been maintaining its supremacy over the
Greeks and the Persian Phalanx. Hereaclius had come to Roman thrown in 610
AD when the affairs of the eastern Roman Empire was at its lowest ebb and the
empire consisted of little more than the area around Constantinople and parts of
Greece and North Africa. Then over a period of two decades Heraclius re-
established the empire in its former glory.

DESCRIPTION OF BATTLE FIELD

Topography

7. Yarmukh plain was generally a flat piece of ground slopping gently from North to
South. The area was bounded by open field of Jabiya in the north, Yarmukh river on the
south-south east, Azra hills on the east and wadi-ur-Raqqad nullah on the west. It was
extended over 35 miles from east to west. A foot track crossed through Yarmukh, Allan
nullah and Wadi-ur-Raqqad with fording sites.
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8. Important Features. Important land features located in the plains of

Yarmukh, where the battle was fought are as follows:

a. Wadi-ur-Raqqad Nullah. This nullah moved 11 miles across deep

ravines with steep banks from north to south and joined Yarmukh river. The nullah
runs along west of the Yarmukh plain.

b. Yarmukh River. Yarmukh river flowed from north-east, covering 15

miles of the plains of southern periphery and joined Jordan river, south of sea
Galille.

c. Yarmukh Plain. It stretched over 35 miles from Azra hills in the east up
to Wadi-ur-Raqqad nullah to the west.

d. Sameid Hills. Located three miles South-West of Nawa village on

Jabiya-Azra track was the only dominating tactical feature in the vicinity of the
plain.

e. Foot Track. A foot track went across Yarmukh river, Allan nullah and
Wadi-ur-Raqqad Nullah with fording sites.

Order of Battle

9. Roman Army.

a. Total strength - 150,000 men.

b. Army Commanders:

(1) Vahan-Commander in Chief and Commander of Armenian Army.

(2) Qanateer - Russian Prince Commanded all the Russians and slaves.

(3) Gregory - Commander of European Army.

(4) Deirjan - Commander of European Army.

(5) Jabal Bin-Al-Eihan - Commander Christian Arabs.

10. Muslim Army.

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a. Total strength - 40,000 men.

b. Corps Commanders:

(1) Amr-Bin Al-Aas - Palestine.

(2) Shurahbeel - Jordan.

(3) Yazid Bin Abu Sufian - Ceasarea.

(4) Khalid Bin Walid - Emessa.

c. Commander in Chief - Abu Obeida.

PLAN
Roman Strategy

11. In late 635, while Emesa was under siege, Heraclius began preparation for these
great manoeuvres. By May 636 AD, an army of 150,000 men had been put under arms
and concentrated in the area of Antioch and in parts of Northern Syria. The assembled
army consisted of contingents of Byzentines, Slavs and franks, Georgians, Armenians
and Christian Arabs. This force was organized in to five armies, each of about 30,000
soldiers.

12. At this time Muslim were split in four groups in Palestine, Jordan, Damascus-
Ceasarea ,Emessa. In this dispersed situation the Muslim were so vulnerable that each of
their corps could be attacked in turn without the least chance of fighting a successive
battle. This situation was fully exploited by Heraclius in the plan which he put in to
execution.

13. Ceasarea, which was under the Roman control was reinforced by sea and built up
to a strength of 40,000 men, was ordered to stop Yazid from moving out and joining the
other Muslim forces. Thus Roman army planned to operate as under.

a. Qanateer would move along the coastal route up to Beirut, then approach
Damascus form the west and cut off Abu Obeida.

b. Jabla would march from Aleppo on the direct route to Emessa via Hama
and hold the Muslim frontally in the Emessa region.
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c. Deirjan would move between the coast and the Aleppo road and approach
Emessa from the west thus striking the Muslim in their flank while they were held
frontally by Jabla.

d. Gregory would advance on Emessa from the north east and attack the
Muslim in their right flank at the same time as they were stuck by Deirjan.

e. The army of Vahan would advance behind the Christian Arabs and act as a
reserve.

By this process the Roman armies planned to attack and destroy the Muslim forces
separately in different areas.

Muslim Strategy

14. It was at Sheirzar, through Roman prisoners, that the Muslim first came to know
of the preparation being made by Heraclius. The Muslim had established an excellent
intelligence system in the land, and no major movement or concentration of enemy forces
remained concealed from them.

15. Basing on the information received the commander in-chief Abu Obeida called the
war council to plan his strategy. Here Khalid Bin Walid gave out his plan which
ultimately was accepted by all and became the Muslim plans which are:

a. The battle was to be fought at Yarmukh keeping AZRA at the back which
would facilitate easy reinforcement and a secured line of communication.

b. Fighting a battle in Yarmukh is a plain land would be suitable for the

cavalry where the Muslim were masters.

c. The soundest course would be to pull back from north central Syria as well
as from Palestine and to concentrate the whole army in the plain of Yarmokh to
build a strong and united opposition against the Roman.

d. So the forces were ordered to concentrate at Jabiya which they did before
the Roman had reached Damascus.

e. Finally the war council decided to face the Roman not at Jabiya but the
plain land of Yarmukh and Muslim Army moved to Yarmukh.

DEPLOYMENT
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The Roman Army

16. The Roman Commander in Chief Mahan deployed the imperial army forward of
Allan. He used his four regular armies to form the line of battle which was 12 miles long
extending from the Yarmukh to sough of the Hill of Jabiya. He placed the army of
Gregory on his right hands and the army of Qanateer on his left. The centre was formed
by the army of Deirjan and the Armenian army of Mahan, both under the command of
Deirjan. The Roman regular Cavalry was distributed equally among the four armies and
each army deployed with its infantry holding the front and its cavalry held as a reserve in
the rear. Ahead of the front line across the entire 12 miles front, Mahan deployed the
Christian Arab army of Jabla, which was all mounted on horse and camel. This army
acted as a screen and skirmish line and was not concerned with serious fighting except as
its groups joined the army in front of which they were positioned. The army of Gregory
which formed the right wing, used chains to link its 30,000 foot soldiers. These chains
were in 10 men length and were used as a proof of unshakable courage on the part of the
men who thus displayed their willingness to die where they stood.

Weaponry of Roman Army

17. The Byzantine cavalry was armed with a long sword, known as the spathion. They
would also have had a light wooden lance, known as a kontarion and a bow (toxarion)
with forty arrows in a quiver, hung from a saddle or from the belt. Heavy infantry, known
as skoutatoi, had a short sword and a short spear. The lightly armed Byzantine troops and
the archers carried a small shield, a bow hung from the shoulder across the back and a
quiver of arrows. Cavalry armor consisted of a hauberk with a mail coif and a helmet
with a pendant, i.e. a throat-guard lined with fabric and having a fringe and cheek piece.
Infantry was similarly equipped with a hauberk, a helmet and leg armour.

The Muslim Army

18. Khalid who now exercised actual command over the Army immediately set about
the reorganization of the army in to infantry cavalry regiments within each corps. The
army consisted of 40.000 men of which about 10,000 were cavalry. This force was then
organized by Khalid in to 36 infantry regiments of 800 to 900 men each three cavalry
regiments of 2,000 horses each and the mobile guard of 4,000 horsemen.

19. The army as deployed on a front of 11 miles, corresponding roughly to the front of
the Roman army. The army's left rested on the Yarmukh River a mile forward where the
ravine began while its right lay on the Jabiya road. On the left stood the corps of Yazid
and on the right the corps of Amr-Bin-Al-Aas, and each of these flanking corps were
given a cavalry regiment. Behind the centre stood the mobile guard and one cavalry
regiment a central reserve for employment on the order of Khalid. At any time when
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Khalid was busy with the conduct of the battle as a whole, zarrar would command the
mobile guard. Each corps pushed out a line of scouts to keep Roman under observation.

20. Compared with the Roman, the Muslim Army formed a thin line only three ranks
deep, but there were no gaps in the ranks which stretched in unbroken lines from edge to
edge. The flanking corps would use their positions in case they were pushed back by the
Roman, Khalid with his Mobile Guard and one cavalry regiment would provide the local
reserve for the two central corps and also be available as an army reserve to intervene in
the battle of the flanking corps as required.

Weaponry of Muslim Army

21. Helmets used included gilded helmets similar to the silver helmets of the Sassanid
Empire. Mail was commonly used to protect the face, neck and cheeks. Heavy leather
sandals as well as Roman-type sandal boots were also typical of the early Muslim
soldiers. Infantry soldiers were more heavily armoured than horsemen. Large wooden or
wickerwork shields were used. Long-shafted spears were used, with infantry spears being
2.5 m (8.2 ft) long and cavalry spears being up to 5.5 m (18 ft) long. Short infantry
swords like the Roman gladius and Sassanid long swords were used; long swords were
usually carried by horsemen. The maximum useful range of the traditional Arabian bow
was about 150 m (490 ft). Early Muslim archers, while being infantry archers without the
mobility of horseback archer regiments, proved to be very effective in defending against
light and un armoured cavalry attacks.

THE BATTLE
Situation Preceding the Battle

22. Two armies settled down in their respective camps and began to make preparation
for battle reconnaissance, plans, orders checking of equipment etc. Yet with all this
superiority of number and equipment, the Roman Emperor gave instruction to the
Armenian commander-in-chief that "Not to start hostilities until all avenues of peaceful
negotiation had been explored". Consequently Vahan sent one of his army commanders,
Gregory, to hold talks with the Muslim. Gregory rode out to the Muslim camp in front of
which he held a discussion with Abu Obeida. The Roman offered to the Muslim to go for
peace and give up all intention of invading Syria again but Abu Obeida's answer was in
the negative. So Roman returned empty handed. Vahan then sent Jabla for negotiations
which also failed. Vahan realized that a battle was inevitable and nothing could be done
to avoid it, consequently sent Jabla forward with the bulk of his Arab army to put in a
probing attack on the Muslim. But Jabla was assailed by Khalid unexpectedly and after a
certain amount of half hearted resistance, the Christian Arabs withdrew.
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23. There after, for almost a month, there was no major action on the plain of
Yarmukh. The inactivity, however, proved beneficial to the Muslim, as during this period
a fresh contingent of Six thousand Muslim arrived to join them the majority of whom
were from the Yemen. The Muslim then had an army of 40,000 warriors, including 1,000
companions of the prophet, and these in turn included veterans of the battle of Badar the
first battle of Islam.

24. When a month has passed after the repulse of Jabla, Vahan felt strong enough to
take the offensive but he again thought of negotiating for peace for the last time and
decided to make the attempt by himself. He asked for a Muslim envoy to be sent to his
headquarters and in response, to his request, Abu Obeida sent Khalid with a few men.
Here Khalid offered three alternatives, Islam, the Jizya or the Sword, Vahan chose the
last. Thus all negotiations were over and both sides prepared for battle which lasted for 7
days from 14th to 20th August 636 AD.

1st Day of the Battle

25. On 14th August at dawn the Muslim corps offered their prayers behind their
respective commanders. By sunrise both armies stood facing each other across the centre
of the plain of Yarmukh, a little loss than a mile apart. As per tradition, first the
individual fights took place in which Muslim mostly won. Then, around midday the
Roman infantry advanced and when it came within the range of the Muslim archers were
subjected to intense archery which caused some casualties. The Roman did not put up a
stiff fight and by evening the two armies separated and returned to their respective
camps. Casualties this day though light, were more among the Roman than the Muslim.

2nd Day of the Battle

26. On 15th August Roman’s frontal attack was again repulsed. Then they raided the
Muslim flanks simultaneously. Initially thrusts were met with strong resistance, but could
not sustain repeated attack. As a result both the left and right flank of Yazeed and Amr
were pushed back, by Gregory and Qanateer respectively. Anticipating the danger Khalid
launched his mobile guard from the right and he himself drove his cavalry to the left.
Both the attempts were successful and by evening both the flanks were stabilized. In the
process Khalid sent Zarrar to fix the enemy frontally, who could break through enemy
centre and kill Dierjan.

3rd day of the Battle

27. On 16th August, again the Roman launched offensive on the Muslim’s right flank
and Shurabeel. The Muslim were pushed back. Khalid came to rescue and helped Amr
to counter attack. En centre was contained frontally by Shurabeel’s inf.
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4th Day of the Battle

28. On 17th August Vahan launched successive attack against the Muslim flanks with
his all might. Muslim stood fast and held back with hand to hand fight. But Amr was
again pushed back. In the mean time Abu Ubeida and Yazeed were pressing enemy right
flank. Shurabeel’s position in the right-centre became suddenly untenable. Khalid
launched his cavalry against the Armenians from the right. Shurabeel and Amr held the
enemy frontally. Roman attack was beaten back with heavy loss on the enemy.

29. Meanwhile, the success of the Muslim left wing armies was ended when the
Roman deploy their archers. The Muslim archers were outranged and can do nothing but
retreat with the rest of the two armies. This is known as the “Day of Lost Eyes” for the
700 Muslim who lose an eye in this arrow barrage. The Roman right wing armies quickly
exploited this disorder and attacked but they are also tied down in a slogging match
which was balanced out when the Muslim women took up arms and join the battle. The
fighting continued until dusk and exhaustion again force Roman disengagement.

5th day of the Battle

30. On 18th August, Roman became apprehensive about their much published victory
and sought truce for peace negotiation. But the Muslim refused. Then the Roman
changed their tactics and resorted to fight defensive battle. Khalid took the initiative to
launch counter offensive without delay.

6th Day of the Battle

31. In the previous night, Khalid detached a unit to guard the bridge over the Wadi, in
this case an abnormally steep dry river. In 6th day Khalid opened his assault by pinning
the Roman front with his infantry and sweeping around Vahan’s left flank. Vahan also
gathers a large cavalry group in reserve but it is unprepared to respond decisively at the
time of attack and so the Roman left army disintegrates, exposing the left-centre army’s
flank in turn.

32. The Muslim mobile reserve led by Khalid went round the enemy rear from the
north. It was a total surprise for the Roman. Roman started running in all direction.
The horseman left their infantry at the mercy of Muslim cavalry and fled towards rear. In
their desperate attempt to get away, thousands of Roman troops tumbled into deep gorges
of Allan and Wadi- ur-Raqqad nullah and got drowned. Finding no other alternative
Vahan; the Roman C-in-C also fled with a large number of his cavalry towards north.

7th Day of the Battle

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33. Early next morning, while the rest of the Muslim army gathered the spoils of war
and buried the dead, Khalid moved out with the Muslim cavalry towards Damascus in the
hope of catching up with Vahan. The Roman Commander-In-Chief not suspecting a
pursuit was moving slowly and in the afternoon, Khalid took over the Roman rear guard.
The Roman cavalry was in route and fled in small groups towards the north and west,
thus ending the glorious chapter of the Roman legions in Syria.

LEADERSHIP OF KHALID BIN WALID

34. The leadership qualities of Khalid bin Walid are stated below:

a. Born as a Warrior. Born and brought up in the richest and famous

family of Mecca. Khalid was primarily a superb “Fighting Machine”. His military
genius covered almost the entire horizon of his intellectual life.

b. Maintenance of Aim by Khalid. On 18th Aug 636 AD; the 5th day of the
battle Roman become apprehensive about their much desired victory and sought
truce for peace negotiation. But Khalid refused and launched Counter offensive
because their aim was to destroy the enemy once for all. Khalid maintained his
aim throughout the battle.

c. Sound and Flexible in Planning. Khalid’s concept was to wear down

the numerically superior enemy while in defence and then destroy him with a
deadly counter offensive. He planned to take maximum advantage of topographic
feature. Initially Muslim planned to fight a defensive battle at Jabiya. But finding
the probability of being cut off by the Constantine at south; they altered their plan.
These were the vital factors for the Muslim to win the battle.

d. Foresightness. Khalid was foresighted commander. His forces were

scattered in Syria, Palestine and Jordan. He could avoid to be destroyed in
piecemeal by concentrating in Yarmukh plain. Khalid chose Yarmukh plain to
face the giant Roman’s since:

(1) Outflanking of Muslim position will be difficult.

(2) Rear was safe for manoeuvre and reinforcement.
(3) Suitable for concentration of all the corps in Syrian front.

e. Great Tactician. The tactical employment by Khalid was superior to that

of the Roman. Timely use of mobile reserve, combination of initial defence,
counter attack, envelopment, use of blocking position, persuading and annihilating
the enemy helped the Muslim in defeating the Roman easily.
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f. Exemplary Generalship. Vision, flexibility, robustness and understanding

of human nature constitute the main traits in Khalid’s make up. He combined
reckless personality bravery with extreme circumspection as commander. In
campaign after campaign, it was the generalship of Khalid, which proved to be the
deciding factor. Caliph Abu Bakar (RA) said “Mothers are now helpless to
produce a son like Khalid”. Amr-Al-Aas remark; “Khalid is the supreme master
of the art of war. He manoeuvres like a cat and charges like a lion”. The Holly
Prophet (SM) himself crowned Khalid as “SAIFULLAH” -the sword of Allah.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BATTLE

35. In the series of Islamic battles fought by the Muslim, Yarmukh was one of the
significant one because of the following:

a. Expansion of Islam. The battle was fought at a time when Islam was
still encountering resistance towards its wide scale establishment. Death of Holly
Prophet (SM) was misinterpreted by the enemy as the end of Islam. But the battle
of Yarmukh, ultimately called for the tragic end of the Roman Empire in Syria and
established Muslim rule within 6 yrs from the day of victory.

b. Better Trade and Economy. Success of the battle opened wider

horizon for trade and commerce by the Muslim. It also ensured re-enactment of
collection of Jizya from the non-Muslim, which they stopped paying after the
death of the Prophet (SM).

c. Springboard for Future Success. It was the first even victory won
by the Muslim in close quarter battle and mountain country with disciplined rank.
It helped in gaining confidence and led the Muslim from victory to victory till the
conquest of Egypt.

d. End of Roman Rule in Syria. The Roman carry out lot of expedition
against Muslim but failed and then finally with the assistance of 12 other nations
prepared themselves to launch an offensive. The battle of Yarmurkh was a
glorious victory for Muslim but a humiliating defeat ever suffered by the Eastern
Roman empire. This battle compelled the Roman to wind up their rule in Syria.

e. Conquest of Syria by Muslim. The momentum achieved by the victory

at Yarmukh did not subside until the conquest of the whole Syria in less than six
years time from that day.
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f. Enhance Confidence for the Subsequent Battle. Battle of Yarmukh was

the first ever victory won by the Muslim in close and Mountainous country. This
experience and confidence gained at Yarmukh inspired them in good stead in later
campaigns.

g. Emergence Muslim as Superior Military Might. The Roman after the

death of prophet (SM) and during Abu Bakar (RA) rejoin gathered averts
association against Muslim. The victory of the Battle of Yarmukh was a huge
blow to the Roman and other 12 nations ambition which was to crush the Muslim
once for all.

CAUSES OF MUSLIM VICTORY

36. The main causes of Muslim victory can be listed as:

a. Sound and Flexible Plan. Initially the Muslim decided to fight a

defensive battle to the south of the Yarmukh. Once the Roman deployment was
detected to the north of the Yarmukh Khalid quickly reviewed the Muslim plan.
He appreciated the ground and realised the strategic importance of the plain of
Wakusa (Yarmukh). So he occupied the gate of Wakusa (Yarmukh) plain and
blocked commander facilitated the smooth tactical conduct of the battle.

b. Greater Mobility of the Muslim Army. The Arabs were simple and
unsophisticated sons of desert and required comparatively little logistic support
from any fixed base. They were the master of the camels and the horses. The
Arabs were moving over long distances rapidly. This gave the Muslim forces
greater mobility for accomplished strategic moves.

c. Aggressiveness of the Muslim Commander. The Muslim Army

Commander Khalid maintained aggressiveness throughout the battle. After the
initial success of the second Roman thrust, the Roman Commander failed to
exploit it and thus the aggressive Muslim Commander snatched the initiative from
him by charging his cavalry against Roman right flank.

d. Timely and Audacious Use of Reserves. Because of the successful break-

through of the Muslim cavalry the Roman Commander was forced to commit his
reserve brigades. This in what Khalid was planning to achieve. He then
manoeuvred his strong cavalry reserves to the rear of the Roman Army and
charged from the back. This timely use of the Muslim reserves was the corner
stone of Muslim victory.
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e. Better Motivated Force. The Muslim army was better motivated than
those of the Roman forces. The spirit of Islam was so deeply rooted in their soul,
that they devoted themselves solely for the cause of Islam. They believed that they
would have their place till the heaven as declared by Him.

f. The Classic Combination of Frontal and Flank Attacks by Muslim

Cavalry. This type of cavalry charge was introduced for the first time by the
genius Muslim commander Khalid and it resulted in the disintegration of the
Roman, as they were not accustomed to such type of attacks.

g. Maintenance of Aim. On 18th Aug 636 AD; the 5th day of the battle
Roman sought truce for peace negotiation. But Muslim refused and launched
counter offensive because their aim was to destroy the enemy once for all. They
maintained their aim throughout the battle.

h. Exemplary Leadership. The battle was a success for only the veteran
leadership qualities display by the Muslim leaders.

j. Righteousness of Cause. Muslim fought with heart and soul for the
single cause of def Islam. On the contrary Roman were composed of
heterogeneous forces. They had their own different causes to join the confederacy.

k. Concentration of Force. Muslim forces were scattered in Syria, Palestine

and Jordan. They could avoid to be destroyed in piecemeal by concentrating in
Yarmukh plain. For this reason they could sustain Roman repeated attack and
launch counter offensive, which brought victory for them.

l. Use of Superior Tactics. The tactical employment by the Muslim was

superior to that of the Roman.

m. Aggressiveness. After the initial success of second Roman thrust, the

Roman commander failed to exploit it. But the aggressive Muslim commander
snatched the initiative and charged his cavalry against Roman left flank

n. Good Intelligence. The Roman strategy and plan was pre-maturely given
out to the Muslim by Roman prisoners at Sheizan well before the actual
manoeuvre took.

CAUSES OF ROMAN DEFEAT

37. Vahan must have been a good fighter and an experienced commander to be entrusted
with the supreme command of the Roman Army. The main causes, which are attributable
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to his defeat, are:

a. Incoherent Plan. Vahan failed to make a coherent plan. Had he launched a

full scale attack or exploited the initial success gained by his flanks, his large,
better armed and better organised forces would have swept away the Muslim.

b. Faulty Tactics. By applying faulty tactics, Vahan allowed his enemy to

successively concentrate major part of his force against the small portion of the
Roman cavalry.

c. Surrendering Initiative. Vahan surrendered the initiative to his opponent

and closed to fight a purely defensive battle. With his line of battle reformed, he
waited for Muslim to attack him.

d. Committing Reserves Indecisively. With the Roman infantry deployed in

defensive role Khalid ordered his cavalry to attack on the Roman right flank to
forced Vahan to commit his reserve and Vahan complied with. Again, while
holding his own reserve, Khalid forced Vahan to commit his rest the reserve by
attacking on his left flank with the Muslim cavalry. Thus, Vahan got his reserves
exhausted.

e. Underestimation of Enemy. Vahan underestimated the Muslim war

potential. By seeing the apparent standard of the Muslim army Roman
underestimated their war potential and did react in the same manner which caused
their defeat.

f. Poor Generalship. On the 2nd day of the battle, Roman leader Dierjan
was killed by Zarrar and on the 6th day Abu Ubeida took the challenge of Gregory
and killed him in a spectacular display of Swordsmanship. Above all, the Roman
C in C Vahan fled away from the battle field. As such morale of the Roman troops
was at the low ebb and they lost the battle.

g. Breach of Security. The Roman strategy and plans were prematurely

disclosed to the Muslim by Roman prisoners at Sheizar. This took place well
before the actual battle. Thus Muslim could take counter measures and defeat the
Roman.

h. Failure to Employ Cavalry. Roman cavalry was heavier than that of the
Muslim, as such less mobile. On 19th Aug, when Muslim attack from the rear,
Roman cavalry left their infantry at the mercy of enemy and fled from the battle
field. By this shameful act, Roman ensured their defeat in the battle of Yarmukh.
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j. Unfavourable Ground. Yarmukh was unfavourable for the Roman

since:

(1) Major obstacle Wadi-ur-Raqqad nullah at the rear.

(2) Over stretched line of communication.
(3) Outflanking of the Muslim was difficult.
(3) Far away from friendly allies.

k. Lack of Intelligence. Roman did not have a sound intelligence

network therefore could not gather any info of Muslim concentration at Yarmurkh
plain beforehand.

l. Lack of Initiative. Roman had lacking in initiative throughout the battle.

Once the Muslim had concentrated at Yarmukh the Roman lost all initiatives.
They simply reacted to the Muslim actions. The Roman wanted to open the
campaign by initiating a battle at Emessa which they failed to implement rather
they presented themselves against the combined Muslim army at a place not of
their own choosing.

m. No Measure/plan to stop Muslim Concentration. The Roman

plan was to destroy widely dispersed Muslim forces at Emessa, Northern and
Southern Palestine on after another. But they had apparently employed no means
to prevent Muslim from concentrating Muslim forces. Thus the very basic concept
of operation that means destruction of dispersed forces one by one was debased.

LESSONS LEARNT
38. The lessons learnt from the battle are:

a. Maintenance of Morale. In the battle the Muslim thought overwhelmed

by the superior Roman Army, fought with high spirit and destroyed them.

b. Correct Selection and Maintenance of Aim. Maintenance of aim is the

first and foremost point to be considered to win a battle.

c. Sound and Flexible Plan. To have an initial momentum, plan must

be sound and flexible. Khalid’s concept was to wear down the numerically
superior enemy while in defence and then destroy him with a deadly counter
offensive.

d. Need for Favourable Ground. Ground of own choice gives upper hand
to the both; the defender as well as the attacker. Yarmukh plain was selected by
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the Muslim. Because of the favourable ground on 19th Aug Khalid could attacked
from the rear of the en. Again on night 19/20 Aug Zarrar along with 500 horsemen
could establish blocking position on the far bank of Wadi-ur-Raqqad nullah.

e. Concentration of Force. Muslim were scattered in Syria, Palestine

and Jordan. They could avoid to be destroyed in piecemeal by concentrating in
Yarmukh plain. But being superior in number, the Roman could not ensure
concentration of their force. As a result they destroyed into dust.

f. Need for Righteousness of Cause. Muslim fought with heart and

soul for the single cause of defending Islam. On the contrary Roman were
composed of heterogeneous forces. They had their own different causes to join the
confederacy.

g. Need for Correct Assessment About the En. Vahan underestimated Muslim
war potentiality. The Roman were over confident of their overwhelming numerical
superiority. This made them complacent to take aggressive and bold actions. They
rather preferred not to fight but to bring victory through negotiations.

h. Need for Committing Reserve at the Correct Time. On 19th Aug Vahan
prematurely employed his reserve to restore the situation on his left and right
flank. Thus when Khalid’s mobile reserve attacked his rear from the north, he did
not have any reserve to employ against the threat. It was the culminating point to
lose the battle.

j. Surprise and Security. These are the vital factors in any battle. Like in this
battle, once Roman encircled Emessa to crush the Muslim, but they did not find
any Muslim and got surprised. On the other hand by sending Zarrar to establish
blocking position on the far bank of Wadi-ur-Raqqad nullah; Muslim achieved
complete surprise.

k. Mobility and Aggressiveness. To maintain the momentum and impetus of

the battle, mobility and aggressiveness is must. After the initial success of second
Roman thrust, the Roman commander failed to exploit it by their heavy cavalry.
But the aggressive Muslim commander snatched away the initiative and charged
their light and highly mobile cavalry against the Roman left flank.

PRINCIPLES OF WAR APPLIED

39. Following principles of war was applied in this battle:

a. Maintenance of Morale. During the battle of Yarmukh the Muslim

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followed this principle. With high morale they faced the more superior roman
forces and achieve victory.

b. Aggressive Action. When the battle scenario burned in favour of the

Muslim they showed remarkable aggressive action in the battle and also in the
subsequent battles.

c. Security. Muslim forces after abandoning the captured territory of

Syria concentrated in the plain of Yarmukh thereby achieved security.

d. Surprise. When the Roman armies encircled Emmesa to crush the

Muslim forces of Abu Ubidah and Khalid, they did not find any Muslim force
there which surprised them. Again by sending Zarrar to blocking position
surprised the Roman Army.

e. Concentration of Force. The Muslim forces as well as the Roman Army

followed this principle. The battle of Yarmukh is a unique example of this
principle followed by both the forces.

f. Economy of Effort. Khalid organised his army in such a way that he

deployed the minimum essential troops in the combat and held a fighting mobile
guard as reserve.

g. Flexibility. As the commander of the Muslim forces Khalid showed his

skill in flexibility by concentrating, deploying, re-creating reserve and re-
developing the same quantum of force.

LESSONS APPLICABLE FOR OUR ARMY

40. The lessons those can be learnt from this as under:

a. Tactics. It was the first time in the history of world that the new form
of tactics and manoeuvre like counter attack, holding and secondary attack,
envelopment, outflanking and establishment of blocking positions are applied.
Though the Muslim did not have the numerical superiority and the weaponry they
applied their tactics. Same goes to our country. Being a developing nation we need
to improve our knowledge on tactics and look forward to introduce new forms of
warfare technique.

b. Sound Leadership. “Learn to Lead” is the motto of the mother

institution of our army. Thereby we understand the emphasis that we put on
leadership which brought success in this battle.
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c. Numerical Superiority. Our army lacks in numerical superiority in

regards to the neighbouring states. But from this battle we realize that numerical
superiority always does not decide the fate of a battle.

d. Morale. High morale is one of the battle winning factors that we learnt
from this battle which we also try to maintain in our army.

e. Patriotism. The Muslim were determined to safeguard own

sovereignty due to strong patriotism. Our army is also charged with patriotism for
own sovereignty.

f. Collection of Information. Collection of information gives a control

over the battle. To win over any situation we need to collect correct intelligence at
correct time.

CONCLUSION
41. In Islam war is permitted and preparations for war are must.
"Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including
steeds of war, to strike terror of into (the hearts of) the enemies, of Allah and your
enemies and other besides, whom your may not know, but whom Allah does know.
Whatever you shall spend in the cause of Allah, shall be repaid on to you, and you
shall not be treated unjustly" (Sorah-Al Anfal-Verse-60)
Battle of Yarmukh was the greatest battle of that time and one of the decisive battles of
history and perhaps the most titanic battle ever fought between the crescent and the cross.
The battle of Yarmukh is replete with great military achievements and glorious teats of
arms. In the annuals of war there are no battle which surpass in brilliance and
decisiveness, as in the battle of Yarmukh. No commanders surpass the courage and skill
of the gifted generals of Islam. The sword has always held a place of honour in Muslim
culture and heritage. This battle leaves many lessons to be learnt. With good leadership,
good cause, determination and sound intelligence, a small army can defeat a much larger
and better equipped army.