THEME 8 THEMES IN W ORLD HISTORY

1 FROM THE BEGINNING

OF TIME

THIS chapter traces the beginning of human existence. It was

5.6 million years ago (written as mya) that the first human-

e d
h
like creatures appeared on the earth's surface. After this,
several forms of humans emerged and then became extinct.

T s
Human beings resembling us (henceforth referred to as

i
'modern humans') originated about 160,000 years ago. During

R l
this long period of human history, people obtained food by

b
either scavenging or hunting animals and gathering plant

E
produce. They also learnt how to make stone tools and to

u
communicate with each other.

C
Although other ways of obtaining food were adopted later,

p
hunting-gathering continued. Even today there are hunter-
gatherer societies in some parts of the world. This makes us

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wonder whether the lifestyles of present-day hunter-gatherers
can tell us anything about the past.

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Fossils are the Discoveries of human fossils, stone tools and cave paintings
help us to understand early human history. Each of these
remains or
discoveries has a history of its own. Very often, when such

b
impressions of a
finds were first made, most scholars refused to accept that
very old plant, these fossils were the remains of early humans. They were
animal or human also sceptical about the ability of early humans to make stone

o
which have turned tools or paint. It was only over a period of time that the true

t
into stone. These significance of these finds was realised.
are often embedded The evidence for human evolution comes from fossils of

t
in rock, and are species of humans which have become extinct. Fossils can
be dated either through direct chemical analysis or indirectly

o
thus preserved for
millions of years. by dating the sediments in which they are buried. Once fossils
are dated, a sequence of human evolution can be worked

n
out.
When such discoveries were first made, about 200 years
Species is a group ago, many scholars were often reluctant to accept that fossils
of organisms that and other finds including stone tools and paintings were
can breed to actually connected with early forms of humans. This
produce fertile reluctance generally stemmed from their belief in the Old
offspring. Members Testament of the Bible, according to which human origin was
of one species regarded as an act of Creation by God.
cannot mate with For instance, in August 1856, workmen who were quarrying
for limestone in the Neander valley (see Map 2, p. 18), a gorge
those of other
near the German city of Dusseldorf, found a skull and some
species to produce
skeletal fragments. These were handed over to Carl Fuhlrott,
fertile offspring. a local schoolmaster and natural historian, who realised that
 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 9

they did not belong to a modern human. He then made a

plaster cast of the skull and sent it to Herman Schaaffhausen,
a professor of anatomy at Bonn University. The following year
they jointly published a paper, claiming that this skull
represented a form of human that was extinct. At that time,
scholars did not accept this view and instead declared that
the skull belonged to a person of more recent times.

d
RECOVERING FOSSILS
A painstaking process. The precise location of finds is important for dating.

h e
RT l i s
E u b
C
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Shows the equipment used to record the location of finds. The Shows how a fossil fragment is
square frame to the left of the archaeologist is a grid divided recovered from the surrounding
into 10 cm squares. Placing it over the find spot helps to stone, in this case a variety of

b
record the horizontal position of the find. The triangular limestone, in which it is
apparatus to the right is used to record the vertical position. embedded. As you can see, this
requires skill and patience.

to
24 November 1859, when Charles Darwin’s On the Origin
ACTIVITY 1

t
of Species was published, marked a landmark in the study Most religions
have stories

o
of evolution. All 1,250 copies of the first print were sold out
the same day. Darwin argued that humans had evolved from about the
creation of

n
animals a long time ago.
human beings
which often do
not correspond
with scientific
discoveries. Find
out about some
of these and
compare them
with the history of
The skull of Neanderthal man. Some human evolution
of those who dismissed the antiquity as discussed in
of the skull regarded it as 'brutish' or
this chapter.
that of a 'pathological idiot'.
 10 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

The Story of Human Evolution

(a) The Precursors of Modern Human Beings

Look at these four skulls.

A belongs to an ape.

d
B belongs to a species known as Australopithecus (see below).
C belongs to a species known as Homo erectus (literally ‘upright man’).

e
A D belongs to a species known as Homo sapiens (literally ‘thinking/wise
man’} to which all present-day human beings belong.

h
List as many similarities and differences that you notice, looking

T s
carefully at the brain case, jaws and teeth.

R l i
The differences that you notice in the skulls shown in the illustration

b
are some of the changes that came about as a result of human

E
evolution. The story of human evolution is enormously long, and

u
somewhat complicated. There are also many unanswered questions,

C p
and new data often lead to a revision and modification of earlier
C
understandings. Let us look at some of the developments and their

N re
implications more closely.
It is possible to trace these developments back to between 36 and
24 mya. We sometimes find it difficult to conceptualise such long

© e
spans of time. If you consider a page of your book to represent
D
10,000 years, in itself a vast span of time, 10 pages would represent

b
100,000 years, and a 100 pages would equal 1 million years.
To think of 36 million years, you would have to imagine a book
3,600 pages long! That was when primates, a category of mammals,

o
emerged in Asia and Africa. Subsequently, by about 24 mya, there

t
emerged a subgroup amongst primates, called hominoids. This
Primates included apes. And, much later, about 5.6 mya, we find evidence of

t
are a subgroup of a the first hominids.

o
larger group of While hominids have evolved from hominoids and share certain
mammals. They common features, there are major differences as well. Hominoids have

n
include monkeys, a smaller brain than hominids. They are quadrupeds, walking on all
apes and humans. fours, but with flexible forelimbs. Hominids, by contrast, have an
They have body upright posture and bipedal locomotion (walking on two feet). There
hair, a relatively are also marked differences in the hand, which enables the making
long gestation and use of tools. We will examine the kinds of tools made and their
period following significance more closely later.
birth, mammary Two lines of evidence suggest an African origin for hominids. First,
glands, different it is the group of African apes that are most closely related to hominids.
types of teeth, and Second, the earliest hominid fossils, which belong to the genus
the ability to Australopithecus, have been found in East Africa and date back to
maintain a constant about 5.6 mya. In contrast, fossils found outside Africa are no older
body temperature. than 1.8 million years.
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF T IME 11

THE EVOLUTION OF THE HAND A

A shows the precision grip of the chimpanzee. B
B shows the power grip of the human hand.
C shows the precision grip of the hominid.
The development of the power grip probably
preceded the precision grip.
Compare the precision grip of the chimpanzee with that of the

d
human hand.

e
Make a list of the things you do using a precision grip.
What are the things you do using a power grip?

h
C

T i s
Hominids belong to a family known as Hominidae, which includes

l
all forms of human beings. The distinctive characteristics of hominids

R
include a large brain size, upright posture, bipedal locomotion and

b
specialisation of the hand.

E
Hominids are further subdivided into branches, known as genus, of

u
which Australopithecus and Homo are important. Each of these in

C p
turn includes several species. The major differences between
Australopithecus and Homo relate to brain size, jaws and teeth.

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Hominoids are
The former has a smaller brain size, heavier jaws and larger teeth than different from
the latter. monkeys in a
Virtually all the names given by scientists to species are derived

© e
number of ways.
from Latin and Greek words. For instance, the name Australopithecus They have a larger
comes from a Latin word, ‘austral’, meaning ‘southern’ and a Greek body and do not

b
word, ‘pithekos’, meaning ‘ape.’ The name was given because this earliest have a tail.
form of humans still retained many features of an ape, such as a Besides, there is a
relatively small brain size in comparison to Homo, large back teeth and

o
longer period of
limited dexterity of the hands. Upright walking was also restricted, as

t
infant development
they still spent a lot of time on trees. They retained characteristics and dependency

t
amongst
hominoids.

no This is a view of the

Olduvai Gorge in the
Rift Valley, East Africa
(see Map 1b, p.14),
one of the areas from
which traces of early
human history have
been recovered. Notice
the different levels of
earth at the centre of
the photograph. Each
of these represents a
distinct geological
phase.
 12 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

(such as long forelimbs, curved hand and foot bones and mobile ankle
joints) suited to life on trees. Over time, as tool making and long-
distance walking increased, many human characteristics also developed.

The Discovery of Australopithecus, Olduvai Gorge,

17 July 1959

d
The Olduvai Gorge (see p. 14) was first ‘discovered’ in the early twentieth century

e
by a German butterfly collector. However, Olduvai has come to be identified
with Mary and Louis Leakey, who worked here for over 40 years. It was Mary

h
Leakey who directed archaeological excavations at Olduvai and Laetoli and

T s
she made some of the most exciting discoveries. This is what Louis Leakey

i
wrote about one of their most remarkable finds:

R l
‘That morning I woke with a headache and
a slight fever. Reluctantly, I agreed to spend the

E b
day in camp.With one of us out of commission,

u
it was even more vital for the other to continue

C
the work, for our precarious seven-week season

p
was running out. So Mary departed for the

N re
diggings with Sally and Toots [two of their dogs]
in the Land-Rover [a jeep-like vehicle], and I
settled back to a restless day off.

© e
Some time later – perhaps I dozed off – I heard
the Land-Rover coming up fast to camp. I had a
momentary vision of Mary stung by one of our

b
hundreds of resident scorpions or bitten by a
snake that had slipped past the dogs.

o
The Land-Rover rattled to a stop, and I heard

t
Mary’s voice calling over and over: “I’ve got him!
I've got him! I’ve got him!” Still groggy from the

t
headache, I couldn’t make her out. “Got what? Are you hurt?” I asked. “Him,
the man! Our man,” Mary said. “The one we’ve been looking for 23 years.

o
Come quick, I’ve found his teeth!” ’

n
– From ‘Finding the World's Earliest Man’, by L.S.B. Leakey, National Geographic, 118
(September 1960).

The remains of early humans have been classified into different

species. These are often distinguished from one another on the basis
of differences in bone structure. For instance, species of early humans
are differentiated in terms of their skull size and distinctive jaws (see
illustration on p.10). These characteristics may have evolved due to
what has been called the positive feedback mechanism.
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF T IME 13

THE POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

The arrows pointing towards a box indicate the influences that
shaped that particular development.

e d
T s h
R l i
E u b
C
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The arrows pointing away from a box indicate how developments
mentioned in the box influenced other processes.

b
For example, bipedalism enabled hands to be freed for carrying
infants or objects. In turn, as hands were used more and more, upright

o
walking gradually became more efficient. Apart from the advantage of

t
freeing hands for various uses, far less energy is consumed while walking
as compared to the movement of a quadruped. However, the advantage

t
in terms of saving energy is reversed while running. There is indirect

o
evidence of bipedalism as early as 3.6 mya. This comes from the
fossilised hominid footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania (see Section cover).

n
Fossil limb bones recovered from Hadar, Ethiopia provide more direct
evidence of bipedalism.
Around 2.5 mya, with the onset of a phase of glaciation (or an Ice
Age), when large parts of the earth were covered with snow, there were
major changes in climate and vegetation. Due to the reduction in
temperatures as well as rainfall, grassland areas expanded at the expense
of forests, leading to the gradual extinction of the early forms of
Australopithecus (that were adapted to forests) and the replacement
by species that were better adapted to the drier conditions. Among
these were the earliest representatives of the genus Homo.
 14 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

Homo is a Latin word, meaning ‘man’, although there were women

as well! Scientists distinguish amongst several types of Homo. The
names assigned to these species are derived from what are regarded as
their typical characteristics. So fossils are classified as Homo habilis
(the tool maker), Homo erectus (the upright man), and Homo sapiens
(the wise or thinking man).
Fossils of Homo habilis have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia
and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The earliest fossils of Homo erectus

d
have been found both in Africa and Asia: Koobi Fora, and west Turkana,

e
Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran, Java. As the finds in Asia belong to
a later date than those in Africa, it is likely that hominids migrated

h
from East Africa to southern and northern Africa, to southern and

s
north-eastern Asia, and perhaps to Europe, some time between 2 and

T i
1.5 mya. This species survived for nearly a million years.

MAP 1(a): Africa

R b l
C E u
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b
MAP 1(b): The East
African Rift Valley

to
o t
n
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 15

In some instances, the names for fossils are derived from the places
where the first fossils of a particular type were found. So fossils found
in Heidelberg, a city in Germany, were called Homo heidelbergensis,
while those found in the Neander valley (see p. 18) were categorised as
Homo neanderthalensis.
The earliest fossils from Europe are of Homo heidelbergensis and
Homo neanderthalensis. Both belong to the species of archaic (that is,
old) Homo sapiens. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis (0.8-0.1 mya)

d
have a wide distribution, having been found in Africa, Asia and Europe.

e
The Neanderthals occupied Europe and western and Central Asia from
roughly 130,000 to 35,000 years ago. They disappeared abruptly in

h
western Europe around 35,000 years ago.

s
In general, compared with Australopithecus, Homo have a larger

T i
brain, jaws with a reduced outward protrusion and smaller teeth (see

l
illustration on p. 10). An increase in brain size is associated with more

R
intelligence and a better memory. The changes in the jaws and teeth

b
were probably related to differences in dietary habits.

C E u
PEOPLING OF THE WORLD

WHEN
5-1 mya
N re p WHERE
Sub-Saharan Africa
WHO
Australopithecus, early

© e
Homo, Homo erectus
1 mya-40,000 years ago Africa, Asia and Europe in Homo erectus, archaic

b
mid-latitudes Homo sapiens,
Neanderthals, Homo
sapiens sapiens/modern

o
humans

t
45,000 years ago Australia Modern humans

t
40,000 years ago to Europe in high-latitudes Late Neanderthals,
present and Asia-Pacific islands modern humans

o
North and South America

n
in deserts, rain forests

ACTIVITY 2

Plot the changes indicated in the chart above on an outline

map of the world. Use different colours for the four time
brackets. List the continents where you use (a) a single
colour, (b) two colours, (c) more than two colours.
 16 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

The Story of Human Evolution

(b) Modern Human Beings

If you look at this chart, you will notice that

THE EARLIEST FOSSILS OF MODERN
some of the earliest evidence for Homo sapiens
HUMANS
has been found in different parts of Africa.

d
This raises the question of the centre of human
WHERE WHEN (years ago) origin. Was there a single centre or were there

e
several?
ETHIOPIA 195,000-160,000 The issue of the place of origin of modern

h
Omo Kibish humans has been much debated. Two totally

T s
divergent views have been expounded, one

i
SOUTH AFRICA 120,000-50,000 advocating the regional continuity model (with

l
Border Cave

R
multiple regions of origin), the other the
Die Kelders
replacement model (with a single origin in

b
Klasies River Mouth

E
Africa).

u
MOROCCO 70,000-50,000 According to the regional continuity model,

C
Dar es Solton the archaic Homo sapiens in different regions

p
gradually evolved at different rates into modern

N re
ISRAEL 100,000-80,000 humans, and hence the variation in the first
Qafzeh Skhul appearance of modern humans in different
parts of the world. The argument is based on

© e
AUSTRALIA 45,000-35,000 the regional differences in the features of
Lake Mungo
present-day humans. According to those who
advocate this view, these dissimilarities are due

b
BORNEO 40,000
Niah Cave to differences between the pre-existing Homo
erectus and Homo heidelbergensis populations

o
FRANCE 35,000 that occupied the same regions.

t
Cro-Magnon,
near Les Eyzies The Replacement and Regional

t
Continuity Models

o
The replacement model visualises the complete
replacement everywhere of all older forms of humans with modern

n
humans. In support of this view is the evidence of the genetic and
anatomical homogeneity of modern humans. Those who suggest
this argue that the enormous similarity amongst modern humans
is due to their descent from a population that originated in a single
region, which is Africa. The evidence of the earliest fossils of modern
humans (from Omo in Ethiopia) also supports the replacement model.
Scholars who hold this view suggest that the physical differences
observed today among modern humans are the result of adaptation
(over a span of thousands of years) by populations who migrated to
the particular regions where they finally settled down.
 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 17

e d
T s h
R l i
E b
Early Humans: Ways of Obtaining Food

u
C p
So far, we have been considering the evidence of skeletal remains and

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seeing how these have been used to reconstruct the histories of the
movements of peoples across continents. But, there are other, more routine
aspects of human life as well. Let us see how these can be studied.

© e
Early humans would have obtained food through a number of ways,
such as gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. Gathering would
involve collecting plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and

b
tubers. That gathering was practised is generally assumed rather than
conclusively established, as there is very little direct evidence for it.

o
While we get a fair amount of fossil bones, fossilised plant remains are

t
relatively rare. The only other way of getting information about plant
intake would be if plant remains were accidentally burnt. This process

t
results in carbonisation. In this form, organic matter is preserved for
a long span of time. However, so far archaeologists have not found

o
much evidence of carbonised seeds for this very early period.
In recent years, the term hunting has been under discussion by

n
scholars. Increasingly, it is being suggested that the early hominids
scavenged or foraged* for meat and marrow from the carcasses of *Foraging means to
animals that had died naturally or had been killed by other predators. search
for food.
It is equally possible that small mammals such as rodents, birds (and
their eggs), reptiles and even insects (such as termites) were eaten by
early hominids.
Hunting probably began later – about 500,000 years ago. The earliest
clear evidence for the deliberate, planned hunting and butchery of
large mammals comes from two sites: Boxgrove in southern England
(500,000 years ago) and Schoningen in Germany (400,000 years ago)
 18 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

(see Map 2 ). Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery
of fish bones at different sites.

MAP 2: Europe

e d
T s h
R l i
E u b
C
N re p
© e
From about 35,000 years ago, there is evidence of planned hunting
from some European sites. Some sites, such as Dolni Vestonice (in
the Czech Republic, see Map 2), which was near a river, seem to have

b
been deliberately chosen by early people. Herds of migratory animals
such as reindeer and horse probably crossed the river during their

o
autumn and spring migrations and were killed on a large scale. The
choice of such sites indicates that people knew about the movement

t
of these animals and also about the means of killing large numbers

t
of animals quickly.
Did men and women have different roles in gathering, scavenging,

o
hunting and fishing? We do not really know. Today we find societies
that live by hunting and gathering, where women and men undertake

n
a range of different activities, but, as we will see later in the chapter, it
is not always possible to suggest parallels with the past.

Early Humans
From Trees, to Caves and Open-air Sites

We are on surer ground when we try to reconstruct the evidence for

patterns of residence. One way of doing this is by plotting the
distribution of artefacts. For example, thousands of flake tools and
hand axes have been excavated at Kilombe and Olorgesailie (Kenya).
These finds are dated between 700,000 and 500,000 years ago.
 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 19

e d
T s h
l i
How did these tools accumulate in one place? It is possible that

R
Left: The site of
some places, where food resources were abundant, were visited Olorgesailie. The

b
excavators, Mary and
repeatedly. In such areas, people would tend to leave behind traces of

E
Louis Leakey, had a
their activities and presence, including artefacts. The deposited artefacts

u
catwalk built around
would appear as patches on the landscape. The places that were less

C
the site for observers.
frequently visited would have fewer artefacts, which may have been Above: A close-up of

p
scattered over the surface. tools found at the site,

N re
including hand axes.
It is also important to remember that the same locations could have
been shared by hominids, other primates and carnivores. Look at the
diagram below to see how this may have worked.

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b
to
o t
n
Artefacts are
objects that are
made by human
beings. The term
can refer to a wide
range of things –
tools, paintings,
sculpture,
Archaeologists suggest that early hominids such as Homo habilis probably engravings.
consumed most of the food where they found it, slept in different places, and
spent much of their time in trees. How would bones have reached the site? How
would stones have reached the site? Would bones have survived intact?
 20 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, caves and open-air

sites began to be used. Evidence for this comes from sites in
Europe. In the Lazaret cave in southern France, a 12x4
metre shelter was built against the cave wall. Inside it
were two hearths and evidence of different food sources:
fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, bird eggs and freshwater
fish (trout, perch and carp). At another site, Terra Amata
on the coast of southern France, flimsy shelters with

d
roofs of wood and grasses were built for short-term,

e
seasonal visits.
Pieces of baked clay and burnt bone along with stone

h
This is a
tools, dated between 1.4 and 1 mya, have been found at Chesowanja,
reconstruction of a hut

s
Kenya and Swartkrans, South Africa. Were these the result of a natural

T
at Terra Amata. The

i
large stone boulders bushfire or volcanic eruption? Or were they produced through the

l
were used to support deliberate, controlled use of fire? We do not really know.

R
the sides of the hut. Hearths, on the other hand, are indications of the controlled use of

b
The small scatters of
fire. This had several advantages – fire provided warmth and light

E
stone on the floor were
inside caves, and could be used for cooking. Besides, fire was used to

u
places where people
harden wood, as for instance the tip of the spear. The use of heat also

C
made stone tools. The
black spot marked

p
facilitated the flaking of tools. As important, fire could be used to scare
with an arrow
away dangerous animals.

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indicates a hearth.
In what ways do you
think life for those
who lived in this Early Humans: Making Tools

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shelter would be
different from that of
To start with, it is useful to remember that the use of tools and tool
the hominids who

b
lived on trees? making are not confined to humans. Birds are known to make objects
to assist them with feeding, hygiene and social encounters;
and while foraging for food some chimpanzees use tools that they

o
have made.

t
However, there are some features of human tool making that are
not known among apes. As we have seen (see p. 11),

t
certain anatomical and neurological (related to

o
the nervous system) adaptations have led to
Some early tools. the skilled use of hands, probably due to

n
These tools were
found in Olduvai.
the important role of tools in human lives.
The one above is a Moreover, the ways in which humans use
chopper. This is a large and make tools often require greater
stone from which memory and complex organisational skills,
flakes have been
both of which are absent in apes.
removed to produce a
working edge. The earliest evidence for the
The one below is a making and use of stone tools
hand axe. comes from sites in Ethiopia and
Can you suggest what Kenya (see Map 1). It is likely that
these tools may have
been used for?
the earliest stone tool makers were
the Australopithecus.
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 21

As in the case of other activities, we do not know whether tool

making was done by men or women or both. It is possible that
stone tool makers were both women and men. Women in particular
may have made and used tools to obtain food for themselves as
well as to sustain their children after weaning.
About 35,000 years ago, improvements in the techniques for killing
animals are evident from the appearance
of new kinds of tools such as spear-

d
throwers and the bow and arrow. The

e
meat thus obtained was probably
processed by removing the bones, followed

h
by drying, smoking and storage. Thus, food

s
could be stored for later consumption.

T i
There were other changes, such as the trapping of fur-bearing

l
animals (to use the fur for clothing) and the invention of sewing needles. A spear-thrower.

R
Note the carving on
The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about 21,000 years

b
the handle. The use of
ago. Besides, with the introduction of the punch blade technique to

E
the spear-thrower
make small chisel-like tools, it was now possible to make engravings enabled hunters to

u
on bone, antler, ivory or wood. hurl spears over

C
longer distances.

p
Can you suggest any

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advantage in using
such equipment?

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THE PUNCH BLADE TECHNIQUE

A C

b
to B
D

o t E

(a)
(b)
n
The top of a large pebble is removed using a hammer stone.
This produces a flat surface called the striking platform.
(c) This is then struck using a hammer and a punch, made of bone or antler.
(d) This leads to the production of blades that can be used as knives, or
modified to serve as chisels or burins which could be used to engrave bone,
antler, ivory or wood.
(e) An example of engraving on bone. Note the drawings of animals on it.
 22 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

Modes of Communication: Language and Art

Among living beings, it is humans alone that have a language. There
are several views on language development: (1) that hominid language
involved gestures or hand movements; (2) that spoken language was
preceded by vocal but non-verbal communication such as singing or
humming; (3) that human speech probably began with calls like the

d
ones that have been observed among primates. Humans may have

e
possessed a small number of speech sounds in the initial stage.
Gradually, these may have developed into language.

h
When did spoken language emerge? It has been suggested that the
brain of Homo habilis had certain features which would have made it

T s
possible for them to speak. Thus, language may have developed as

l i
early as 2 mya. The evolution of the vocal tract was equally important.

R
This occurred around 200,000 years ago. It is more specifically

b
associated with modern humans.

E
A third suggestion is that language developed around the same

u
time as art, that is, around 40,000-35,000 years ago. The development

C
of spoken language has been seen as closely connected with art, since

p
both are media for communication.

N re Cave Paintings at Altamira

© e
Altamira is a cave site in Spain. The
paintings on the ceiling of the cave

b
were first brought to the attention
of Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola, a

o
local landowner and an amateur

t
archaeologist, by his daughter
Maria in November 1879. The little

t
girl was ‘running about in the
cavern and playing about here and

o
there’, while her father was digging
the floor of the cave. Suddenly she

n
noticed the paintings on the ceiling:
‘Look, Papa, oxen!’ At first, her
father just laughed, but soon
realised that some sort of paste
A drawing of a bison rather than paint had been used for the paintings and became ‘so
at Altamira, northern enthusiastic that he could hardly speak’. He published a booklet
Spain. the following year, but for almost two decades his findings were
dismissed by European archaeologists on the ground that these were
too good to be ancient.
 F ROM T HE BEGINNING OF TIME 23

Hundreds of paintings of animals (done between 30,000 and12,000

years ago) have been discovered in the caves of Lascaux and Chauvet,
both in France, and Altamira, in Spain. These include depictions of
bison, horses, ibex, deer, mammoths, rhinos, lions, bears, panthers,
hyenas and owls.
More questions have been raised than answered regarding these
paintings. For example, why do some areas of caves have paintings
and not others? Why were some animals painted and not others? Why

d
were men painted both individually and in groups, whereas women

e
were depicted only in groups? Why were men painted near animals
but never women? Why were groups of animals painted in the sections

h
of caves where sounds carried well?

s
Several explanations have been offered. One is that because of the

T i
importance of hunting, the paintings of animals were associated with

l
ritual and magic. The act of painting could have been a ritual to ensure

R
a successful hunt. Another explanation offered is that these caves

b
were possibly meeting places for small groups of people or locations for

E
group activities. These groups could share hunting techniques and

u
knowledge, while paintings and engravings served as the media for

C p
passing information from one generation to the next.
The above account of early societies has been based on

N re
archaeological evidence. Clearly, there is much that we still do not
know. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, hunter-gatherer
societies exist even today. Can one learn anything about past societies

© e
from present-day hunter-gatherers? This is a question we will
address in the next section.

b
Early Encounters with Hunter-Gatherers

o
in Africa

t t
The following is an account by a member of an African pastoral group
about its initial contact in 1870 with the !Kung San, a hunter-gatherer

o
society living in the Kalahari desert:
When we first came into this area, all we saw were strange

n
footprints in the sand. We wondered what kind of people these
were. They were very afraid of us and would hide whenever we
came around. We found their villages, but they were always
empty because as soon as they saw strangers coming, they
would scatter and hide in the bush. We said: ‘Oh, this is good;
these people are afraid of us, they are weak and we can easily
rule over them.’ So we just ruled them. There was no killing
or fighting.
You will read more about encounters with hunter-gatherers in
Themes 8 and 10.
 24 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

Anthropology is a The Hadza

discipline that ‘The Hadza are a small group of hunters and gatherers, living in
studies human the vicinity of Lake Eyasi, a salt, rift-valley lake...The country of the
culture and eastern Hadza, dry, rocky savanna, dominated by thorn scrub and
evolutionary
acacia trees...is rich in wild foods. Animals are exceptionally
aspects of human
numerous and were certainly commoner at the beginning of the
biology.

d
century. Elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, zebra, waterbuck,
gazelle, warthog, baboon, lion, leopard, and hyena are all common,

e
as are smaller animals such as porcupine, hare, jackal, tortoise and
many others. All of these animals, apart from the elephant, are

h
hunted and eaten by the Hadza. The amount of meat that could be

T s
regularly eaten without endangering the future of the game is

i
probably greater than anywhere else in the world where hunters

R l
and gatherers live or have lived in the recent past.

b
Vegetable food – roots, berries, the fruit of the baobab tree, etc. –

E
though not often obvious to the casual observer, is always abundant

u
even at the height of the dry season in a year of drought. The type

C
of vegetable food available is different in the six-month wet season

p
from the dry season but there is no period of shortage. The honey

N re
and grubs of seven species of wild bee are eaten; supplies of these
vary from season to season and from year to year.
Sources of water are widely distributed over the country in the wet
ACTIVITY 3

© e
season but are very few in the dry season. The Hadza consider that
Why do the about 5-6 kilometres is the maximum distance over which water
Hadza not assert can reasonably be carried and camps are normally sited within a

b
rights over land kilometre of a water course.
and its Part of the country consists of open grass plains but the Hadza

o
resources? Why never build camps there. Camps are invariably sited among trees
do the size and

t
or rocks and, by preference, among both.
location of
camps keep
The eastern Hadza assert no rights over land and its resources.

t
changing from Any individual may live wherever he likes and may hunt animals,
collect roots, berries, and honey and draw water anywhere in Hadza

o
season to
season? Why is country without any sort of restriction...
In spite of the exceptional numbers of game animals in their

n
there never any
shortage of food area, the Hadza rely mainly on wild vegetable matter for their
even in times of food. Probably as much as 80 per cent of their food by weight is
drought? Can vegetable, while meat and honey together account for the
you name any remaining 20 per cent.
such hunter-
Camps are commonly small and widely dispersed in the wet
gatherer
societies in India
season, large and concentrated near the few available sources of
today? water in the dry season.
There is never any shortage of food even in the time of drought.’
– Written in 1960 by James Woodburn, an anthropologist.
 F ROM T HE BEGINNING OF TIME 25

Hunter-Gatherer Societies
From the Present to the Past

As our knowledge of present-day hunter-gatherers increased through Ethnography is the

studies by anthropologists, a question that began to be posed was study of
whether the information about living hunters and gatherers could be contemporary

d
used to understand past societies. Currently, there are two opposing ethnic groups. It
views on this issue. includes an

e
On one side are scholars who have directly applied specific data examination of
from present-day hunter -gatherer societies to interpret the

h
their modes of
archaeological remains of the past. For example, some archaeologists livelihood,

T s
have suggested that the hominid sites, dated to 2 mya, along the technology, gender

i
margins of Lake Turkana could have been dry season camps of early roles, rituals,

R l
humans, because such a practice has been observed among the Hadza political

b
and the !Kung San. institutions and

E
On the other side are scholars who feel that ethnographic data social customs.

u
cannot be used for understanding past societies as the two are totally

C
different. For instance, present-day hunter-gatherer societies pursue

p
several other economic activities along with hunting and gathering.

N re
These include engaging in exchange and trade in minor forest produce,
or working as paid labourers in the fields of neighbouring farmers.
Moreover, these societies are totally marginalised in all senses –

© e
geographically, politically and socially. The conditions in which they
live are very different from those of early humans.
Another problem is that there is tremendous variation amongst

b
living hunter-gatherer societies. There are conflicting data on many
issues such as the relative importance of hunting and gathering, group

o
sizes, or the movement from place to place.

t
Also, there is little consensus regarding the division of labour in
food procurement. Although today generally women gather and men

t
hunt, there are societies where both women and men hunt and gather
and make tools. In any case, the important role of women in contributing

o
to the food supply in such societies cannot be denied. It is perhaps this
factor that ensures a relatively equal role for both women and men in ACTIVITY 4

n
present-day hunter-gatherer societies, although there are variations. What do you
While this may be the case today, it is difficult to make any such think are the
inference for the past. advantages and
disadvantages of
Epilogue using
ethnographic
For several million years, humans lived by hunting wild animals and accounts to
gathering wild plants. Then, between 10,000 and 4,500 years ago, reconstruct the
people in different parts of the world learnt to domesticate certain lives of the
plants and animals. This led to the development of farming and earliest peoples?
pastoralism as a way of life. The shift from foraging to farming was a
 26 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

major turning point in human history. Why did this change take place
at this point of time?
The last ice age came to an end about 13,000 years ago and with
that warmer, wetter conditions prevailed. As a result, conditions were
favourable for the growth of grasses such as wild barley and wheat. At
the same time, as open forests and grasslands expanded, the population
of certain animal species such as wild sheep, goat, cattle, pig and
donkey increased. What we find is that human societies began to

d
gradually prefer areas that had an abundance of wild grasses and

e
animals. Now relatively large, permanent communities occupied such
areas for most parts of the year. With some areas being clearly preferred,

h
a pressure may have built up to increase the food supply. This may

s
have triggered the process of domestication of certain plants and

T i
animals. It is likely that a combination of factors which included climatic

l
change, population pressure, a greater reliance on and knowledge of a

R
few species of plants (such as wheat, barley, rice and millet) and animals

b
(such as sheep, goat, cattle, donkey and pig) played a role in this

E
transformation.

u
One such area where farming and pastoralism began around 10,000

C p
years ago was the Fertile Crescent, extending from the Mediterranean
coast to the Zagros mountains in Iran. With the introduction of

N re
agriculture, more people began to stay in one place for even longer
periods than they had done before. Thus permanent houses began to
be built of mud, mud bricks and even stone. These are some of the

© e
earliest villages known to archaeologists.
Farming and pastoralism led to the introduction of many other

b
changes such as the making of pots in which to store grain and other
produce, and to cook food. Besides, new kinds of stone tools came into
use. Other new tools such as the plough were used in agriculture.

o
Gradually, people became familiar with metals such as copper and tin.

t
The wheel, important for both pot making and transportation, came
into use.

t
About 5,000 years ago, even larger concentrations of people began

o
to live together in cities. Why did this happen? And what are the
differences between cities and other settlements? Look out for answers

n
to these and other questions in Theme 2.
 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 27

TIMELINE 1 (mya)

36-24 mya Primates;

Monkeys in Asia and Africa
24 mya (Superfamily) Hominoids;
Gibbons, Asian orang-utan and
African apes (gorilla, chimpanzee and

d
bonobo or ‘pygmy’ chimpanzee)

e
6.4 mya Branching out of hominoids and hominids

h
5.6 mya Australopithecus

T s
2.6-2.5 Earliest stone tools

i
2.5-2.0 Cooling and drying of Africa, resulting in decrease in

R l
woodlands and increase in grasslands

b
2.5-2.0 mya Homo

E
2.2 mya Homo habilis

C u
1.8 mya Homo erectus

p
1.3 mya Extinction of Australopithecus

N re
0.8 mya ‘Archaic’ sapiens, Homo heidelbergensis
0.19-0.16 mya Homo sapiens sapiens (modern humans)

© e
b
TIMELINE 2 (years ago)

o
Earliest evidence of burials 300,000

t
Extinction of Homo erectus 200,000

t
Development of voice box 200,000

o
Archaic Homo sapiens skull in the Narmada valley, India 200,000-130,000
Emergence of modern humans 195,000-160,000

n
Emergence of Neanderthals 130,000
Earliest evidence of hearths 125,000
Extinction of Neanderthals 35,000
Earliest evidence of figurines made of fired clay 27,000
Invention of sewing needles 21,000
 28 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

e d
T s h
i
The Rift Valley, East

R l
Africa.

E u b
Exercises
ANSWER C
N re
IN BRIEF
p
© e
1. Look at the diagram showing the positive feedback mechanism on page
13. Can you list the inputs that went into tool making? What were the

b
processes that were strengthened by tool making?
2. Humans and mammals such as monkeys and apes have certain
similarities in behaviour and anatomy. This indicates that humans

o
possibly evolved from apes. List these resemblances in two columns under

t
the headings of (a) behaviour and (b) anatomy. Are there any differences
that you think are noteworthy?

t
3. Discuss the arguments advanced in favour of the regional continuity

o
model of human origins. Do you think it provides a convincing
explanation of the archaeological evidence? Give reasons for your

n
answer.
4. Which of the following do you think is best documented in the
archaeological record: (a) gathering, (b) tool making, (c) the use of fire?

ANSWER IN A SHORT ESSAY

5. Discuss the extent to which (a) hunting and (b) constructing shelters
would have been facilitated by the use of language. What other modes
of communication could have been used for these activities?
6. Choose any two developments each from Timelines 1 and 2 at the end
of the chapter and indicate why you think these are significant.