AirFORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AERODYNAMICS

By

MRS. HZ DOGO
Table of Content

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Atmosphere
3.0 Air Density
4.0 International Standard Atmosphere
5.0 Fluid in Motion
6.0 Streamlines, Velocity, and Pressure
7.0 Lift
8.0 Airfoil
9.0 Types of Airfoil
10.0 Distribution of Lift
11.0 Centre of Pressure
12.0 Factors Affecting Lift
13.0 Lift Curve
14.0 Lift Augmentation
15.0 Drag
16.0 Form Drag
17.0 Skin Friction Drag
18.0 Interference Drag
19.0 Flying Controls
20.0 Primary and Secondary Control Surfaces

Aerodynamics simply put can be defined as the study of the

forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air.

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION:
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1. An aeroplane is a rigid streamlined structure about which are
disposed a number of lifting surfaces called aerofoil whose
purpose is to support it in a state of flight when it moves
through the air.

2. The body of the aeroplane is called the fuselage. To the

fuselage is attached the mainplane which form the lifting
surfaces, the tailplane whose main purpose is to maintain
stability about the lateral axis, and the fin to maintain stability
about the normal axis. A number of control surfaces, namely,
the rudder which is attached to the fin, the elevators which
are attached to the tailplanes and the ailerons which are
attached to the mainplanes can be operated from within the
fuselage through a control system by means of the control
column and rudder bar.
3. When the aeroplane is in flight four forces are acting on the
structure, these forces being lift, weight, thrust and drag,
these forces must be in equilibrium. For instance, in straight
and level flight at constant speed, the lift produced by the
wings must balance the weight of the aeroplane, and the
thrust produced by the propulsion system must balance the
drag experienced by the aeroplane.

In order to understand why an aircraft flies, the physical

properties and the characteristics of air must be understood.
The forces acting on an aircraft in flight are due
in large part to the properties of the air mass in which the
aircraft is operating.

Fig.1.1 A modern training aeroplane

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Major Components parts Their functions
components
1 Wing Flaps(inbound), Flaps –takeoff and
Aileron(outbound) landing
Aileron- banking(rolling)
2 Fuselage Space for crew passengers, For various controls ,
instruments & controls, baggage compartment
3 Tail Mostly consists of vertical For direction and
fin(Rudder) and horizontal horizontal controls.
stabilizer(Elevator)
4 Landing Main wheels and nose wheel For ground operation
gear such as taxiing, takeoff
&landing
5 Powerplan Consist of engine & propeller For thrust
t

Tab. 1 Aircraft major and their functions

1.2 ATMOSPHERE

It is important that you must learn the skills involved in taking the
aircraft from one medium (ground) to another (atmosphere).
The atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases that surround the
earth and are held to it by force of gravity. For this reason, the
atmosphere is densest near the earth’s surface and the air density
decreases as height is gained.
Natural atmospheric pressure is created by the mass of air
surrounding the earth, and the atmosphere extends upwards from
the surfaces for about 500 miles. At sea level, air has a pressure of
about 14.7 p.s.i, but as altitude increases both the air density and
air pressure decreases.
The amount of air pressure in a given volume is much greater at
the sea level than at higher elevations.

1.2.1 LEVELS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The lower layer of the earth’s atmosphere is known as the

troposphere.
This layer is characterized by the normal temperature lapse rate of
2˚C/1000ft and contains clouds and weather that most of us see
and experience.
By contrast the stratosphere begins at altitude between 50,000
and 6000ft over the tropics and about ½ that height over poles.
This segment of the atmosphere is characterized by a constant
temperature of –56.5˚C regardless of altitude.

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The boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere is known
as tropopause.
Today, however most airlines normally operates in the upper
atmosphere, and many general aviation aircraft are now capable
of flying in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere.

Fig.1.2 Divisions of the Atmosphere

1.2.2 COMPOSITION OF AIR

AIR is a gas. Gases posses many characteristics of fluid.

GAS VOLUME %
Nitrogen 78 %
Oxygen 21%
Other gases 1%
( argon, neon, helium, carbon
dioxide)
Total 100 %

Table 2. Composition of air

1.3 AIR DENSITY

When defining the quantitative properties of air mass, the

term55555555’s density, pressure and temperature are used.

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Density(heaviness) is simply a direct measure of quantity of matter
contained in a given volume( m/v). The density of air, then
depends on the number of air molecules contained in a unit space.
It is expressed in metric units 1.225 kg/m3 .

1.3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING AIR DENSITY

Air density is affected by three major factors, these are pressure,

temperature and humidity.

1. PRESSURE
The pressure that the air exerts at any point depends on the
weight of air pressing down from above, therefore pressure also
decreases with altitude. If pressure is reduced, the air will expands
and becomes less dense, performance of the aircraft will be poorer
at high altitude.

Density varies in direct proportion with pressure

a2. TEMPERATURE

Heating of an air mass causes it to expand and decrease its

density, while cooling of an air mass, increases its density,
although this effect is not great as height is gained as that of
decreased pressure.
The overall effect being a decrease of density at higher altitude.
Temperature decreases at 2˚C/1000 ft increase in height

Density varies inversely proportional with the absolute

temperature

3. HUMIDITY

The mixture of gases that we call “air”, mainly consist of Nitrogen

and Oxygen and Water vapour.
The amount of water vapour in the air is called humidity.
Because water molecules are very light, high humidity will cause
the air density to be slightly less, just how much water a parcel of
air is capable of holding depends on its temperature- warn air can
hold more water than cold air.
If temperature and pressure remain constant, then the

Density varies inversely proportional with the humidityee6

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1.4 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE(ISA)

Because the pressure and temperature in the real atmosphere are

continually changing, the theoretical ISA, has been defined as a
measuring stick by ICAO.
ISA has a mean sea level pressure of 1013.25 mb ( hpa) and
temperature of 15˚C and decrease about 2˚C/1000 ft increase in
height.
1. PRESSURE ALTITUDE

Pressure altitude, which, due to existing pressure is equivalent to

an elevation, measured above a standard pressure level and
obtained by applying the standard pressure to the altimeter.
A direct reading of pressure altitude can be obtained from the
aircraft altimeter by setting standard sea level condition i.e. 29.92"
or 1013.25hpa/millibars on the sub scale of the instrument.

Please note that: pressure altitude decreases at about

1mb( hpa) / 30 ft increase in height.

3. STATIC PRESSURE

At any point in the atmosphere, static pressure exerted equally in

all directions (it does not involve relative moment of air).

Fig 1.3 Static pressure

4. DYNAMIC PRESSURE

For the purpose of aerodynamic considerations, it is immaterial

whether air is moving past a stationary object, whether an object is
moving in still air, or whether the object is moving in air which
itself is in motion. What is important is that there is relative
velocity between the object and the airstream.
Because it possesses density, air in motion must possess energy
and therefore exerts a Pressure on any object in its path. This
dynamic pressure is proportional to the density and to the square
of the speed. The energy due to movement, kinetic energy of 1 cu.

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meter of air moving at a stated speed is given by the following
formula:

q = ½ ρ V2,

Where ρ is the local density in kg/m3 and V is speed m/s

If this volume of air is completely trapped and brought to

rest by means of an open ended tube, the total energy
remains theoretically constant , and the kinetic energy
becomes pressure energy which for all practical purposes is
equal to q = ½ ρV2
Total pressure
= ps + ½ρν²

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 Chapter 2

FLUID IN MOTIONS, STREAMLINES, VELOCITY AND

PRESSURE

2.1 FLUID IN MOTIONS

Liquid and gases (air) are called fluids. Unlike solid objects, fluid
can flow and they obey the Newton’s law of motions, fluid
laws and law of conservation of energy.
Once the aircraft leaves the ground, it is suspended in the air by
aerodynamic forces.
It adopts a three dimensional freedom of motion: it can go up,
down, forward, left or right.
The forces imposed on an aircraft in flight follow these three laws
of motion.
A summary of each law is as follows:

1. FLUID laws

(a) At any point in fluid, pressure acts equally in all direction

(b) Pressure exerted by a fluid acts at right angle to the surface
of any body which is immersed in the fluid.
(c) When a fluid is put into motion, the pressure exerted on the
surface of the body immersed in the fluid is reduced and the
greater the change in velocity of the fluid the greater will be the
reduction in pressure acting on the body.
(d) Region of high pressure in an air mass tends to neutralize the
region of low pressure.

2. NEWTON’S LAW of motions,

Newton’s laws of motion also apply when a fluid is in motion.

These applied to air flow, can be stated as follows:

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(a) Air will remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a
straight line unless it is acted upon by a force – it will therefore,
resist any change in speed and direction.
(b) In order to change the state of motion of the air, a force must
be applied and the greater the change in speed or direction, the
greater the force which must be applied.

Fig.2.1 illustration of second law of motion

(c)The application of a force on airflow results in an equal and

opposite reaction.

3. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

From the conservation of energy,

P + ½ ρV2 = constant.

As the velocity of the fluid increases, the pressure in the

fluid decreases to keep the energy constant.

2.2 STREAMLINES ,VELOCITYAND PRESSURE

2.2.1 STREAMLINES

The term-streamlined body is used to describe the shape of a body,

which produces a very low coefficient of drag. Such a body will be
capable of moving through the air with a minimum of resistance.
Thus, it is clear that form is a direct consequence of form or shape
of the body.

Fig.2.2 Streamline flow over an aerofoil

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The streamlines of the flow represent the direction of the velocity
of the particles of the fluid and the flow is uniform (laminar) or
turbulent.

The resistance offered by a body to the mass flow of air is the

reaction of the body to the dynamic pressure applied to it. The
magnitude of this resistance is mainly due to the shape of the
body, and differences associated with different shape can be
demonstrated experimentally.

If a flat plate of frontal area is placed in a moving airstream, the air

in the process of spilling around it produces rapid changes in speed
and direction of the air flow, and in accordance with the fluid laws
the turbulent nature of the flow created conflicting pressures and
the airflow is turbulent for a considerable distance behind the
body.

If a spherical body of the same frontal area is used, it offer as little

as only 50% of the resistance offered by the flat plate, and if the
body is so formed to be in what is known as a streamlined shape
(again having the same frontal area) the resistance offered to the
air flow will be as little as only 5% of that offered by the flat plate.
The air flow over the three shapes mentioned above is illustrated in
figure 2.3

2.3a

2.3b

2.3c

2.3d

Fig.2.3 Streaming, especially behind the shape, reduces form drag

substantially

2.2.2 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE:

PRESSURE AND VELOCITY( RELATIONSHIP )

One of the most significant physical laws that led to the creation of
the airflow is the Bernoulli’s principle, which states how pressure,
fluid flow velocity and the potential of fluid are related. Thus from
the conservation of energy, we have:
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P + ½ ρV2+ρgh = constant.

This principle is known as Bernoulli’s principle where the

change ( ρgh ) is very small or zero as in flow through a
horizontal pipe, therefore:

P + ½ ρV2 = constant.

(where p is the static pressure energy and ½ ρV 2is the

dynamic pressure energy( kinetic energy due to motion)).
The Swiss scientist, states that: As the velocity of the fluid
increases, the pressure in the fluid decreases, and
conversely ,as the velocity of the fluid decreases, the
pressure in the fluid increases to keep the energy constant.

The practical application of BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE is the

VENTURI TUBE:

2.2.3VENTURI TUBE

An example of BERNOULLI’S law is the venturi tube. This

device is a tube which narrows in the middle than at the
ends. As air passes through the tube it speeds up as it
reaches the narrow portion and slow down again when it
passes the restrictions.

2.2.4 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VENTURI TUBE AND

LIFT.

The principle explained with venturi tube is also utilized to create

lift for an aircraft. However, in lieu of venturi tube, a wing with an
airfoil shape is used to create differential pressure in the air.

Fig.2.7 The venture –high flow velocity, low static pressure

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1. LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW AROUND AEROFOIL

By introducing a dye at the entrance of a tube, at small velocities

the dye forms a thin straight thread parallel to the axis of the tube
indicating that flow is steady and orderly in nature, this type of flow
we call it a LAMINAR FLOW.
If the velocity is increased by small steps, one observes at certain
velocity, a sudden change in the character of the flow; the thread
becomes violently agitated, and the dye quickly speeds over the
whole tube. The flow changes from laminar flow to one of an
oscillatory, or rather irregular character, which we call
TURBULENT FLOW (fig.2.8)

Fig.2.9 Turbulent flow over tailplane

The behavior of these flows nearest the surface of the airfoil is the
most important, and this layer of air is referred as the BOUNDARY
LAYER FIG.2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Boundary layer

Friction between surface and the air flowing over it slow down the
layers of air nearest to the surface, at some point on the surface of
the airfoil with in the laminar flow( boundary layer) becomes
turbulent and the boundary layer is increased significantly.
The stage at which the flow changes from laminar flow to turbulent
flow is known as the TRANSITION POINT. See fig.2.11

In turbulent flow succeeding molecules do not follow a stream lined

flow pattern.
The point where the boundary layer separates from the surfaces of
an airfoil, causing the airflow to break away and become turbulent
is known as the SEPARATION POINT. This is covered in detail
under the topic, STALLING.
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Fig.2.11 Streamline is preferable to turbulent flow.
Chapter 3

LIFT

3.1 LIFT is produced by the reduction of pressure on the upper

surface and increase in pressure on the lower surface of an airfoil
and it is given by this simple formula:

L = ½ ρ (rho) V2 S CL

3.2 AIRFOIL

An airfoil is any shape, which is designed to produce lift. Though

the wing is the primary part of the aircraft that produces lift other
airfoil has other applications such as the propeller blades, tail
surfaces.
The following terms are used to describe the characteristics of an
aerofoil.
An airfoil has a leading edge, a trailing edge, a chord and camber
as shown in fig.10

Fig 3.1. Summary of aerofoil terminology

3.2.1 CAMBER
The actual curvature of the aerofoil is known as the camber and
the thickness of the aerofoil at any point of its profile is known
as its depth section
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3.2.2 THE LEADING EDGE
Is the part of the airfoil that first meets the on coming air. The
shape of the leading edge depends on the function of the airfoil

3.2.2 THE TRAILING EDGE

Is the aft end of the airfoil.

3.2.3 RELATIVE WIND

Is the wind moving past the airfoil and is always parallel and
opposite to the direction of the flight path of the aircraft.

3.2.4Chord Line: This is the line joining the leading and trailing
edges of the aerofoil which is equidistant from the upper and
lower surfaces of the aerofoil. If this line is curved the aerofoil
is said to be cambered.

3.2.5Angles of Attack: Is the angle between the chord line and

the relative flow and is given by a short notation α (alpha). At
most efficient angle of attack, the total reaction or resultant
force acts approx. at 90º to the chord line- the lift force is
measured at 90º to the relative flow.

Fig.3.2 Angle of attack

3.2.6Rigger’s Angle of Incidence: This is the angle formed

between the chord line of the aerofoil and a horizontal datum.

Fig.3.3 Rigger’s Angle of Incidence

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3.2.7Finess Ratio: This is the aerodynamic thickness of a
streamlined object and is the ratio of the maximum thickness
to the chord length. It is sometimes referred to as the
thickness and expressed as a percentage of the chord.

3.2.8Aspect Ratio: This is the ratio of the wing span to the mean
chord. It may also be defined as the ratio of the square of the
wing span to the wing area.

3.3 TYPES OF AIRFOILS

The shape of the airfoil is selected for the primary functions of the
airplane.

Fig.3.4 various types of aerofoil cross sections

3.4 DISTRIBUTION OF LIFT

In considering the basic shape of an aircraft, it must be appreciated

that the speed of airflow passing about the wing varies with depth
of section over which it passes. see fig.4

3.5 CENTER OF PRESSURE.

To simplify discussion in relation to lift, it is normal to show a line

vector representing the sum of the lift forces produced over the
entire aerofoil chord.
The position of this line is called the center of pressure. Throughout
most of aircraft’s speeds range, the center of pressure moves
forward as the angle of attack is increased and rearwards as the
angle of attack is decreased.

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Fig.3.5 Total reaction acts through the center of pressure

3.6 FACTORS EFFECTING LIFT

The total amount of lift a wing has depend on several factors, we

can simplify our understanding of this marvelous natural effect by
describing it in fairly simple formula:

L = ½ ρ V2S CL, where:

1. ρ (rho) – air density
2. angle of attack (α)
3. free stream velocity (V2)
4. wing surface area( S)
5. wing shape
6. Lift coefficient (CL,)

3.7 LIFT CURVE (LIFT COEFFICIENT)

It depends on the shape of airfoil (camber) and it changes with

angle of attack. Each aerofoil shape has its own particular lift
curve, which reflects its Clift to angle of attack.
At higher angle of attack the curve starts to lean over, until at
stalling angle of attack (about 16º in this case- see fig 14) there is
a significant drop in CLift and the ability of the wing to produced lift.
This occurs when the airflow is unable to remain streamlined over
the upper surface, separates and breaks up into eddies. This is
called STALLING of the aerofoil.

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Fig.3.6 Lift depends on the angle of attack and airspeed.

STALLING

1. INTRODUCTION: A stall is a condition in which the angle of

attack becomes so great that the flow over the aerofoil breaks
down so that the wings can no longer support the aeroplane.

Fig.3.7.Aerofoil in stall condition

Fig.3.8 An Aerofoil reaches CL lift max at the critical angle

1.1 An aeroplane can be stalled at any speed, attitude or power

setting. The proper recovery from stalls is always to decrease
the angle of attack and get the flowing smoothly.

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3.8 Lift Augmentation: There are various aerodynamic aids which
are employed to increase the CL and thus raise the lifting
effectiveness of the aerofoil.

(a) Slats: These are small auxiliary aerofoil sections which

are positioned along the leading edge of the wing and
are so designed that as the wing reaches the stalling
angle they open automatically to provide a venturi like
slot between the trailing and the leading edge of the
wing, thereby restoring airstreams over upper wing
surface and delaying the stall.

(b) Built-in Slots: These employ the same principles as the

slot but they eliminate the mechanism required to
operate the L.E. Slat.

Fig.3.7. Slot delay stall

(c) FLAPS: These are surfaces hinged to the trailing edges

of the aerofoil (wing) and which, when lowered through a
relatively small angle, either alter the wing camber
and/or angle of attack or in addition increase the surface
area (e.g. Fowler Flap) of the aerofoil.

Fig.3.8. Flaps control system

Fig.3.9. Flaps gives higher lift

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 Fig.3.10 Types of flaps

Chapter 4

DRAG

Forward motion is essential for the flight of all fixed wing a aircraft,
the force that opposes its movement through the air is called DRAG
and is given by a formula:

D = ½ ρ V2S CD, where:

1. CD- drag coefficient

2. ρ (rho) – air density
3. free stream velocity (V2)
4. wing surface area( S)

DRAG is divided into two classes: parasite and induced drag.

Parasite drag applies to any type of drag, which is not a direct

consequence of the production of lift.
The three basic types of parasite drag are:

1. Form drag
2. Skin friction drag
3. Interference drag

Form and Skin friction drag are often collectively referred to as

PROFILE DRAG.

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4.1 FORM DRAG

This is produced by a body in motion, and is most clearly seen as

visualizing the effect of moving a flat plate at right angle to the
airflow. A high pressure is built up in the front and a low pressure
at the rear. The resulting force opposes the forward motion of the
aircraft.

4.2 SKIN FRICTION DRAG

When air passed over a surface, friction between the surface and
air will always be present.
A wing on which a layer of dust has settled will retain this layer of
dust even thought it is moved at high speed through the
atmosphere. This molecular attraction between the surface of an
aerofoil and the molecules of the air create a region over the wing
known as boundary layer.

4.3 INTERFERENCE DRAG

The total drag of the wing, fuselage and other components cannot
be taken as the sum of the drag of the individual components. This
is because the airflow in passing over the joining points of various
aircraft components causes a mixing of the air( turbulent) and
therefore creates additional drag known as INTERFERENCE DRAG
and can be kept to a minimum by the employment of fairing and
fillets which are suitable shaped to minimize interference effects.

INDUCED DRAG OR VORTEX DRAG

Induced drag is due to the development of lift. A wing will have

both induced drag and parasite drag.
During flight, reduction of pressure above the wing and an increase
of pressure below the wing are produced and the pressure
differential will attempt to equalise at the tip.
At the wing tips a sheet of vortices is formed known as wing tip
vortices.
Wing tip vortices, and line vortices behind the trailing edge are the
major cause of induced drag

a) Flight conditions that increases induced drag:

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In straight and level flight at a given weight, the lift must remain
constant ( to balance the weight) as the speed changes. As the
airspeed reduces, the pilot must increase the angle of
attack( hence the lift coefficient ) to achieve the same lift,
therefore high angle of attacks are associated with low speed.

b) Flight conditions that reduces induced drag:

Induced drag could be reduced by ground effect and by having

long, narrow wing( a wing of high aspect ration) when compared
with a stubby wing( low aspect ration) of the same area.
Another way of expressing aspect ration is:

Aspect ratio: Span

chord
Wing tip modification and wing tip tanks can reduce the leakage of
airflow around the wing tip and therefore reduces the formation of
induced drag.

Fig.4.1 Aspect ratio

GROUND EFFECT

In dealing with lift and drag we considered an aeroplane to be

flying well away from the ground. There was no restriction to the
downwash of airflow behind the wing, nor the upwash ahead of the
wings, and also there is no restriction to the formation of wing tip
vortices.
When an aeroplane is flying close to the ground, the ground
surface interferes with the airflow around the wings increasing the
formation of upwash (produces more lift) and restricting downwash
and wing tip vortices( less induced drag).
Fig.1

Ground effect during landing.

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As a result of ground effect on an approach to land, you will
experience a floating sensation as result of the extra lift (from the
increased coefficient of lift) and the slower deceleration (due to
less drag). To overcome this the pilot needs to reduce power.

Ground effect during take-off.

In ground effect, the aircraft tends to become airborne before

reaching the normal lift off speed or rotation speed and the pilot
needs to be aware of this because as the aeroplane climbs out of
ground effect on take-off, the lift coefficient will decrease for the
same aircraft pitch attitude (the lifting ability of the wing will be
less) and the aircraft might sink.
The induced drag will increase due to the greater wing tip vortices,
line vortices and the total reaction now “lean” further back from
the perpendicular to the remote free air stream. With this increase
in drag, airspeed will tend to decrease for same thrust.

DRAG COEFFICIENT (CDRAG)

A drag curve for the aerofoil relating (CDRAG) to the angle of attack
can be developed. This is useful for the comparison with the lift
curve((Clift versusthe angle of attack).
At low angle of attack during a cruise, the coefficient of drag for
aerofoil is small, but the airspeed (V) is higher and this has a large
effect in the formula for drag.

Fig.4.2 Drag curve

TOTAL DRAG

Total drag is the sums total of all the drag forces and has two
components: that is, the parasite and induced drag:

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Fig.4.3 Total drag

If you understand the message contained in this curve,

then you are well on the way to understanding drag and its
importance to flight.

LIFT AND DRAG RATIO

To determine the performance and efficiency of an aerofoil at

particular angle of attack
(and airspeed) both the lift and drag need to be considered. The
relationship of one to the other called the lift and drag ratio is very
important.
Fig.1( lift and curve drag)
The angle of attack that gives the best lift and drag ratio is the
most efficient angle of attack.

Fig.4.4 lift/ drag v angle of attack.

ADVERSE AILERON YAW DUE TO AILERON DRAG

As more lift is being generated on the down going aileron, this will
unfortunately increase drag on this wing.
The differing lift forces on the wing causes the aircraft to roll in one
direction and the drag causes the aircraft to yaw in the opposite
direction. This is known as aileron drag or adverse aileron drag.
Adverse or aileron drag can be reduced by the following methods:

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(i) Differential aileron, this is achieved by deflecting the
upward aileron (on the descending wing) through a greater
angle than the downward aileron ( the rising wing). The
greater deflection of the aileron on the descending wing
causes it to have increased drag with a tendency to yaw the
aircraft during banking.

Fig.4.5 Differential ailerons

(ii) Frise- type aileron, this type of method increases the drag
of the descending wing on the inside of the turn. As the
aileron goes up (to drive the wing down), its nose protrudes
into the air stream beneath the wing causing increase in drag
on the down going wing.

Fig.4.6 Frise- type aileron

(iii) Coupled aileron and rudder, this method causes the

rudder to move automatically and yaw the aircraft into
banking opposing the adverse yaw from the aileron.

Chapter 5

FLYING CONTROLS

The flying control enables the pilot to direct the aircraft along a
desired path.
Usually flying controls are divided into primary control surfaces and
secondary control surfaces.

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 5.1. Primary and secondary control surfaces

The control surfaces of an aeroplane are used for manoveuring. A

conventional aeroplane has three main control surfaces which are
operated from the control column via cables, rods, levers, or chain.
The primary control surfaces consist of:
a) elevator
b) aileron
c) rudder

While the secondary control surfaces consist of the tabs. Flaps and
other high lift devices make up auxiliary control surfaces.

AXES OF FLIGHT

There are three axes about which an aeroplane can move. All the
axes pass through the centre of gravity of the aeroplane. Any
movement of the aeroplane in flight involve one or more of the
axes which are mutually at right angles. See fig 5.1

Fig.5.1 Aircraft axes

The flight path of an aircraft through the air can be resolved into
three planes of movements:
(i) The pitching movement is controlled by the elevator, about
the lateral axis and is operated by the control wheel (fore and
aft movement of the control wheel).
(ii) The rolling movement is control by the aileron, about the
longitudinal axis and is operated by rotation of the control
wheel.
(iii) The yawing (side to side) movement is control by the rudder
and is operated by the rudder pedals.

THE ELEVATOR

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When the control wheel is moved forward, the elevators movement
moves downwards, changing the overall shape of the tail plane-
elevator section so that it provides an altered aerodynamic force.
The effect is to create a pitching movement about the c.g. of the
aircraft that moves the nose down.

Fig.5.2 Elevator control system

AILERON

Movement about the longitudinal axis is called rolling or banking.

Rotating the control wheel to the left causes the left aileron to rise
and right aileron to go down, so that lift generated by the on this
wing will increase when compared with the other aileron, as a
result of this, a rolling movement is exerted on the aircraft.

Fig.5.3 Aileron control system

RUDDER

Rudder is hinged to the rear of the fin (or the vertical stabilizer) ,it
is controlled from the cockpit by the rudder pedals attached to the
control bar. By pushing the left rudder pedal, the rudder will move
to the left, so that it provides an altered aerodynamic force.

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More lift is being created on the outer side of the rudder, which
sends the tail to yaw to the left.

Fig.5.4 Rudder control system

Control on the Ground

Directional control:
Is by use of the rudder, nose wheel steering (which may be
connected to the rudder pedals), power and brakes. Airflow over
the rudder increases its effectiveness. Do not turn too sharply
when taxing fax –high CG, a narrow wheelbase, or an unfavourable
wind-effect may all combine to roll you onto the outer wingtip.

SUMMARY OF CONTROLS

The primary controls are the elevator, aileron and rudder

Plane Axis Control Initial Further

effect effect
Pitch Lateral Elevator Pitching Airspeed
change
Roll Longitudin Aileron Rolling Yawing
al
Yaw Normal Rudder Yawing Roll
CHAPTER 6
FLIGHT MANOEUVRES
(A) STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

1. INTRODUCTION: Straight and level flight at uniform velocity

is the standard condition when designing an aeroplane, the
other conditions being considered chiefly in so far as they
differ from those of straight and level flight.

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1.1 The condition of equilibrium for straight and level flight is that
the Four Forces must balance the aeroplane. I.e.

LIFT = WEIGHT
THRUST = DRAG
CLOCKWISE = ANTI-CLOCKWISE MOMENTS

2. MAJOR FORCES ACTING ON THE AEROPLANE

Fig.1.1 four forces acting on an aeroplane

If the C.G. is in front of the C.P. the Tail force i.e. lift produced
by the tail, will act downwards and vice versa.

2.1 Lift: This force is produced by the wings and acts through the
Centre of Pressure (CP). Lift’s considered to act at right angle
to the wing span and flight path or relative wind.

2.2 Weight: The all up weight of the aircraft acts downwards

through the C.G. The position of the C.G. is determined by the
distribution of load.

2.3 Thrust: This force is produced by the propeller which is

driven by the engine. At high speeds the line of action is very
nearly parallel to flight path, but at low speeds the line of
action is inclined because of the nose up attitude of the
aeroplane. In this case only the horizontal component of
thrust opposes drag, while the vertical component assists lift.

2.4 Drag: This force is made up of induced and profile drags. It is

the force working against thrust. When drag equals thrust, the
aircraft can no longer accelerate, and it therefore maintains
uniform speed.

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