SOUND AND SOUND INSULATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Sound is a disturbance in an elastic medium results in an audible sensation. Noise is unwanted

sound

Vibration. A disturbance in a solid elastic medium which may produce a detectable motion.

Although this differentiation is useful in presenting acoustical concepts, in reality, sound and
vibration are often interrelated.

That is, sound is often the result of acoustical energy radiation from vibrating structures and,
sound can force structures to vibrate. Acoustical energy can be completely characterized by the
simultaneous determination of three qualities. These are:

1. Level or Magnitude. This is a measure of the intensity of the acoustical energy.

2. Frequency or Spectral Content. This is a description of an acoustical energy with respect
to frequency composition.
3. Time or Temporal Variations. This is a description of how the acoustical energy varies
with respect to time.
The decibel (dB), as used in acoustics, is a unit expressing the ratio of two quantities that
are proportional to power. The decibel level is equal to 10 times the common logarithm
of the power ratio

In this equation P2 is the absolute value of the power under evaluation and P1 is an
absolute value of a power reference quantity with the same units. If the power P1 is the
accepted standard reference value, the decibels are standardized to that reference value.
In acoustics, the decibel is used to quantify sound pressure levels that people hear, sound
power levels radiated by sound sources, the sound transmission loss through a wall, and
in other uses, such as simply “a noise reduction of 15 dB” (a reduction relative to the
original sound level condition). Decibels are always related to logarithms to the base 10,
so the notation 10 is usually omitted. It is important to realize that the decibel is in reality
a dimensionless quantity (somewhat analogous to “percent”). Therefore when using
decibel levels, reference needs to be made to the quantity under evaluation and the
reference level. It is also instructive to note that the decibel level is primarily determined
by the magnitude of the absolute value of the power level. That is, if the magnitude of
two different power levels differs by a factor of 100 then the decibel levels differ by 20
dB.
What is Sound Pressure?
Sound pressure level, expressed in decibels, is the logarithmic ratio of pressures where
the reference pressure is 20 micropascal or 20 uPa (Pascal, the unit of pressure, equals 1
Newton/m2 ). This reference pressure represents approximately the faintest sound that
can be heard by a young, sensitive, undamaged human ear when the sound occurs in the
frequency region of maximum hearing sensitivity, about 1000 Hertz (Hz). A 20 uPa
pressure is 0 dB on the sound pressure level scale. In the strictest sense, a sound pressure
level should be stated completely, including the reference pressure base, such as “85
decibels relative to 20 uPa.” However, in normal practice and in this discussion the
reference pressure is omitted, but it is nevertheless implied.
Limitations on the use of sound pressure levels.
Sound pressure levels can be used for evaluating the effects of sound with respect to
sound level criteria. Sound pressure level data taken under certain installation conditions
cannot be used to predict sound pressure levels under other installation conditions unless
modifications are applied. Implicit in these modifications is a sound power level
calculation.
What is Sound Power Level (Lw or PWL)

What is reference point?

Sound power level, expressed in decibels, is the logarithmic ratio of the sound power of a
source in watts (W) relative to the sound power reference base of 10-12 W. Before the
US joined the IS0 in acoustics terminology, the reference power in this country was 10-
13W, so it is important in using old data (earlier than about 1963) to ascertain the power
level base that was used. If the sound power level value is expressed in dB relative to 10-
13W, it can be converted to dB relative to 10-12W, by subtracting 10 dB from the value.
Special care must be used not to confuse decibels of sound pressure with decibels of
sound power. It is often recommended that power level values always be followed by the
notation “dB re 10- 12W.” However, in this discussion this notation is omitted, although
it will always be made clear when sound power levels are used.
Limitations of sound power level data
There are two notable limitations regarding sound power level data: Sound power cannot
be measured directly but are calculated from sound pressure level data, and the directivity
characteristics of a source are not necessarily determined when the sound power level
data are obtained.
1. PWL calculated, not measured. Under the first of these limitations, accurate
measurements and calculations are possible, but nevertheless there is no simple
measuring instrument that reads directly the sound power level value. The procedures
involve either comparative sound pressure level measurements between a so-called
standard sound source and the source under test (i.e. the “substitution method”), or
very careful acoustic qualifications of the test room in which the sound pressure
levels of the source are measured. Either of these procedures can be involved and
requires quality equipment and knowledgeable personnel. However, when the
measurements are carried out properly, the resulting sound power level data generally
are more reliable than most ordinary sound pressure level data.
2. Loss of directionality characteristics. Technically, the measurement of sound power
level takes into account the fact that different amounts of sound radiate in different
directions from the source, but when the measurements are made in a reverberant or
semi-reverberant room, the actual directionality pattern of the radiated sound is not
obtained. If directivity data are desired, measurements must be made either outdoors,
in a totally anechoic test room where reflected sound cannot distort the sound
radiation pattern, or in some instances by using sound intensity measurement
techniques. This restriction applies equally to both sound pressure and sound power
measurements.
What is Sound Intensity?

The sound intensity level (in decibels) is defined by:

Where I is the absolute level of the sound intensity and Iref is the reference intensity.
Unless otherwise stated the intensity, I, is the effective root mean square (rms) sound
intensity.
What is reference intensity? Sound intensity level, expressed in decibels, is the
logarithmic ratio of the sound intensity at a location, in watts/square meter (W/m2 )
relative to the sound power reference base of 10-12 W/m2 .
Notation: The abbreviation Li is often used to represent sound intensity level. The use
of IL as an abbreviation is not recommended since this is often the same abbreviation
for “Insertion Loss” and can lead to confusion.
Computation of sound power level from intensity level. The conversion between
sound intensity level (in dB) and sound power level (in dB) is as follows:

where A is the area over which the average intensity is determined in square meter (m2 ).
Note this can also be written as: LW = Li + 10 log{A} (eq 2-11) if A is in English units
(sq. ft.) then equation 11 can be written as: LW = Li + 10 log{A} - 10 (eq 2-12)
Note, that if the area A completely closes the sound source, these equations can provide
the total sound power level of the source.
However, care must be taken to ensure that the intensity used is representative of the total
area. This can be done by using an area weighted intensity or by logarithmically
combining individual Lw’s.
Determination of sound intensity.
Although sound intensity cannot be measured directly, a reasonable approximation can be
made if the direction of the energy flow can be determined. Under free field conditions
where the energy flow direction is predictable (outdoors for example) the magnitude of
the sound pressure level (Lp) is equivalent to the magnitude of the intensity level (Li).
This results because, under these conditions, the intensity (I) is directly proportional to
the square of the sound pressure (p2 ). This is the key to the relationship between sound
pressure level and sound power level. This is also the reason that when two sounds
combine the resulting sound level is proportional to the log of the sum of the squared
pressures (i.e. the sum of the p2 ’s), not the sum of the pressures (i.e. not the sum of the
p’s). That is, when two sounds combine it is the intensities that add, not the pressures.
Recent advances in measurement and computational techniques have resulted in
equipment that determines sound intensity directly, both magnitude and direction. Using
this instrumentation sound intensity measurements can be conducted in more complicated
environments, where fee field conditions do not exist and the relationship between
intensity and pressure is not as direct.
NOISE CRITERIA IN BUILDINGS
Room Criteria (RC) and Noise Criteria (NC) are two widely recognized criteria used in
the evaluation of the suitability of intrusive mechanical equipment noise into indoor
occupied spaces. The Speech Interference Level (SIL) is used to evaluate the adverse
effects of noise on speech communication.
Noise Criterion (NC) Curves.
NC curves have been used to set or evaluate suitable indoor sound levels resulting from
the operation of building mechanical equipment. These curves give sound pressure levels
(SPLs) as a function of the octave frequency bands. The lowest NC curves define noise
levels that are quiet enough for resting and sleeping, while the upper NC curves define
rather noisy work areas where even speech communication becomes difficult and
restricted. The curves within this total range may be used to set desired noise level goals
for almost all normal indoor functional areas. In a strict interpretation, the sound levels of
the mechanical equipment or ventilation system under design should be equal to or be
lower than the selected NC target curve in all octave bands in order to meet the design
goal. In practice, however, an NC condition may be considered met if the sound levels in
no more than one or two octave bands do not exceed the NC curve by more than one or
two decibels.
SOUND DISTRIBUTION INDOORS
Sound Pressure Level In a Room: The sound pressure levels at a given distance or the
sound power levels for individual equipment items can often be obtained from equipment
suppliers. Once the characteristics of the sound source have been determined, then the
sound level at any location within an enclosed space can be estimated. In an outdoor “free
field” (no reflecting surfaces except the ground), the sound pressure level (SPL)
decreases at a rate of 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the source. In an indoor
situation, however, all the enclosing surfaces of a room confine the sound energy so that
it cannot spread out indefinitely and become dissipated with distance. As sound waves
bounce around within the room, there is a build-up of sound level because the sound
energy is “trapped” inside the room and escapes slowly.
Effect of distance and absorption: The reduction of sound pressure level indoors, as one
moves across the room away from the sound source, is dependent on the surface areas of
the room, the amount of sound absorption material on those areas, the distances to those
areas, and the distance from the source. All of this is expressed quantitatively by the
curves

Sound absorption coefficients: For most surfaces and materials, the sound absorption
coefficients vary with frequency; hence the Room Constant must be calculated for all
frequencies of interest. Even room surfaces that are not normally considered absorptive
have small amounts of absorption. Usually sound absorption coefficients are not
measured in the 31, 63 and 8,000 Hz frequencies. Where the data at these frequencies are
not available use 40% of the value of the 125 Hz for the 31 Hz band, 70% of the 125 Hz
value for the 63 Hz band and 80% of the 4,000 value for the 8,000 Hz octave band.
Values of sound absorption coefficients for specialized acoustical materials must be
obtained from the manufacturer
SOUND ISOLATION BETWEEN ROOMS
Sound Transmission Loss (TL), Noise Reduction (NR) and Sound Transmission Class
(STC). With the knowledge of the acoustical isolation provided by walls and floors, it is
possible to select materials and designs to limit noise intrusion from adjacent mechanical
equipment rooms to acceptable levels. The degree of sound that is transmitted is
influenced by the noise isolation properties of the demising construction, the area of the
demising wall, floor or ceiling and the acoustical properties in the quiet room.
Transmission loss (TL) of walls: The TL of a wall is the ratio, expressed in decibels, of
the sound intensity transmitted through the wall to the airborne sound intensity incident
upon the wall. Thus, the TL of a wall is a performance characteristic that is entirely a
function of the wall weight, material and construction, and its numerical value is not
influenced by the acoustic environment on either side of the wall or the area of the wall.
“Noise reduction” (NR) of a wall: When sound is transmitted from one room (the
“source room”) to an adjoining room (the “receiving room”), it is the transmitted sound
power that is of interest. The transmission loss of a wall is a performance characteristic of
the wall structure, but the total sound power transmitted by the wall is also a function of
its area (e.g. the larger the area, the more the transmitted sound power). The Room
Constant of the receiving room also influences the Sound Power Loss (SPL) in the
receiving room. A large Room Constant reduces the reverberant sound level in the room
at an appropriate distance from the wall.
“Sound transmission class” (STC): Current architectural acoustics literature refers to
the term “Sound Transmission Class” (STC). This is a one-number weighting of
transmission losses at many frequencies. The STC rating is used to rate partitions, doors,
windows, and other acoustic dividers in terms of their relative ability to provide privacy
against intrusion of speech or similar types of sounds. This one-number rating system is
heavily weighted in the 500- to 2000-Hz frequency region. Its use is not recommended
for mechanical equipment noise, whose principal intruding frequencies are lower than the
500- to 2000 Hz region.
Transmission Loss-Walls, Doors
Windows: Generally a partition will have better noise reduction with increasing
frequency. It is therefore important to check the noise reduction at certain frequencies
when dealing with low-frequency, rumble-type noise. Note that partitions can consist of a
combination of walls, glass and doors. Walls can generally be classified as fixed walls of
drywall or masonry, or as operable walls.
Drywall walls. These walls consist of drywall, studs and, sometimes, fibrous blankets
within the stud cavity.
Drywall: Drywall is a lightweight, low-cost material, and can provide a very high STC
when used correctly. The use of Type X, or fire-rated drywall of the same nonrated
drywall thickness, will have a negligible effect on acoustical ratings. Drywall is generally
poor at low frequency noise reduction and is also very susceptible to poor installation.
Drywall partitions must be thoroughly caulked with a non-hardening acoustical caulk at
the edges. Tape and spackle is an acceptable seal at the ceiling and side walls. Electrical
boxes, phone boxes, and other penetrations should not be back-to-back, but be staggered
at least 2 feet, covered with a fibrous blanket, and caulked. Multiple layers of drywall
should be staggered. Wood stud construction has poor noise reduction characteristics
because the wood stud conducts vibration from one side to the other. This can be easily
remedied by using a metal resilient channel which is inserted between the wood stud and
drywall on one side. Non-load-bearing metal studs are sufficiently resilient and do not
improve with a resilient channel. Load-bearing metal studs are stiff and can be improved
with resilient channels installed on one side.
Fibrous blankets: Fibrous blankets in the stud cavity can substantially improve a wall’s
performance by as much as 10 dB in the mid and high frequency range where non-load-
bearing metal studs, or studs with resilient channels, are used. A minimum 2 inch thick,
3/4 lb/ft3 fibrous blanket should be used. Blankets up to 6 inches thick provide a modest
additional improvement.
Double or staggered stud walls: When a high degree of noise reduction is needed, such
as between a conference room and mechanical room, use double or staggered stud wall
construction with two rows of metal or wood studs without bracing them together, two
layers of drywall on both sides, and a 6 inch thick fibrous blanket.
Masonry walls: Masonry construction is heavy, durable, and can provide particularly
good low frequency noise reduction. Concrete masonry units (CMU) made of shale or
cinder have good noise reduction properties when they are approximately 50 percent
hollow and not less than medium weight aggregate. Parging or furring with drywall on at
least one side substantially improves the noise reduction at higher frequencies. The
thicker the block, the better the noise reduction. An 8 inch thick, semihollow medium
aggregate block wall with furring and drywall on one side is excellent around machine
rooms, trash chutes, and elevator shafts.
Doors: The sound transmission loss of both hollow and solid core doors will substantially
increase when properly gasketed. Regular thermal type tape-on gaskets may not seal well
because of door warpage, and can also cause difficulty in closing the door. Tube type
seals fitted into an aluminum extrusion can be installed on the door stop and fitted to the
door shape. Screw type adjustable tube seals are available for critical installations. Sills
with a half moon seal at the bottom of the door are recommended in place of drop seals,
which generally do not seal well. Two gasketed doors with a vestibule are recommended
for high noise isolation. Special acoustical doors with their own jambs and door seals are
available when a vestibule is not practical or very high noise isolation is required.
Windows: Fixed windows will be close to their laboratory TL rating. Operable sash
windows can be 10 dB less than the lab rating due to sound leaks at the window frame.
Gaskets are necessary for a proper seal. Some window units will have unit TL ratings
which would be a rating of both the gasketing and glass type. Double glazed units are no
better than single-glazed if the air space is 1/2 inch or thinner. A 2- inch airspace between
glass panes will provide better noise reduction. Laminated glass has superior noise
reduction capabilities. Installing glass in a neoprene “U” channel and installing sound
absorbing material on the jamb between the panes will also improve noise reduction.
Special acoustical window units are available for critical installations.