f\

f\
EL-MAS'UDf S
HISTORICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA,

ENTITLED

MEADOWS OF GOLD AND MINES OF GEMS"

TRANSLATED FROM THE ARABIC

BY

ALOYS SPRENGER, M.D.

VOL. I.

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND
OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
SOLD BY

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET;

AND
PARBURY, ALLEN, AND Co., LEADENHALL STREET.
MDCCCXLI.
 5)17

LONDON :
HARRISON AND CO., PRINTERS,
ST. MARTIN'S LANE.
 THIS WORK

IS

RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED

TO THE

RIGHT HONOURABLE

THE EARL OF MUNSTER,

BY

THE TRANSLATOR,

790984
 PREFACE.

"SOME authors treat in their works exclu-

sively on history, as el-Mas' udi in his book
entitled THE MEADOWS OF GOLD ; in which
he describes the state of the nations and
countries of the East and West, as they
were in his age, that is to say, in 330 (332),
A.H. He gives an account of the genius and
usages of the nations, a description of the
countries, mountains, seas, kingdoms, and
dynasties ; and he distinguishes the Arabian
race from the Barbarians. El-Mas'udi be-
came, through this work, the prototype of

Uf

fAx»l>*
VI PREFACE.

all historians to whom they refer, and the

authority on which they rely in the critical
estimate of many facts, which form the
subject of their labours.
"Then came el-Bekri, who followed the
example of el-Mas'udi, but only in geogra-
phy, and not with respect to other subjects
(ethnography and history) ; for the changes
which had taken place in his time, since
el-Mas'udi, in the relative position and state
of nations, and in the spirit of times (literally,
the generations) were not material. But,
at present, at the end of the eighth cen-
tury, a complete revolution has taken place
with the Maghrib, where we live.
"I take advantage, in this book, of all
the opportunities of collecting information
 PREFACE. VII

which are at my command here in the

Maghrib, to give an idea (of human society
and its history), and a systematical and
full account (of the facts referring to this
subject). But my particular object is to
describe the Maghrib, and the condition of
the inhabitants of this part of the globe in
different periods (literally, the condition of
the generations) and of its various nations,
and to give a narrative of the kingdoms
which flourished here, and of the dynasties
which ruled over it. I must exclude the
history of other countries, for I do not know
the condition and circumstances in which
the Eastern countries, and the nations who
live there, are ; and mere report, however
exact it may be, does not enable me to
accomplish the task which I have in view.
El-Mas'udi has fully accomplished this task,
having made very extensive journeys, and
 PKEFACK.

examined almost all countries, as we learn

from his book ; but where he speaks of the
Maghrib, his account is too short/' (Ibn
Khaldun, Proleg.)
The frequent quotations and extracts
from el-Mas'udi, in other Arabic authors,
show that Ibn Khaldun' s opinion of our
author was universal. And we cannot hesi-
tate to compare him with the Jonian histo-
rian : If it is the warmth for his own
nationality and tenets without prejudice
against what is foreign; the elasticity of
mind to receive impressions, and to appre-
ciate opinions, without want of firmness and
principles ; the thirst for correctness of
information without preconceived criticism,
which rejects what is unknown, if it differs
from known facts ; the vastness of experi-

c .s

MS. of Leyden,
No. 1350, foL 12; addit. MS. of the British
Museum, No. 9574, fol. 23.
 PREFACE. IX

ence and deep learning acquired through

extensive journeys, frequent intercourse
with men of all nations and opinions, with-
out neglecting that self-knowledge which is
acquired in solitary self- contemplation and
the basis of history ; and if it is that ex-
tensive knowledge and enlarged mind which
embraces all the past, reflecting on the
present; and that sound criticism, which,
entering into the feelings of nations, and
penetrated by those ideas, imaginations,
and tendencies, which mankind feel at all
times, selects what is national and charac-
teristic although it may not always bear the
stamp of logical reasoning ; if it is for these
merits that Herodotus has acquired the
name of Father of History, and of the great-
est of all Historians, — el-Mas'udi has a just
claim to be called the Herodotus of the
Arabs. Combining, like Herodotus, ethno-
graphy and geography with history, and
learning with experience and oral informa-
tion, he distinguishes between the various
nations of the East, and gives us a picture of
their innate character ; then he follows up
those ideas and principles, which, under the
X PREFACE.

form of religion for the uneducated, and as

philosophy or as an instrument to lead the
great mass, for men in power, have grown up
from the character of each nation, or were
embraced by the nation, if they had been
first pronounced by one man or a prophet.
He shows us particularly, in the second
part, how such opinions served as a spiritual
link to connect man with man, to strengthen
the ties of blood and language, and to cover
interests with the veil of sacredness ; and
how religious opinions brought nations into
conflict with each other.
El-Mas' iidi has the merit of treating the
tenets of all sects with equal attention; and
ancient traditions which had existed in the
East for thousands of years, seem to have
been melted, as it were, in his mind, into
one original idea, as they had flowed from
one common source. In this respect, even
his History of the Creation is of interest ;
for he unites the traditions respecting cos-
mogony which were kept up in the East,
together with the documents of Moses and
Sanchoniaton, with the Scriptural accounts*.
* This may be shown by the classification of the fruit trees
 PREFACE. XI

Although the praise which Ibn Khaldun

gives to El-Mas'udi, considering him as the
Imam of all Arabic historians, does not
apply to the first period of Arabic literature ;
yet he may indeed be considered as the re-
presentative ofthe learning of the second
period : the importance of his work must
therefore be identified with that of Moham-
medan literature generally. But the useful-
ness of Oriental studies has been questioned
by a class of men whose opinions deserve

which el-Mas'udi gives, p. 60 infra, which is a tradition of

the Guebres, and agrees as well with the Zend-Avesta, as if it
were a translation: " Tout arbre qui vient dans les deux Mondes,
(dont) le bois (est) sec ou humide, et qui est cultive (par la main
de 1'homme), porte des fleurs et des fruits, est de trente especes.
Dix (de ces) especes (portent des fruits) dont on peut manger
le dedans et le dehors, comme le figuier, le pommier, le coignas-
sier, 1'oranger, la vigne, le murier, le dattier, le myrthe, et les
autres arbres de cette espece.
Dix (especes portent des fruits), dont on peut manger le de-
dans, comme le dattier, le pecher, 1'abricotier blanc, et les autres
arbres de cette espece.
Ceux-ci (les dix dernieres especes, portent des fruits), dont
on peut manger le dedans, et dont on ne doit pas manger le dehors,
s^avoir, le noyer, 1'amandier, le grenadier, le cocotier, le noisetier,
le chateignier, le pistachier sauvage, le noyer, dont le fruit a la
coquille tendre. II y a encore beaucoup d'arbres fruitiers de cette
espece." (Boun Dehesch xxvii., vol. ii., p. 406.)
Xll PREFACE.

respect. These dry grammatical studies,

being mostly a task for memory, enslave the
mind, and contract its horizon, instead of
enlarging it ; whereas, all pursuits which
have no practical use should contribute to
raise the energies of man, to enlarge his
views on the condition of mankind, and to
make him more free. This is their language.
It is, therefore, the best introduction for the
reader to our author, and for our author to
the reader, to devote this Preface to some
considerations on the relation of Oriental
studies to the present state of European
knowledge. It is the more necessary to
speak on this point, that the reader may
know the tendency of the notes of the trans-
lator, otherwise he might be blamed for his
endeavour, because it cannot be denied, that
the senseless learning displayed by some
philologists, of all denominations, in their
notes, full of useless quotations, are the
overflowings of a weak brain, but industrious
hand, and as offensive to common sense as
the eructations of a weak but overloaded
stomach, with which they may be compared.
It may be presumed that, if we had an
 PREFACE. Xlll

exact picture of the rise, progress, height, and

downfall of a nation, we might, by compari-
son, come to the result, that there are cer-
tain laws in the growth of nations, as we
observe them in individuals, which develope
certain faculties and feelings at certain
periods of historical life.* And how should
it be otherwise, — since we find that certain
tendencies, wants, and ideas, are as con-
stantly met with in the mind of man, under
every climate and circumstance, as the laws
of nature are in matter ? So, for instance,
there is no human being who has not a ten-
dency to rise above others, as there is no mat-
ter without gravity. The spirited feels this
tendency as ambition, the idle as vanity, the
weak as fashion, the affectionate mother as
love and foresight for her child, and only the
self-conceited carries his vanity so far as to
think that he is free from it. In a society

* Ibn Kaldun, who started this idea four or five centuries

before Herder and Lessing, devotes a chapter of his Prolego-
mena to it, which is inscribed 3UxA>Jb j\£\ l$! J^jJJ /.^J ^
(jolacvJi $£ " that ruling nations go through natural periods
of life like individuals."
XIV PREFACE.

where all are equal, every one will strive

to raise himself above the rest, and to|rule;
and if one man stands so high that he cannot
be outdone, it will appear a worthy prize of
exertion to approach him, and to gain his
favour by servility. The ambition of youth
consists in noble enthusiasm; but as soon as
man has been taught by disappointment to
be wise, and as soon as he is rooted and fet-
tered to life by wife and children, his objects
are morematerial. There is no great action,
good or bad, to which youth cannot be led
by imagination, as there is no baseness and
dishonesty to which a married man is not
ready, provided it promises a safe profit for
himself and his race. We find exactly the
same in nations. What high actions were per-
formed bythe Arabs when they first came forth
from their deserts ; and to what baseness did
they sink when their state had become old
and rotten ! The Greek and Roman history
presents us with more known, but not more
decided, examples ; for the rest there is no
need of going so far; we find examples at
home. The history of modern Europe dates
since the Crusades, when the sceptre of the
 PREFACE. XV

world was wrested from the hands of the

Arabs, who had pushed their conquests over
Europe as far as they wished. Is not the
enthusiasm which then enlivened nations
compared with the tendency of our age, in
which wealth alone gives claim to the honours
and privileges of the Peerage, like the noble
impetuosity of youth in comparison with
senile avarice ? Ibn Khaldun believes, there-
fore, that the following are the periods of
life through which a nation that has arrived
at power will go: —
" On the phases of the dynasty and the
changes of its state and condition. The
nomadic manners of the members of the
dynasty (who have subjected the country
through their nomadic bravery^ in the va-
rious phases.
" Know that the dynasty passes through
various phases and revolutions ; and the
members of the dynasty (the men in power)
XVI PREFACE.

show in every phase a different character

which is consistent with the circumstances
of the respective phase, and different from
that of every other phase, for we are crea-
tures of circumstances (literally, for the cha-
racter of man follows in its nature the crisis
of the circumstances under which he is
placed). The conditions and phases of a
dynasty may generally be reduced to five.
" The first is the phase of conquest, by
invading the country, overcoming resistance
and any difficulties which may be opposed,
and by making one's self master of the sove-
reign power, and wresting it from the hand
of the preceding dynasty. In this phase the
man (or family) who stands at the head of
the dynasty (i. e. conquerors) will be on a
level with the rest of the conquering nation,

*AJ yfc g&l

^ilaJi ;£> b$\ j\J

J30,\
 PREFACE. XVI

and be distinguished neither by majesty nor

by a greater share in the revenue, nor will
his person be particularly protected and
sacred. He will not enjoy any privilege
before the rest, as a natural consequence of
patriotism, which alone gives conquest, and
which does not (immediately) cease after
victory.
"In the second phase the man who
stands at the head of the dynasty, ac-
quires the sovereignty over his own nation :
he appropriates to himself exclusively the
royalty (over the conquered nation), and

* By rendering the word XxXAaxJI, I change an Arabic idea

into an European notion. The Arab loves his family, his tribe,
and his nation: they are his parents, his brothers, his children.
But the free Bedouin is not attached to the soil. We have a
similar predilection for our native soil. Compare the note to
page 176, infra.
C
Xviii PREFACE.

keeps his tribe at a distance, instead of allow-

ing them an equal share (in the emoluments
of the conquest), and of associating with
them. The characteristics of this phase are,
that the sovereign will connect a great num-
ber of men with his personal interests, by
office and adoption, with whom he sur-
rounds himself to counteract the overbearing
character of his countrymen (relations) who
have assisted him in the conquest ; and who,
having equal claims by birth, demand an
equal share in power. He excludes them
from the administration, keeps them at a
distance from his person, and repels them
if they should intrude, to the end that the
power may remain in his hands, and that
his family may be distinguished by the ma-

jUii, 3U4UJ5
(UU-o) Uxx^j^UJ *«k£ ^ XJ^xJt
 PREFACE. XIX

jesty of which he has laid the foundation.

He is now as anxious to keep them off,
and to subdue them, as the first conquerors
were in their contest for the kingdom : and
he goes still further than they did ; for they
had to do with foreigners, so that the differ-
ence between the two parties was distinctly
marked, for they were all connected by
patriotism in their wars, whereas he has to
contend with his relations; and his assistants
in his manoeuvres are the minority, consisting
of strangers : he must therefore brave diffi-
culties.
" In the third stage he gives himself up to
comforts, for he has attained his object, and
is now enjoying the fruits of the supreme
power, indulging in pleasure, for which the
XX PREFACE.

human mind has a natural inclination : as to

increase the revenue, to found lasting monu-
ments, to have great fame. The sovereign,
therefore, directs his intentions towards the
revenue department and increases it j he keeps
the balance between income and expend-
iture; he calculates the expenses and the
object which he gains by them ; he erects
numerous buildings, great fabrics, extensive
cities, and lofty public monuments ; he re-
ceives the nobles of the nation and the chiefs
of the tribes who come as envoys to his
court to do him homage ; and he is kind to
those who are in his service. His favourites
and suite enjoy at the same time great wealth
and importance ; his standing army is kept

*.«>
 PREFACE. XXI

in good order ; they have ample pay, which

is regularly received every new moon ; the
consequences of this regularity are to be
seen in their dress, uniform, and appearance,
on parade days. The allies of the sovereign
in this phase boast of his friendship, and his
enemies are filled with fear. This is the
last phase of the sovereignty of those who
stand at the head of the dynasty (i.e. the
conquerors), for, hitherto, the conquerors
have had absolute power to follow their
views ; they were distinguished by grandeur,
as luminaries to posterity.
"The fourth phase is that of being
contented^ and of conservatism. The man
who stands at the head of the conquerors
XX11 PREFACE.

will content himself with keeping up what

his predecessors have done ; (he is no longer
the mere Emir of the conquering tribes,) but
he is equal to any other king, being an auto-
crat :he confirms what his predecessors have
done and imitates them step by step (lite-
rally, he follows their slippers and shoes
with his shoes). He acts in all instances
after precedents, considering any deviation
from their institutions as destructive, for
he thinks they must have best understood
the principles upon which they built his
majesty.
"The fifth phase is that of prodigality
and extravagance (and reform). The sove-
reign will squander away in this phase what
his predecessors have gathered ; giving him-
self up to pleasure and lust, and by prodigality
 PREFACE. XX111

towards his intimates and courtiers, by pa-

tronising favourites of bad character, and a
numerous rabble without principles, whom
he appoints to the most important offices,
which they are unable to manage ; for they
know neither what they have to do, nor
what they have to avoid. Thus the great
men who guide the (ruling) nation (by moral
influence) and those who had come to impor-
tance through the favour of former sove-
reigns, are injured; hence, they take a
dislike to the sovereign, and refuse to lend
him their assistance : his army will thus be
ruined, for the luxurious court spends the
means in pleasures, instead of giving them
their pay; he excludes them from every
office in the administration, and does not
show them any attention. Thus he destroys
XXIV PREFACE.

what his predecessors have built. In this

phase the symptoms of the decline of the
dynasty manifest themselves,, and it suffers
under a chronic disease, of which it can-
not be cured: it hastens to dissolution. "
The English reader will be surprised to
find in the last two phases the outlines of
the history of the present state of his own
country, — the struggle between conservatism
and reform, — written by an author who lived
more than four centuries ago, in Africa,
and hardly knew the name of England.
Thus, his idea, " That ruling nations go
through natural periods of life, like indivi-
duals," isconfirmed; and this is the indivi-
dual life, or historical career, of nations,
and the result and object of particular his-
tory.
By comparing a great number of biogra-
phies ofsuch nations as succeeded each other

l$J &j£t $3 MS. Of

Leyderi, No. 1350, i., fol. 66, verso. MS.

of the British Museum, No. 9574, fol. 100,
verso.
 PREFACE. XXV

on the stage of history in the rule of the

world, and in whom all the activity of man-
kind was concentrated and represented as at
present in Europe, it might, perhaps, be
proved by facts, what philosophers presume,
that there are even certain laws as to when
and how different nations enter on the stage
of history, and what part they are to per-
form ; for although certain qualities are
universal to all men, every nation has an
innate national character which constitutes
its individuality, and predestines it to a cer-
tain career, just as a woman is destined to a
different vocation from that of a man.
This is by no means to be taken in a
mystical sense, for nothing can, for instance,
be more natural than that the sober and
simple Arab, who used thousands of years
ago to make inroads upon Persia, should
be so successful as to plant the standard of
the doctrine of the unity of God upon the
graves of the Khosraws, at the period when
the Parthian rulers had outlived their time,
their minds being corrupted by the vices of
the most luxurious court, by the most artificial
religion, and the grossest superstition. The
XXVI PREFACE.

Arabs were the liberators of the subjects who

suffered under an artificial, over-refined state
of society, and under the arbitrary spoliations
of an insatiable and innumerable nobility. In
the same way, it is not less natural that the
stage of history should, in its origin, have
been in the south (in Asia), and that modern
European civilization should have begun in
the congenial climate of Italy and Spain,
than it is, that those countries have their
spring in advance of the more northern
regions.
If the general road which nations have
to go could be laid down and deduced from
incontrovertible facts, the results would be
more valuable than all other human know-
ledge. They would give us an insight into
the condition and object of mankind. " Be-
hold the tales of the time," says an Arabic
author, "and when thou knowest where
we come from, see where we are going to."
They would prove that the fate of nations
does not depend upon chance or the arbi-
trary actions of a few individuals. Men who
are the actors in a great crisis are the pro-
duct of time, and not time the product of
 PREFACE. XXV11

their talents ; they will not succeed if they

act against the spirit of the age. A history
in this sense would also point out the
sphere of individual activity in public life ;
for if the periods of the life of nations are
laid down in certain laws, and if the attempts
of the privileged cannot change their course,
it would follow that the grievances of man-
kind arise from those desperate attempts of
men in power to interfere wTith the course of
things, and to retard their natural progress,
or from those men of a destructive character
who, misled by enthusiasm, mean to accele-
rate events beyond their natural course; and
if we could determine, by such a view of his-
tory, for a given period (for instance for the
present moment), what is the unalterable
course which a nation will pursue, the men who
do their best to smooth the way could be po-
sitively distinguished from those who, under
pretence of principle, attempt to interfere
with the course of the nation, turning it to
their own advantage ; and history would
show the final triumph of the former over
the latter, pointing out, that talent counter-
balances wealth, that reason stands against
XXV111 PREFACE.

prejudice, energy against the power of public

opinion and inherited privileges, persuasion
and faith against hypocrisy and ecclesiastical
tyranny, enthusiasm against fashion, and
freedom against the power of interest and
servility, and that the struggle between these
different tendencies is decided by eternal
laws, by Providence, in favour of moral
power. Individual stands against individual,
and he is victorious who goes with the spirit
of the times : he may be a prince or a beggar.
European history, however, will lead us
neither to a correct idea of the individual
life of nations, nor of their mutual succession
on the stage of history, without a knowledge
of the East. There is not one nation in
European history whom we can follow from
the moment it entered upon the stage of ac-
tion down to its fall. The period of existence
of modern nations is not yet elapsed. The
origin of the Greeks and Romans is fabulous;
and the documents which we possess respect-
ing them do not reach higher up than the
time of their power. There are only one or
two great revolutions related in European
history, in which the rule over the world
 PREFACE. XXIX

passed from one race to another under the

rise of new ideas, which exemplify the suc-
cession of nations. The few accounts of
Greek authors, of the ancient dynasties of
Babylon and other countries of the East,
derive their value only if they are illustrated
by the history of later parallel facts from
more modern Eastern history, of which we
possess exact and numerous accounts in
Arabic authors. Lest it should be denied
that the history of the Greeks is very imper-
fect, and that their ideas and institutions are
secondary, and mere fragments of a more
ancient nation, it will be necessary to enter
into some details before it can be shown
that the study of the East furnishes us with
materials both for ascertaining the natural
periods of the individual life of a nation, and
the succession of nations on the stage of
history.
The Greeks had escaped from the tyranny
of a priest caste which kept their northern
and southern neighbours in ignorance, mo-
nopolizing knowledge. Freedom inspired
them with love for their native country and
fame ; and patriotism brought them to the
XXX PREFACE.

highest perfection that mankind has yet

attained. Worship of arts was their religion,
sublime poetry their code of laws, refined
taste their moral guide, and freedom their
tie of union. But although their originality
of conception cannot be disputed, the mate-
rial of their science, as well as of their arts,
is not their own : they derived it either from
imperfect recollections of their former home,
or imported it from the East, and gave to it
a more popular form. Creuzer has lately
collected some passages of Greek authors
in proof of this assertion. Facts are a
stronger proof than testimony ; and as scat-
tered fragments of a vessel, for instance, are
posterior to the whole, and the germ anterior
to the plant, so we may rest satisfied that a
country in which we find all ideas coherent,
understood and derived from one source,
although less developed, is anterior to ano-
ther inwhich we find them sacredly preserved,
but not understood, and numerous beyond
measure . In order to show that this is the
relation of the East and Greece, it will be
necessary to anticipate a theory of the nine
spheres of the heaven, which may be consi-
 PREFACE. XXXI

dered as the creed of the esoteric in Babylon,

and in many other Eastern countries, and
the basis of the religious notions of the
Greeks, although they never understood
it.
The origin of existence is the great pro-
blem of all philosophy ; for the Lord of life
and death is the God whom the mortal feels
bound to worship. It is certainly the most
natural idea, that all life should be derived
from an ultimate male and female principle.
The male principle was the fifth and divine
element, the ether*, of which the stars are
only the concentrations ; the female principle
was the earth, which rests quiet and passive
in the centre of the circumvolving ether,
according to the ideas of the ancients. Hence
Aristotlef says, " The principle of motion,
which gives the first impulse to generation,

* On the ether see the note to page 179 infra) and the Fih-
rist apud Hottinger, Historia Orientalis, edit. alt. p. 283.
f De Generations Animalium, lib. L, cap. 2. The Chinese
have the same idea, but apply it particularly to their emperor as
the representative of the creation, (see the note to page 326,
infra). Respecting the change which this idea underwent among
the Semites. See the note to page 58, infra.
XXX11 PREFACE.

is called male (and father), and the (passive)

principle which yields the material, is called
mother . . . Hence the earth is considered
as female, and the mother (of all that exists),
and the heaven (ether) as the male, and the
father." If motion is the characteristical
quality of Divinity, the planetary sphere
which is most remote from the earth has the
greatest claim to divinity, for its revolutions
are the most rapid. Saturn will, therefore,
be the highest and oldest god; he is the
Sator. Opposite him stands his wife and
sister the Earth, which is eternal and un-
created like him ; and from them proceed
all other beings, Festus seems, therefore,
to be correct in deriving the name of this
planet a satu. He was, however, dethroned
as soon as this theory was further developed,
as the reader will soon perceive.
As soon as these two poles were once
defined as the male and female principle, the
poets in their imagination, and philosophers
in their abstraction, knew no bounds in
commenting upon them. The principle of
motion, or the male pole, was conceived to
be active, possessed of the supreme intellect;
 PREFACE. XXX111

the female pole passive, but feeling, mild,

and affectionate, whilst the male principle
was thought to be harsh and selfish. About
forty million miles above the female pole,
and nearly as many under the male pole,
in the middle between both, there must be
perfect equilibrium. This was, therefore,
the place of the sun, according to the ideas
of the ancients, although he is in reality
about nine times more distant from Saturn
than from the earth. Ptolemy's agreeing
with this wrong computation shows us
whence he derived his information. The
sun is, therefore, the son and mediator be-
tween heaven and earth ; for, in him, the
nature of both is combined; in him rests
the affection of his parents, which, in a phy-
sical sense, is warmth, and, in mysticism,
the law of love ; and he is indeed the source
of heat. In all ancient religions, the sun
is the regenerator and redeemer, not the
creator ; but this has been frequently mis-
understood bythe exoteric.
Having now developed the trinity of the
ancients, we may proceed to state whence
the qualities attributed to the planets, which
d
XXXIV PREFACE.

were the souls or individuals (J2>\*£\ of the

ether, took their origin ; for the insignifi-
cant peculiarities which may be observed in
them, and some of which have been noticed
in the notes to page 222, infra, cannot sa-
tisfactorily account for the same attributes
being given to the planets throughout all
the world.
In Oriental psychology, of which the
reader will find farther details in another
part of this work, all the qualities of men are
said to be based either on sympathy sAil,-
which is female and passive, or on antipathy
and selfishness s^UxM, which is male and
active : they are both neither good nor bad
in themselves. These two fundamental qua-
lities are manifested either with warmth and
violence *\x£j|, or with system, and tempered
by justice XM«X*H, or with coolness and re-
flexion £&\. The female qualities, based on
sympathy, must be predominant under the
sun, according to what has been said, and
the male qualities, founded on antipathy,
above this luminary. Now, as the sun is at
the same time the source of warmth in a
mystical as well as physical sense, we may
form the following scale :
 PREFACE. XXXV

Antipathy with coolness = the ill-natured SATURN.

Antipathy tempered = the royal* JUPITER.
Antipathy with warmth = the pugnacious MARS.
The SUN.
Sympathy with warmth = the enamoured VENUS.
Sympathy tempered = the meek MERCURY.
Sympathy with cool reflection = the tender MOON.

The Arabic astrologers allude to this

theory, for they had been the initiated before
Mohammed; and when they found it more
expedient to serve as companions to the
khalifs, professing the Islam, than as priests
in their temples, they gave to their doctrines
a different shape. This theory is the soul of
all ancient religions, and pervades their phi-
losophical sciences and those of the Arabs.
The testimony of authors, in proof that
this has been the theory of the initiated
in the East, and the farther development
of the changes which new discoveries pro-
duced in it, and of the political revolutions
which were occasioned by such changes,
will be explained in another volume of this

* It must be observed that the sovereign is considered in the

East as the moderator c. \\^Jl, and as prohibiting for the sake of
his own selfishness ; for he is the head of the soldier caste XL«xH ,
so that Jupiter stands in his right place. ds
XXXVI PREFACE,

work. Our purpose here is to show, that

the Greek history of mythology consists
of misunderstood fragments, of a more
ancient system ; and, therefore, that Greek
history has, without the knowledge of the
East, no beginning, and does not lead to
those results of the study of history which
gives it an infinite importance.
The Greeks, uninitiated in the myste-
ries of the priest class, and superior to the
lower classes, continued to attribute to the
planets these characters, without knowing
why. They personified, therefore, the idols,*
and invented fables, in explanation of the
worship, being ignorant of the reasons.
From these fables grew up their poetry;
from the personifications their fine arts ; and
this, as we have said, was the object of their
life. But even in their fables they remained
faithful to eastern notions, which tradition
had preserved, contenting themselves with
giving to them a more pleasing form.
In the same way, every theory of the
natural philosophy of the Greeks had been

* See note to page 218, infra.

 PREFACE. XXXV11

previously known in the East. If Aristotle,

in whom all the knowledge of antiquity
on this head is concentrated, who sub-
jected to the laws of reasoning what the
uninitiated believed on authority, and who
profaned the mysteries of the initiated as
far as he had a knowledge of them, quotes
mostly Greek authors, in speaking of sub-
jects connected with natural philosophy,
and alludes but seldom to the wisdom of
the Chaldeans and Egyptians, it must be
borne in mind, that most of their opinions
had been imported into Greece long before
the Stagirite, and had thus become Greek,
or they had been inherited from the first
Greek settlers, and thus always been in the
nation; and that he has followed the dia-
lectic system of didactics, in which every-
thing isfounded on reason, authority being
named only of well-known opinions which
are rejected, and form the subject of pole-
mics, in order to explain and exemplify
those which are defended as laws of reason,
not of authority, — which is, therefore, not
named.
The doctrine of the ether, of the five
XXXV111 PREFACE.

elements, and other central theories of Aris-

totle's natural philosophy, are found in Ta-
tary, China*, Persia, Egypt, and all other
nations of the East. Nearly half of the
names of medicines in Dioscorides and
Galen may be derived from the Persian,
Arabic, and other Oriental languages, and
the use of those exported from India must
naturally have first been known in their
native country before they were exported.
When Alexander had opened the East,
not only Greek science but even Greek arts
took a more decided Eastern character.
Their poetry became more romantic; their
sculpture less grotesque ; in former times
their gods had been represented as men, and
now they received the character of genii ;
their schools of astronomy and medicine
partook more and more of Eastern ideas, as
they proceeded, and they proceeded as they
were guided by these -new materials. Pto-
lemy adopts even the chronology of the
Babylonians. And the temperaments of

* See Visdelou, apud D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient. Suplem.

and the note to page 179, infra.
 PREFACE. XXXIX

Galen are as ancient as the world; they

are connected with star worship*, and
pervade the whole of Galen's or rather
Eastern ideas on anatomy, physiology, and
pathology f; even in materia medica the
same idea is followed, and every medicine
has its crasis (or temperament).
The Greeks had the merit of bringing
the materials which they collected in the
East (I doubt whether from books) into a
system, to compare them with experience,
and to found them upon reason; whereas,
they had existed as faith or mystery amongst
Eastern nations. When the East was re-
vived by the Arabs, the works of the Greeks
were so very welcome, because the Eastern
nations found in them their own ideas sys-
tematically arranged.
These few hints may be sufficient to show
that the ancient history of Europe is incohe-
rent and incomplete in itself. Even many

* Compare page 206, infra.

•f In the literary history of the Arabs, down to el-Mas'udi,some
curious eastern theories from Ibn Jauzi, of which the translator
possesses a beautiful manuscript, which is probably the only one
in Europe, will be given, to confirm what is asserted here.
XL PREFACE.

forms of Greek grammar cannot be explained

without the assistance of the Sanscrit and
Zend languages. The Roman history is still
more in the dark. The fables with which it
is headed by Roman historians are a confes-
sion that their institutions want an historical
explanation ; but that they did not find any
either in their annals or in their popular
traditions. There is, therefore, no nation
in Europe, nor has there ever been any, of
which we have a complete account, from the
moment when it entered upon the stage of
history to the end of its career, and from
the progress and fall of which we could
draw a picture of the life of nations : and
it can still less be expected that the history
of Europe should give us an idea of the
succession of nations on the stage of history.
The periods of life are much slower in the
North.
The East, on the contrary, is rich in
experience : the periods of life rapidly suc-
ceed each other, and are decided in their
character; the revolutions, so violent, that
they cannot remain unobserved ; one empire
was founded upon the ruins of another ;
 PREFACE. XL1

dynasties rose and faded with the rapidity and

splendor of meteors. Towns, like Bagdad,
el-Kufah, el-Kahirah, were built like camps ;
and on the Oxus, for instance, we see the
Tatars, Persians, Greeks, Parthians, Arabs,
and Uzbeks, as rulers, within the compara-
tively short period of three thousand years.
On account of these frequent, rapid and de-
cided changes, the idea of the mutual rela-
tion and succession of nations was, at least
with reference to Iran, known to the ancient
Persians, and forms one of the theories of
the Zend-Avesta; and a perfectly correct
division of the then known human races in
the Semitic, Negroes (Hamites), and Tatars,
including the Caucasian race (Japhetites), is
even found in Genesis. We cannot better
illustrate and confirm what has been said
above, than by following up the ideas of
the Zend-Avesta. Such an inquiry enters
the more into the plan of this preface as it
will enable the reader to form a correct
judgment respecting the place which the
history of the Arabs occupies, with reference
to other nations.
First, we must have a clear notion of
XL11 PREFACE.

Iran, or rather Khunnerets, as connected

with irrigation. "If the water/' says our
author*, who gives us some precious notices
on this subject, "retires four hundred cubits
from its original place, this place will be
waste." He exemplifies his statement by
the different state in which el-Hirah was in
his time, and that in which it had been a
few centuries previously. The country in
which Niniveh was situated is now a desert,
and the gardens of the khalifs are covered
with sand. As the sun produces the most
luxuriant vegetation, if his rays fall on wa-
tered ground (the female element), so are
they destructive if they meet no humidity.
It is for this reason that the sun is represented
in these two opposite characters in Siwa.
There is, therefore, no cultivation of the
ground possible without irrigation. To keep
up the irrigation is nothing less than to con-
trol enormous rivers, to dig new ones, and to
drain countries ; it is a much more gigantic
work than all the railroads of Europe.
Hence, an almost infinite number of hands

* Page 254, infra.

 PREFACE. XL111

must be employed for this purpose ; and

this, in the infancy of society, can only be
done by a powerful government which rules
extensive countries, and, as a great govern-
ment can never be free — by a despot. This
is borne out by the system of gathering the
taxes of these countries Abu Yusof says,
in a letter to Hariin er-Rashid which must
be considered as an official document,
66 Such land as was waste and is now cul-
tivated and irrigated by the water of the
heaven (rain), or from wells or brooks, or
large rivers, which are nobody's property,
(like the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Oxus, or
Saihun) pays only the Tithes ; but if the land
is watered by the canals which were dug by
the ancient Persians, as the Nahr el-Melik,
or Nahr Yezdejerd, the Kheraj is to be paid
for it, although it may be cultivated by a
Moslim." As these regulations have been
copied from the Persians *, it is evident that

* Whenever the Arabs conquered a town or province of

Persia, they called the Dihkans, asked them what taxes had been
paid under the Khosraws, and confirmed generally the ancient
regulations. En-Nowa'iri (MS. of Leyden N. 2 D.) gives us, in
the History of the Sasanians, an account of their regulations of
 XL1V PREFACE.

the land tax was levied for the irrigation,

since those lands which did not require arti-
ficial irrigation were exempt.
This formed the character of the popu-
lation of such countries (deltas), amongst
which Babylonia (Khunnerets) at present
claims our attention. As the cultivation of
the soil was dependent upon a powerful
monarch, the very existence of the culti-
vators was connected with despotism. No
wonder, therefore, if servility is so deeply
impressed on the character of all nations
who live in deltas. The king is the god of
fertility, who, by directing his attention to
irrigation, may double the number of inha-
bitants in less than twelve years, as they
perish by thousands if it is neglected. It
has been asserted, that the climate forms
the character of a nation, and Oriental

the land tax, which agrees literally with what Abu Yusof con-
siders as law under the 'Abbaside khalifs. And as the Sasanians
had been the restorers of the ancient state of things, to what
they were before Alexander, we may trace the same institution to
the ancientPersians.

Lands, under artificial irrigations, are called cU£, which

has been rendered in this translation by estates.
 PREFACE. XLV

despotism has, for this reason, become pro-

verbial. History shows, however, that now
monks celebrate their processions in the
streets through which the triumphant Ro-
man citizens marched, and that the slavish
Babylonian lives between the Bedouin — the
freest and happiest man on earth — and the
independent Kurd. The national charac-
ter depends upon institutions and education.
A rich country will soon produce men of
talent and cunning, who earn their living by
teaching or deceiving; and they are the
priests, who will form a caste as soon as a
man rises amongst them who unites their
doctrines into one system, which, in order
to be adopted by the nation, must of
course be in harmony with their institutions,
and will therefore be kept sacred as long as
those institutions last. Thus, we have the
three fundamental classes of society of the
population of deltas, fat and slavish cul-
tivators, cunning priests, and a luxurious
court and soldiery ; or, applying it to Baby-
lon, the Nabateans, Magi, and the Daulat
X!_5*xM (dynasty). The first of these three
classes are fixed to the soil ; the third is
XLV1 PREFACE.

constantly changing, passing through the

phases and revolutions which Ibn Khaldun
describes in the passage quoted above ; and
the priest caste is intermediate between
both. The priests were the masters of the
king and kingdom, as long as the state was
founded upon their theories ; and they
formed an amusing society of savans round
the courts of the Khalifs when their doc-
trines no longer found faith.
When such a monarchy (daulat*) is in the
height of its activity, it will extend its grasp
after conquests, as it will be the aim of
conquerors when it is in decay. The nearest
object to excite the avarice of Babylonia are
the fertile banks of the Oxus, as a Bac-
trian monarch can find no worthier object
of his ambition than Babylonia. These two
countries were, therefore, united under one
ruler at all periods when Western Asia was
in a flourishing state, and they form Iran,
in its greatest extent, the stage of history
of Western Asia, and the object of our
present observations.

* The primary meaning of the root of Daulat is, the vicissi-

tudes fortune.
of
 PREFACE. XLV11

South-west of Iran extend the deserts of

Arabia, which are bounded on the south by a
fertile mountainous country. This may be
considered as the native soil of the Semitic
race. History has recorded several success-
ful Arabic invaders who have subdued Iran.
Scripture names Nimrod ; from the third
volume of el-Mas'udi we shall learn the
names of Sheddad Ben 'Ad and many
others; and in Persian traditions Zohak is
mentioned as a Semitic conqueror, previous
to the Mohammedan conquests. In the
same manner it is reported by Herodotus,
by Mongolish traditions and Persian poets,
that the Tatars, who have their original seats
in the steppes north-east of Iran, conquered
this country in ancient times, previous to
the These
Seljuks,twoJingiz-Khan, and like
nations stand Tai'mur.
the two
magnetic poles, opposite each other, with
reference to Iran, in their national character
as well as in their geographical position.
Both were originally nomades : and the main
body of the nation, continuing wandering
habits, remained at all times in the primitive
condition of man. But the Tatars are pas-
XLV111 PREFACE.

turing soldiers, whilst the Arabs are warlike

shepherds. The Tatars are used to blind
obedience and discipline. The basis of all
their social institutions is hereditary aristo-
cracy. ATatar magnate has, amongst other
privileges, that of committing nine crimes.
To be a slave is the pride of a Tatar ; and
they have acted as such at all periods, at
Eastern courts. If they become masters,
they dig their own graves by imbecility,
idleness, and cruelty. An example of their
passive obedience are the Cossacks. Jingiz-
Khan may be considered as the repre-
sentative of the national character of the
Tatars. His strict discipline, order in the
camp, and simple regulations, render him
one of the greatest generals recorded in
history, and the extent of his conquests,
and the valorous opposition of some of
his enemies, fill the reader of his life with
astonishment ; but no man ever shed more
blood, laid waste more countries, and
committed greater cruelties, than Jingiz
Khan. The captive enemies had to serve
him as shields against their brothers, and
were forced to fight against them before
 PREFACE. XL1X

they were slaughtered. When he took a

town (Balkh, for instance), the lives of the
inhabitants were spared until their temples
were profaned, their wives and daughters
ravished, and their houses burnt ; and when
he had thus tortured their feelings, men and
women were promiscuously put to the sword.
The Tatars were called the nation of Mars
by the Iranians.
The Bedouin, who is the prototype of
the Semitic race, on the contrary, is per-
fectly free and independent *. He is capable
* Harith Ben Keldah described the character of the Arabs
before Khosraw Anusharwan, in the following terms: — "Their
minds are liberal, their hearts cheerful ; their language is expres-
sive, their tongues are eloquent, their pedigrees pure and genuine,
their ancestors noble ; the words flow from their mouths like
arrows from the bow, but milder than the breezes of spring, and
sweeter than honey; (literally, the water of a certain spring of
Paradise ;) they feed the hungry in the time of need; they fight the
strong in war; they do not permit that their high feelings should be
hurt, that their neighbour should be injured, that their wives or
daughters should be profaned, or, that the noble should be hum-
bled."
 PREFACE.

of the noblest enthusiasm, but he has less

imagination than any other nation, hence
his poetry is lyric* ; the long- winding epos
and drama are unknown to him ; his reason-

Ibn Abi Osaibiah, MS. of the Brit. Museum, No. 7340, fol.
44 verso. The variants are from a MS. of the Royal Library
at Paris.
* Nothing can better illustrate the peculiar character of
Arabic poetry than the verses of the Koran, given in the follow-
ing page. (Sura, 91, translation of Sale.) God swears:
" By the sun and its rising brightness ; by the moon, when
she followeth him ; by the day, when it showeth its splendour ;
by the night, when it covereth him with darkness; by the heaven
and Him who built it ; by the earth and Him who spread it forth;
by the soul and Him who completely formed it, and inspired into
the same wickedness and piety ; now is he who has purified the
same happy."
Heaven and earth are too narrow for the spirit of Mohammed,
whilst the hero of Homer swears by so trifling an object as a
stick, which he paints in several verses:
" Yes, by this sceptre, which will no longer shoot either leaves
or rind, for it once left its stem on the mountains, nor will it ever
blossom again ; the sharp knife has pruned around both the leaves
and bark. Now this sceptre is intrusted into the hands of the
judging sons of Greece, Jove's delegates, from whom all wise
laws emanate,— thus I utter a great and solemn oath to you."
As the rhyme of the Arabic original is as characteristic for
sublime, and romantic poetry as the grave Hexameter for the
apos, the original is here added: —
 PREFACE. LI

ing is clear and logical ; and thus the

Bedouins were the founders of the spirit of
the middle ages. The Arab is, therefore,
not the tool of dreams and hopes ; his object
is to enjoy the moment, and to be — to be
good, to be wise, to be free, to be happy ;
whilst the endeavour of other nations is to
have, and to be possessed — to have goods,
to be possessed of knowledge, to have
power, to have the means of rendering them-
selves happy — and thus they are possessed,

U j, Ul&b ttl JJJJ j

Nai /ia ToSc (ncrjirTpov, TO KCV ovirorf <^uXXa KOL o£ovf

firireidfj TrpStra TO/JLTJV ei/ op€o-<rt
dvaOrjXrja-fi' ire pi yap pa « ^aX/cot
<cai <p\oioV vvv avre p,iv vies '
Ej/ 7ra\dp,r)s (popeovcri diKa(rrr6\oi, otre
Upos Albs elpvarai' 6 Se rot peyas f(TO"erat opKos.
Iliad, L, 234-239,
LU PREFACE.

and fettered in their own golden chains.

The Arab is as anxious to obtain wealth as
other men, because he is active ; but it is
against his nature to store up wealth. If he
wishes to have great means, it is in order to
entertain his friends, to be more liberal and
hospitable than others, and to give riches
away as fast as he obtains them. These
habits of prodigality became a law of reli-
gion (the alms), and continued even to the
time of the Khalifat, however adverse they
were to civilized society and ruinous to the
state. The Arab obeys no one ; he has
no wants ; a few dates suffice for his meal.
What he takes, he takes by force — the
native right of the stronger; but he gives
out of charity. Thus he feels himself greater
than the rest of mankind, and despises
them. What can make a man a slave who
has no wants ? His only master is honour
and conviction : hence, a sound religion
alone could unite the nation. His obe-
dience to the Sheikh is that of a son to his
father; it cannot be enforced; and the
orders, or rather advice, of a Sheikh is the
expression of the will of the tribe. The
only social tie which guarantees the life of
 PREFACE. Llll

the inhabitants of the desert is the blood

revenge founded on the love of relations.
If a man is slain, the family of the deceased
will not rest, if they should perish to the
last man, before they have retaliated the
death of their relation on the tribe of the
murderer. Atrocities are therefore avoided
out of love to one's own relations.
As the character of the Semites and
Tatars is opposed, so are their tongues;
for language, like a faithful wife, follows the
character of the mind, and gives birth to its
children. The Tatar forms compound ex-
pres ions ashe has received joint ideas ; for
the different modifications of one notion and
its relation appear to his shallow mind like
several ideas ; thus he uses compound ex-
pressions like "lordship," (i.e. the shape of
a lord,) and, 1 have said, although he has
only one idea to express. In Tatar languages,
compounding words and heaping grammati-
cal terminations and suffixed syllables is
carried to such an extreme, that the words
which express the objects are buried under
them. The riches of the Semitic lan-
guages, on the contrary, do not consist in
compounding ideas which have no natural
L1V PREFACE.

relation to each other, but in organizing the

roots ; so the Arab would say teeth, and not
many * tooth ; I saw^ and not I have seen.
The Arabic language has no compound
words, and hardly any grammatical termina-
tions. Words are formed and grammatically
construed by changing the vowels of the
root; by internal organisation, and not by
juxta-position. Such a language can only
be spoken by a nation which expresses more
the sentiments and ideas of its heart, and
which gives, even in describing objects, the
feeling which they produced in the mind,
than a narration of the surrounding world.
The Semitic languages are what the Germans
would term subjective tongues, whilst the
Tatar languages are objective. The reader
may now easily guess that the Arab will
apply the same root to quite different ob-
jects, ifthey produced a similar impression
on his mind ; thus the root jara, which has
primarily the signification of to flow, means
also, if pronounced with different vowels

* The s, which forms the plural in most Hindo-Germanic

languages, as well as the lar, which forms the plural in Tatar
tongues, is to be considered as a corruption of some ancient
word meaning many, or a number.
 PREFACE. LV

and accents, a brave young man, a lively

girl, a ship, and the sun. As the Bedouin
calls the sun the Runner, if his attention is
exclusively directed to its motion, in the
same manner, he may call it the White
(l>^A>J!), or the Luminary (j^jtH or ^V^O* if
the impression of its colour or splendour is
prevalent in his mind, — and so with other
notions. The reader will find, for the same
reason, numerous hysteron-proterons in Ara-
bic expression which have been preserved in
this translation ; for, as the Arab expresses
even facts as sentiments, he says^r^jf what
makes the greatest impression upon him.
Thus we read& first, that Zakariya was put
to death3 and then it is described how he
was killed.
As long as the government of Iran was
in the vigour of life, these two nomadic
nations assisted it against other powers. We
find them in the account by Herodotus of
the army of Xerxes; and under Khosraw
Anusharwan fifty thousand Tatar troops
came on the Persian frontier, demanding to
be taken into his service: "For," said
they, "we gain our living by the sword;
* See page 122, infra.
LV1 PREFACE.

and, as our country cannot give us food, we

must be thy enemies, if thou wilt not re-
ceive us as friends, and provide for us and
our families." It appears from el-Wakedi's
genuine account of the Mohammedan con-
quests, as quoted by early authors, that the
inhabitants of Yemen were driven by a si-
milar motive to join the banners of the
Islam. The population was too dense, and so
they came, uncalled for, to Medinah, and
asked 'Omar to send them against some
enemies of the faith.
When the rulers of Iran had passed
through the periods of life described by Ibn
Khaldun, and sunk under their own weight,
the Arabs and Tatars made predatory incur-
sions upon the unprotected cultivators, as
they did under the successors of Anushar-
wan. For, dependent as nomades in
some measure are upon civilized nations,
they are always on the alert for making
plunder. The Arabs and Tatars are like
two reservoirs of water over Iran ; if a
breach is opened, they will naturally come
down upon Iran, and make the breach
wider, to irrigate it if guided, and to inundate
it if not controlled. Success fills them with
 PREFACE. LV11

self-confidence ; the prospect of rich booty

attracts new invaders, and unites them. And
what can resist them if they are united ?— A
tradition is related of Mohammed, that he
expressed sanguine hopes of the rise of the
Arabic power, on the occasion of a victory
of a predatory corps of the Temimites over
the Persians ; so that it is very likely, that
his religious enthusiasm was heightened
by the prospect of victory and political
ascendancy; the more so as he exhorts the
Koraishites, in one of the last Surahs of
the Koran, to be united, — for union would
give to them wealth and power.
The conquests of Iran by these nations
appear to have been alternate. Thus, under
'Omar, the Arabs poured over Iran, and
pushed their conquests to other countries,
until the surplus population* of Arabia was
exhausted. When the storm had subsided,
they passed as Daulat XJ^j of the country
[that is to say, as the soldier caste and
nobility, as the Normans were in England],
through the periods of life described by Ibn

* Ibn Khaldun, who defends this idea, gives an estimate of

the number of conquering Arabic populations of that time. But
it does not seem very correct.
LV111 PREFACE.

Khaldun*. In the mean time, the Tatar

steppes were over populous and full of
vigour, whilst the Semitic rulers were
drowned in luxury. Thus it was their turn to
inundate Iran, after the Arabs had possessed
it four centuries f.
We find on the banks of the Tigris a
pure Semitic population ; and as Babylon
was the seat of Semitic learning and civili-
zation, so the name of Bokhara is derived
from a Mongolish word meaning, according
to Abulghazi-Khan, "wisdom," because it
was the centre of Tatar civilization:]:; and
the main population on the banks of the
Oxus seem at all times to have been Tatars.
From whence came the Persians, and other
Hindo-Germanic nations, who are of a race
distinct from the Tatars and Semites, and to
whom no delta is left in western Asia ? It
seems they are the product of the mixture
of those two opposite nations, as their lan-
guage combines the character of the tongues
of both, having compositions and internal
organization ; so that it must be posterior

* Page xv., supra.

f The Seljuks came in 432 A.H.
% Page 46 of the Tatar edition.
 PREFACE. L1X

to the Tatar and Semitic languages, for a

more perfect development is naturally pos-
terior to a more simple structure. Although
I could not defend this theory of the origin
of the Hindo-Germanic nations, so much is
certain, that they are the nations of civiliza-
tion, and that civilization will no more rise
without the intercourse of opposite nations,
than one sex alone can give birth to a child.
These alternate conquests of the Arabs and
Tatars must be considered as having given
birth to civilization. They illustrate, there-
fore, the succession and mutual relation of
nations in history better than anything else.
Our author*, Hamza of Ispahan, and
the Zend-Avesta mention four other nations,
—the Semites, Tatars, and Iranians included
— which answer to the seven Kishwars or
climates f , and which surround the passive
inhabitants of Iran, like six stamina the
pistillum, invading and reviving it in their
turn.
South of Iran live the Hindus. A suc-
cessful inroad of some Hindu conqueror is
* In his Tauluh ; and after him Haji Khalfa, in his Bibliog.
Diction.
f Compare page 1 98, infra.
LX PREFACE.

recorded in the eighteenth chapter of this

work ; and they were, even at the time of
Anushirwan, so strong, that he expresses
his fears of them in his last speech. As the
Germans, fortheirhighintellectual character,
their tendency to mysticism, their political
passiveness and insignificance, bear a resem-
blance to the character of the slavish culti-
vators of Iran, so India may be compared in
its geographical position and character with
Italy. The Italians, like the Hindus, are
buried under the ruins of their former gran-
deur, and vegetate, in unmanly occupation,
in the plundered temples of their Benares,
on the Tiber. The French bear a resem-
blance to the Arabs ; both have shown
themselves equally capable of fighting for
principles, and of being united by enthu-
siasm, and not by the fear of a master. The
Russians are the Tatars of Europe, and the
main body of the subjects of the Autocrat
are of Tatar origin. South-east of Iran
lie Thibet and China, which have been
compared with the Turks by Hager in a
learned article in the Fundgrubens des
Orients. Egypt is situated in the West,
from whence the Persians have experienced
 PREFACE. LX1

several invasions. Tyrus and the empire of

Croesus, whose attack upon the Persian
empire failed, were north-west of Iran, and
may be called the Great Britain* of the
ancient world. Subsequently, the Byzan-
tine empire succeeded, and was at constant
war with the rulers on the Tigris — both the
Khosraws and Khalifs. The struggles of
these six nations, but particularly of those
of the Arabs and Tatars, their mutual
relation, and their power over Iran, offer a
wide field for studying the succession of
nations in the stage of history ; whereas the
contests of India, China, Egypt, and Asia
Minor, against Iran, and among themselves,
are less important ; for here doulat fights
against doulat. Their conflicts do not give
us a view of the connexion of the first prin-
ciples from which states grow up, but only
of the opposition of the interest of states
and monarchs.
Thus far as to the relative position of
nations to each other, and their succession
on the stage of history. We may nowpro-
* This comparison of the nations of Asia with those of Europe
could be carried much futher into detail ; for similar circumstances
have similar effects, and similar processes of life produce, in physi-
ology, similarly organized formations.
LX11 PREFACE.

ceed to show, that the history of the power

of the Arabs furnishes us with better mate -
rials for studying the individual life of nations
than that of any European country. Their
history is complete, and we have trustworthy
accounts from the moment when they
entered upon the stage of action, to the time
when they went back into their deserts
again.
Their own poetry and traditions, as well
as foreign authors, show us the Arabs before
Mohammed exactly in the same condition as
they are now. They have no state, but sim-
ply families ; and they make, therefore, no
progress, nor are they subject to decay as a
nation. Their endeavour is, as we have said,
not to possess, but to be : existence ends
with the life of the individual, whilst his
possession remains. The Bedouin history is
the genealogy only of those to whom they
owe their existence ; they cannot point to
changes in state, nor to progress in arts and
literature, nor to any beneficial influence in
society which their fathers have made, for
all these things are connected with posses-
sion ; and revolutions in states are effected
because rights and property are transferred
 PREFACE. Lxiii

from one class to another by the change of

ideas. The ideas of nomades can make no
progress, for the natural feelings of man are
at all times the same ; and knowledge is a
possession which changes with new discove-
ries, and is useless, if not applied to life and
and property. When the Persians and
Byzantines were enervated by luxury, and
drowned in the forms of civilization, the
spirit of which was gone, the constant
inroads of the Arabs were more successful,
and a too dense population had made them
more reflective ; for necessity is the mother
of invention. Prophets arose in all parts of
Arabia ; and the Mohammedan doctrine of
the unity of God was crowned with success
six centuries after the introduction of the
Christian religion, and about three after
Arius had first declared himself against the
trinity.
The Koraishite tribe stood first, as the
head of the Arabs, and they thought it
safer for their freedom to have the Oma'i-
yides as their Khalifs than the Alites, who
raised their claims by divine grace. The
Oma'iyides, who were merely Emirs, went
through the five phases of life, but in
XL1V PREFACE.

them the first two were particularly de-

veloped. Hejjaj Ben Yusof drowned the
spirit of freedom in el-Kufah and el-Basrah
in their own blood. The baptism of mo-
narchy— the mild and fatherly form of go-
vernment— cost the lives of twenty-one thou-
sand men. Their death did not give so
much alarm; for they did not fall in the
open field, but under the hand of the exe-
cutioner, inprison, — and the servile part of
the population was well fed. The victims
who fell in the open field were innumerable.
Hejjaj was the precursor of the 'Abbasides,
although he was their enemy. This new
dynasty went through the five phases. They
were 'Alites and Kings (no longer Emirs),
supported, in spite of the Kora'ishites and
their allies, by the Nizar tribes, who lived
near the Tigris, and who were more used
to a master by divine right, and by the
Khorasanians ; for the first want which they
felt after they had recovered from the shock
of the Arabic conquest, was that of having
a monarch, to counteract the rapacity of the
governors, and to promote irrigation. The
'Abbasides represent particularly the third
and fourth phases. At the beginning of the
 PREFACE. LXV

fourth century, the 'Abbaside power was at

an end; physical force and money* now
alone gave right to power, and every gover-
nor made himself independent in his pro-
vince. Each of these moluk et-Tawa'if went
through the above periods of life ; but they
represented particularly the last phase — that
of reform and dissolution. Till now the
power of the kings was owing to the Arabic
conquests, although some were Tatars ;
whereas the sovereignty of the Seljukians,
Jingiz-Khanians, and Ta'imurians, rested on
the success of the Tatar arms. The Arabs,
by degrees, turned back into the deserts,
or were humbled to the state of cultivators.
Their original character vanished, and they
became like the Nabatheansf,who had been
deposited there by the Bedouins thousands
of years ago, and so they remain at present.
Thus the periods of life are distinctly
marked in Arabic history, and nothing can
exceed the fidelity of their historians. They
believe till they are persuaded of the contrary,
* Thus the Ghaznewides and Khowarezmshahians owed their
power entirely to the treasures of India.
•j- The Nabatheans were looked on with such contempt by
the Bedouins, that their name had become a nickname, at the
time of the author of the " Nabathean Agriculture."
LXV1 PREFACE.

and adhere closely even to the terms of the

source whence they derive their information,
naming the whole series of persons through
whom they have received traditions. Orien-
talists should study the lives and characters of
the traditionists before they enter into his-
tory, for this alone can enable them to form an
estimate of the critical value of the accounts.
El-Mas'udi gives us only one instance of
such a way of treating history, in the first
volume*; but many in the last. An Arabic
historian will relate a fact without changing
it, although it may be against his views.
An instance is found in our author, where
he relates the ridiculous ideas of el-Jahit
respecting the unicornf . How much more
valuable such simplicity is, in history, than
modern criticism, may be shown in an ex-
ample. Goethe, the German poet, speaks,
in his Westwstlichen Diwan, on the march
of the Israelites from Egypt to Syria, and
means to prove that they would not have
been longer in the desert than two years ;
the reasons which he alleges are too ridi-
culous tobe recounted here. Ibn Khaldun,
adhering to the text of Scripture, thinks
* Page 57, infra. f Page 392, infra.
 PREFACE. LXV11

that the Israelites, debased by the slavery

which they had endured in Egypt, were
unable to oppose the Philistines, until the
old generation had died off, and a new one
grown up in the hardy life of the desert.
It has been our endeavour to show, that
the fruits of the study of history ought to
be, to obtain a view of the individual life of
nations; and to ascertain, by connecting
these particular histories, the laws of the
succession of nations in the rule of the
world. European history, it has been as-
serted, does not lead to these results ; for
modern nations have not yet arrived at the
end of their career; and the Greeks and Ro-
mans, (asit has been shown at some length,
for fear of the prevailing Helenomania
among the learned of Europe,) borrowed
their institutions and the material of their
science and arts from the East : hence the
study of the East alone can lead us to the
above-mentioned results. We attempted
to illustrate the succession of nations by a
few hints bearing on this subject as far as
Iran is concerned ; for this is the stage of
the history related by our author; and,
finally, we meant to intimate, that the his-
 LXvifi PREFACE.

tory of the power of the Arabs is the only

complete biography of a nation which can
serve as the standard in judging others.
Now this would be the place to show how
far our author contributes towards these two
objects. It is, however, much better for the
reader to peruse The Meadows of Gold, and
judge for himself. It may suffice to say,
that he treats, besides history, on almost
all the branches of Arabic science, poetry,
and common life. It seemed, therefore,
well, occasionally, to supply, from other
authors, what is wanting, to give to the
reader a perfect insight into the life of the
Arabs at the time of their power ; to show
whence el-Mas'udi derived his historical
information; to assist the reader in the
criticism of facts ; and to throw some light
on the time and manner in which the Arabs
cultivated various sciences and arts. The
first will be done in additional notes, or
little memoirs, which were first intended to
be added at the end of each volume ; but
for want of time they must be postponed to
the end of the last volume of each of the
two sections of which the whole work con-
sists, and the latter will be done in a sepa-
 PREFACE. LX1X

rate volume, which will form the last part

of this work, and contain the literary his-
tory of the Arabs, down to the time of el-
Mas'udi, together with our author's own
life* and literary connections. I have
already collected for this purpose notices
on the lives and works of several thousand
authors, partly from their own writings, and
partly from extracts and notices found in later
authors, where the original works are lost.
I have seen, and partly perused, nearly
twenty copies of the whole or part of The
Meadows of Gold, preserved in public or
private collections, at Paris, Leyden, Oxford,
* The reader may find an excellent Memoire on the life and
writings of el-Mas'udi, written by M. Quatremere de Quincy, in
the Journal Asiatique, (Ille serie, tome vii., No. 37, Janvier,
1839, p. 5 to 31,) with which he may compare D'Herbelot, article
Massoudi; Abulfeda, Ann. Mosl. vol. ii., adnot. 208, p. 118, adn.
hist.; Deguignes, not. et extr., vol. i.; Silvestre de Sacy, ibid., tome
viii., p. 132; idem, Chrestom. Arabe; Langles, Voyage en Egypte
et Nubie de Norden, tome iii., p. 292, note 1; Hamaker, Spec.
Catalogs pp. 46, 48 ; d'Ohson, Des Peuples du Caucase, pref.
iii., viii.; Fraehn, Ibn Fozlan; Charmoy, Sur les Slaves, in
the Memoirs of the Academy of St. Petersburgh, t. vii., Nov.
1832 and 5 July 1833; Nicolls, catal. Bibl Bodleyana-, Gilde-
meister, de Indis, Bonn, 1836. Mr. Gildemeister has translated
into Latin, and published the whole of the seventh chapter of
el-Mas'udi. I have to regret that I could not take advantage of
his excellent work, having been in the country when my translation
of that chapter went through the press. The difference of the
MSS. will account for the difference of the translation of some
passages.
LXX PREFACE.

Cambridge, and London. Including the ex-

tracts found in other authors, the number of
copies of which I possess some knowledge
may be calculated to be above fifty. They
all agree in certain faults ; the variants are
material and innumerable. It seems that the
autograph was written in a bad hand : per-
haps itwas the bad state of the MSS. of the
first edition of The Meadows of Gold which
induced the author to publish a second
edition, of which he speaks in the Tanbih ;
but as this edition is nowhere to be found,
criticism on the work is rendered difficult, if
not impossible. The reader will do better to
consider what has been done in this trans-
lation, than what remains to be done.
The translation of this volume has been
made from a manuscript of Ley den (No.
537, a), which ends with the thirty-second
chapter. It is very ancient, made by a
man of great learning, and therefore very
correct. Sometimes, however, when he
found a corrupt passage, he gave a wrong
sense to it in his corrections. But it is, at
all events, the best copy in existence. On
the margin one sometimes finds valuable
^ariants, written by a later hand. I am
 PREFACE. LXX1

indebted for the perusal of this copy to the

kindness of Professor Weijers, D.D., and
the liberal institutions of the library of the
University of Leyden : hence it has resulted
that nowhere in Europe has so much been
done for Oriental literature as in Holland ;
and yet not one MS. of the rich collection
of that university has been lost or damaged.
How many useful works would be saved
from the worms, and how much credit
would it throw on the literary character of
the University of Oxford, if they would
follow this example! Before I sent the
translation to press, I compared it with
several other copies : as,
A manuscript of my esteemed friend, M.
de Gayangos, who, although he is enriching
Oriental historiography with his own labours,
throws open his valuable collection of Orien-
tal manuscripts to his friends with as much
liberality as if he had collected them solely
for their use. This copy is modern and
carelessly written, but complete.
A manuscript of the Asiatic Society of
Paris, which contains only the first chapters,
and those not complete.
The manuscript of Leyden marked No.
LXX11 PREFACE.

282, A, which contains the whole of the first

part, that is to say, the first sixty-nine chap-
ters. It is better than most other copies of
el-Mas'udi, however numerous its faults are.
A manuscript of Cambridge, which had
been imperfect ; but Mr. Burckhardt, its for-
mer owner, took care to have it completed.
Besides, I had several extracts from the MSS.
of the Royal Library at Paris, and others.
Lord Munster had the kindness to go
over the whole translation, to correct faults
against the English idiom. But as it is im-
possible to reconcile the Arabic style with
the genius of the English language, without
working over sentence after sentence afresh,
the mistakes which may still be found in
this translation in English diction, must not
be ascribed to his Lordship, — whereas the
translator has to avow, that he had, in many
difficult expressions of the original, recourse
to his Lordship, and derived a great deal of
information from him for the notes, and a
lucid understanding of the text. In many
instances, aliteral translation has been prefer-
red to an idiomatical English expression, for
reasons which the reader will easily discover.
Brighton, April, 1841.
EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, AND
MINES OF GEMS.

IN the name of God, the Merciful, the Clement !

Praise be to God, to him is due all praise and
glory! Blessed be Mohammed, the highest
of the Prophets, and his pure family.
FIRST CHAPTER.

The Object of this Work.

El-Mas'udi says: We have described, in the in-

troduction to our work, called Aklibdr ez-zemdn1
(on the history of time), the figure of the earth, its
towns, wonders, and seas, its heights and depths,
mountains and rivers, the produce of the mines;
the various waters, marshes, and the islands of the
sea and of lakes. We have also given descrip-
tions and historical sketches of large edifices and
lofty temples, an account of the beginning and last
origin of things, and notices of inhabited districts,
and of such tracts as had been land and became
sea, or which had been sea and became land ;
together with the causes of those changes, both
proceeding from sidereal and natural influences.
We proceeded then, in that work, to divide the
2 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

climates according to the stars which preside over

them, and the lines on the globe, and the extent
of the districts. We also entered into details on
the discussions on history, and on the different
opinions of its beginning, and on the priority of
the Hindus and other pagans. We have men-
tioned the accounts of sacred and other books, and
the traditions of the Rabbis2. After this intro-
ductionwe
5; have related in that work the history
of ancient kings, former nations, and distinguished
men, and of tribes of past times, according to their
different origin, classes, and religion. We have
given an account of all their wise institutions,
the sayings of philosophers, and of the history of
their kings and emperors (Csesars3) who have passed
on the wings of time. In another chapter we have
followed up the history of the prophets, holy men
and devotees, until God completed his bounty by
sending MOHAMMED his prophet. We continued
our history in relating his birth, youth, and pro-
phetic mission, his flight, his military expeditions,
both those commanded by himself, and those com-
manded byhis leaders4, down to his death.
Thus we have followed up the history of the
Khalifs and of their empire, which grew up attended
with constant disputes and wars with the Talebites

*M plural of
 AND MINES OF GEMS. O

who descended from Fdtimah5, down to the time

when we write this book, which is during the reign
of el-Mottaki Lilian, in the year 332, A. H.
After the Akhbar ez-zeman, we wrote our book
the Kitdb el-ausat', which is also a historical work,
chronologically arranged from the creation down to
the time when we concluded our great work, and
the Kitab el-ausat which follows it. Subse-
quently we thought it useful to reduce into a
smaller compass what is said in detail in the larger
work, and to shorten what we have related in
the Kitab el-ausat, so that we may give the essence
of the contents of those two works in a less
voluminous book, in which we shall mention,
besides, different sciences which are not noticed
in those two works. We have to excuse ourselves,
if it should be found too short, and to apologize,
as our mind got disturbed and our strength reduced
by the privations of travelling, and by crossing
seas and deserts. The object of these journeys
has been to satisfy our thirst for knowledge, and to
learn the peculiarities of the various nations and
parts of the world, by witnessing them, and the
state of foreign countries, by seeing them ; in this
way we travelled to INDIA 7, Ez-ZiNj8, ES-

UiH ^AAxJlkJl. LUM^I VUT The middling work.

7 A. & B. Jsi^Ji; C. Js^JI. 8 go^JU

9 A. c^u^ll; B. cJuaM; C. jJuflJl; C. adds fj
and China." B 2
4 EL-MAS*Ul>i'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

EZ-ZANIJ*. We have also traversed the East

and the West. Sometimes we were in the ex-
tremity of KHORASAN, other times in the centre of
ARMENIA11 and ADHERBUANIS!, ER-RiN13 and EL-
BAILKAXU, then again in EL-'!RAK and in ESH-SHAM
(Syria). We went from one quarter of the earth to
the other as the sun makes his revolutions. As
some poet says: — " We rambled through the dif-
ferent parts of the country,, sometimes we were in
the extreme east and other times in the west, like
the sun, the ardour of the mind which remains
unimpaired, is unsatisfied until it reaches the region
(the other world,) which cannot be approached by
travelling."
Then we had intercourse with kings of different

10 A. & c. ^Jj; B.
13 A. & B. ^yi; C.
14 A. & B.
^

* Arabic Geographers seem not to have been very well

acquainted with this name from the various ways of spelling it.
Jaubert's translation of Edrisi (vol. I. page 59, et seq.) alone
presents us with four varieties; er-Rdnij, ez-Zdlij, ez-Zdnij, and

er-Rabij. The MSS. of Mas'udi add to this list er-Rdbih, ^\A\

and ez-Zdbih. The reading adopted by most authors is er-Ranij

g\j\\ I preferred " ez-Zanij" on the authority of a most ancient

and carefully written MS. of the British Museum, (N. 7496,
add. MSS.) which seems to be an extract from Beladori's Kitdb
el-bolddn and the autograph of the abbreviator.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 5

usages and politics, and by comparing them we

have come to the result, that illustrious actions
have faded in this world, and its luminaries are
extinguished. There is a great deal of wealth but
little intellect. You will find the self-sufficient
and ignorant, illiterate and defective, contented
with opinions, and blind to what is near them.
Subsequently, this sort of knowledge did not appear
to us a worthy task,, nor did we consider it worth our
while to devote ourselves to these pursuits, so we
wrote rather our works on the different opinions
and various beliefs, as the book on the " Exposition
of the Principles of the Religion15/' and the " Tracts
on the Principles of the Religion16," the work on
" The Secret of Life 17," and another on the " Argu-
ments of the Principles of Dogmatics (philoso-
phically) arranged/'
The last-mentioned book contains the principles
of jurisdiction and the rules of passing decisions :
as defence against argumentation, and deciding on
one's own authority; rejecting opinion and grace;
the knowledge of what is abrogated (in law), and
what is put instead of it, and of how far and in
what points there is only one opinion ; the distinc-
tion between particular and general, between positive

15

1C

7
 6 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and negative commands, and between disapproved

and permitted, then the traditions which are generally
acknowledged as true, and those originally reported
only by one man, the example of the prophet, and
the juristical decisions founded thereon. We
added our own opinions on the subject, both those
which are controversial, and those which are in
accordance with others 18.
" Reflections on the Imamship, and statement of
the opinions of those who maintain the rights of
the Imam to be hereditary, and of those who
make him elective, together with the passages (of
the Koran, &c.,) which both parties bring forward
in proof of their opinions19," and "The Book

18 As every word of this sentence is a technical expression, I

add the original. \^,\ Lo« ft\\ 1^1 w *M

*•** ^or an explanation of these terms I

refer the reader to the additional notes at the end of this volume.
 AND MINES OF GEMS.

of Sincerity (the impartial book) on the Imam-

ship20."
We have, besides, inserted occasional remarks on
these subjects in our works on various sciences,
empirical and mystical, evident and occult, passed
or still existing.
We have called attention to those subjects
which the vigilant observe, and upon which the
intelligent reflect, and to what they mention of the
splendour which enlightens the world and is diffused
over its barrenness, and to the results of researches
in the ruins, which ever have been famous and
glorious in their origin, and which may lead to
further explanations. We entered into the art
of government, as the government of cities, and
its natural laws, and the division of the parts of
these laws.
We entered into speculations on the first origin
and the composition of the world and the heavenly
bodies, and of what is tangible and not tangible,
and what is dense, and what is the reverse.
We have been prevailed upon to write these
books on history, and the explanation of the events
of the world, by the unanimous example of the wise
men and philosophers who have done their best,
that there may be kept up in the world the recollec-
8 EL-MAS'lJOl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

tion of what there is praiseworthy and digested

in science. We found that authors have observed
two ways in writing hooks, the one to explain the
matters in full length, the other to shorten them ;
and, again, the one elucidates whilst the other
abridges. But we found that the accounts are in-
creasing innumber with the progress of time. The
learned stands frequently higher than the intelligent
and clever. But each of them has a part assigned
to his faculties. Every climate has some wonders
which the inhabitants do not understand, and no
man who has zeal for science can rest satisfied and
content, with what natives may report of their coun-
tries but
; he can trust to a man who has spent his
life in travelling, and passed his days in researches,
and who has minutely explored the mines (of
knowledge), and carefully collected all that can
interest.
Men have written books on history at all times,
some are of more, some of less, value. Every one
has exerted himself according to his powers, and
has deposited therein the stores of his wit and
talent, as
1 Wahb Ben Monabbih <Ux* ^>\ c*^.
2 Abu Mikhnaf * Lut Ben Yahya el-'Ameri #\
\ f*&*

* The most copies of Mas'udi bear Mohnifand. this is the

reading adopted by Kosegarten in his edition of Tabari. The
 AND MINES OF GEMS.

3 Mohammed Ben Ishak

4 El-Wakedi
5 Ibn el-Kelbi
6 Abu 'Obaidah Ma'mer Ben el-Mothanni

7 Ibn 'Ayyash* jiU* ^1.

8 El-Haithem Ibn 'Adi et-Tayf

9 Esh-Sharki Ibn el-Ketami

10 Hemmad er-Rawiyah *±
11 El-Asma'i {juo^
12 Sahl Ben Harun
13 Ibn el-Mokaffa'
14 El-Yezidi <s
15 El-'Otbi el-Omawiy
16 Abu Zeid Sa'id Ben Aus el-Ansari

reading which I have adopted rests on the authority of the Kamus,

(edit. Calcutt. p. 1160) and the Fihrist (874. anc. fond. MS.
Arab. Royal Library at Paris.)

* One copy bears J^J^JJ (j*lxxJJ *jj The addition of the

patronymic " el-Hamadani," in this wrong reading makes it pro-
bable that it is the same person mentioned in Tiedemann's ibn
Khallikan under N. 364.

t Haji Khalfa (N. 2140) makes «el-Hayi" of «el-Tay " but this
is wrong
 10 EL-MAS'UDIJS MEADOWS OF GOLD,

17 En-Nadhr Ben Shomail

18 'Obaid-ullah Ben 'Ayeshah X^Lc ^^
1 9 Abu' Obaid el-Kasim Ben Sallam * I

20 'All Ben Mohammed el-Medaini

^cAxU.
21 Demad Ben Rafi^ Ben Selmah
J*-^.
22 Mohammed Ben Sallam el-Jomhi

^^ f iU.
23 Abu 'Othman 'Amr Ben Bahr el-Jahith
&*»^ >sr ^ JJ+& ^Zs. ^\.

24 AbuZeid'Omar Ben Shabbehen-Nomairi Joj >J

25 El-Azraki el-Ansari
26 Abu Saib el-Makhzumi
27 'All Ben Mohammed Ben Sole'j'man en-Naufeli

28 Ez-Zobair Ben Bekkar J6* ^ j*>^-

29 El-Injili
30 Er-Riyashi
31 Ibn 'Abid <k>U or

* Other readings are X

- ^j *u* * ^jU The reading which I have

adopted in the text rests on the authority of Ibn Khallikan.
f The readings differ ££\ or Jt or £^\ or JI.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 11

32 'Arnrnar Ibn Wathimah * X

33 Abu Hassan ez-Ziyadi (

34 'Isa Ibn Lahi'ah el-Misri (&ux$J) ***jJ

35 'Abd-ur-Rahman Ben 'Abd-ullah Ben Abdul

Hokm el-Misri

36 Abu Keisan el-Hadi

37 Mohammed Ben Musa el-Khowarezmi

38 Abu Ja'fer Mohammed Ben Abi-s-Sari

39 Mohammed Ben el-Haithem Ben Shebamah

(Shebabah) el-Khorasani ^^^ fj^tt ^> J^sx«
^Ujil (S^UJK) SUUA the author of the Book
ed-daulat (%j*M the dynasty.)
40 Ishak Ibn Ibrahim el-Mausili, the author of the
Song-book, and of other works *J^j1 .jj vJu

* There is a great difference in the readings of this name.

The MS. in M. Schultz's collection in the Royal Library at
Paris gives the reading which I have adopted in the text. The

MS. of Leyden bears cf^oU XAJJ ^\ ^Xc and another copy

has c5?jAaU ^jl*c • I believe it is the same man whom Haji
Khalfa (N. 2120) calls 'Omdrah Ben Wathimah.
12 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

41 El-Khalil Ibn el-Haithem el-Harthemi JJlil

^j*$r$\ fAAgH ^jJ the author of the book on
Stratagems and Manoeuvres in War ^A\ ^UT
Vj^i J «N»J&|j aad °f other works.
42 Mohammed Ben Yezid el-Mobarred el-Azdi

43 Mohammed Ben Soleiman el-Minkari el-

Jauheri

44 Mohammed Ben Zakariya el-Ghallabi^ el-Basri

(el-Misri) (^^0 cfj^ui^ 3-^x)^ ^0 (^j^*^^,
the author oif the j^^i i^UT and other works.
45 Ibn Abi-d-Dunya (er-Raini) the preceptor of
el-Moktefi Billah (^0 USjJl ^»^ ^j^^
46 Ahmed Ben Omar (Mohammed) el-Khoza'i,
known under the name of el-Khakani of
Antiochia o

47 'Abdullah Ben Mohammed Ben Mahfiith el

Beladi el-Ansari l^yL^v^ ^j *x«^ ^.^ ^J^ iXxc
^Uaj^\ (tf>^0 tf*xX>Ji the companion of
Ibn Yezid 'Imarah Ben Zaid of Medina (Ibn

* All the copies of Mas'udi bear £&xJJ instead of

I prefer the latter on the authority of the Fihrist. His work
is called in some copies jl^^SH v^ an(^ ^n ^e Fihrist
2>f^.y\. Haji Khalfa contains none of these titles.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 13

Othman Ben Zaid of Medina) *,Ux Ju

48 Mohammed Ben el-Barki Ben Khalid el-Waki

el-Katib* «-oKN £^\ *\!U. (^ ^xiJ Cj_^ <x+2X«
author of the ^U^M c_»UT " Exposition."
49 Ahmed Ben Mohammed Ben Khalid el-Barki,
the son of the preceding

50 Abii Sa'id es-Sokkari f ^.Cj^ *x/jt-j ^>\

51 Ahmed Ben Abi Tdher^lfc ^? ^.j J^! the

* This name is found only in M. de Gayangoz's copy. It is

evidently very incorrect. Comparing it with the next following
name, which is also only met in Gayangoz's MS., I consider "el-
Waki " as a corruption of "el-Barki ", which is to be left out the first
time. The name runs therefore : Mohammed Ben Khalid el-Barki
el-Kdtib. Haji Khalfa (N. 2405 edit. Fliigel) ascribes a work
called "Exposition of the History of Bagdad" to Ahmed Ben
Mohammed Ben Khalid el-Barki el Kdtib. This name agrees
exactly with the name of the next following author. As in M.
de Gayangoz's copy frequently a sentence is written twice, I
almost think the father must abdicate as an author in favour of his
son.
f This author is mentioned only in a copy of the Royal
Library at Paris, (collection of M. Schultz) and in M. de
Gayangoz's MS. The later MS. adds, He is the author of the
work i-»^xl^ *^W^ "P°ems of the Arabs (Bedouins^)" in the
Fihrist and in Haji Khalfa (edit. Fliigel, N. 38.) This book bears

the title »UJJ C>UjSN " Popular Poems."

14 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

author of the " History of Bagdad" j+±\ v^

Jjjob and other works.
52 Ibn el-Wesha U^J ^\
53 'All Ben Mojahid «X4>Ls=s.<> (JJj ^ the author
of the ''History of the O may y ides "^,U=U VUT
(^.jju^oSM and other works.
54 Mohammed Ben Saleh Ben el-Betah (en-
Nettah*.) (CU*N) ^U^l ^ ^\# ^ *+=s^
the author of the " History of the Abbaside
Dynasty'^ X/^UxJ^ XJ3*xJ^ t_»lxT and other works.
55 Yusuf Ben Ibrahim ^&>jA (j_^ <-**-^. the
author of the " History of Ibrahim Ben el-
Mahdi " and other works.
56 Mohammed Ben el-Hareth et-Taghlebi (eth-
Tha'lebi) (c^xn) gteX\ cL^^ ^^ <x*^«
the author of the " Manners of the Kings" v_A^
(XUQ t_-^U^ o^U.^ which he composed for el-
Fath Ben Khakan ^UU ^ g&\ and of
other works.
57 'Obaid-ullah Ben 'Abdulla Ben Khordadbeh

He is the best writer ; his style is an example

which has been imitated by other authors. They

* The reading « el-Betah "is confirmed by the authority of the

Fihrist (874 MS. Arabe ancien fonds of the Royal Library at
Paris;) and «en-Nettah" by Haji Khalfa (edit. Fliigel, N. 2151.)
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 15

have followed his traces and copied from his works.

Whoever wishes to convince himself of the truth
of our assertion, may read his large work on history,
gjUM & j^&\ u.»UT. He compiled the materials
for this work with great care ; arranged them in a
new order, and comprised in it a vast deal of infor-
mation. Itcontains the history of the Persians,
and other nations, their kings, and the biographies
of those kings.
Another excellent book of his treats on the
roads and kingdoms, fyc., Uyx 3 jOlit ^ JCJUJL! j.
Whenever I was in want of information, I found it
there, and whenever I consulted it, I had reason to
praise it.
58 History (of Mohammed ) from his birth to his
death, and of the Khalifs and Kings after him,
down to the Khalifat of el-Mo'tadhed Billah,
with an account of all that happened or existed
in their days, and their traditions, by Mohammed
Ben 'AH el Hosaini el-'Alawi ed-Dinaweri t_»UT
^tfj* ^ SlJ>Jl J

59 History of Ahmed Ben Yahya el-Belddori v^"

cfji^xJ^ ^^ (Jjj js,*^^ &j^ an^ the work of
the same author which has the following title,
16 EL-MAS'lJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

" The countries and their subjection to the

Mohammedans, by treaty or force, after the
Hijrah of the prophet, and all the conquests of
Mohammed, and of the Khalifs after him, also

the traditions illustrative of this subject;" <-A^

The author describes in this

book,, all the countries east and west, south and
north. We do not know of any better work
on the conquest of the countries than this.
60 The history of Ddwud Ben el-Jerrdh, A^J <->^
gJJCM <5* ^4>\ (.jj. This is the great reposi-
tory of the history of the Persians, and of
other nations. The author is the grandfather
of the vizier 'All Ben 'Isa Ben Dawud Ben el-
Jerrah.
61-4 history containing the events, state, and times
before the Islam and after, by Abu 'Abdullah
Mohammed Ben el-Hasan Ben Siwdr, known
under the name of Ibn Okht 'Isa Ben Ferklidn-
shdh, ^k

^.^j. His history goes

down to the year 320.
62 History of Abu 'Isa Ben el-Monajjim (the
astrologer) principally based on the Pentateuch,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 17

It treats also on other prophets and kings.

63 History of the Omayyides, their virtues, the
qualities by which they distinguished themselves
from other great families, and the new line
of conduct which they adopted when in power ;
by Abu !'Abd-ur-Rahmdn Khaled Ben Heshdm
el-Omawiy ^AjljU

64 T%e history of Abu Bishr ed-Dauldbi ^

65 And the excellent book of Abu Bekr Mo-

hammed Ben Khalaf Ben Waki\ the Kadi, on
history, with notices on other subjects ;

66 Biography and History by Mohammed Ben

Khaled el-Hdshemi

67 History and Biography by Ishak Ben Sola'iman

el-Hdshemi; j

68 Biography of the Khalifs by Abu Bekr Mo-

hammed Ben Zakariyd er-Rdzi, liXi^^x** JxT
; the author of
 18 EL-MAS' i DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the " Kitab el-Mansuri"^^;uJJ VUT and other

medical works.
69 The works of 'Abdullah Ben Moslim Ben Ko-
taibah ed-Dinaweri XAAA? (.+-> fiwo /.jj aM! *XAC
tf^jJJ, which are numerous and extensive,
as his Encyclopedia (_ 5,1*^ t v^UT and other
works.

70 The history of Abu Ja'fer Mohammed Ben Jarir

et-Tabari ^jvUl^j^ ^ tX^yLx^ ^\ js»jlj-
No other book can be compared with this,
which forms a supplement to all other works.
He has collected different historical traditions
and documents, so that his book contains a
variety of information, which renders it very
useful. And how could it be otherwise? the
author having been the most learned Divine*
of his age, and the most religious person of
his time. He united the knowledge of the

* " Divine," <Ui'J means a person well versed in law and

divinity, i. e. 1. The Koran and its explanation. This compre-
hends the sacred ancient history of the creation and prophets,
the outline of which the reader finds in the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and
6th chapters of this work. 2. The traditions which are inti-
mately connected with the early history of the Mohammedans,
for history derives all its information from traditions. 3. Some
auxiliary sciences, such as logic, grammar, Arabic, archaeology*
&c. Hence it was required to be a good Divine, in order to be
a good historian.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 19

Divines of all the leading cities*, and was ac-

quainted with all traditions and documents.

* When the Mohammedans had conquered part of Persia, 'Omar

founded on the frontier between the conquering and subjected
countries (Arabia and Persia), two military cantonments, (el-
Basrah and el-Kufah) to ensure the conquests. These two cities

were called /.*-> v^^JJ sing* jj*a+$\ Hence j+j&+j means "to
form such a cantonment." Similar cantonments were founded by
the same Khalif, and for the same purpose, in Syria, Mesopotamia,
and Egypt. Although they were in their origin little more than
camps, they rose soon to importance, being the site of the govern-
ment of the conquered countries, and the rich booty collected
there from all quarters of the world, changed them into splendid
cities. In these cantonments the veterans who had fought with Mo-
hammed were stationed. When peace was restored, their minds
were turned to religious speculations, and their imagination was
filled with the recollections of the prophet ; the absence from the
original spot may have contributed to exalt and embellish these
recollections. They related the sayings and history of the prophet
to their children, who were anxious to gather as many of these
sacred traditions as they possibly could, and to compare the
accounts of the same fact, as related by different persons. So in
every one of those stations of the veterans, or " leading cities,"
to which Mekka and Medina may be reckoned, a corpus of tra-
ditions was formed which was first orally taught, but soon committed
to writing, studied and commented upon by the divines
These cantonments may be compared, in an ecclesiastical point
of view, witli the primitive Christian churches, (Jerusalem, Alex-
andria Antiochia, &c.), with this difference, that they were at the
same time the sites of learning, and that their chivalrous feelings
were so strong, that the blood of more than a hundred C 2 thousand
 20 KL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

71 Of the same description is the history of Abu

'Abdullah Ibrahim Ben Mohammed Ben 'Orfah
el-Wdsiti, the grammarian, known by his nick-
name, Niftawaih

His history is full of elegant extracts from the

best works, and of useful matter. He was
the best writer of his time.

72 Mohammed Ben Yahya es-Suli ^$& ^j tX+2x«

Jy«H followed his example in his book called
The papers on the history of the Abbasides and
their poetries uJu?&\ ^ UX^UrU ^J o^^J t->\tf
^,U-2»^ and in his work on the history of the
Viziers
He of theanecdotes
relates Beni 'Abbaswhich
^1^are ^A^t?
not to^JvS-
be
found in any other author, for he had the
opportunity of witnessing them personally ;
he was besides very learned and well-
informed, and a good writer.
73 Of the same kind is the work on the Viziers,

men who fell in el-Kufah under the executioner of Hejjaj Ben

Yusuf could not quench their thirst for independency.
This is the original acceptation of the word VAO^O which was
lost when the cities to which it had been applied, lost their import-
ance and character. Modern writers use sometimes the plural
,Uo*J in order to make a sentence more pompous, and in this case
it means "provinces" in a vague acceptation of the word.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 21

by Abul- Hasan 'All Ben el-Hasan, who is

known under the name of Ibn el-Mdshitah*,

This work goes down to

the end of the reign of er-Radhi Billah.
74 Equal merit has Abul-Faraj Koddmah Ben
Ja'fer el-Kdtib c-^j'KH yL*^ ^ 3UJA* ^^\ ^\.
He was a good and elegant writer, who chose
such words which expressed best the meaning,
as one may see from his historical work,
which has the title, flowers of the spring, ^-ktf
£t>j$\r*j but his best work is the book on the
tribute, ^*£»\ <-»ur. In these two works he
justifies fully the praise which is given to him.
75 Abul-Kdsim JcCfer Ben Mohammed Ben Ham-
dan el-Mausili el-Fakih

wrote his histo-

rical work called el-Bdhir j&kjA\ ^\jS (the admi-
rable) in opposition to the Kitab er-Raudhat
'tejjti c^UT (the garden) of el-Mobarred
76 Ibrahim Ben Mdhawaih el-Far esi ^>
x»y>Lo. He imitates a work of el-

* Haji Khalfa (No. 242 edit. Fliigel) writes the name of

this author Abul-Hosam 'AU Ben Mohammed el-Meshshdtah
XlsUUJI but this is wrong. Compare the Tenbih (337 MSS. of
St. Germain, fol. 195 vers.)
22 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Mobarred called "el-Kamil" _UKU VUT (the

perfect book.)
77 The work of Ibrahim Ben Musa el-Wdsiti on

the history of the Viziers, &»}* &•> ^^ v^~

\j-j£\ J^\ ^ is\s^\^\. He wrote this book
in opposition to Mohammed Ben Ddwud Ben
el-Jerrah's book on the same subject.
78 The work of 'AH Ben el-Fath* el-Katib known
under the name of el-Motawwak, on the history
of several Viziers of el-Moktader, ^^ «_AxT

79 El-Misri's work named Flowers of the eyes

and brightness of the heart, (jj>**M

80 TAe history of 'Abdur-Rahim Ben Mohammed

el-Warrak, generally called el-Jorjdni es-Sa'di-f,

81 History of el-Mausil and other places, by Abu

Zokra

* Haji Khalfa (No. 242) is wrong in writing the name of

this author 'Alt Ben Abil-Fatah.
t Haji Khalfa (No. 2193) calls this author 'Aid er-Rah-
mdn Ben 'Aid er-Rezzdh es-Sadi el-Jorjdnt. One of my
copies bears Ben el- Warrdk
I The name of this author in Haji Khalfa (No. 2320) is
Zakariya el-Mausili.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 23

82 The chronicle of Ahmed Ben AU Ya'kub el-

Misri* embracing the history of the Abbasides
and other families,

83 The history of the Khalifs, from the house of

Abbas, and others, by 'Abdullah Ben el-Hosdin
Ben Sa'd el-Kdtib, f ^U^i

84 Mohammed Ben Abil-Azhar's J ^

work on history, and other subjects.

* Haji Khalfa (No. 2151) writes this name Ahmed Ben

Yakub el-Misri.
f Haji Khalfa writes 'Abdullah Ben Hosa'in Ben Maad

I Haji Khalfa calls this author Abul-Azhar Mohammed

Ben Mozid) a grammarian, who died 325. This is wrong, as
we see from es-Soyutl (lives of grammarians and lexicographers y
an Arabic MS. of Dr. J. Lee). This author says, " Mohammed
Ben Mozid Ben Mahmud Ben Mansur Abu Bekr el-Khoza'i,
known under the name of"Ibn Abll-Azhar" the grammarian, is
called by some writers Mohammed Ben Ahmed Ben Mozid.... He is
the author of the work el-harj wal-marj, &c." With this account
agrees the author of the Fihrist (Vol. I., No. 874, MS. Arab.
anc. fonds., in the Royal Library at Paris, fol. 200 verso.), who
gives to the author of the el-harj wal-marj the name of Ibn
Abil-Azhar Abu Bekr Mohammed Ben Ahmed of Bushanj
24 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

This book has the title of rebellion and revo-

lutions) dLA<te»y\ j £j£\ v^"

85 Sendn Ibn Thdbet Ben Korrah el-Harrdni,
Jt/il 2jS (jjJ u^olj (^jt\ j,U^, * has written a
work, the contents of which are not in his
line and profession ; it is in the form of an
epistle to a friend of his, who holds office under
Government; and contains dissertations on
moral philosophy, and the division of the soul,
into the intellectual soul (AJ&UM), animal soul
(or function) (^UA*axM), and vegetative soul
(or function) (x^W^O* ^e a^so giyes the
leading ideas on the government of cities,
from Plato's Republic, which is in two books.
He speaks also on the duties of the Sovereign,
and of the Viziers. Then he proceeds to
history, which he believes to have from good
authority, for he does not relate as an eye-
witness, except the history of Mo'tadhed
Billah, in whose court he lived. He gives an
account of the days which he passed with hi in.

* Haji Khalfa (No. 2191) makes a gross anachronism, in

ascribing to Thabet Ben Korrah a history from the year 190 to
363, whereas the supposed author died 288 A.H. He means
probably the history of the grandson of Thabet Ben Korrah,
whose name was Thdbet Ben Sendn and who is much praised as
a historian, by Abul-Faraj (Hist. Dynast, p. 208., and also Ase-
mani Bibl. Orientalis, Vol. II., p. 317.) He died 363 A.H.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 25

Then he goes back from one Khalif to

another, but contrary to all history, and de-
viating from the accounts of all other his-
torians. And even if his history were better,
and if he had not gone beyond what he had
seen himself, he ought to be blamed for a
work which is not in his profession, and for
a labour which is out of his line. He ought
to have written on those branches of science
in which he is unique, as on the Science of
Euclid (j^jvxXiM,, the linea secantes v^UkJuc, on
the Almegest, and on Circles c>]^jsU; or he
ought to have entered into an explanation of the
systems of Socrates, Plato, or Aristotle, treat-
ing on the system of the heavens* X>£UJJ UA5M,
on meteorological phenomena xj^XxH jl^t, or
on natural temperaments. On causes, their
connexion and conclusions ^yU^J- On proposi-
tions cijUJoiU, and compound syllogisms £»U>^
djlxTj.*!!. On the distinction between natural
and supernatural oU$lsn. Also on the science
of the matter, dimensions, figures, and the
mensuration of forms (stereometry), and other
problems of philosophy. If he had written
on these subjects, no blame could be cast upon

* This is the Arabic title for Aristotle's work, De Ccelo,

and the following one for his Meteorologica.
26 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

him for his labour, for he would have produced

a work which is consistent with his professional
science. But the learned are defective in their
abilities, and the wise have some weak points.
Hence, 'Abdullah Ben el-Mokaffa' says:
"Whosoever writes a book exposes himself: if
it is good he will earn fame, and if it is bad he
will reap shame."
We mentioned only those chronicles, histories,
biographies, and documents, the authors of which
are known, and omitted the historical works of the
persons who have written on the traditions, con-
taining the names, lives, and classes, of men ; for
this volume is too limited to contain all that.
Besides, in our work entitled Kitdb Akkbdr ez-zemdn
and Kitdb el-ausat, we have named the persons
who have made themselves in any way remarkable,
with their biographies, and anecdotes of their lives,
and we have given an account of the persons of
science, and their classes; beginning from the time
of the companions of the prophet and the fol-
lowers* after them, we have followed up the great
men of every age, in chronological order, till the
year 332, according to the difference of their

* Those who lived at the time of Mohammed, and knew him,

are called " companions," c-A^t and those who knew the compa-
nions, but not the prophet himself, are called "followers,"
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 27

pursuits and opinions, whether they were divines of

the leading cities, or other persons who espoused
the cause of some opinion, sect, system, or contro-
versy.
We have given to the present work the title,
MEADOWS OF GOLD, AND MINES OF GEMS, <_A>^
jjiyll ^yiljco ^ 4-*jfr<xM &?*•> m order to excite a
desire and curiosity after its contents, and to make
the mind eager to become acquainted with history,
the prominent and leading facts of which are com-
prised in this book, whilst they are related in full
detail in our former works on the same subject, and
with the interesting accounts selected for these pages
from our other writings. We have dedicated this
book as a present to kings and men of learning,
having treated in it on every subject which may be
useful or curious to learn, and on any knowledge
which arose in the lapse of time.
We have pointed to the subjects of our former
works, repeating here everything that a clever and
well-informed man ought to know. There is no
branch of science, nor any object of interest, of
which we do not speak ; nor is there any important
fact which we do not distinctly mention in this
book. We have compressed it into the form of
a summary, interspersed with various hints, and
illustrated with occasional observations.
Whosoever changes in any way its meaning,
removes one of its foundations, corrupts the lustre
28 EL-MAs'ui)i's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

of its information, covers the splendour of one

paragraph-, or makes any change or alteration,
selection or extract; and whoever ascribes it to
another author, may he feel the wrath of God!
Quick may come the vengeance, and may the blows
of misfortune fall upon him with such violence that
he is unable to bear his fate in patience, and that he
loses his intellect over it. May God make him an
example to the reflecting, and may He take from him
what he had given to him. May He who is the
Creator of heaven and earth bereave him of the
strength and other graces which he had bestowed
upon him, to whatever sect or opinion he may
belong.
We have put this intimidation at the beginning
of this book, and at the end, that it may deter any
one who might have an inclination, and be bad
enough, to do such a thing. God will see him, and
watch his doings. The space (of life) is short, and
the distance (to the other world) is small, and to
God we shall all return*.
Here we subjoin a list of the chapters of this
book, showing the contents of every one of them

* This expression of reliance on God is borrowed from the

Koran, and is constantly in the mouth of the Moslims if they see
themselves wronged.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 29

SECOND CHAPTER.

A List of the Chapters contained in this Book.

WE have explained in the preceding chapter the

object of this work ; in this chapter we will give a
list of the contents of the chapters, in the same
systematical order which we have observed in the
body of the book, to the end that the reader can
easier refer to them.
3. The first origin. — The process of the creation,
and the first generations from Adam to Ibrahim.
4. The history of Ibrahim, and the prophets
after him. — The kings of the children of Israel.
5. The reign of Rakhobo'am Ben Solaiman Ben
Dawud and the Israelite kings after him. Concise
account of the prophets.
6. Those who lived in the Fatrah, that is to
say, in the time between Christ and Mohammed.
7. An abridged account of the Hindus, their
opinions, the origin of their kings, and their lives,
also their usages in holy service.
8. On the globe, the seas, the beginning of
rivers, the mountains, and seven climates, and the
stars which preside over them, and other subjects.
9. A concise account of seas that have changed
their places, and of great rivers.
30 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

10. Account of the Abyssinian sea, its extent,

gulfs and straits.
11. The different opinions on ebb»and flow, and
all that has been said on this subject.
12. The Greek (Mediterranean) sea, its length
and breadth, and its beginning and end.
13. The Sea of Nitus* and Manitus, and the
strait of Constantinople.
14. The sea of Bab el-Abwab and Jorjan (the
Caspian Sea), and a view of the connexion of all the
seas.
15. The Chinese Empire, its kings ; their lives,
government, &c.
16. A comprehensive view of the accounts of
the seas, and their wonders, and of the nations who
live in the islands of the sea, or on the coast, the
succession of their kings, &c.
17. On the Caucasus, and accounts of el-Lan
(Alans), es-Serir, el-Khazar, and various races of
Turks f, and el-Bulghar, also of Derbend and the
nations and kings of those regions.

.*J is a corruption of Q^Lju Pontus, which is so

universally found in Arabic authors, that it seems to be sanctioned
by use.
t The word "Turk" throughout this work is not to be taken
in the meaning it generally has in the English language. For the
nation which we call "Turks" are named in the east "Othmanlis,"
whilst the name "Turk" has with good Arabic writers about the
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 31

18. The Assyrian kings.

1 9. The kings of Mausil and Ninive, who are
the same as those called el-Aturyiin*, ^.j$f.j3W
20 The kings of Babel of Nabatsean, and other
origin. They are called the "Chaldseans."
21. The first Persian kings; their lives, with
historical sketches.
22. The kings of the Satrapies, and the Ash-
ghanians. These were between the first and second
Persian dynasties.
23. The origin of the Persians, and what the
historians say on this subject.
24. The Sassanian kings, who are the second
series of Persian sovereigns, and collections from
their history.
25 The Greeks t> their history, and opinions
on their history.

same meaning as with us, " Tatars." I refer the reader for a more
scientific explanation of this word to the 17th chapter and the
additional notes to it.

* He means probably the kings of "Aturia," which is the

name of the country belonging to Niniveh, in Strabo, (edit. Basil.
1549, page 669.)
f The Greeks, before they were subjected by the Romans, are
called by oriental writers " Yunaniyun, , . . ^.xj U^/J \ or lonians .
The term is originally Syriac UJQ-i, for the Arabs derived their
knowledge of the ancient Greeks originally from the Syrians, and
these were, of course, best acquainted with those Greeks who
32 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

26. The history of Alexander in India.

27. The Greek kings, after Alexander.
28. The Roman Empire, and what historians
say on the origin of the Romans, the number of
their kings, and their chronology. Also sketches
from the lives of those kings.
29. The Christian sovereigns of the Byzantines,
we mean the emperors of Constantinople, with
some notices of what has happened during their
reigns.
30. The emperors after the beginning of the
Islam down to the emperor Romanus, who is now
reigning in 332 A. H.
31. Accounts of Egypt, and the Nile, wonders
of Egypt, and its sovereigns.
32. Alexandria, the edifices of this town, and
the kings who resided there.
33. The Sudan (Negroes), their origin and
different races.
34. The Slavonians, the countries where they

lived nearest to them, who were the "lonians." After the

conquest ^of the Romans, the eastern empire was called Rum

p^JJ I translate ^/JU^AH by "Greeks," and +^\ for

distinction's sake, by " Byzantines." Whosoever wishes for further
explanation on this subject may consult Hamaker's note to the
" Liber de expugnatione Memphidis et Alexandria ", Leyden 1 825,
p. 60.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 33

live, their kings, and the divisions of the Slavonian

nations.
35. The Franks and Galicians, XxJ&lJ their
kings, sketches from their history and biography,
and their wars with the inhabitants of Andalus,
(Moors in Spain.)
36. The Longobards, and their kings, together
with an account of the country which they inhabit*.
37. The 'Adites, and their kings; a view of
their history, and the opinions respecting the length
of the time which they flourished.
38. The Themudites and their kings; Salih
their prophet, and some sketches from their history.
39. Mekka, an historical account of this city,
and of the holy house, (the Ka'bah,) also of the
supremacy which the Jorhomites, and other tribes,
held there ; and what besides enters under this head.
40. On the description of the earth, and the
various countries. Love to the native soil.
41 . The dispute on the reason why " el- Yemen,"

* M. De Guignes, (Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la

Bibliotheque du Roi, Vol. i. p. 4.) and Hamaker, (Specimen
Catal.) read the word Aj^TyJJ Nogorod. We have no doubt but

that $jjS^&\ is a corruption of Jj.x&jJJ "el-Liingobard,''

although all MSS. agree in this corrupt reading. We are con-
firmed in our opinion by Nowai'ri, (MS. of Leyden, Nro. 273, page
50,) who spells it Jj^&^J " Alangobard."
D
34 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

" el-Irak," 6^*n "esh-Sham," ^l&l and

"el-Hejaz," jl^J have received these names.
42. Yemen, the origin of the inhabitants of this
country, and the various opinions thereon.
43. Yemen, and the kings called ct Tobba's,"
and others, together with their lives, and the years
which they reigned.
44. The kings of el-Hfrah, who came from
Yemen, and others, together with their history.
45. Kings of Syria who came from Yemen, and
others, together with their history.
46. Wandering people of the Arabs, and of
other nations ; the reasons why they inhabit the
deserts, and the Kurds the mountains; their origin
and history, and all that is connected with this
subject,
47. The different beliefs and opinions of the
Arabs, before the Islam; their dispersion. The
history of the elephant, and the invasion of the
Abyssinians, Abdul Motallib, &c.
48. Opinions of the Arabs on the soul, intellect,
and animal life.
49. What the Arabs say on ghosts and witch-
craft, and what other nations say on this and other
subjects of the same nature.
50. On ominous sounds, demons and the like,
according to the opinions of the Arabs and others,
both those who believe it and who deny it.
51. The ideas of the Arabs on augury, divina-
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 35

tion, physiognomies, and lucky or unlucky omens,

taken from the circumstance whether game turns from
the left to the right, or from the right to the left.
52. Soothsaying, how it is done, and various
accounts thereof; the distinction between a rational
and irrational soul, and opinions on visions, dreams,
and other subjects connected with them.
53. The history of Seil el-'Arem in the country
of Saba and Marib. The dispersion of the Azd,
and their settling in other countries.
54. The years and months of the Arabs com-
pared with those of other nations, how far they
agree, and how far they differ.
55. The months of the Kopts and Syrians, the
difference of their names. A view of chronology,
and what is connected with these matters.
56. The months of the Syrians; how they
agree with the months of the Greeks; how many
days in a year.
57. Months of the Persians.
58. The years and months of the Arabs, and
the names of their days and nights.
59. What the Arabs say on the nights of the
lunar months, and what is connected with this
subject.
60. The revolutions of the sun and moon*.

* Mas'iidl states at the end of this index that the number of

D 2
chapters is 132. All MS. copies fall short of this number,
36 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

6 1 . The influence on this world ascribed to the

sun and moon, and the various opinions on this
subject.
62. The quarters of the world, and what is
peculiar to every part of them in the east and west,
south and north, and other influence of the stars.
63. Sacred edifices and lofty temples ; on the
houses sacred to the worship of fire and idols.
The idolatry of the Hindus, on the stars and other
strange things in this world.
64. Sacred houses of the Greeks, and their
description.
65. Sacred houses of the ancient Romans.
66. The sacred houses of the Slavonians, toge-
ther with their description.
67. The high temple of the Sabeans of Harran,
and of other Sabean sects. The various things
preserved in these temples, and the like.
68. Account of the houses of fire worship,
their construction, and the account of the Magi
respecting those houses, and their construction.

omitting frequently the chapter heads. Taking the chapter heads

of all the copies at my disposal, I brought the number of chapters
to 131. De Guignes, who gives this list, although very incomplete,
in the first volume of the Notices et Extraits des MSS., after the
MSS. of Paris, mentions the above chapter head, which I the
readier adopt to make complete the number of 132, as Mas'udi
speaks also on the course of the sun and moon in the chapter
inscribed in my copies "The influence on this World, &c."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 37

69. Conspectus of the chronology of the world,

from the beginning down to the birth of Mo-
hammed.
70. The birth of Mohammed, his pedigree, and
what enters besides under this head.
71. The prophetic mission of Mohammed,, and
his history till his flight.
72. The flight of Mohammed, and the heads of
his history, till his death.
73. Account of his history, and circumstances
connected with it, from his birth to his death.
74. New dogmas which commenced with the
prophet, and which had never existed before him.
75. The Khalifat of Abu Bekr es-Sadik: his
pedigree, and sketches from his life and history.
76. The Khalifat of 'Omar Ben el-Khattab: his
pedigree, and sketches from his life and history.
77. Khalifat of 'Othman Ben el-'Affan.
78. Khalifat of 'Ali Ben Abi Taleb: his pedi-
gree, and sketches from his life and history: his
brothers and sisters.
79. Account of the battle of the camel, how it
began, and what there happened.
80. The occurrences between the Arabs of el-
Trak, and esh-Sham (Syria), at Siffin.
81. The two arbitrators, and the beginning of
the arbitration.
82. 'All's wars with the people of Nahrwan,
who were called " esh-Shorrat," (SchismaticksJ ;
and the result of this war.
38 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,
83. 'All's assassination.
84. Sayings of 'Ali, examples of his abstemious-
ness, and some anecdotes of this nature.
85. The Khalifat of el-Hasan Ben 'All Ben Abi
Taleb.
86. Reign of Mo'awiyah Ben Abi Sofyan.
87. History of Mo'awiyah, his government, and
anecdotes from his life.
88. The companions of the Prophet, their
praise. 'Ali and el-' Abbas.
89. The reign of Yezid Ben Mo'awiyah Ben
Abi Sofyan.
90. El-Hosain, the son of 'Ali, is killed, and
many of his family and followers share his fate.
91. The names of the children of 'Ali Ben Abi
Taleb.
92. Sketches from the life and history of Yezid;
some extraordinary actions of his. His wars, &c.
93. Reign of Mo'awiyah Ben Yezid, Merwan
Ibn el-Hakam, el-Mokhtar Ben Abi 'Obaid and
'Abdullah Ben ez-Zobair, and sketches from their
lives and history, and some occurrences which
happened at this period.
94. Reign of 'Abdul-Melik Ben Merwan:
sketches from his life and history.
95. El-Hejjaj Ben Yusof ; his speech, and part
of his history.
96. Reign of el-Walid Ben 'Abdul-Melik:
sketches from his history, and the history of el-
Hejjaj during his reign.
 AND MINKS OF GEMS. 39

97. Reign of Soleiman Ben 'Abdul-Melik :

sketches from his life and history.
98. Khalifat of 'Amr Ben 'Abdul-' Aziz Ben
Merwan Ben el-Hakam: sketches from his life
and history.
99. Reign of Yezid Ben 'Abdul-Melik: sketches
from his life and history.
100. Reign of Hesham Ben 'Abdul-Melik, and
sketches from his life and history.
101. Reign of el-Walid Ben Yezid Ben 'Abdul-
Melik, and sketches from his life and history.
102. Reigns of Yezid Ben el-Walid Ben 'Abdul-
Melik, and Ibrahim Ben el-Walid Ben 'Abdul-
Melik, and anecdotes from the history of their
reigns.
103. The party spirit between the descendants
of Yemen, and the Nizarians. And the rebellion
against the Omayyides which was the result.
104. The reign of Merwan Ben Mohammed
Ben Merwan Ben el-Hakam.
105. The number of years which the Omay-
yide dynasty has been in power.
106. The 'Abbasside dynasty : further history of
Merwan ; his murder, his wars, and life.
107. The Khalifat of es-Seffah, his life and
history, and the history of his time.
108. The Khalifat of el-Mansur; his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
109. The Khalifat of el-Mehdi: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
40 EL-MAS'UDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

110. The Khalifat of el-Hadi : his life and

history, and sketches from the history of his time.
111. The Khalifat of er-Rashid; his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
112. The Barmekides, their history, and their
influence upon their time.
113. The Khalifat of el-Amin: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
114. The Khalifat of el-Mamun: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
115. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tasem: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
116. The Khalifat of el-Wathik: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
1 1 7. The Khalifat of el-Motawakkel : his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
118. The Khalifat of el-Montaser; his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
119. The Khalifat of el-Mosta'in: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
120. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tazz: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
121. The Khalifat of el-Mohtadi: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
122. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tamed : his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
123. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tadhed : his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
124. The Khalifat of el-Moktafi: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 41

125. The Khalifat of el-Moktader: his life and

history, and sketches from the history of his time.
126. The Khalifat of el-Kahir: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
127. The Khalifat of er-Radhi: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
128. The Khalifat of el-Mottaki: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
129. The Khalifat of el-Mostakfi: his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
130. The Khalifat of el-Moti': his life and
history, and sketches from the history of his time.
131. The second conspectus of the chronology,
containing the period from the Hijrah, down to the
present time, i. e., Jomadal-ewwel of the year
336. Thi sis the date when I finished this book.
132. Names of the leaders of the pilgrimage.

El-Mas'udi says, these are all the chapters

contained in this book. We shall give, in every
chapter, the contents pointed to in the preceding
list,, and besides, various other histories and accounts
not mentioned in this list, but they form only sepa-
rate paragraphs of the mentioned chapters. So we
give in our chronicles of the Khalifs, and the length
of their lives, in a separate paragraph their bio-
graphy and history; and then we add another
paragraph containing an account of the occurrences
during their reigns, the history of the Viziers, and
the sciences which were the object of their literary
42 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

circles. We have put into a different shape what

we have said in our former works on the same
subject.
The number of chapters contained in this book
is one hundred and thirty two. The first chapter
contains the object of our work, and the second the
list of chapters contained in it, and the last chapter
contains the names of the leaders of the pilgrimage
from the beginning of the Isldm down to 335, A.H.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 43

IN the name of the Merciful and Clement God !

THIRD CHAPTER.

On the beginning of all things, process of the

creation, and the progress of generation.

ABUL-HASAN (el-Mas'udi) says : the learned Mos-

lims, of all sects, agree that God, the Almighty,
created the universe without model, and from
nothing. The first thing created, acccording to a
tradition based on the authority of Ibn el-'Abbas
and others, was water ; upon it was the throne of
God, and when God intended to accomplish the
work of creation, he produced smoke * from the
water, which rose over it, and he called it *WlJ
heaven. He made the water dry, and changed it
into one earth, then he divided it into seven earths t.
This was done in two days, on Sunday and Monday.

* i. e. The exhalation of the waters, as he says soon after.

f The Arabs received the theory of seven earths without
knowing what they were. Some believe that there are six earths
under the one which we inhabit; in the sixth is the throne of
Iblisy whilst others divide the globe known to the Arabs into seven
earths. (Kitab el-Bold&i, add. MS. of the Brit. Museum, 7496).
44 EL-MAS'fJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

He created the earth upon a fish CL>^* which is

mentioned in the Koran, in the Surah, " Nun f " "by
the reed (pen) and what they write, and by the
FISH." This water again rests upon alarge smooth
stone, and the stone upon the back of an angel, who
stands upon a rockt, and this rock is supported by
the wind. The rock is also mentioned in the
Koran §: in the words of Lokman to his son, "O
my Son, if the weight of one mustard-seed pushes
on the rock, or on the heavens, or on the earth, or
wherever it may be, God is aware of it, for God is
clear-sighted and omniscient." When the fish
shakes, an earthquake is produced. God, however,
placed firmly the mountains upon it, and the earth
remains firm. To this alludes the passage of the
Koran ^[, "He has thrown upon the earth mountains
firmly rooted, lest it should move with you." He
created the mountains, the nourishment of the inha-
bitants of the earth, and the trees, in two days, on
Tuesday and Wednesday. Therefore we read in

* This fish is named >_•• ^A._I Bahmut or Hamut, (Ibn Shohna,

MS. of the Asiatic Society at Paris.) L •• ^ jj is hardly ever
used but as the name of the pisces of the zodiac. This fable
seems to have been originally an astronomical allegory.
t Surah Lxviii, verse 48.
% Ibn Shohna and others say this rock rests upon a bull (the
sacred animal of the Hindus), which is called ^ISjxT Kayuthdn.
§ Koran edit. Fliigel, Surah xxxi, verse 15.
IT Surah xvi, verse 15.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 45

the Koran, "Say (O Mohammed) how can you

disbelieve on him who has created the earth in two
days? and how can they associate a companion
with him who is the Lord of the worlds, and who
has put firmly-rooted mountains, and spread his
blessing in it. He provides equally for those who
pray to him for it.
Then God ascended to the heavens,, which were
smoke. He said to the heavens and to the earth,
"come whether you like or not; " they answered,
"We come by good will." This smoke was the breath
of the water. God made first one heaven, then he
divided it into seven heavens. This was done in
two days, on Thursday and on Friday. Friday was
called the day of assembling (*xirt ^») for God
has assembled (£+^) (completed) on that day,
the creation of the heavens and earth. Then he
said I will reveal in every heaven what belongs to it,
that is to say, he created what there is in it, as
angels, seas and the mountains of el-Bord ^ jJt JU^.
The heaven of the world is green, and consists of
emerald ; the second heaven is white, and of silver ;
the third heaven is red, and of ruby; the fourth
heaven is white, and of pearls; the fifth heaven is
(j+z»\) of gold ; the sixth heaven is of a yellow gem,
(Topaz) ; the seventh heaven is of light, and it is
all covered with angels who stand on one foot, and
praise God, because they are so near him. Their
legs go through the seventh earth, and a space of
46 EL-MASUDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

five hundred years' journey below the seventh earth,

and their heads are under the throne of God, which
they do not reach. They say, THERE is NO GOD,
BUT GOD*; HE SITS ON THE THRONE OF GLORY;
so they say, from the moment of creation, to the
hour of the judgment.
Under the throne is a sea, from which comes the
food for all living beings. God commands, and
there flows, what he likes, from heaven to heaven,
till it comes to the place called <cel-Abrem," *^t
then God gives his command to the wind, and it
carries it to the clouds, through which it passes as
through a sieve. Under the heaven of the world is
a sea filled with animals, which are kept together
by the eternal decree, like the water of the seas of
the earth.
When God had completed the creation of the
world, he peopled it with genii ^.szOJ before he created
Adam. He made them of fire, among them was
"Iblis" (jMAU God forbade them to shed the blood
of animals,, nor should they show a rebellious spirit
among themselves ; but they shed blood, and one
became the enemy of the other. When Iblis saw
that they would not forbear from these bad actions,
he asked God that he might raise him to the heaven,
and there he worshipped God with the angels, with
the greatest devotion. God sent a corps of angels,

* A verse of the Koran.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 47

under the command of Iblis, against the genii, and

they drove them into the islands of the seas, and
killed as many of them as God pleased.
God placed Iblis as a guardian over the heaven
of the world,, but his heart was filled with pride.
When it was the will of God to create Adam,
he said to the angels " I shall put a lieutenant on
earth;" they answered,, "Who will be this lieu-
tenant*?" God answered, " He will have children
who will degenerate in earth, and envy and kill
each other." They said, "O our Lord, thou placest
a being there who will spread corruption, and shed
blood, and we sing thy praise, and glorify thee !"
He answered "I know what you do not know."
Then he sent the angel Gabriel to the earth to
fetch clay for him from the earth. But the earth
said "I fly to God from thee*f, if thou darest take
it!" and he returned and took none from it. God
sent then Michael, and the earth said the same
words to him as to Gabriel, and he took no clay
from it. Then he sent the angel of death, and the
earth took flight to God (said the same words), but

* This story is literally taken from the second Surah of the

Koran.

f The expression " I fly to God from thee,'' ^JL« aHb ^\

is borrowed from the Koran, and is of very frequent use amongst
the Arabs, being equivalent to the commonest English imprecation
implying " I refer to God, who will curse thee."
48 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

he said "and I fly to God, if I return without

having accomplished what I am to do." And he
took black, red, and white earth; for this reason
the sons of Adam are of different colours. The
first man was called ADAM -M for he was taken
from the surface (adim) *oM of the earth. Some
have a different opinion. God commissioned the
angel of death over death.
When God had kneaded together the dust, he left
it for forty years, till it had become tenacious clay ;
then he left it other forty years, till it got foetid
and altered. This is meant by the words of the
Koran " modelled from foetid dirt." Then he gave
to the clay the form of man, but left it without a
soul; it made a jingling noise, like an earthenware
vessel, so it remained a hundred and twenty, or,
according to other authorities, forty years. This is
meant, in the words of the Koran; " There passed
a time over man when he was not worth notice."
The angels passed on this body, and were afraid of
it, more particularly Iblis. Once he passed it and
struck with his foot against it ; there came from it
a sound like the jingling noise of an earthenware
vessel. To this allude the words of the Koran,
" From the jingling noise like an earthenware
vessel," but some give to the word 5LoJU» (jingling
sounds) a different interpretation.
Iblis entered by its mouth, and came out by its
back, and God said to him " do not go through
what I have created."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 49

When God intended to breathe the soul into

Adam, he ordered them to worship him: they did
so, except Iblis. He refused, in his pride, to do it,
and said ll O Lord, I am better than him; thou
hast created me of fire, and him of clay : and fire
is nobler than clay; further, thou hast made me
the lieutenant in the heaven of the earth, and I am
clad in feathers, ornamented with a scarf of light,
and crowned with grace. I have worshipped thee in
heaven and earth." God said to him, " Go forth
from here, thou wretch, upon thee is my curse, till
the day of judgment. '' He asked God for a fixed
term to the day when they would be resuscitated,
and he made him look forward to a definite time.
So the name of Iblis (Devil) received the meaning
which it has.
There are different opinions as to the reason why
God ordered the angels to worship Adam. Some
persons believe he was to be considered by them as
" Mihrab *," whilst the object of worship was God.
The servants of God ought to have followed his
orders, and obeyed him in this trial which he had
chosen. There are yet other opinions. God
breathed into Adam, and as soon as a part of the

* The " Mihrab " «-jU^S is that place in the mosque which
looks towards the temple of Mekka, where the Mohammedans
turn their faces to, when they say their prayers.
E
50 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

body was pervaded by it, it began to feel*, and God

said, the creation of man went on fastt.
When his breath came into Adam, he sneezed,
and God said to him "Pronounce the words, Praise
be to God, and thy Lord will be merciful with thee,
O Adam."
El-Mas'udi says: what we have said on the
creation, is the account of the revelation, and
traditions, which have been handed down from
ancient periods to a more recent age, and narratives
of the passed which have been preserved. We have
related these traditions as we have received them
from oral accounts1, and as they are found in
writing.
There are evident authorities that the world

* I read y**.x\J although all copies bear y*Jls:0 to sit or to

pray.
tf I was doubtful about

the meaning of this sentence. $f£ could be read ^^ as a

ca^, which might mean man has been created in the vigour o/*
life. But as the whole account of the creation consists of passages
of the Koran, patched together with the view of explaining them,
these words probably allude to the
j 38th verse of the twenty -first
Surah J^S ^ ^UwJ^J iJiX^. which Sale translates on the
authority of el-Bei'dhawi , man is created of precipitation, i. e., he
is hasty and inconsiderate. El-LVTas'udi, as we see, differs in his
interpretation from el-Bei'dhawi.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 51

has been created (and does not exist from eternity),

and it is illustrated by the nature of the world.
But we do not quote in our account what those say
who accept the revealed religion,, and agree with
our account, following also the traditions (and
not speculations); nor do we comment on the
opinions which are different from, and opposed to,
ours. We have given such details in our former
works. We gave however, also, in many passages of
this work, a summary view of those sciences which
rest on speculation, arguments, and disputes, and
we have alluded to different opinions and sects,, but
that was done by the way of history.
A tradition, which is traced to the Commander
of the Faithful, 'All Ben Abi Taleb, tells us that
God, when he intended to establish the laws of the
universe, to lay the seed of generation, and to
produce the creation, gave to it first the form of
fine dust before he formed the earth, and raised the
heavens. He dwelt in his unapproachable glory,
and in the unity of his power. Then he put down
a particle of his light, and made lighten a sparkle of
his splendour. The dust rose, and the light was
concentrated in the centre of this floating dust.
This represented the figure of our prophet MO-
HAMMED, on whom may rest the blessing of God !
and God said, "Thou art the chosen and the elected.
In thee rest my light and the abundant gifts of my
bounty (or my guidance) ; for thy Esake2 I have
52 EL-MAS'uDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

spread the soil, and made the waters flow ; for thy
sake I have raised the heavens, and fixed reward
and punishment; for thy sake I have created
Paradise, and hell- fire. I raise the people of the
holy-house (at Mekka)* to the divine revelation,
and reveal to them, from the mysteries of my
knowledge, the sub til ties of reason, and I do not
leave thee in ignorance of what is not known to
them. They are to be the proof on earth (of my
existence) , and the apostles of my omnipotence and

unity."
After this God pronounced the Creed f, and
assumed the supreme power, and the unity, in
distinction (from his creation)^.

* One copy bears " of thy family," L^AAJ ^&>\ instead of

ulLvAjJj). This reading is very probable, for the tradition seems
to be a fabrication of the Shiites in order to prove that the
supreme power, in state and religion, is not elective, but pre-
destined from the moment of the creation, for the family of
Mohammed, and his descendants, the 'Alites.
f This well-known formula which constitutes the whole
essential part of the Islam runs: — " There is no God but God,
and Mohammed is the prophet of God."
} The words are X/

^ The meaning of this sentence is meta- *j

physical and dark, so that I am not quite sure of the correctness
of my translation. In M. de Gayangoz's copy, the words and
meaning are quite disfigured. I conceive the sense to be this.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 53

When God had assumed these qualities, he

proclaimed to the creation, the election of Mo-
hammed as his lieutenant on earth, and he showed
to the creation that the Divine guidance was with
him, and that the light was his, and the spiritual

All the qualities which we assign to God are only expressions of

his essence with respect to the creation as, supreme power,
X-Jjj* bounty, &c., so that it was the first act of creation to
" assume" these relative qualities. It is for the rest only by the
qualities relative to the creation, that we have any knowledge of
God, so much so, that Aristotle, Spinoza, and the Buddhists and
Pythagoraeans before them, believed the world to be eternal, like
God; for, they say, God cannot exist without the world, as high
not without deep. The difference of Aristotle's and Mas'udi's
philosophy is, that Aristotle acknowledges only the relative
qualities of God, and not the absolute ones (i. e. the essence of
God), which, as they are not relative to the creation, are incom-
prehensible to man. The only way of coming to some words
which may express the absolute qualities of God are negations of

the qualities of the creation (^^.1) for instance, " he is not

finite, he is not composed of parts," &c., so that there remains
nothing else but that he is " one," and consequently " eternal,'
and this is the meaning of £/Jt ^^ yo^^] " but he is dis-
tinct from his creation, and uninfluenced by it: for he is one;" or as
Hegel expresses it (as the creation is for created beings every-
thing that we can conceive), "he is the eternal nihilum (Nichts.)"
The reader will find such passages from Arabic authors which
may prove that the above ideas are truly Mohammedan, together
with a further developement of this system of metaphysics, in our
introduction to this work.
54 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

empire (Xx>UJ) in his family, previous to the promul-

gation of the law of justice (the Mohammedan
religion), for its glorious success was predestined.
Then God hid the act of creation amongst the
mysteries of his knowledge. After that God
extended the earth, he expanded the time, he made
the waters ebb and flow, he raised up the foam and
smoke; he established his throne over the waters,
he raised the earth over the level of the seas, and
he called the creation to obey him, and it acknow-
ledged him as its Lord.
God made now the angels partly from the lights
which he created on purpose, partly from lights
derived from those already created, and he joined
the profession of the prophetic mission of Moham-
med with the creed of his own usity. So it was
known in heaven before it became known on earth *.
When God had created Adam he acquainted
the angels with his high dignity, and that he had
distinguished him with superior knowledge, in proof
of which he made him give the names to every
object.

* This is one of the grandest fables in explanation of a reli-

gions belief (My thus) ever framed; it tends to make the Mo-
hammedan religion eternal truth, and to justify the sublime words
of the Koran : the Islam is the religion of the heavens and
earth.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 55

God made the angels consider Adam as a

Mihrab, Ka'bah and Kiblah*, to which the lights
and the righteous spirits were to pray.
God informed now Adam of what rested in him f .
But he concealed from him the high dignity which

* Kiblah XXxi* is that quarter of the world to which the

believers turn their faces in their prayers. This was, with the
Moslims, first the temple of Jerusalem, but Mohammed changed
it, and chose the Kabah, or the temple of Mekka. The part of
a mosque which is turned towards Mekka is, therefore, the same
as the high altar in Christian churches, and is called Mihrab.
There stands the chief person present at the prayers, and per-
forms the ceremonies, his face turned towards Mekka, and the
rest of the assembly follow his example.
t That is to say that he was one of the ancestors of Moham-
med. This and the next three following chapters contain the bibli-
cal history in the light in which Mohammed and his followers con-
ceived it. The highest object of mankind is truth, which is
eternal and immutable, hence the religion which is all truth and,
according to some, even the Koran, or the expression of truth is
eternal. God sent, from time to time, prophets to all nations, so
that the number of all the prophets amounts to not less than
1 24,000 ! in order to keep up the profession of this religion on
earth. The last and greatest of all the prophets was Mohammed,
he was for all nations, and for all subsequent times. The reader
has become acquainted with the creation of the corporeal essence
of the prophetship or light which became fully incarnated in Mo-
hammed, bythe perusal of the preceding pages. This essence of
the prophetship rested in more or less latent life in his ancestors.
They were distinguished by a light which shone from their fore-
heads, till they had begot a sou to whom it was transmitted. The
 56 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

he had conferred upon him, for he had called him

Imam before the angels. He was the bearer of our
beatitude and of our light which God had kept
concealed under the veil of time until MOHAMMED
made his appearance*.

ancestors of Mohammed were therefore all, more or less, prophets.

They were at the same time the guardians of the sanctuary of the
Arabs (the Ka'bah) which did not lose its sacredness by the new
law. This will explain the following- pages of el-Mas'udi.
This idea appears to us not to be in contradiction with the
notions of the Jews, if we pay attention to their genealogies, right
of primogeniture, &c. The more striking it is that modern
theologists see in the Old Testament only a preparation and
propaedeutic to the doctrine of our Saviour, although they ac-
knowledge that the natural progress of mankind is so unsafe that
since Christ, serious corruptions of that doctrine had taken place ,
For the rest their idea is certainly more philosophical than the.
Mohammedan one.

* Copies disagree here materially; one bearing / . ^ JJ

^\ LcJo CM^A&H %..d>U3 <j (Xt^JkAaJ literally until Mohammed
broke forth from the channels (i. e., appeared), and another, JJ

£\ U«X3 djty&M^Uo J U*:si >*j ^ until (God)

ordered Mohammed to detail the laws or dogmas. However, the
second reading is very improbable, for cMJCJ would be an unusual
plural of c£yC3 and the sense of this sentence would logically
cohere with the preceding only in the case if we explain light as
truth, whilst it is evident from what preceded (page 51) that the
light ivhich was transmitted through the channels, (ancestors,)
is the essence of the prophetship. But I must add that the par-
ticle <J consequently, with which the next sentence begins, speaks
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 57

He called mankind publicly and privately (to

the true religion), and he preached to them openly
and secretly. And Mohammed appointed to keep
up the true religion in coming ages, and in genera-
tions which were not yet born, those who received
a ray of the light* which had preceded, for they
are initiated in his mysteries, and understand
clearly his glorious tendency, and he consoled
those who are the victims of an ungodly time.
Then the light was transferred to the distin-
guished men amongst us (the 'Alites), and became
resplendent in our Imams. We are the lights of the
heaven, and the lights of the earth. In us is salva-
tion, from us go forth the treasures of knowledge.
We are the centre of all that is going on, by our
guidance the proofs become conclusive ; we are the
seal of the Imams, and the liberators of the nation;
we are the noblest of the creation, the most chosen
of all things, the proof of the Lord of the worlds ;
hence, the benefits are best which flow from our
throne. This tradition is from Abu 'Abdullah

for the second reading, for the sense would run: having been
commanded to detail the dogmas or laws, he called mankind, fyc.
* He means the 'Alites. They inherited as much of the
essence of the prophetship as was required to keep up the true
religion. They endeavoured to attain, through these theories and
numerous rebellions, the same infallibility in religion, and power
in government, which the Popes had in the middle ages, but they
were not so successful.
58 EL-MAS'lJDi'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Ja'fer Ben Mohammed, who received it from

his father, Mohammed Ben 'All,, who had it from
his father, 'Ali Ben el-Hosain, to him it was related
by his parent el-Hosain Ben 'Ali, and he had
received it from the Commander of the Faithful,
'All Ben Abi Taleb. We do not feel inclined to
allege all the channels through which this tradition
has been preserved, nor the different versions in
which it has come down to us, as we have given a
full account of these circumstances, in our former
works, where we have traced every version to the
authority whence we have derived it. In this book
we are afraid to be too long and prolix.
What I have found in the Pentateuch respecting
the history of the creation is this ; God began the
creation on Monday, and had accomplished it on
Saturday, hence the Jews have chosen Saturday as
their sacred day. The believers on the Gospel say
the Messiah rose on Sunday from the grave; hence
they celebrate Sunday as their holyday. But per-
sons distinguished by their knowledge of divine
law, and the sources upon which it is founded, state
that the creation was begun on Sunday and accom-
plished on Friday. On Friday the soul was
breathed into Adam. This was on the sixth of

Nfsan (April). Then Eve (^ Hawwa)*, was

created from Adam.

Ibn Shohna (Universal History, MS. of the Asiatic Society

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 59

They began to inhabit the Paradise when three

hours of that day had elapsed, and they remained
there for three hours, which is one fourth of a day,
and this is equal to 250 years of the world. God
now discarded Adam from the Paradise, and he
placed him on Serendib (Ceylon) <_o.>o^ Eve
at Jiddah »"Je=* Iblis at Baisan (^U*AJ) and the
serpent at Isfahan.
Adam was placed on mount ez-Zahun ((V^*jJ1
orj^$iJO in Ceylon; there were leaves with which
he covered his body, and as they were dry, the wind
carried them off, and dispersed them throughout
India. It is said that the frequency of perfumes in
India arises from these leaves, but some have a dif-
ferent opinion: God knows best. They say, hence
are, aloes wood aydl the clove JjLyM madder (?)
x^U^J musk JC*»U and other perfumes particular to
India. In this mountain sparkle diamonds and other

at Paris), believes the name Hawwd L^ to be derived from

"living," for, he says, she was created from something living.

But it is evident that the name of Eve ought to be written ^Lifc
ffawdj which means air. Gaia and Uranos have changed their
sexes amongst the Semites; if we enter into the spirit of the
mythus, and consider that spontaneous generation must go forth
from the earth, under the influence of the air, temperature, &c.,
this changing of the sexes leads us to the important historical fact
that the Semites have not understood the mythus, and can there-
fore not be the inventors of it, but that they have borrowed it
from elsewhere.
60 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

precious stones. In the islands of India is the smyris

£u>l>JUJ! and in the bottom of the sea are pearls.
When Adam descended from the Paradise he took
a grain of wheat, and thirty cuttings of the fruit-trees
of the Paradise, ten of them have shells; viz., the
nut (Juglans regia) j^il the common almond, (Amyg-
dalus communis) j^AJ! the filbert-nut, (Nux avellana)
^M^i the pistachio nut cJix^iJi the poppy
the chestnut JsjJUAliJJ the pomegranate
the banana,, or plaintain (Musa paradisiaca)
^U the Syrian oak (Quercus Ballota) kjJuM*
Ten of them have kernels : the peach £y^ the
apricot (jk*£U the Damascene plum, (Pruna nigra seu
Damascena) y^U^l the date-tree i_Jbyi Ruellia
guttata J^AAxM the lote-tree (Rhamnus nabeca Forsk.
Flora Egypt., p. Lxiii), vJuJJJ the medlar-tree

* Ibn el- Ward! quotes this passage of Masudi adding

the pine-tree, and *=^UJ\ the orange; but he leaves out
It is very probable that ,bJl>J) and 5sj\^£>\*£A\ are
synonymous in some countries, as such they are considered by
Banquiero (Libro de agricultura su autor Abu Sacaria, Madrid
1802.) But Avicenna (Lib. II. p. 14S,) and Kazwini make a
distinction between these two fruits, so that there is no reason

why Mas'udl should not have mentioned them both. Tlie latter
author says (MS. of the East India House, Nro. 1377, fol.
164, verso) "Shdhballut is a tree of Syria which is also found in
Arran, The fruits of this tree are neither so dry nor so styptic
as those of the Ballut tree, &c."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 61

(Mespillum) j^^\ the jujube-tree (Zizipha rubra)

vLUJt the fruit of the Lontaris domestica* JJiU the
cherry U-JjXJJ (U*>|jBJ) Some of them have neither
shell nor any other covering besides the part to
be eaten, nor a kernel; viz., the apple
the quince Jc^JuJI the grapes *-U*Jt the pears
the fig ^^\ the mulberry d^XM the orange ^^\
the cucumber (Cucumis pepo) lixH another sort
of cucumber (Cassia fistula) ^U^O! the melon <g^-^»
It is related that Adam and Eve were separated
when they came down from the Paradise. They
had agreed to meet at an appointed place called

'Arafat f ciA^c whence this place has its name;}:.

Adam longing § for Eve, came to see her,

* Mokl JjLo is a gum very like frankincense, but it comes

from the tree called *^ J (Medical Dictionary of Mohammed Bin
Yoosoof, Calcutta, 1830, p. 275.) Sprengel (Hist, rei herbar.
Tom. I., p. 272,) believes +*£ to be the Lontaris domestica or
Borasusflalelliformis.

t (jLc 'araf means to know.

I On this holy spot, and on the ceremonies which the Pilgrims
have to perform there (on the 9th of Dul-Hijjah), see Burck-
hardt's Travels in Arabia, London, 1829, p. 266.
§ Ibn Shohna says that Adam met Eve when he made the
pilgrimage by the command of God. This sounds much better,
for all these details have a tendency to show the antiquity and
sacredness of some institutions and beliefs.
62 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and she conceived a boy and a girl ; they called

the boy Cain ^A* and the girl Lubed jo^J and
after that she bore him another boy whom they
named Habil ^A& and a girl whose name was
Iklimiyd U^X*!. There is some dispute about the
name of the eldest son of Adam; the most people,
and amongst them those who acknowledge the Old
Testament, believe his name was Cain ^.^.l* but
some state he was called Kabil J^U. JAli Ben
el-Jahm ^^\\\ ^^ ^ says in his poem on the
creation (verses), " We had* a son and called him
Cain ; after we had given him birth, we did our best,
and Habil grew up as another fruit of our affections,
Cain grew up as well, and they did not separate
from each other."
Those who believe on the Old Testament say>
Adam married the twin -sister of Habil to Cain, and
the twin-sister of Cain to Habil, so that the twins
should be separated in marriage. The law of
marriage adopted by Adam, was, therefore, to
separate, as much as possible, persons allied by
relationship, in order to prevent, by separating them,
the bad consequences, and the weakening influence
upon the offspring; The Magians are of opinion

* The word which in this case means had in Arabic is

from Cana. so that it is a jeu de mots with the name C'am.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 63

that Adam did not object to the marriage of rela-

tions hence,
; they are not against it. They have
some mystery respecting this, according to which
they think it good that a man should marry his
sister, and the mother her son. We have given the
details thereof in the 14th Fenn ^iM of our book
Akhbdr ez-Zemdn.
Habil and Cain brought a sacrifice. Habil
selected the best of his flocks, and of his provision,
and brought it as a sacrifice. Cain took the worst
that he possessed for this purpose*. What oc-
curred after this is related by God in the Koran f;
viz., that Cain murdered Habil in the desert of Ka'
^Ij' which is in the country belonging to Damascus,
in Syria. There he struck him with a stone on his
forehead. Hence it is said the beasts learnt from
man to be atrocious; for he began to do evil and to

* En-Nowairi (MS. of Leyden) informs us that the Bedouins

used to sacrifice animals, whilst the inhabitants of towns in Arabia
brought unbloody sacrifices. Hence it may be that this tale was
invented by the Bedouins, in order to throw the odium of the first
crime on the people of towns amongst whom the ties of relation-
ship are so much looser than amongst Bedouins.
f Surah v. verse 31, et seq.
64 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

murder. When he had murdered him, he was

anxious to conceal his body, carried it (on his
shoulders) and wandered about with it (not knowing
what to do). God sent two ravens, one of which
killed and buried the other. When Cain saw this
he was struck with horror, and exclaimed the words
related in the Koran* Wo is me! I had not sense
enough to do like this raven, to hide my brother's
shame. Then he buried him. When Adam heard
of the murder, he was downcast, and mourned.
El-Mas'udi says: There is a poem popular
amongst the people which they put into the mouth
of Adam when he mourned, it runs :
" The country is altered, and all that is in it.
The whole earth has changed for the worse.
All that has life and colour is different ; and
the sea has lost its lovely appearance.
The inhabitants have turned the produce of the
fields into poison and bitterness, and an enemy
infests us.
The cursed has not overlooked man, as we per-
ceive ;for Cain has cruelly slain Habil, and that
amiable countenance is withered.
My lot is to shed tears ; for Habil rests in the
grave.
I see a life before me full of sorrow, and all
that I may meet in it will be gloomy."

* Surah v. verse 34, edit. Flugel.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 65

I have found in many books on history, biogra-

phy, and genealogy, that when Adam said these
words, Iblis replied from a place where he could
hear but not see him —
" Thou now complainest about the country and
its inhabitants, and thou dost feel the earth narrow.
" Thou and thy wife Hawwa were merry, not-
withstanding the badness of the world ; but my
intrigues and machinations were at work until their
abundant fruits were matured.
" And if I was not prevented by the pity of the
Almighty, I should destroy the everlasting beatitude
of heaven."
In another book I found a distich standing by
itself, which Adam heard from a voice, without
seeing who uttered it: —
" O, Adam! both are killed ; for the living falls
a sacrifice to the dead*/'
When Adam had heard this, his pains and sor-
rows were increased, both for him who was no
more, and for him who was still alive ; for he knew
that the murderer was to be killed.
God revealed to Adam: — " 1 will produce from
thee my light, which shall flow through splendid
channels and noble roots (ancestors). I will exalt

* This means, that Cain would be killed ; after the general idea
that " He that killeth with the sword must be killed with the
sword." (Apocal. xiii. 10.)
F
66 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

this light ahove all other lights, and make it the

seal of the prophets (Mohammed). He shall be
succeeded by the best of Imams in a continual
series to the end of time. I will make the world
answer to their call, and I will enlighten it through
their followers. Purify and sanctify thyself, and
praise God : then approach to thy wife, after she
has been purified, and my promise will descend from
thee through the child which thou wilt beget."
Adam did what he was ordered ; and when Hawwa
was with child, her forehead was covered with a
lustre, and light shone in her eyes and eyebrows
till her confinement. Then she gave birth to Shith
C!AA£ (Seth.) He was the most beautiful child,
strong and perfect in his form and in the symmetry
of his body. He was imbued with a light which
sparkled from the marks and protuberances of his
forehead. Adam gave him the name of Shith.
The gift of God was slumbering in him till he grew
up ; and when he came to riper age, Adam acquainted
him with his mission and the promises of God, and
told him that he would be the agent of God*, and
his own successor after his death, to support
truth on earth. This mission was to be inherited

* &\ SLsS This expression is wanting in Arabic diction-

aries, although it is not unusual: ^5CX^o &5r A* — 3y*i means a
representative of the king.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 67

by his descendants, who were to be distinguished

and glorious. When Adam told this to Shith,
he kept it secret, and guarded it for the moment as
a mystery, as it was only to be revealed publicly at
another time. Adam died soon after, on Friday,
the 6th of Nisan, at the same hour when he had
been created; he had lived nine hundred and thirty
years. Shith was the guardian of the children of
Adam. It is said that he left forty thousand children
and grandchildren.
There is some dispute about Adam's grave.
Some pretend that it is in Mina*, cfU in the mosque

* Mina is a valley near Mekka, and, together with the

mosque el-Khai'f, one of the sacred spots where the Moslem pil-
grims resort. Mohammed kept up the Pagan ceremony of throw-
ing there pebbles on a pillar of stone. It has probably the same
origin as the usage of the Romans and Greeks, of casting stories on
the statue of Mercury.
The seven idols which were in the valley of Mina, before Mo-
hammed, according to el-Azraki, (apud Burckhardt, Travels in
Arabia, p. 275,) prove at once that the place was sacred to the
seven planets. We see that the sacredness of the place dates
from a very remote period, from its being connected with the
father of mankind ; and we conclude that it has been celebrated
from the circumstance that its name (although it is so far from
the coast) reached the ears of Ptolemy, who mentions the Manitae.
The ceremony of casting stones on the pillar is probably as ancient
as the place, having ever formed the main object of the pilgrimage
there. Ibn Ishak, an Arabic writer of the second century of the
Hijrah, states thus the origin of this ceremony: — When Ibrahim
returned from his pilgrimage to 'Arafat, and came
F 2 to the valley
68 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

of el-Khaif i^Lt. Others believe it to be in

a cavern of the Mount Abu Koba'is u**>J* ^*-

Shith exercised the office of judge amongst his co-
temporaries, and taught them the sacred books
(revealed to the prophets before him), and other
books which God revealed to him.
Shith begot Anush ^ (Enos). When his
wife was pregnant with him,, the light was trans-
ferred toher till she was delivered, then the child
was imbued with the light. When Anush was
grown up, Shith informed him of what was latent
in him, and of his pre-eminence; and he ordered
him to give to his children an education adequate
to their distinction and high position, and to tell
them to give to their children the same instruction,

of Mina, Satan (Iblis) contrived to obstruct his passage; but the

Angel Gabriel advised him to throw stones on the foe, which he
did, and, after pelting him seven times, Iblis retired. Ibrahim did
the same with equal success in the middle and end of the valley
when Iblis had again made his appearance. It is difficult to say
whether this tradition is a mystification, to justify the Pagan cere-
mony, or whether it was current before Mohammed, and his
motive for keeping it up. If it was more ancient than Mohammed,
further researches about Ibrahim, son of Azer (i. e. fire), res-
pecting whom the Arabs have preserved many traditions, inde-
pendent ofthe biblical account of Abraham, son of Terah, may
point out an intimate connexion between Mercury, the god of
knowledge, and Ibrahim, who rebuilt the Ka'bah and imported
civilization from the Sabeans of Harran to the Semites.
* Abu Koba'is is the name of a mountain of Mekka.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 69

when they would be able to understand it. This

legacy went from generation to generation, until
the light came to 'Abdul-Motalleb (the grandfather
of Mohammed), his son 'Abdullah, and the PROPHET.
This is a topic of controversy between the fol-
lowers of different sects, particularly between those
who adhere to the doctrine of evidence ^jXAxJl
oaiJL and the followers of the doctrine of election
jUxiOM i^ls^t. The defenders of the doctrine
of evidence are Imamists 3UU2J JjM, and form
a fraction of the sectarians (Shi'ites) Xx/w&l of
'Ali Ben Abi Taleb and his children by Fatimah*.
They believe that God does not leave mankind at
any time without a man who keeps up the religion
of God (and stands at the head of the believers).
Such men are either prophets or guardians f, who
bear the evidence of their rights in their names and

* The words of the original sJvL /.%.-« ,.v iv^UaJJ mean

literally " the pure ones amongst his ('All's) children." -.MJo
is the usual epithet for the family of Mohammed. See page 3.
t Guardians IAAC^! sing, .y^ means the executor of a will,
or a guardian of an orphan, and hence, in opposition to pro-
phet, as in the above sentence, it means him in whose hands is the
executive power of the laws (civil and religious) which God
has revealed through the prophets, and which must not be changed.
The first seven Imams are called ^^MO^\ (De Sacy Chrest.,
Tom. I. p. 158.) The origin of the Shi'ite sect, and of the
technical meaning of the word ^ is attributed to a sentence of
70 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

pedigree from God and his prophet. The doctrine

of election is defended by the divines of the leading

cities, the Mo'tazilites X^XxU, a section of the

Khawarij £^k\JJ, the Morjiites Xv^U, and by
many of those who admit the traditions and the
generally received opinions (the orthodox;, and by
a section of the Zeidians j^Ju^-H. They believe
that it is the will of God and his prophet that the
nation should choose a man amongst themselves,
and make him their Imam, for there are times when
God does not send a legate. The Shi'ites consider
such Imams as usurpers of the dignity.
We shall have an opportunity in the course of
this work to throw some light on the differences of
opinions and religious controversies.
Anush cultivated the earth. Some consider
Shith as the father of mankind, after Adam, and
do not allow that the other children of Adam had a
share in the propagation of our race; but some
differ from this opinion : God knows best. In the
time of Anush, Cain, the murderer of his brother
Habil, was killed. His murder is variously
related. We refer the reader to our works, the
Akhbar ez-zeman, and the Kitab el-ausat.

'Abdullah Ben Saba es-Sauda, who lived under 'Othman:

go J£! ^X ^j!. This sentence became
the watch-word of the Shi'ites (En-Nowa'iri, MS. of Leyden,
No. 2 13, p. 1056).
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 71

Anush died the 3rd of Teshrfn, 960 years of

age. He had a son of the name of Raman ^Uxi'.

The prophetic light sparkled from his forehead.
His father took from him the oath of his office, and
he cultivated the earth till he died. He reached the
age of 910 years, and died in the month of Tamuz.

The son of Ka'inan was Mahalayil J^^-o

(Mahalaleel) . He begot Lud (^j) who was the
heir of the prophetic light, and gave the oath of
keeping up truth. It is said that many musical
instruments were invented in his time by the chil-
dren of Cain. The wars of Lud and other stories
have been related in our Akhbar ez-Zeman. The
children of Shith had wars with the descendants of
Cain. A race of Hindus, who descend from Adam,
derive their origin from the children of Cain.
They inhabit that part of India which is called
Komdr ^Ui* : from this country the Komdri Aloe
t^U&tayi has its name.
Lud lived 962 years,, and died in Adar (March).
He was succeeded by his son Akhnukh
(Enoch), who is the same person as Edris
(instructor) the prophet. The Sabeans* believe
that he is identical with Hermes ^^jb which
name means 'Utarid sjlas. (the planet Mercury).

* One copy bears XjLsAjei!J the companions (of the prophet),

instead of
72 EL-MASUDPs MEADOWS OF GOLD,

God says of him in his book *, " that he exalted him

to a high place." He lived on earth 300 years or
more. He was the first man who taught the com-
forts of life and sewed with a needle. To him
thirty books were revealed, and to Shith twenty-
nine, in which there are the two formulas, ''There is
no God but God," and " Praise be to Godf." He
was followed by his son Matushalekh ^JL&yU
who bore the prophetic light on his forehead, and
cultivated the land. Matushalekh had many chil-
dren. Some persons say that the Bulgars
the Russians (j»^9 and Slavonians
are his descendants. He lived 960 years, and died
in the month of Ilul. He was succeeded by his
son Lamek jCL. In his time was a great con-
fusion amongst mankind. He died 999 years of
age. His son was Nuh ^5 (Noah). In his age
corruption and injustice were great on earth. Nuh
rose to be a preacher of God, but the people were
too rebellious and ungodly, so that they would not
listen to him. God ordered him to construct a
ship; and when he had finished it, the angel Gabriel

* Koran, Surah xix., vers. 58, edit. Fliigel.

"I" *£\A**J * \/Jl4J Perhaps these two words are to be taken
in the more extensive meaning : they contain the profession of the
unity of God, and hymns to his praise.
J Another copy \jLx!t.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 73

brought him the coffin of Adam, in which there

was his corpse*. They went into the ship on
Tuesday, the ninth of Adar. Whilst Nun and his
family were in the ship, God kept the earth five
months under water. Then he ordered the earth to
swallow up its waters, and the heaven to withhold
its rains f, and the ark stood on the mount el-Jiidi
tfJ^iL El-Judi is a mountain in the country of
MasurJ ^»U Cc_5J>**^)> an(^ extends to Jezirah
Ibn 'Omar j+& ^Y^y^ which belongs to the ter-
ritory ofel-Mausil. This mountain is eight farsangs
from the Tigris. The place where the ship stopped,
which is on the top of this mountain, is still to
be seen§.
They say some tracts of the earth did not im-
mediately swallow up the water, whilst others

* ,x>Lci &+* f£\ dj^-jlj I was tempted to read

" his covenant" as one copist writes. I shall state the reasons
for which it must run *A*OJ.
t Koran, Surah xi., verse 46.
J Masur seems to be the same word as Masius, which is the
Greek name of the mount el-Judl. (Strab. pp. 501 and 506.)
The word e\-Judi has been compared by Bochart with the
Gordycei montes.
§ El-Kazwini (MS. of the East India House, N. 1377.)
informs us that there was still, to the time of the 'Abbasides, a
temple on the mount Judi which was said to have been con-
structed byNoah, and covered with the planks of the ark. Epi-
phanius (Haeres. 18) reports nearly the same tradition for his
74 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

absorbed it rapidly when they were commanded to

do so. The lands which obeyed give good water
on digging; but those lands which were less sub-
missive were punished by God, the water on digging
being salt, and the country sandy. The water
which could not be absorbed went into the depths of
the earth, and in particular places. This is the
origin of the seas: they are the remains of the
waters by which God has destroyed the nations.
The account and description of the seas will call
our attention hereafter in this book.
Nuh went forth from the ark, and with him his
three sons, Sam -»U, Ham *b>, and Jafeth c±^L»,
together with his three daughters-in-law, and forty
men and forty women. They went upon the plat-
form of this mountain, and built there a town,
which they called Themanin ^^^ (eighty).
It bears this name till our time [332 A.H.] The
children of these eighty persons became extinct,
and God peopled his creation with the descendants
of Nuh. To this allude the words of the Koran,
"We have preserved his progeny, and they are
those who still exist." God knows best the mean-

time. The vicinity of Harran, which was the seat of learning

since Abraham, and the centre of Sabean worship, makes it more
than probable that this temple was connected with the Sabean
religion, and the history of the ark owes perhaps its origin to the
priests of those places.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 75

ing of these words. The name of the person who

refused the offer of Nun, when he said to him
" Embark with us, my son*," is Yam -b.
Nuh divided the earth amongst his sons, and
gave to every one of them a part as property. He
cursed his son Ham on account of his well-known
behaviour towards his father. He said, " Cursed be
Ham and his children may he be the slaves of his
brethren ; but Sam be blessed ; and God shall en-
large Yafeth, and he shall dwell in the places
allotted to Samf." Nuh lived, according to the
Pentateuch |, after the flood 325 years. Some
historians differ in this point.
Sam went away, followed by his children ; and
they took possession of the places allotted to them
in the land and sea. We shall describe them in
this book.
Now we shall speak on the separation of man-
kind, and the division of the earth amongst the
three sons of Nuh, Yafeth, Sam, and Ham.

* Koran, Surah ix., verse 44.

f These words are literally transcribed from the holy Bible,
(Genesis ix., 25, 26, 27,) except that they run there, cursed be
Canaan, instead of Ham. And not without reason, for the
Canaanites were the victims of those cruelties which might be
justified by this story as being the fulfilment of the curse of their
father, and, consequently, according to their ideas, a divine
decree.
Genesis ix. 28.
76 EL-MASU'Di's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Sam inhabited the middle of the earth, from the

sacred land pJ>J ^^ (i. e. the country of Mekka
and Medina) to Hadhramaut £>^*a^, 'Oman
^Uc, and 'Alij £U. Amongst his children we
name Arem ^\ and Arfakhshad iX^^J,!.
One of the descendants of Arem Ben Sam is
'Ad Ben 'Us (Uz) Ben Arem*; he settled in the
Ahkaf er-Raml ±*£\ ^^ oUb*lt God sent the
prophet Hud ^_jfc to the 'Adites, Another of his
descendants is Themud Ben 'Ad Ben Arem *j*5
fj m* *l* cu^ They settled in el-Hijr^! (Arabia
Petrea), between Syria and the Hejaz. God sent
to them their brother Saleh -LU> His history is
well known, and we shall insert a summary account
of it, as well as of the histories of other prophets,
in the progress of this work.

Tasm f.*»Jb and Jadis (j*o*x^ sons of Laud '^

(Lud) Ben Arem, took possession of el-Yemamah
and el -Bahrein, and the descendants of their brother
'Amalik vJiJL^ Ben Laud Ben Arem settled in
subsequent times, partly in the sacred land, and
partly in Syria. To them belong the 'Amalikites

* One MS. bears * \ / . ^ i«o *.c / . *j M^ls and another

instead
f This means the " sand-hills," i. e. the desert of southern
Arabia.
 AND MINKS OF GEMS. 77

who were scattered all over the country.

Another brother of theirs, named Ommaim ^\
Ben Laud, settled in Faris.
We shall speak on this subject in the (twenty-third)
chapter of this book, which is inscribed " The Origin
of the Persians, and what the historians say on this
subject;" for some authors connect Kayumerth with
Ommaim. Others believe that Ommaim settled in
the land of Webar J^^ ; that is, the country inha-
bited bythe Genii, according to the opinion of some
Arabic historians.

The descendants of ' Abil Ben 'Us ^^s. ^s ^.^9

the brother of 'Ad Ben 'Us, settled in Medina.
Another grandson of Sam is Mash ^U Ben Arem
Ben Sam. He went to Babel ; his son is Nimrud
Ben Mash yiU ^^ ^j** (Nimrod), who built the
Tower of Babel, and a bridge over the Shat-el-Forat.
He reigned five hundred years, and was the king
of the Nabataeans k*JM jX«, In his time God divided
the languages ; so that the descendants of Sam
spoke nineteen different tongues, the descendants
of Ham seventeen, and the children of Yafeth
thirty-six. We will speak further on in this work
as to the dispersion of the nations over the earth,
and the poems which they composed at their
separation in el-'Irak.
Some believe it was Falegh iJU who divided the
earth amongst the nations, and hence he was named
78 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

"Falegh;" for this name means "Divider:"

Shalekh £li is the son of Arfakhshad Ben Sam

Ben Nub, and the father of Falegh, who divided
the earth; and Falegh is one of the ancestors «x^.
of Ibrahim el-Khalil X/IiOi (the friend of God).

'Aber ^U another son of Shalekh, is the father of

Kahtan ^UajS.. Kahtan 's son, Ya'rob <_^ju was
the first man who was greeted with the title of KING
JJlU by his children. This is the most glorious
and most cursed name. Some say this title had
been in use before him, with the kings of el-Hirah.
Kahtan is the father of all the Yemenites,
as we shall mention in the (forty-second) chapter
of this work, which is inscribed " Yemen, the
Origin of the Inhabitants of this Country, and the
various opinions thereon." He was the first man
who spoke Arabic; at least, he first made the
meaning clear by terminations vlr^l*
Yoktan ^IkSu Ben 'Aber Ben Shalekh was the
father of Jorhom +&}*- who was the cousin of Ya'rob.
The Jorhomites dwelt originally in Yemen, and
spoke Arabic ; in subsequent times they emigrated
to Mekka, according to the traditions respecting
them, which we shall give. The children of Katura
\jJaS are their cousins. In subsequent time,
God made Isma'il settle amongst them, and he
married into them, so that they were the uncles of
his children.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 79

The believers of the Old Testament maintain

that Lamek JC*J is still alive; for God said to Sam,
" I will preserve him for ever, whom I make the
guardian of the body of Adam." Sam buried the
coffin &jj\3 of Adam in the middle of the earth, and
appointed Lamek as guardian. Sam died on Friday,
in the month of Ilul, six hundred years of age : he
was succeeded in his mission by Arfakhshad J^^L,?
who attained an age of four hundred and sixty-five
years: he died in the month of Nisan. After him
followed his son Shalekh : he died four hundred and
thirty years old, and was succeeded by his son
'Aber, who cultivated the country. In his days
quarrels arose in different places of the earth: he
died in an age of three hundred and forty years.
His son Falegh succeeded him : he was two hundred
and thirty-seven years old when he died. We have
spoken of him and of the confusion of languages
Ulxj which took place during his life at Babel.
His successor was his son Ar'au ^s.j\ (Reu), and
during his life Nimrud the giant was born, according
to some accounts. Ar'au died in the month of Nisan,
two hundred years of age. His son Sharukh ^l^
took his place: during his days the worship of
idols and of images is said to have been introduced,
owing to several causes. He attained an age of
two hundred and thirty years. He was replaced by
his son Nahur.j^U who followed the good exam-
80 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

pie of his fathers: during his life were earthquakes:

— there had never been any before him. He is
the inventor of the arts of life (^^j^Jl, and of different
instruments. In his lifetime the Hindus and other
nations formed themselves into bodies. He
lived one hundred and forty-six years, and was suc-
ceeded byhis son Tarah ^^3 ; this is the name for
Azar* yj\ the father of Ibrahim. In his days Nim-
rud Ben Kan 'an rose. Under en-Nimrud the prac-
tice of worshipping fire and light f came first in
use, and he introduced certain (holy) orders in their
cultus. There were great troubles and wars in this
age in the world. New empires and provinces were
formed in the east and west. It was at this time
when the stars and their predictions began to be an
object of study. The heavens were divided into
regions, and astronomical instruments were invented.
Man began to understand the meaning of all these
things. The astrologers observed the aspect of the

* Azar is the name of the father of Abraham in the Koran

(Surah vi. v. 74) ; Terah is his name in the Bible (Genesis xi.
26). The name Azar, which means "fire," and the "planet
Mars," is by no means of Arabic invention ; for Abraham's father
is called Athar by Eusebius. It is a favourite name amongst the
star-and-fi re-worshippers. (HYDE, de Relig. vet. Pers. p. 64).
t The Moon was considered as the concentration of light,
whilst the Sun is the centre of fire. (Tradition of Wahb Ben
Monabbih.) *
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 81

heaven for the coming year*, and its prediction,

and told en-Nimrud that a child would be horn,
who would expose the folly of their dreams, and
do away with their worship. En-Nimrud ordered
the child to be killed ; but Ibrahim was concealed.
Tarah, who is the same person as Azer, died at the
age of two hundred and sixty years.

* The words of the original are

xJlk Jt- Tali' means originally the point of the

horizon where it is cut by the parallel of the observer in the east,
or the section of the horizon of which that point is the middle. It
is therefore one of the four cardinal points of Arabic astrology

XX-M^ s\.'jj\ (literally the four tent-poles) ; viz., the Zenith,

#U**M \amy ti16 Nadir ^aji\ JO^, the Tali', and the same point
of the horizon in the west <_j.lxSJ. The planet which is in the

moment when the sun enters into the sign of the Aries, in the Tali',
or in the ]0th, 7th, 4th, llth, 9th, 5th, or 3rd degree of ascen-
sion, or comes soonest to one of these points, is the Regent of the
HJ

year l$J ^jj^ ^ SUUJt ^^(^. And as the Regent exercises

the greatest influence upon the destiny of the world during the
year, the whole constellation of the beginning of the vernal
equinox is called &UJJ xJUs by the way of ellipsis, instead

of 1 JlkH UJ ^ (Ab* Ma'sher>

G
82 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

FOURTH CHAPTER.

The history of Ibrahim (Abraham) (**&>jj\, the prophets

after him, and the kings of the Children of Israel.

WHEN Ibrahim was grown up, he went out from

the cavern where he had been concealed, contem-
plated the phenomena of nature, and reflected on
their meaning. Looking at the planet Venus, and
observing how it rose, he said: " This is my Lord !"
When the moon rose, and he saw that it was much
brighter, he exclaimed: " This is my Lord!" But
when the sun displayed its splendour, he cried out
full of astonishment, " This is my Lord*!" The
commentators do not agree in the meaning of
the words of Ibrahim " This is my Lord." Some
believe this to be related by the way of induction
and parable; whilst others are of opinion that it
happened before he had come to the knowledge of
truth, when he was still striving. Gabriel came
now to him, and taught him his religion, and God
chose him as his prophet and friend JJl^. (I have
to observe against this explanation that) Ibrahim had

* El-Koran, Surah vi. verses 76 — 78.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 83

received the strength* of God; and he who is

strengthened by God will be kept pure from sin
and fall, and from any worship besides the One the
Eternal.
Ibrahim blamed his people for their idolatry.
When they were annoyed by the disdain with which
Ibrahim scorned their gods, and which had attracted
public notice, en-Nimrud threw him into the fire :
but God converted the fire into coolness, and he
was preserved t. The fire did not flame any-
where on earth on that day.

* «*W «x£j or £f*X$M has nearly the same meaning as

" divine grace," only pushed a little further. Education, or
interest and the spirit of the time, is with most persons the sole
foundation of their religious and political principles ; and, as their
selfishness, or want of intelligence and experience, does not allow
them to appreciate the opinions of others, or to defend their own,
they take refuge to divine authority, maintaining that their own
infatuation is the effect of divine inspiration or predestination, and
the principles of their adversaries a diabolical artifice. El-
Mas'udi shows himself here, and in his opinion on the Imamship,
much more in favour of the doctrine of predestination, than was
general in his time amongst the Sonnites.
t El-Koran xxi. verse 20 (edit. Fliigel). In order to increase
the number of miracles, and to find an opportunity for an edifying
comment, the Rabbins rendered DHttO TIN " Ur of the Chal-
dees" (Gen. xi. 31) by « fire of the Chaldees;" for T)N, ur, means
" fire ;" and added the above story, which Mohammed inserted in
the Koran. G 2
 84 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

After Ibrahim had passed the eighty-sixth or

ninetieth year of his age, Isma'il was born to him
by Hajir ^=.U> who was a slave-woman to Sarah 'ij^».
Sarah was the first person who believed on Ibrahim.
She was the daughter of Batuwil, the son of Nahur,
and uncle of Ibrahim. This, however, is contro-
verted, as we shall mention hereafter.
Lut^J, the son of Haran Ben Tarikh Ben
Nahur, was Ibrahim' s nephew, and one of those
who believed on him. God sent Lut to the five
towns; viz., Sodum p«x*w, Ghomura ]^r, Adruma
U^J, Saghura \jj&e, and Safura ]^JU>. The
f
people of Lut were Mutafikah* X&j^U. £
Some com-
mentators derive this word from ^31, afak, " a lie."
God alludes to this in the Koran in the words
tSj&\ X&j^Xf ) These five cities were situated be-
tween esh-Sham and the Hejaz, near the two Syrian
provinces Jordan and Palestine. The spot of these
towns is barren up to our time (332 A.H.), and the
stones are marked with shining black lines. Lut
lived about twenty years amongst these people, and
preached to them; but they would not believe:

* El-Koran, Surah xi. verse 91 (edit. Fliigel) ; comp. M. L.

Dubeux' note to his translation of Tabari, vol. i. p. 144 ; I suspect
Mutaftkah is a corruption of some Hebrew word.
 AND MIXES OF GEMS. 85

therefore this punishment of God came down upon

them, as it is related in the Koran*.
When Hajir had borne Isma'il to Ibrahim,
Sarah became jealous of her; Ibrahim took, there-
fore, Isma'il and Hajir to Mekka, and settled them
there. This is related in the Koranf , in the words
of Ibrahim: — " O, my Lord, I made some of my
children dwell in a barren valley, at thy sacred
house !" God, hearing their prayers, gave them
the Jorhomites and 'Amalikites joJUxM ^ p&j*> as
companions in their solitude, and made men love
them.
The people of Lut were destroyed in the time
of Ibrahim, on account of their corruption, as it is
related in the Koranf
God ordered Ibrahim to sacrifice his son: he
showed himself ready to obey; but when he had
laid him down on his face, God ransomed him with
a noble victim $.
Then Ibrahim and Isma'il laid the foundation
of the house (the temple of Mekka) . When Ibrahim
was more than one hundred and twenty years old,
Sarah bore him Ishak. There is some dispute
about the sacrifice of Ibrahim; some think that

* Surah vii. vers. 78 — 82 ; xi. xv. and xxvii.

f Surah ii.
| Surah xi.
§ El-Koran xxxvii. verse 107 (edit. Fliigel).
86 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Ishak was to be the victim, whilst others maintain

it was Isma'il. If it was to take place in Mina (a
valley near Mekka), it was Isma'il, for Ishak never
came into the Hejaz; and if it was to take place
in Syria, it was Ishak; for Isma'il had never been
in Syria again, after he had been carried away from
that country.
Sarah died, and Ibrahim married Kitura \)^**39
who bore him seven sons ; Zimran ^5r°j? Yokshan
tjtlxij Medan ^Ix*, Madyan ^.jjJcc, Nishan ^J^
(Ishbak), Shukh £^K, and Kir jj£*. Ibrahim
died in Syria, one hundred and seventy years of
age : God revealed to him ten sacred books.
Ishak married Rabeka, a daughter of Batuwll1,
after the death of his father, and she gave birth to
el-'A'isu and Ya'kub2, who were twins, but el-'Aisu
was first born. Ishak was sixty years of age, and
nearly blind, when they were born. He made
Ya'kub the chief over his brothers, and the succes-
sor in the prophetic mission. To el-'Aisu he gave
the sovereignty over his children. Ishak was one
hundred and eighty -five years of age when he died,
and he was buried with his father, the " Friend of

* See 1 Chron. i. 32.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 87

God." The place where they were buried is well

known; it is eighteen miles from Jerusalem, in a
mosque which is called the mosque of Ibrahim, and
the fields of Ibrahim.
Ishak ordered his son Ya'kub to go to Syria,
and commissioned him and his twelve children with
the prophetic office. Their names are Rubil,
Shima'un, Lawi, Yehuda, Yessajir, Zebalun, Yusof,
Benyamin 3.
Ya'kub was in great fear of his brother el-'Aisu,
but God protected him: Ya'kub possessed five
thousand five hundred sheep, and gave to his bro-
ther el-'Aisu the tenth part of these, in order that
he might not do him any harm, and for fear of his
impetuosity. After God had protected him, he
had no longer to be in fear; (hence he refused to
deliver the tithes;) but he was punished in his
children, for having broken his promise. God said
to him: " Thou hast not obeyed my command;
hence the children of el-'Aisu shall dominate five
hundred and fifty years over thy children." This
was the space of time from the destruction of Jeru-
salem bythe Romans to the conquest of that city
by 'Omar Ben el-Khattab, during which period the
Children of Israel were in slavery.
 88 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Yiisof was the favourite of Ya'kub. His bro-

thers envied him, and their jealousy gave origin to
the story between Yusof and his brothers, which
God relates through the tongue of his prophet in
the Koran *.
Ya'kub died in Egypt, at the age of one hundred
and forty years : Yusof carried him to Palestine, and
buried him at the tomb of Ibrahim and Ishak.
Yusof died also in Egypt, one hundred and ten
years old.
They laid his body into a coffin of stone, closed
it with lead,, and covered it with a varnish which
keeps out air and water, and threw it into the Nile,
at the town of Memphis v^iJU, where there is the
mosque of Yusof. Some say Yusof ordered that
he should be buried in the grave of his father
Ya'kub, at the mosque of Ibrahim. In his time
lived Ayyub (Job) ; his full name is Ayyub Ben
Amus Ben Dezaj (Zeerah?) Ben Da'wayil (Reul?)
Ben el-Aisu Ben Ishak Ben Ibrahim

He was in Syria, in the district of Hauran

in the highland of Damascus, from whence

* In the twelfth chapter, which is therefore inscribed " The

Surah of Joseph."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 89

the plain is watered, and in el-Jabiyah*. He had

a great fortune, and was blessed with many chil-
dren. God proved him, bereaving him of his pro-
perty and children.
He bore this trial with patience, and God
restored to him what he had possessed. His story
is related in the Koranf . The mosque of Ayyub,
and the spring in which he washed his body, are
famous to this day (332 A.H.): they are not far
from Nawa ^ and el-Jaulant (^j^it in the pro-
vince ofthe Jordan, between Damascus and Tiberias.
The distance of this mosque and spring from the
town of Nawa is about three miles. The stone on
which Ayyub rested at the time of his affliction,
when his wife died of puerperal fever, is still in that
mosque.
Those who believe in the Pentateuch and other
ancient books^ maintain that Musa Ben Misha Ben

Yusof Ben Ya'kub cJL*^ (^ ^^ <^jv ^grr0

^j was a prophet before Musa Ben Amran
^f (Moses), and that it was he who
sought el-Khidhr Ben Melkan Ben Falegh Ben

* El-Jabiyah XxjliJ is the name of a hill and village belong-

ing to Damascus (Athar el-Bilad).
f Surah xxi. verse 83, and Surah xxxviii. verse 40.
J This is probably the valley of Ajalon : the author of the
Jihannuma (p. 559) gives this name to a mount near Damascus.
90 EL-MAs'fJDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

'Aber Ben Shaleh Ben Arfakhshad Ben Sam Ben

Nuh*

Some of those who believe in the Old Testa-

ment say el-Khidhr was the same person as Hidh-
run Ben 'Imayil Ben Elifaz Ben el-'Aisu Ben
Ishak Ben Ibrahim4; he was sent as prophet to his
nation, who were converted by him.
Musa Ben 'Amran Ben Fahit Ben Lawi Ben
Ya'kiib5 was in Egypt at the time of Fir 'aim
(Pharaoh) the giant. Fir'aun's name was el-Walid
Ben Mos'ab Ben Moawiyah Ben Abi Nomair Ben
Abil-Holus Ben Leith Ben Haran Ben 'Amr Ben
'Amalik6. He was the fourth of the Pharaohs of
Egypt, and a man of great stature, who enjoyed a
long life. The Children of Israel had fallen into

* Khidhr is said to be meant under the " Servant of God,"

mentioned in the Koran (Surah xviii. 64), as having been met by
Moses.

(
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 91

slavery after the death of Yusof, and lived under

great afflictions. The soothsayers, astrologers, and
conjurors informed Fir'aun that a child would be
born,, which would make an end to his power, and
perform great things in Egypt. Fir'aun was
frightened by this prediction, and gave orders to
kill the children. The mother of Musa exposed
her child on the Nile ^ by the command of God,
as it is related in the Koran *.
At the same time lived the prophet Sho'aib.
His full name is Sho'aib Ben Thoriel Ben Da'wayel
Ben Marik Ben 'Anka Ben Madyan Ben Ibrahimf,

He spoke Arabic and was sent to the inhabitants

of Madyan (as a preacher). When Musa had
taken flight from Fira'un, he went to the prophet
Sho'aib, and married his daughter, as it is related
in the Koran f. God ordered Musa to lead the

* Surah xx. 39.

t The names of the forefathers of Sho'aib are variously
spelt in different MSS., and by different authors; but all agree
that one of them was Madyan, i. e., that he was a Madyanite.
He is identified with Jethro, but I think without sufficient reason,
probably the destruction of Madyan by an earthquake gave an
opportunity for inventing the story of a preacher to whom the
inhabitants did not listen, and to assign the fatal catastrophe to
this sin. Compare the note at the bottom of the next page.
1 Surah vii. verse 83.
 92 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

children of Israel into et-Tih AAX!| *; their number

amounted to six hundred thousand adults, besides
those who had not attained ripe age.
The tables which God gave to Musa on the
mount Sina UA** j^s were of emerald, and the
writing was in gold. When Musa descended from
the mount, and saw that the children of Israel were
worshipping the calf, he was so much shocked at it
that the tables fell from his hands, and broke. He
gathered the pieces and put them, with other things,
into the Tabut es-Sakinah &*£«»!! £^1? which was
placed in the tabernacle J$A$M. The tabernacle
was intrusted to Harun, for he was the bearer of
the prophetic office of this age, ^UjJl ^*S. The
revelation of the Pentateuch to Musa Ben 'Amran
was completed when he was in the desert. Harun
died, and was buried in the mount Mowab,
v^ (or w^-<) which is not far from the mountains
of esh-Sharah 'i\jtA\ and from the mount Sinaf.
His grave is well known; it is in a frightful
cavern, in which, sometimes at night, a great
murmur is heard which frightens every living
being J. Some say he is not buried, but only laid

* The desert near mount Sinai.

f Another copy bears from et-Tohur,^^IiJ|

I The volcanic action which manifests itself in some places
near the mount Sinai, by a great noise which proceeds from the
bowels of the earth, raising sometimes the sound to which this pas-
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 93

into that cavern. This cavern is very curious, as

we have said. Seven months after, Musa died at
the age of one hundred and twenty years. Some
authors state that Musa died three years after
Harun,, and that he entered esh-Sham (Syria), and
fought there with the 'Amalikites (Jut UxJI, Korba-
nites (^j^oLj-XM Madyanites, and other tribes., as is
mentioned in the Pentateuch. God gave to Musa
ten books, which completed the number of one
hundred sacred codes. Subsequently God revealed
to him the Pentateuch in Hebrew, which contains
commands and prohibitions, permissions and inter-
dictions, regulations and decrees. It is in five sifr
jju,*, which means "books/' Musa had made the
ark in which the covenant, SUxCj! was preserved,
of six thousand seven hundred and fifty mithkals of
gold.
The high-priest after Harun was Yusha' Ben
Ni'm, ^ ^.j-t ££y. who was of the tribe of Ephraim.
Although Musa died one hundred and twenty years
old, he bore not a trace of an advanced age; nor

sage alludes, has been observed in ancient times, and mentioned by

Procopius, and by modern travellers, (M. Gray, Dr. Seetzen, &c.,)
and it is very probable that Madyan, and the other places which are
said not to have listened to the exhortation of Sho'ai'b, have been
destroyed by a volcanic eruption and earthquakes, as Abul-Feda,
(Hist. Anteislamitica, ed. Fleischer, page 31,) relates.
* The word is Hebrew *)P)p and is hardly ever used by the
Arabs but in speaking of the Bible.
94 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,
appeared Harun old : both retained the appearance
of youth. After Musa's death Yusha3 led the
Israelites into Syria. This country was then in
possession of giant kings of the 'Amali kites iJi/JUc
and others. Yusha' sent expeditions against them,
and had many engagements. He conquered Ariha
ls?jJ (Jericho) and Za'r*, in the Ghaur^yyj, or low
country on the Dead Sea, which repels divers, and
in which no fish or living creature can exist, as it
has been observed by the author of the logic (Aris-
totle) f, and other authors of ancient and modern
time. The Dead Sea receives the waters of the
lake of Tiberias through the river Jordan. The

* I take this for the Arabic name of Kirjath-Jearim, which

was one of the first cities conquered by the Israelites (Josh, xi,
1 7); there is, besides, some analogy of sound between Jearim or
Ye'arim, which is the plural of JT'UP Ya'rah, and *.£.• Za'r;
the meaning, however, is opposite to the Hebrew word, which means
a forest, or a place rendered impenetrable by shrubs, whilst *CjSJJ
is explained in the Kamus as a place without herbs. But Yearim
is perhaps the name of the tribe who had their quarters in this
j-j
town; for Kirjah JTHp means generally a city. El-Firuzabadi
mentions a town of the name of j£\ so called after a daughter of
Lot, and Abul-Feda (edit. Reinaud, p. 48.) gives this name to the
Dead Sea, so that it is very likely we ought to read Zoghar
instead of Za'r. This, however, would not alter the affinity of
this name with Jear, for as there is no A in Hebrew, c. must be
used instead of it.
t Ei 8' eoTiv a><77Tfp pvOoXoyovai rives fv HaXaKTTiinj roiavrr) Xi/ii/)?,
fls TJV eat Tts" e'/^aXAfl a-vvftr)<ras avfipomov rj V7ro£vyiov eVrtTrXetv KOI ov
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 95

water of the lake of Tiberias comes from the lake

Kafra el-Kera'un ^y^SM £>*f *> which is in the dis-
trict ofDamascus. The Jordan runs a great dis-
tance through the Dead Sea without mixing with
its water; but in the middle the water of the Jordan
sinks. Nobody knows how it comes that the
water of the lake is not increased by the accession
of this river, which is very considerable. There
are long stories and accounts related respecting the
Dead Sea, which we have inserted in our 'Akhbar
ez-Zeman and Kitab el-Ausat, together with an
account of the stones found there, which have the
shape of a melon, and are of two varieties. They
are called the Jews'-stone, and have been described
by philosophers, and used by physicians against
the stone of the bladder f ; this stone is either male

Kara TOV vSaros. (Meteor., lib. ii. cap. 3, p. 432, a ;

Genevae, 1605.)
* The name of this lake is variously spelt in various MSS.,
and I have not been able to determine which is the correct
reading; for other Arabic authors (Abul-Feda, edit. Reinaud,
p. 48; Jehannuma, p. 555, &c.) call it the lake of Banias, from a
neighbouring town which had anciently the name Paneas, or
Caesarea Philippi, and on coins VTTO Ilcu/ao, as if Paneas had been the
name of the snow mountain on which the town is situated. With
ancient authors the lake has the name Samochonitis, which has
also no reference to the name which el-Mas'udi gives to it. Per-
haps itis connected with Kaferla, which is the name of a town
twelve miles from Paneas, in Shultens' Index Geographicus.
t Ibn en-Nafis (p. 43, edit. Calcut.) and other Arabic phy-
96 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

or female: the male stone is useful for men, the

female for women. Another production of this
lake is bitumen, which is called ^-*,=>. There is
only one lake on earth in which no living being is
to be found, and this is a lake in Aderbijan, on which
I have sailed. It is situated between the city of
Ormiah* and el-Maraghah, and is known there by
the name of Kabiidanf. Some ancient writers
enter into the causes why no living being can exist
in the Dead Sea. Now, although they do not
reflect upon the lake Kabudan, one must naturally
conclude that the same causes must be active there.

sicians praise this stone against lithiasis, and it may be that this
volcanic production is of an alcalish nature. Avicenna (lib. ii.
p. 180), however, denies its litholytic properties. Mr. Maundrel
found a kind of bituminous stone, which answers to the descrip-
tion given by Arabic authors of the Jews'-stone, excepting the
size ; for he says that he saw stones of this sort two feet square.
Dr. Daubeny found it to be similar to that of Ragusa, in Sicily.
* Although all copies bear Armenia, I thought it quite safe
to change it into Ormiah XA^,! ; for this is a celebrated city in the
vicinity of this lake, from which it has its name in other writers,
being called the lake of Ormiah, and which claims the honour of
being Zoroaster's birth-place.
f The copy of Cambridge comes nearest to the true reading

of this name (jjta^AT), bearing j^J^jJ", of which the copyists

made generally ^l^xiT or ^J^-xT. After the researches of
Saint Martin (Memoires sur 1'Armenie, Paris, 1818, torn. i.
p. 17), there can be no doubt but that all these corruptions are
intended to express the Armenian name of this lake, which is
K'habodan.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 97

The king of Syria, es-Soma'ida' Ben Hauber

Ben Malik, marched against Yiisha', and they came
to several engagements; the result of which was, that
the king was killed, and Yusha' took possession of
his whole kingdom. Yusha' came in contact with
other kings of the Giants and Amalekites, and sent
corps towards Damascus. Yusha' lived one hun-
dred and twenty years. His full name was Yusha'
Ben Nun Ben Ephraim Ben Yusof Ben Ya'kub
Ben Ishak Ben Ibrahim. Some say Yusha' opened
his military operations with the war against the
Amalekite king Samaida' Ben Hauber £«x-**w
^•^CU'. whose dominions were in the country of
Ailah, towards Madyan. 'Auf Ben Sa'id el-Jor-
homi 0$j^»\ (jou*) «XAJU» (jjo c5j.fi says, in allusion
to this: —
" Doest thou not see Ibn Hauber the 'Amalekite
at Ailah: he is heated and thin on account of the
agitation which he is in, being invaded by an army
of eighty thousand Israelites, partly without, partly
with armour.
" The forces of the 'Amalekites, who march after
him on foot, climbing and running, offer the same
appearance : as if they had never been amongst the
cavalry of Mekka.
" Soma'ida' has never been in calamity before*."

* The last two distichs are only in the copy of Cambridge.

H
98 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

In some village of the Belka, in Syria, there

was a man of the name of Bala'am Ben Ba'ur
(Beor) Ben Samum Ben Ferstam Ben Math Ben
Lut Ben Haran, who had answered the call*: his
people urged him to curse Yusha' Ben Nun ; but
he was unable to do it. He advised, therefore,
some 'Amalekite king to send handsome women
towards the army of the Israelites. They ap-
proached to the women, and were punished with
the plague, which killed seventy thousand of their
men. Bala'am is the person of whom it is said
in the Koran f, that he had received the signs of
God, and that he apostatized.
Yusha' Ben Nun died when he was one hundred
and ten years of age. After him Kaleb Ben
Yiifenna Ben Baridh Ben Yehuda stood at the head
of the children of Israel. Yusha' and Kaleb en-
joyed the particular grace of God.
El-Mas'udi says, I found in another copy (of
the Pentateuch) that Kushan el-Kofri^: was eight

* To answer the call of somebody, means generally to join

one's party; here it means that he professed the religion of God,
to which everybody is called. The Arabs give to the history of
Balaam a somewhat different version from that which it has in the
Bible. (Numb, xxii.; xxiv. 14 5 Mic. vi. 5; 2 Pet. ii. 15; Judeii.;
Rev. ii. 14.) See D'Herbelot, voce Balaam.
f Surah vii.
J He means Cushan-rishataim. El-Kofri means the unbe-
liever.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 99

years the ruler of the Israelites after Yusha', until

he died. 'Othnayil Ben Amayayil Ben Kazin
(Othniel, the son of Kenaz), of the tribe of Juda,
ruled forty years, and killed Kush J^^ (Cushan-
rishataim), one of the giants, who resided at Marib
v-^U of the Belka. After him the children of
Israel fell into idolatry, and God permitted that the
Kana'anites should subject them ten years. After
this period they were ruled by 'Amlal el-Ahbari*
cSjlpOM J&£ (the high-priest) forty years. His suc-
cessor was Shamwil (Samuel), who reigned until
Talut ujj.!lk (Saul) came to the throne. During his
reign the invasion of Jalut £>^U- (Goliath), the
king of the Berbers of Palestine, took place.
El-Mas'udi says, according to the version after
which we began to relate this history, the head and
administrator of the affairs of the children of Israel,
after Yusha', was Kaleb Ben Yvifenna, and after him
Finehas Ben el-'Oziz Ben Harun (Aaron) Ben
'Amranf, who was twenty years the judge of the

* Probably Heli is meant : in this case his name ought to be

written • ^JUr 'Ilan. Compare p. 102, infra. El-Ahbari means
generally a Jewish doctor, and not high- priest as here.

t jydl QJJ (j»\s&£ The copy of Leyden bears el-'Ozir.

Phinehas the high-priest was the son of Eleazer, and not of Oziz.
We learn from the Chronicon of the Samaritans, which has been
translated by Hottinger, that Oziz, the fifth Hhigh-prie
2
st from
 100 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Israelites. He put the books of Moses into a cop-

per vessel, shut its opening with lead, and took
it to the rock of the temple of Jerusalem. This
was before the temple was built. The rock split,
and in the cavity so formed another projecting rock
presented itself. When Finehas had placed the
vessel upon this rock, the cavity closed, and was as
before*. After Finehas Ben el-'Oziz, the Israelites

Aaron, has concealed some sacred vessels. It is very likely that

el-Mas' udi, and the author of the said Chronicon, who is Abul-
Fath Ben Abul-Hasan, have used the same sources.
* This rock, which rises about man's height from the level of
the ground, is covered with a cupola, and on the side of the rock
stands a chapel, and it enjoys still the veneration of the Moslims.
(Jihannuma, Constant. 1732, p. 565.) El-Kazwlni gives in his
work, Athar el-bilad, several other instances of veneration for
stones in Syria, as the stone sacred to Sho'a'ib at Kafermendah
k'iXxxjviT, the stone sacred to Job in the Jaulan, &c. Taking into
consideration the various stones which were almost worshipped in
Arabia, besides the black stone of Mekka, one might almost
suppose this gross fetishism formed one time a part of the
national religion of the Semitic nations, owing, no doubt, to
aerolithes, which may be very frequent in those volcanic coun-
tries hence,
; Sanchoniathon ascribes the origin of this practice to
the god Coelus, saying they are living and animated stones.
As further instances of the practice of consecrating or wor-
shipping stones, may be brought forward, the example of Jacob
(Gen. xviii. 18), the testimony of Clemens of Alexandria
(Strom., lib. vii.), and the practice of Arnobius (Cont. Gen., lib. i.) :
" Si quando conspexeram lubricatum lapidem, et ex olivsB unguine
lubricatum, tanquam inesset vis praesens, adulabar, affabar."
(Compare Calmet, voce Stone, ")
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 101

were ruled by Kushan el-Atim (Cushan-rishataim),

the king of Mesopotamia, for they were fallen into
idolatry, for which they had to endure night years'
hardship. Then was 'Othnayil (Othniei) Ben
Yufenna, the brother of Kaleb, of the tribe of Juda,
judge, forty years. After him they were subjected
by Aglum (Eglon), the king of Mowab, who kept
them under great oppression eighteen years. Then
was Ahud, of the tribe of Ephraim, their judge
fifty-five years. When he had been thirty-five
years judge, the age of the world was four thousand
years: this, however, is controverted by chronolo-
gers. He was succeeded by his son Sha'an (Sham-
gar, the son of Anath). Then they were conquered
by Bills (Jabin), the Kanaanite, king of Syria,
twenty years. Then ruled a woman, of the name
of Dabura (Deborah), who was, according to some
authors, the daughter of her predecessor. She
joined with herself a man of the name of Barak,
forty years. After her they were conquered by the
chiefs of the Madyanites, viz., 'Urib (Oreb), Zerneb
(Zeeb), Buria, Dara' (Zebah), Salana (Zalmunna),
seven years and three months. Then Jida'un
(Gideon), of the family of Menasha, forty years.
He killed the kings of the Madyanites, and was
succeeded by his son Abu Malikh (Abimelech).
Then Thula' (Tola), of the tribe of Ephraim,
twenty-three years. Then Nas (Jair), of the family
of Menasha, twenty-two years. Then the kings of
102 EL-MAS'lJOl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Amman (Ammon), eighteen years and three months.

Then Yehtim (Jephthah), of Beit Lehm, seven years*.
Then Samsun, twenty years. Then they were sub-
jected bythe kings of Palestine forty years. Then
Tlan (Heli), the high-priest, forty years. In his
time the Babylonians conquered the children of
Israel, took the ark, through which the Israelites
had expected to gain the victory over them, and
they carried it to Babel. They made the Israelites
and their children captives, and carried them off
from their homes.
At the same time happened what is related of
the people of Hizkil (Ezekiel), who went out from
their homes for fear of death (of the enemy), although
they were thousands in number. God said to them
"Die;" and when they were dead, he restored
them to life again. Then they were visited with
the plague, and only three tribes of them escaped
death f. One tribe took refuge on the sea-shore,
the other to some island of the sea, and the third to

U^AJ Bethlehem, the city of flesh, or incarnation. The

form more frequently used to express incarnation and naturali-
sation, is *l^\J^J (Ibn Khaldun, Proleg., lib. i.)
f Koran, Surah ii. verse 244, edit. Fliigel. The tendency of
this story of the Koran is to show that it is of no avail to fly
from an enemy ; for God can restore the dead to life, and destroy
men in thousands by the plague as well as by war. The fable
owes its origin probably to Rabbinical traditions invented as a
comment upon the thirty-eighth chapter of Ezekiel.
 AND MINKS OF GEMS. 103

the summits of the mountains: after many adven-

tures they came back to their homes, and said to
Hizkil, " Hast thou ever heard of a people that had
to experience what we have encountered?" Hizkil
answered, ' ' No, I have never heard of a people who
have taken flight from God as you have done." God
sent after seven days again the plague amongst
them, and they died all to the last man.
After 'Ilan, the high-priest, ruled Ashmawil Ben
Baruha Ben Nahur (Samuel). He was a prophet,
and administered the state of the Israelites twenty
years. God gave them peace, and blessed them.
But subsequently, when they were in new troubles,
they said to Ashmawil, " Send us a king, and we
will fight in the way of God." He was ordered to
make Talut, who is Saul Ben Kish Ben Abiyal Ben
Sarur Ben Bakhurat Ben Asmida' (Aphiah) Ben
Benyamin Ben Ya'kub Ben Ishak Ben Ibrahim,
their king: he gave him power, and the Israelites
had never before been all united as they were under
Talut. From the emigration of the Israelites from
Egypt, under Musa, to the accession of Talut,
elapsed five hundred and seventy- two years and
three months. Talut was originally a tanner, and
made leather. Their prophet Ashmawil announced
to them, 4< God has set Talut king over you."
They answered, according to what God says*,

* Koran, Surah ii. \erse 248.

104 EL-MAS'uDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD

" How shall he reign over us ? We are more

worthy of the sovereignty than he; and he is not in
possession of a great fortune." " The proof of his
sovereignty," said Samuel, "shall be the ark, in
which there is tranquillity * from your Lord, and

* The word which I render by tranquillity is sekinah

-> j /.T-O xu-j. This is not considered as an Arabic
word by lexicographers, and I have found it only in one instance,
besides in the above sentence from the Koran, in a passage of
Ibn Khaldun (Prolegomena, MS. of Ley den, folio 112, verso),
which runs thus, if the MS. is correct: — jjf *L*>JJ •

SL« ''The rulers will have obtained

an arbitrary and absolute power over the subjects; hence they
will encroach upon all their money by introducing customs, or
monopolies, or confiscations of private property on or without
suspicion. The soldiers will become daring in this phasis towards
the rulers ; for they have lost their vigour, and the enthusiasm for
their own cause and caste is declining: they have, therefore,
nothing better to expect. The attempt to remedy the evil by
settling the gratuities (and changing them into regular pay), and
by making enormous expenses for them, will fail, and they will
find no friend/'
Maracci and Sale, in their commentaries to the Koran, and
after them De Sacy, in his Chrestom. Arabe (torn, ii., p. 77),
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 105

the relics of the signs (which God had given to

former prophets)." The ark remained ten years

follow the opinion of some Arabic interpreters of that book,

and consider the word as the Hebrew pWQttf shekinah, which is
derived from /.jX*j> to rest, to be quiet) to be present, and means
the divine presence in the temple of Jerusalem, which drove from
thence the princes of the air (genii of the Arabs), and made it
quiet: then it means also inspiration, and in the Targums or the
Chaldee paraphrases it is used for Holy Ghost (Calmet, Diet,
of the Bible) . This signification, however, would be quite con-
trary to the ideas of Mohammed, who probably took up the term
without connecting a clear idea with it : for things of which we
do not understand the meaning, or which have none at all, are
most edifying. Some commentators of the Koran say, therefore,
the tabut es-sakmah was an ark given to Adam, which contained
the portraits of all the prophets up to Mohammed. For as there
are many false prophets who have wrought miracles, whilst the
Arabic legate of God professed that he did not perform any other
but moral wonders, it would indeed have been the best to have a
portrait to verify the man who is to be believed. This fabrica-
tion seems to have been forged in opposition to the Jenahians,
Xx^UiJ, who considered descent as the evidence of the pro-
phetic mission of a man ; and as our author seems to have been
very much in favour of the latter doctrine, as it appears from
what he says above, p. 54, (compare the second note to p. 55,
supra,) he must have rejected this explanation of sakinah, and
have taken the word in its first meaning as tranquillity. This
justifies also the suggestion contained in the first note to p. 73,
supra, which is besides confirmed by the first six lines in p. 79,
supra, from which it appears that el-Mas'udi believed that the
tabut (ark, coffin) of Adam contained his body, and not the
portraits of the prophets.
106 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

at Babel. They heard at dawn the noise of

the angels flying round the ark, and it was carried
away.
Jalut iS^U. (Goliath) was very powerful, and
his troops and leaders were numerous. When
Jalut (Goliath), whose full name is Jalut Ben
Balud Ben Diyal Ben Hattan Ben Faris Ben Nasud
Ben Sam Ben Nuh ^U^ ^ JUS ^ S^L & ^U
gy ^ *L» ^.jj Jj>*sU ^.j^ u^jL5 (^j-it heard that the
Israelites had put Talut (Saul) on the throne, he
marched with several races of Berbers j*jA\ from
Palestine, towards the Israelites. Samuel ordered
Talut to go out with the children of Israel to fight
against Jalut. God sent them the trial at a river
between the districts of the Jordan and Palestine,
which he has related in his book*. When they
were very thirsty, they were ordered how they
should drink: those who doubted, lapped like dogs,
and they were killed by Jalut to the last man.
Saul selected from his best troops three hundred
and thirteen men, amongst whom were the brothers
of Dawud (David), and Dawud himself. The two
armies met, but the battle was undecided. Talut
encouraged his men, and promised to any one who
would go out against Jalut one-third of his king-

* Koran, Surah ii. verse 250. Mohammed has confounded

Saul and Gideon. (Judg. vii.)
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 107

dom, and his daughter in marriage. Dawud went

out against him, and killed him with a stone which
he had in his forage-bag. He threw it with a
sling, and Jalut fell on the ground. This is related
in the Koran *, where God says, " Dawud slew
Jalut . . . These are the signs of God."
Some say, Dawud had three stones in his
forage-bag, which united, and became one stone;
and this they say was the stone with which he killed
Jalut. There exist several comments on this
stone, which we have related in our former works.
Some pretend that it was Talut (Saul) who slew
those who lapped from the river, and acted con-
trary to the command of God, and not Jalut
(Goliath). We have related the story of the coat
of mail, of which their prophet had predicted that
nobody could conquer Jalut except whom it fitted;
and which fitted Dawud: we have given details
respecting these wars, and the river which dried up :
and we have related the history of the kingdom of
Talut (Saul)f, and the Berbers, and their origin, in
our book called the Akhbar ez-zeman, and we shall
speak on it in the following pages of this work, in
a more adapted place, where we give a brief account
of the history of the Berbers, and their dispersion
over the earth.

* Koran, Surah ii. verse 250.

f It should probably run, the kingdom of Jalut, or Goliath.
108 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

God made the name of Dawud glorious, and that

of Talut obscure; for Talut refused to keep his
promise to him. But when he saw that Dawud
became popular, he married his daughter to him,
and gave him the third part of his possessions, the
third part of the revenue, the third part of his
jurisdiction, and the third part of his subjects.
After he had done so, he envied him, and intended
to deprive him of them. But God did not permit
it, and Dawud declared himself against his inten-
tions. All what Dawud did prospered. Saul
died in the night, under great depression of spirits,
whilst he was sitting on his throne. After his
death the whole empire came under Dawud.
Talut reigned twenty years. The spot where
Dawud killed Jalut is said to be Baisan, in the
Ghaur, which is a district of the Jordan.
God rendered the iron soft for Dawud,, and he
made coats of mail. God made the mountains
and birds subservient* to him, and they praised
God with him. David had wars with the people
of Mowab, in the country of el-Belka. God re-
vealed to him the Book of Psalms, in Hebrew,
consisting of one hundred and fifty Surahs. He
divided them into thirds: one third fortells the

history of Bokhta Nassar ^a5 tlXir (Nebuchadnez-

* Koran, Surah xxxviii. verses 17 and 18.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 109

zar) with the Israelites ; another third predicts what

would happen to them from the people of Athur
j>\; and one third contains admonitions, exhor-
tations, and hymns. There are neither laws nor
interdicts, nor permissions nor prohibitions, in the
Psalms. Dawud was successful in all that he did;
and even those unbelievers who had a rebellious
spirit, were filled with respect for him, in all parts
of the earth. He built a house for holy service at
Kurat el-islam*,, that is to say, in Beit el-Makdis.
This temple is standing in our time [332 A.H.], and
it is known under the name of Mihrab of Dawud.
There is at present no building in Jerusalem which
is higher than this temple. You can see from its
top as far as the Dead Sea and the River Jordan.
To Dawud happened the story of the two adver-
saries, to which an allusion is made in the Book of
Godf. Dawud, before he had heard the other,
passed the sentence: " He has wronged thee in
asking from thee (thy ewe), &c." The commen-

*. jj Kurat el-isldm, means the district of the

islam, and is a play of words with the name of Jerusalem,
with which it has some similarity of sound, it being pro-
nounced bythe Arabs, Uraslam, or Aurashlim j^^JLiUJ, or

simply Shallam ^& (el-Kamus, p. 1647). Compare the twenty-

eighth chapter, infra.
t Koran, Surah xxxviii. verse 21, et seq.
110 EL-MAS'lIDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

tators to the Koran do not agree respecting the

fault of Dawud (for which he is blamed in the
Koran). Some give the same explanation which
we have just given, and which is justified by the
words *, " We have made thee our lieutenant on
earth, &c." But some say that the story of the
two adversaries was a parable in allusion to Uria
Ben Kenan, and his being killed, as it is mentioned
in the " boohs of the beginning" *J«XAA)U u*xT, and
in oilier works. Dawud underwent a repentance
of forty days' fasting and weeping. He had no less
than one hundred wives. Solaiman was his son:
he showed great talents, and used to be present
when his father exercised the duties of a judge;
and God gave him \visdom in speech and judgment,
as it is said in the Koran f, " We gave to all of them
wisdom and knowledge, &c." When he was dying,
he made Solaiman his heir. Dawud reigned forty
years over Palestine and the Jordan. He had an army
of sixty thousand soldiers, with swords, shields, and
good horses; they were men in the prime of life,
full of courage and vigour.

* Koran, xxxviii. verse 25. After the words quoted stands,

in this, and in several other instances, 3Lj5N> which I render by
"&c.;'' for it cannot mean anything else but "and the rest of
this verse."
Surah xxi. verse 79.
 AND MINKS OF GEMS. Ill

In his age flourished Lokman the Wise, in the

country of Ailah and Madyan: his full name is
Lokman Ben 'Anka Ben Madyan Ben Merwan

He was a Nubian, and a freed slave of

Lokain Ben Jesr *& ^JU. Lokman was born
in the tenth year of the reign of Dawud. He was
a slave, full of virtue, and God gave him wisdom.
He lived distinguished by his wisdom and abste-
miousness until Yunos Ben Matt a csU ^ u*A*H
(Jonas) was sent to Ninive, in the country of
el-Mausil.
After the death of Dawud his son Solaiman was
the bearer of the prophetic office, and the judge.
He extended his justice over all his subjects, his
government was firm, and he held the armies in
due submission. Sola'iman began to build the Beit
el-Makdis (the temple of the sacred city), which is
called the most remote temple ^taSW <X:sx*wo, round
which God pours out his blessing. When he had
finished the construction of the temple, he built a
house for himself. This is called in our days the
Church of the Resurrection*, and is the greatest
church at Jerusalem; but there are other large

XJl 3U*AxT. See Golius' notes to Alfergani, p. 158,

and Castelli's Diet. Heptagl.
 112 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

churches besides, as the Church of Sahytin (Sion),

which has been mentioned by Dawud, and the
Church of el- Jesmaniyah * X>oU*»iJ, in which
Dawud is said to be buried. God gave to Solaiman
greater favours than to anybody before him, and
he made subservient to him men, genii, birds, and
winds, as it is related in the Book of Godf. Solai-
man ruled forty years over the Beni Israel. He
died in an age of fifty-two years.

* This is probably the church which Haji Khalfa (p. 565)

calls the Church of the Virgin Mary ; for the place where it is
situated has with him the name el- Jesmaniyah. I suppose Jes-
maniyah means corporis Christi; for the Christian Arabs have
formed a number of words after the genius of the Syriac and

Greek languages, as *J&'^, plur. *jotS»'i person (of the Trinity);

iII^AwUM the human nature
3 •>
(of Christ) ; uj^&JJ Godhead
implying a somewhat different idea from 5U6 Jil| ; *>l«cr?"Mj
the union (of the three persons of the Trinity), and hence quite
different from the pure Mohammedan idea expressed by the word

]!• (Mefatih el-'olum.)

f Koran, Surah xxi. and xxxviii.
 AND MINKS OF GEMS. 1J3

FIFTH CHAPTER.

The reign of Rakhobb'am Ben Solaiman Ben Ddwud,

and the Israelite kings who succeeded him. Concise
account of their Prophets.

AFTER the death of Solaiman, his son Rakhobo'am

*ju^!j came to the throne. He ruled at first over
all the tribes; but subsequently they separated
themselves from him, except the tribes of Judah
and Benjamin. He reigned seventeen years.
The king of the ten tribes was Yeruboham
(Jeroboam), who had several wars, and worshipped
a calf of gold and jewels. God destroyed him after
a reign of twenty years.
Then reigned Abya (Abijah), the son of Rakho-
bo'am Ben Solaiman, three years. Then reigned
Ahar (Asa) forty years. Then reigned Yuram
(Jehoram), who introduced the worship of idols
(stars), statues, and images: he reigned one
year. Then reigned a woman, of the name of
'Athalan (Athaliah), who destroyed the descendants
of Dawud, and only one boy of this family was
spared. The children of Israel, indignant at her
cruelty, killed her, after a reign of seven years, and
made this boy their king. He was seven years of
age when he came to the throne, and reigned forty
 114 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

years, or less. Then reigned Amasyd (Amaziab)

fifty- two years. During his reign lived the prophet
Sha'ya U*~ (Isaiah), with whom he came in frequent
contact. He had some wars,, which we have re-
lated in our book Akhbar ez-zeman. Then reigned
Yutham (Jotham) ten years ; according to others,
sixteen years. After him reigned Ahaz : he intro-
duced idolatry, and was an unjust king. One of the
greatest kings of Babel, named Baghin* ^L,,
marched against him. After long wars between Ahaz
and the king of Babel, the latter made Ahaz prisoner,
and destroyed the towns of the (Israelite) tribes,
and their dwellings.
During his reign religious quarrels took place
between the Jews and the Samaritans *^U-^J.
The Samaritans deny the prophetic mission of
Dawud, maintaining that there was no prophet after
Musa. They chose their chiefs from the descend-
ants of Harun (Aaron) Ben 'Amran, and live in
our time [A.H. 332], in separate towns, in the
Jordan and Palestine, as, for instance, in the town
called 'Ara r,U, which is between er-Ramlah and
Tiberias, and other towns as far as Nabolos

* This is a corruption for Tiglathpileser, instead of which

one copy bears y^aX* ', so that it may be inferred, from the
great difference which exists between the two copies, that el-
Mas'udi wrote the name correctly, but that it was corrupted by
the copyists, as it happened with other names.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 115

(Naplous). In this last-mentioned city they are

most numerous. They have a (sacred) mount which
they call Tur* j^Jb, and they offer there prayers at
certain times. They sound bells of silver at prayer
time, and it is they who say, " Do not touch me !"
They believe that Nabolos is the sacred town (Beit
el-makdis)t, and the town of Ya'kub, and that
there is the place where his flock grazed. The
Samaritans are of two sects, which are separate

-3. These are the words of the original in the copy of

Leyden. De Sacy quotes this passage thus, in his Chrestomathie
Arabe (torn. ii. pp. 342 and 343): — j£o &\ jUu Ja>- *^

Igj'U^f ^i C>JjXo axXc s^oLj&J JojJ, and translates ac-

cordingly: Us ont la une montagne nominee Tor-berik. Les
Samaritains font la priere sur cette montagne dans les temps
destines a ce pieux exercice. The MS. of Cambridge bears

t Isstachri (edit. Moeller, p. 31) says nearly the same thing:

here are his words :

syc l^!« El-Edrisi transcribed this passage in his work, and

corrupted it thus: — £ - - - '[^\ XAJ«X«

Lc

*yc . Nabolos is the town of the Samaritans, and the people of

I 2 but in this
Jerusalem believe that nowhere Samaritans are found
116 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

from each other, as they are separate from the

other Jews. One of the two sects is called Kushan *
^Uj.r, and the other Dushan (or Rushan) et*^
(jiZjj). One of these two sects believes that the
world has no beginning f, and other dogmas of this
nature, which I forbear to mention, for fear of being
too tedious in a work which professes to treat on
history, and not on opinions and doctrines of sects.
Ahaz had reigned seventeen years before he
was made a prisoner by the king of Babylon. In
his captivity a son was born to him, who received
the name Hizkiya U*^ (Hezekiah). He kept up
the religion of the true God, and gave orders to
destroy images and idols. During his reign Senna-
harib <-o^L^\Mo the king of Babel, marched against
Jerusalem. He had several wars with the Israel-

town, &c. ( Rosenmiiller, Analecta Arabica, pars iii. p. 3. —

Compare Jaubert's Translation, torn. i. p. 335.)
This may serve as an example how Oriental writers are some-
times misled by corrupt readings, and may illustrate the note to
page 1 1 7 of this volume ; for there can be no doubt that this
fault is to be attributed to el-Edrisi himself, and not to the copyists,
since it is found in the copies of Oxford and Paris.
* If the Cuthaeans derive their name from Cush, or Scythia,
the spelling is here more correct than in the Bible (2 Kings xvii.
24, 30; Ezra iv. 1, 2) ; for there it is /TO Kuth, Xov0.
f Arabic scholastics make a distinction between rjj», which

is the term used here, and JjJ: the former meaning what has
no beginning, and the latter what has neither beginning nor end.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 117

ites, and suffered great loss; but finally he took

many tribes prisoners. Hizkiya reigned till he
died, twenty-nine years.
After Hizkiya his son Manasha (Manasseh)
reigned. He killed the prophet Sha'ya, and gave a
bad example, which was followed by his subjects.
God sent Constantine, the king of er-Rum*, against

* "The Lord brought upon them the captains of the

host of the king of Assyria, which took Manasseh among the
thorns, and bound him with fetters, and carried him to Babylon.
And when he was in affliction he besought the Lord his God
. . . . And [God] brought him again to Jerusalem, into his
kingdom." (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11, 12, 13.) Petavius believes that
this Assyrian king was the Berodach-baladan of the Scriptures
(2 Kings xx. 12), and Map8oKfp,7ra8os of the Chronological Tables
of Ptolemy. As the copyists put frequently a known word instead
of a name of less frequent occurrence, we may suppose that el-
Mas'udi wrote Mardokempad, king of Atur, (see our note to
page 31 of this volume,) of which the copyist made Constantine,
king of er-Rum; for el-Mas'udl was well acquainted with
Ptolemy's Chronological Tables, and quotes them in the Tanbih.
But in comparing this passage with the words of et-Tabari
(who was one of the sources whence el-Mas'udi derived his infor-
mation), preserved by Ibn Khaldun (MS. of Leyden, No. 1250,
vol. ii. fol. 44, verso), we feel inclined to ascribe this gross anachro-
nism to our author's want of attention: XxjU

"In the fifty-second (year of the reign of Manasseh) Byzan-

tium was built : the founder of this city was King Yuros. It is
the same town which has been renewed by Constantine, and
118 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

him, who invaded his country with several armies,

put his troops to flight, made him a prisoner, and
kept him twenty years in er-Rum, in captivity ; but
changing his former conduct, he was restored to
his kingdom. He reigned till he died, twenty-five,
or, as others say, thirty, years.
His successor was 'Amun (Amon), who neither
believed nor obeyed God, but worshipped images
and idols. When his ungodliness had reached the
utmost, Fir'aun the Lame gjs-W u**j* marched
from Egypt, with a large army, against him, and
after he had made a great slaughter amongst the
Israelites, he took him as prisoner to Egypt, where
he perished. He reigned five years. Some authors
differ in their account. After him reigned his
brother Tufil J^yT, who is the father of the prophet
Danial jUib. During his reign el-Bokhta Nassar
(Nebuchadnezzar), the governor of el- 'Irak, and the
Arabs * ^xJ^oV^xJi, under the king of Persia, who

called after his name." (Compare Eusebius, Chronicorum Canonii

ad Olympiadem 30, A. H.) Now seeing the account of the cap-
tivity of the Israelites on the same page with the name of Con-
stantine, he, probably overlooking a line, took him for the king
who made them prisoners. For a similar mistake of el-Edrisi,
owing to the perusal of a corrupt copy of the author whence he
was compiling, see the note to page 115 of this volume.
* Perhaps it ought to read 'Irak el-' Arab, which is the name
for Babylonia, and I should not have hesitated to change the read-
ing, ifHerodotus did not give nearly the same title to Sennaherib,
calling him BcwiAe'a *Apa/3tW re *cai '
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 119

was then residing in Balkh, the capital of his em-

pire, marched against the Israelites; and after he
had slain many of them,, he took them to el-'Irak,
into captivity. He carried also the Pentateuch and
the books of the prophets and the histories of the
king away, which were in the temple at Jerusalem,
and threw them into a well. The ark of the cove-
nant fell also into his hands, and he preserved it in
some place of his country. The number of the
Israelites who were in captivity is said to have been
eighteen thousand. In his time lived Jeremiah the
prophet. El-Bokhta Nassar made a campaign
against Egypt, and killed Pharao the Lame., who
was at that time the king of Egypt. Thence he
proceeded towards the West, took the kings pri-
soners, and conquered many towns.
The king of Persia had married a woman of the
Israelite captives, who bore him a child, and he
sent the children of Israel back into their homes

after two years' captivity. When they had re-

turned into their native country, reigned Zorobabil
Ben Salsal (Zorobabel, the son of Selathiel). The
town of Jerusalem was rebuilt, and what had been
destroyed was re-established. They got the Penta-
teuch out of the well, and their state became flourish-
ing. This king devoted forty-six years to the culti-
vation of the country ; and he ordered them to keep
the prayers and other obligations prescribed by the
Law, which had been neglected during the captivity.
120 EL-MAS'UDl's -MEADOWS OF GOLD,

The Samaritans believe that the Pentateuch

which was recovered from the well, was not the
same which Musa had given to them,, but that it is
full of fictions, changes, and alterations. The
author of the new Pentateuch which the Jews have
is Zorobabil, who collected it from the accounts of
those who knew it by heart, whilst the genuine
Pentateuch is in the hands of the Samaritans. This
king reigned forty-six years. Another version of
this history says, that the person who married a
Jewish lady was el-Bokhta Nassar himself, and that
he released the Jews from the captivity.
After Ibrahim his son Isma'il took charge of the
house (Ka'bah, at Mekka). God made him a pro-
phet, and sent him to the 'Amalikites, and to some
tribes of Yemen, to forbid to them idolatry. Some
of them became believers ; the most part, however,
remained faithful to the false religion. Ismael was
blessed with twelve sons, viz., Nabet (Nebaioth),
Kidar, Abdil, Mibsam, Maisa' (Mishma), Duma,
Dowam*, Mita (Massa), Heddad, Taim (Tema),
Yetura, and Nan's, £**AXI; p**^\*J^l;
U. ^«\& «^L*
Ibrahim

* Dowam is not mentioned in the Bible (Chronicon i. 29, 30):

it crept in probably by writing Duma twice, once wrongly spelt ;
and then, in order not to have thirteen names, the copyists left out
Kedemah, which is the name last mentioned in the Bible.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 121

declared Isma'il as his successor, and Isma'il in-

stalled Nabet, or according to others, Kidar, to
succeed him. When Isma'il died, he was one
hundred and thirty- seven years of age, and was
buried in the mesjid el-Haram (the temple of
Mekka), on the spot where the black stone is.
After him the charge of the temple was intrusted
to his son Nabet, who followed the good example
and religion of his father.
There were several prophets and men distin-
guished by godliness between Solaiman, son of
Dawud, and the Masih (Messiah), as Aramaya
Uc^l (Jeremiah), Daniyal (Daniel), 'Ozair ^y.
(Ezra) [whose prophetic dignity is controverted],
Sha'ya (Isaiah), Hizkial (Ezekiel), llyds (Elias), el-
Yasa' (Elisha), Yunos* (Jonas), Dul-Kifl

* I preserve here, and in other Scriptural names, the Arabic

sound; for some changes are as much sanctioned by use with
them, as in English to say John instead of Joannes. Besides,
these corruptions may yet point out whence the Arabs have
originally derived their Biblical knowledge. Some Hebrew names
seem even to have been originally Arabic, and to have been pre-
served in the language of this nation, as well as in the Scriptures.
Only, in putting the vowels, I follow in preference the Scriptures,
when Arabic authors do not agree: some authors write the Kamus
Nomrud, whilst others write Namrud and Nimrud. I prefer
the latter.
t The name of Dul-Kifl is twice mentioned in the Koran;
the first time (xxi. 85) with Isma'il and Idris, and the second
122 EL-MAs'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and el-Khidhr* j*a.±\. A tradition reported by

Ibn Ishak (or Ibn 'Abbas) makes Aramaya a pious
and godly man (but not a prophet). Another pro-
phet of this period was Zakariya (Zacharias), who
was the son of Adan, of the children of Dawud and
the tribe of Juda. He was married to Lishya'
(Elizabeth), the daughter of 'Imran, and sister of
Maryam (Mary), the mother of Christ. 'Imran,
who was the son of Maran Ben Yo'akim, was also
a descendant of Dawud. The name of the mother

of Lishya' (Elizabeth), and of Maryam,, was Han-

nah. Elizabeth gave birth to Yahya (John), who
was the cousin of Christ. His father Zakariya was
a carpenter. The Jews spread the rumour that he
had ravaged Maryam, and put him to death. When

time (xxxviii.) with Isma'iland el-Yasa' (Elisha), so that one may

infer that he is a Hebrew prophet who received this name from
some action or event, as Jonas was called Dul-Nun, from the
fish which swallowed him. Sale adds the following note to the
second passage of the Koran: — " Al-Beidawi here takes notice
of another tradition concerning this prophet ; viz., that he enter-
tained and took care of a hundred Israelites, who fled to him
from a certain slaughter; from which action he probably had
the name Dul-Kifl given him; the primary signification of the
word cafala being to maintain, or take care of another. If a
conjecture might be founded on this tradition, I should fancy the
person intended was Obadiah, the governor of Ahab's house."
* About el-Khidhr see page 90 of this volume.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 123

he was aware of their intention, he took refuge in

a tree, and hid himself in its cavity ; but Satan, the
enemy of God, pointed him out to them. They
split the tree in which he was, and cut him to
pieces in so doing. When Elizabeth, the sister of
Maryam, the mother of Christ, had given birth to
Yahya Ben Zakariya, she took flight with her child
from some king to Egypt.
When he had grown up God sent him to the
children of Israel. He preached to them what God
has commanded and forbidden, and they put him
to death. There were many rebellions* amongst
the Israelites. God sent, therefore,, a king, of the
name of Hardush (Herodes), from the East. Under
him the righteous men had the same fate as Yahya,
the son of Zakariya; and it was only after long
troubles, that he put a stop to shedding blood.
When Maryam was seventeen years of age God
sent the angel Gabriel to her, and he breathed the
spirit into her. She was with child of the Masih,
Jesus the son of Maryam, and she gave him birth
in a country town,, called Beit Lehm, which is some
miles from Jerusalem. This was in the twenty-
fourth of the first Kanun. His history is related

The copy of Leyden bears ^

There were many traditions among the Israelites."

124 EL MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

by God in the Koran*, and the Christians believe

that Jesus observed the old religion of his nation.
He read (lectured on) the Pentateuch and other
ancient books for twenty-nine or thirty years, at
Tiberias, in the province of the Jordan, in a syna-
gogue called el-Madras u^JsJU. A certain day he
was reading the Book of the prophet Esaias, and
he saw in it the passage, "Thou art my prophet and
my elect: I have chosen thee for me:" he closed the
book, gave it to the minister of the synagogue,
and went out saying, " The word of God is now
fulfilled in the Son of Manf." Some say Christ
lived in a town called Nasarah (Nazareth), in the
district of el-Lajjun ^^.J^, in the province of the
Jordan. Hence the Christians have (in Arabic)
the name Nasraniyah lo^A^U I have visited that
church: it is in high veneration with the Christians.
There are some coffins of stone, with dead bodies
~j
in them, from which oil comes out, of the consis-
tency of the inspissated juice of fruits (Roob v^0>
in which the Christians find their blessing.
The Masih came to the lake of Tiberias, where
he found some fishermen, who were the sons of
Zabada, and some fullers. Matta (Matthew), Yo-
hanna (John), Markush (Mark), and Luka (Luke),

* In the third Surah, and passim.

t Lukeiv. 16—21.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 125

are the four apostles who wrote the Gospel, and

preserved the history of the Masih: they have
related in it his birth and his baptism by Yahya
Ben Zakariya, who is called John Baptist ^.^
tXfrxJJ, in the lake of Tiberias, from which the water
runs into the Jordan ; the wonders wrought through
him, the miracles with which God honoured him,
and how the Jews treated him, till he ascended into
heaven, when he was thirty-three years of age.
There are long accounts of the Masih, Mary am,
and Yusof the carpenter, in the Gospel, which we
forbear inserting; for God does not mention them
(in the Koran), nor has his prophet Mohammed
related them.
126 EL-MA$'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

SIXTH CHAPTER.

Those who lived in the Fatrah ; that is to say, in the

time between Christ and Mohammed.

EL-MAS'UDI says, many persons who lived between

Christ and Mohammed, in the Fatrah, professed
the unity of God, and believed that he sends (pro-
phets). But whether there has been a prophet
amongst them or not is controverted. Some allege
that Hantalah Ben Safwan ^yu* ^^ XXk;^, who
was a descendant of Isma'il Ben Ibrahim, has been
a prophet, and was sent to the Ashab er-Rass*,

The Ashab er-Rass are brought forward

as an example in the Koran (xxv. 40), together with the 'Adites
and Themudites, as a nation, who have been punished for not
having listened to their prophet. The commentators of the
Koran conceive ashab to mean inhabitants^ and believe, therefore,
er-Rass to be a town. They have, however, been so much at a
loss to find the site of this town, that they thought it might be on
the river er-Rass, or the Araxes of the ancients I Now sahib
hardly ever means inhabitants. El-Fairuzabadi (p. 763) gives
the following opinion :— " Er-Rass is the name of a well of rem-
nants of the Themudites, in which they smothered \y^ their
prophet, not believing on him." This leads me to think that
rass is to be taken as an infinitive, and ashab er-rass to be
rendered by smotherers.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 127

who were equally descended from Isma'il, and

divided into two tribes, one of which was called
o *
Kodman ^LctXS, and the other Yamin (^-j-<^> or
Ra'wil J^y^j? both of which were in Yemen. When
Hantalah Ben Safwan rose amongst them, by the
command of God, they killed him. A prophet of
the children of Israel, of the tribe of Juda, received
therefore the revelation of God, that Bohkta Nassar
would march, by divine command, against them :
and he vanquished them. To this allude the words
of God: " When they felt our strength, they were
agitated .... dying and perishing." It is
said that they were Himyarites, and this is sup-
ported by one of their (Himyarite) poets in an
elegy:
" My eyes flow in tears for the Ashab er-Rass,
the Ra'wil, and Kodman: the punishment which
the tribe of the Kahtanites suffered caused those to
submit to God who had refused to do so."
It is stated on the authority of Wahb Ben
Monabbih that Dul-Karnein, who is the same per-
son with Alexander*, lived after Christ, in the

* Other passages of this work evince an intimate acquaintance

of el-Mas'udi with the history of Alexander the Great, and the
Alexandrian era. But it is the habit of Arabic historians, and
particularly with our author, to give the different traditions which
they have received literally as they heard them, even if they
128 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Fatrah. He had a vision, in which he saw himself

so near the sun that he seized its two extremities
^/JjjtM, the eastern and western. He related this
dream to his people, and they called him " One who
has both horns" (or sides of the sun) ^jjtt^i.
Many different opinions respecting him have been
advanced, which are to be found in our works, the
Akhbar ez-zeman and the Kitab el-ausat, and we
shall give a view of his history in those chapters
of this book which treat on the Greek and Byzan-
tine sovereigns.
In the same way the historians do not agree on
the men of the grotto (the Seven Sleepers): some
say they lived in the Fatrah ; others think other-
wise. We shall insert a concise account of their
history in the (twenty-eighth) chapter on the Roman
emperors in this book. For the rest we have
their adventures related in the Kitab el-ausat, and in
the work which preceded it, the Akhbar ez-zeman.
One of the persons who lived after Christ, in
the Fatrah, was George UMA^S*. His birth fell

should be convinced they are not true. Here he states, more-

over, his authority. This anachronism had its origin probably in
a king of Yemen, who had the name Dul-Karnein from two curls
of hair, and who was confounded with Alexander, as he had the
same epithet. I shall again speak of this name in the chapter
on the kings of Yemen. The name Dul-Karnem is mentioned in
the eighteenth chapter of the Koran.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 129

within the lifetime of some of the apostles. God

sent him to the King of el-Mausil, to call him to
the true religion, and though the king killed him,
God restored him to life, and sent him a second
time to him : the king killed him again ; but God
resuscitated him once more, and sent him a third
time: now the king burnt him, and threw the ashes
into the Tigris. God destroyed the king, and all
his subjects who had followed him. So the story is
related by believers of the Scriptures, and in the
books on the beginning and on the biography (of
Mohammed), by Wahb Ben Monabbih and other
authors.
Another man of the Fatrah was Habib en-Nejjar
^Ls\M s^*^ wn° lived at Antioch, in Syria, where
there reigned a tyrant, who worshipped idols and
images. Two disciples of the Masih went to him,
to call him to God. He imprisoned and ill-treated
them, till they were aided by God, who sent a third
man. Who he was is controverted; but most
authors say that he was Peter, which is the Greek
name of the apostle who is called Sim'an wlx»~> in
Arabic, and Sham'iin in Syriac. This is Sham'un
the brasser.
But many historians and the Christians of all
sects are of opinion, that the third apostle, through
whom they were aided, was Paul, and the two
others who had been committed to prison, were
Thomas and Peter. They had a long interview
K
 130 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

with the king, showing him miracles and proofs:

they healed those born blind, and the lepers, and
restored the dead to life. Paul succeeded in ob-
taining an audience: he gained his favour, and the
king set free his two colleagues from prison. Habib
en-Nejjar* came, and he believed on them when
he had seen their signs. God relates this in the
Koran t, in the words, " When we sent two men to
them; but they charged them with imposture.
Wherefore we strengthened them with a third one,"
&c., down to the words " a man came in haste."
Peter and Paul were killed in Rome. Many
persons relate that they were crucified with their
heads downwards, after they had been a long time
in contact with the emperor and Saiman ^^ 0$*)
the sorcerer^. After the Christian religion had
become victorious, they were laid in a coffin of
crystal, and deposited in a church of that city.
We have related this in oar Kitab el-ausat
where we speak of the curiosities of Rome, and
where we trace the history of the disciples of
Christ, and their dispersion over the earth. We

* A mosque in the middle of the market of Antioch, sacred

to this Habib, was much visited by pilgrims at the time of el-
Kazwini (Athar el-bilad).
f Surah xxxvi., from verse 13 to 19.
t Simon Magus, to whose aeronautics the prayers of St.
Peter made a fatal end.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 131

shall exhibit a summary of their history in this

book.
The contrivers of the pit* ^J^i ^->\^\ lived

* An allusion to this story being found in the Koran, it is

related in the commentaries to that book, and almost in every
Arabic work on geography. But modern authors enrich it with
edifying additions and pious alterations.
The fact, as it is related by our author, is historical, and
happened in 522 A.D. The heroism of a Najranite matron, and
of a boy who threw himself into the flames, gave rise naturally
to the popular tradition of the miracle which el-Mas'udi relates,
and to which Mohammed alluded three hundred years before
him.
Baronius (Annal. Eccl. ; Lucas 1741, Tom. ix., pp. 309 et
seq. ad annum 522 et 523) reproduces the acta St. Aretha*
martyris, who was the chief of the Najranites. These acta are
exceedingly curious; and to judge from the spirit in which they
are written, I feel confident they come from the pen of an Arab,
and were possibly originally composed in that language. This
would be an important addition to the history of the civilization
of the Arabs. The frequent allusions to the Scriptures evince
an intimate acquaintance of the author with the Bible. Lam-
beccius speaks for the rest of another work which exists in the
emperor's library at Vienna, and which was written in Tifar
.lili at this period, and may serve as a proof of the literary
activity of the Arabs before Mohammed : it has the title " Abrahii
regis Homeritarum leges a St. Gregentio Tapharensi Episcopo

compositae."
The persecution of the Najranite Christians, and the conquest
of the Abyssinians, are also mentioned by Procopius (De bello
Persico i., 20), Cedrenus (ad annum 522), Zonaras,
K 2 Nicephorus,
132 EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

also in the time of the Fatrah, in the capital of

Najran, in Yemen, during the reign of Du

&c. Comparing the Arabic accounts with the Greek authors, it

is possible the fact was this.
Najran was favoured by nature, and so famous since ancient
times, that it seems to have formed one of the objects of the
invasion of JElius Gallus. The inhabitants, ever anxious, as it
seems, to lead the Bedouins to their interests, raised a temple in
opposition to the Ka'bah of Mekka, which was called the Ka'bah
of Najran, in order to attract pilgrims. But it seems that they
did not fully succeed, since the town is not mentioned amongst
the markets of the Arabs. This failure is to be accounted for by
their situation between Mekka and San'a, both of which were
sacred by age and many popular traditions, acknowledged by
habit, and the one protected by the league of the Modhar tribes,
whose centre it was, whilst the other was the capital of all the
Himyarite tribes: hence the tenets of the Arians, which were
preached to them by a monk in the fourth century of the
Christian era, were welcome to them, as they condemned the
black stone and the idols of the Ka'bah, to which the Korai'shites
owed their power, and gave them hope to come to the possession
of the Ghomdan at San'a. The sacred well of this Capitolium
reminds one of the Zemzem ; and the four sides, painted in white,
red, yellow, and green, seem to have the same origin as the
Ka'bah (i.e., square building), of which there were several in
Arabia, besides that of Mekka; and, although the Ghomdan was
chiefly sacred to the planet Venus, the seven stories, or roofs,
imply a clear allusion to the seven planets.
The mystifications of Arianism, however, made no impression
upon the sound minds of the Bedouins. The Najranites sought,
therefore, in treason what they had in vain contended for through
enslaving their minds; and it is allowed by Christian authors that
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 133

Nowas*, who killed Du Shenatirf yU-fc ^. He

was a Jew: and having heard that there were fol-
lowers of the religion of the Messiah in Najran, he
came himself there, sank pits in the ground, filled
them with glowing fire, and called the inhabitants
to the Jewish religion: those who followed him
were free; but those who refused to obey were
thrown into the fire. There came a woman, with a
child of seven months, who refused to abjure her

they had betrayed their country to the King of Abyssinia,

" Dunaanus (Du Nowas) rex, tarn, ut genus Christianorum
vexaret, quam, ut Eleslaano regi ^Ethiopum molestiam crearet,
graviter afflixit cives urbis Nagran in Homeritide sitse, cui pra3-
fectus erat St. Arethas."
Dii Nowas, was Lord of Phare, which is spelt Taphar in an
ancient Greek Menologium, quoted by Pagius ; so that there can
be no doubt but that Tifar JJ& is meant. He professed the
Jewish religion; for the law of Moses had found many prose-
lytes in Arabia by its sublime simplicity; and being the protector
of Yemen, he was of course obliged to check the conduct of the
Najranites, and decided to eradicate the evil which was owing
to their religion. But the /Ethiopians revenged the blood of
their brethren, and took possession of Arabia, until a reaction
took place, in which the Persians were called in.
* Du Nowas means the man with the curl, for he had a black
curl hanging over his back.
t Du Shenatir means the man with ear-rings, shenatir being

the Himyarite word for ear-ring 3&j.i'. El-Fairuzabadi says,

Du Shenatir had this surname, because he had one finger too many.

His proper name was Lakhti'ah XxxAiL .

134 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

religion. She was taken to the fire, and when she

was frightened God gave speech to the child, and
it said, "Go on, mother, in thy faith; thou wilt
not meet a fire after this." They were both thrown
into the fire. They were true believers, professing
the unity of God, and did not belong to the
Christian creed of this age (who profess the trinity).
Shocked at these cruelties, a man of the name of

Du Tha'leban* j,UX*S' ^ (6Ubm) went to

Caesar to ask him for his aid. The emperor wrote
to the Nejashi (the king of Abyssinia) about the case,
as he was nearer. This gave origin to the invasion
of the Abyssinians in Yemen, who kept this country
in subjection till (Yusoff ) Du Yasan ^y*j* solicited
the assistance of several kings, which was at last
granted to him by Anushirwan, as we have de-
scribed inour books, the Akhbar ez-zeman and the
Kitab el-ausat; and we shall give a summary of
these events in the (forty-third) chapter, where we
speak on the Adwa^ and kings of Yemen. The story
of the contrivers of the pit is mentioned in the

* Procopius gives him the name Kais.

f The name Yusof is only in the Cambridge copy. Yazan
is a Wadi (in Yemen), and Du Yazan a Himyarite king who was
in possession of this Wadi. (Kamus, p. 1 81 6.)
I Adwa \j&\ is the plural of Du, and means literally pos-
sessed of: here it implies the chiefs whose surnames began with
Du.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 135

Koran*, from the words, "Killed are the con-

trivers of the pit/' to the words, "They had
nothing to revenge on them but their belief on the
almighty and glorious God."
Khaled Ben Sinan el-Absi lived also in the
Fatrah: his full name was Khaled Ben Sinan

Ben'Ayyath (Ghaith?) Ben JAbs ^U-» ^ «^

y^xc ^ dvx ^>. He has been mentioned by
the Prophetf, who says, "" There was a prophet
who has been destroyed by his nation." The story
is this : a fire rose in Arabia, and caused a great
commotion and disturbances amongst the Arabs;
so that fire-worship was making its way amongst
them. Khaled took a club, and struck on the fire,
exclaiming, "Begin! begin! every grace from God
alone we win : I enter the flames, and they blaze
high; I come out from them, and my reward is
nigh^:" and he extinguished the fire. When he
was dying, he said to his brothers, " When I am

* Surah Ixxxv., from the fourth to the eighth verse.

t When the Beni 'Abs sent delegates to Mohammed he
seems jiot yet to have been aware of Khaled's death ; so that it
appears this religious commotion was contemporaneous with Mo-
hammed. (Siyar el-Halebi, Cairo, 1248, A.H. p. 378.)
J The copies differ materially; I followed this reading: —

JJ (read
136 EL-MAS'UDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

buried, a herd of wild asses, of the Himyarites, will

come, and an ass without a tail, who goes in front
of them, will kick with his hoof on my grave.
When you see that, open the grave, for I shall
come forth from it, and give you information about
everything." When they had buried him, they
saw what he had foretold; and they intended to
take him out. Some of them, however, objected to
it, and said, " We fear the Arabs will blame us if
we disturb the rest of the dead." When his daugh-
ter came to the Prophet, and heard him reciting
(the words of the Koran): cc Say! he is the only
God the Eternal," she said, " The same words
have been used by my father." We shall further
speak of this man in another part of this book.
£

El-Mas'udi says, Riat esh-Shanni &£A\ v^L^,

(tfUJJ v^) lived also in the Fatrah: he belonged
first to the tribe of 'Abd el-Kais*, and then to the
Shann tribe. He was a believer in the religion of
the Messiah (?), previous to the mission of Moham-
med. [They heard a voice from heaven : " Three
persons on earth are good: Riat esh-Shanni,,

* 'Abd el-Kais Ben Aksa iS*aS\ /.jj (j*A*H «>^ft was

the father of a tribe which belonged to the Asad family, and had
its quarters in el-Bahrain. (Add. MS. of the Brit. Museum,
7596.) The Abucei of Ptolemy seem to imply this tribe, which
was very powerful. Shann was also a son of Aksa.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 137

Bohairah the monk, and another man who is to

come." By the last the Prophet was meant*.] It
was observed that the grave of every child of Riat
was bedewed by a slight rain.
Another man who lived in the Fatrah was

As'ad Abu Karib el-Himyarit. He was a believer

in the Prophet seven hundred years before his
mission. He said,
cf I declare that Ahmed is a prophet of God, the
Creator of life ; and if I was to live to his time I
should be his Vizier and his nephew."
He was the first who clad the Ka'ba with
leather, saying,
" I clothe the house which is to be sacred by
the command of God, surrounding it with a rich
cover of various colours."
Koss Ben Sa'idah, of the tribe of lyad Ben
Nizar Ben Ma'add j\y /.^ <iL>J ^ sJtcLa ^.j u*o
*x**° CU^ 0>0 was a philosopher of the Arabs, and
believed that God sends prophets. It is him who
said, " Who lives dies, and who dies flies; and all
what is growing devours what is going." His
wisdom and intelligence became proverbial. El-

* This sentence is only in the copy of Leyden.

f His full name is L*j£XT /.w <-^J" ^\ «Xx«*t I he

was the middle Tobba'.
 138 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

A'sha ,<&fi5M says, " Wiser * than Koss, and

braver than the inmate of the cavern, in the thick
wood at Khaffan" (i.e. the lion).
There came delegates from lyad to the Pro-
phet, and he asked them about Koss. They
replied that he was dead; and Mohammed said,

'" It is as if I saw him in the fair of 'Okatf l&Ke:

he was sitting on a red camel,, and said, ' O people!
assemble, hear, and cry, Who lives dies, and who
dies flies; and what is growing devours what is
going. But then, the heaven gives us information,

* El-Mas'udf writes y^Jj A, +£.s»\ ; but the saying seems to

have been (JfJf ^ t^k^J. See el-Mai'dani, vol. i. p. 467, and
p. 189; and D'Herbelot.
t 'Okat is the fair in the open country between Nakhlah
XX=£? and et-Tayif. It began in the new moon of Dul-Ki'dah
and lasted twenty days. The Arabic tribes used to assemble
there to recite their poetries, each tribe boasting of their glory

^^TlxAj. From this fair the 'Okati leather has its name.
The Arabs used also to ransom their prisoners at 'Okat, to pay
the price of blood, and to settle their quarrels before an arbitrator

*J*Ls., that the pilgrimage to which they proceeded from 'Okat

might be a ceremony of national unanimity and peace. (MS. of

the Brit. Museum, 7353.) The words j^' ^ *£-»! seem to

refer to arbitration ; for en-Nowairi informs us that he used to say,

the prosecutor .^cjJ ^ is to bring evidence, and the defendant,

if he denies the charge, is to swear. Hence it would appear that
he acted as arbitrator. Perhaps I ought to have translated the
above words, " a better arbitrator than Koss.0
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 139

and the earth calls us to contemplation : the seas

raise waves, and the stars set: the roof (of the
heavens) is raised, and the ground (of the earth) is
firmly placed*.' Koss swore by God: ' There is a
faith which is more acceptable to the Lord than
your religion. What may be the reason that men
pass away, and do not return ? Do they like to be
there? or have they ended, and do they sleep?
They all go the same way, although their actions
are different/ He said (continued the Prophet)
some verses, which I have forgotten."
Abu Bekr es-Sadik rose, and said, " I recollect
those verses, O Prophet of God ;" and he recited
them thus :—
" We have an example in the famous men who
passed before us, since I observe they went towards
death without resistance. I observed the same in
my contemporaries: they fade, great and little.

En-Nowairl

(p. 137 MS. of Leyden, N. 273) quotes these words of Koss,

adding, ^\ &\* ^l^^ ^ ^ j^'j ^ 'if^'f

The solemn protestation which follows begins in en-Nowa'iri,
"If there was pleasure on earth, we should have to expect
sorrow after this life. There is a faith, &c." These words
explain the meaning of the sentences which follow.
140 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

He who is gone will never return ; and those who

are still alive will not remain behind. I am sure

no exception will be made where they all go to*.0

The Prophet said, ' l God may be merciful to Koss,
and I hope he will honour him with his bounty."
El-Mas'udi says, Koss made himself known by
many poems, sentences of wisdom, and distin-
guished actions, for an account of which we refer
our readers to our book., the Akhbar ez-zeman and
Kitab el-ausat, where we have also spoken of his
researches in medicine and soothsaying from birds
and other omens, and his knowledge in other
branches of natural philosophy .
Another famous man of the Fatrah was Zeid

Ben 'Amr Ben Nofai'l ,>/ju ^j ^^^ ^j Abu

Za'id, the son of Zeid Joj ^...j *XA*** ^.j!, was one of
the Tenf (whom Mohammed had promised that
they would enter the Paradise) , and the nephew of
'Omar Ben el-Khattab. Being against idolatry, he
expressed freely his opinion. El-Khattab informed
the ignorant of Mekka about it, and gave him into

* Death is the phenomenon which calls man to reflexion,

although he may still live in that happy social state in which his
vital spirits are healthy enough to enjoy the present, regardless of
the past and future : hence elegies of this character are frequent
amongst the Bedouins, and their tunes are melancholy. A beau-
tiful specimen is in the Hamasa, p. 44.
f He must mean Sa'd. See Reiske's note to Abulfeda,
Annales Muslemici, vol. i. to p. 245.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 141

their power. They persecuted him, and he took

up his abode in a cavern, in Hera *Jj£»*. He came
secretly to Mekka, whence he took flight to Syria ;
and there he continued his speculations on religion,
till he was poisoned by the Christians. He died
in Syria. There passed several things between
him, the king, and the interpreter, and between
him and some Ghasanite king, at Damascus, which
we have related in our former works.

Omaiyah Ben Abi-s-Salt eth-Thakefi ^ **«\

c/j&Jt <rJUfili j.\ f is also a man who made himself
known in the Fatrah : he was a poet, and a very
sound man. Being in commercial connexions with
Syria, he met there with the believers in revelation,
both Jews and Christians: he read himself their
(sacred) books, and knew that a prophet would
rise amongst the Arabs. In several poems he treats
on the ideas of the followers of religion, describing
the heavens and earth, sun and moon, angels and
prophets. He celebrates also the prophetic mis-
sion, the resurrection of the dead, the Paradise, and
hell. He sang hymns to God, acknowledging his
unity, as in the words :

* This is a mount three miles from Mekka, which was a

favourite summer residence of Mohammed.
&^j s *.*.
t X<w«\ is the diminutive form of JLoJ (a female slave), and
tl^JuaH is the man famous in single combat. (Hamasa, p. 776 ;
compare p. 354.)
142 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

"Praise be to God. None is like him; and

who does not profess this truth is unjust against
himself."
The following terms express his idea of the
Paradise :
" There is no idle talk, no sinful action, nor do
they contend for fame. This is their eternal home."
When he had heard of the mission of the
Prophet he was full of anger and indignation, he
came however to Medina, in order to become a
Moslem, but envy made him alter his resolution and
he returned to et-Tayif. One day when he was
with a girl at a drinking party, a raven came, uttered
three sounds, and flew a way again. Omaiyah asked,
" Do you know what the raven said?" they replied,
" No." He announced that Omaiyah would not
drink a third cup before he would die. The party
expressed that it was not true, but he continued,
" Take your cups;" and when the third cup came
to Omaiyah he fainted away, and gave a long time
no signs of life. Then he said, tl I am at your
service ! at your service !— You call me to you. I
am of those who have experienced grace and not
returned the praise of thanksgiving. If thou par-
donest, O God, thou wilt forgive all; for where hast
thou a servant who has not done wrong? " Then he
said the following verses: —
" The day of judgment is a serious day; and to
think on this day must make the young grey.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 143

(i Would to heaven I had been a shepherd of

wild goats, on the summits of mountains, before it
comes to me.
" Every life is short, even should it last an age
before it ends."
After he had said these verses he sighed, and in
this sigh departed his soul.
El-Mas'udi says, antiquarians well versed in the
battle days of the Arabs, and in the history of past
f
times, like Ben Dab «^te (^1 (v^ W0» al"Haithern
Ben 'Adi, Abu Mikhnaf Lut Ben Yahya and Mo-
hammed Ben es-Sayib el-Kelbi c^vKM «-vA***M <^j^ «**^»
state that the following story was the origin of the
habit of the Koraishites to put "In thy name, O
my God," on the head of their writings. Omaiyah
Ben Abi-s-Salt, the Thakefite, went with a num-
ber of persons of his tribe and others to Syria.
On the return of the caravan they halted in
some station, and as they were assembled at their
supper, a little serpent made its appearance and
approached to them. One amongst them threw
sand on its face,, and the serpent went back again.
They made themselves ready for the journey, packed
the camels, and set out from the station. A short
distance from it an old woman came from a sand-
hill leaning on a stick, and said, " Why have you
not been kind enough to feed an orphan girl who
came to you at supper?" They asked her, "Who
144 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

art thou?" She answered, " I am the mother of

the creeper. You shall either perish in some years,
or by the Lord, you shall err, dispersed through
the country." Then she struck with her stick on
the ground and said, stirring up the sand, " Long
be to their homes the way, and their animals shall
run away !" The camels became shy as if every one
of them had a Satan on its back; nothing could
keep them and they dispersed in the wadi. We were
occupied in gathering them from the end of the day
to the next morning, and we hardly succeeded in
bringing them together. When we made them
kneel down to receive their burthens to continue
our journey, the woman made again her appearance,,
did with her stick as on the first time, repeating the
same words; the camels became shy, and we were
by no means able to keep them. The next day we
attempted again to collect them and to pack them,
but the woman came once more, and having done
as on the first and second times, the camels ran again
away. The next night at moonlight, we were in
despair for our animals of burthen JQ&\, and we said
to Omai'yah Ben Abi-s-Salt, " What hast thou to say
on our situation?" He went up the sand hill from
which the woman came, and having gone down on
the other side of the hill he climbed up another, and
after he had descended from that hill, he saw a
Christian chapel in which candles were burning, and
a man with white hair and beard was laying on his
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 145

side across the entrance. "When I stood before

him," continues Omaiyah in his tale, " he raised
his head, saying, ' Hast thou a follower?' I
answered, ' Yes/ He asked further, 'From whence
does thy companion speak to thee?' I replied,
' From my left ear.' He enquired about the colour
of his dress, and I answered, 'He is in black.'
1 This is the habit of the Genii, thou dost better not
do so. In this affair one speaks to the right ear
and the most desirable dress is white. But what
do you want?' I told him the story of the old
woman, and he said in answer, * Thou speakest
truth. But she is not true. She is a Jewish
woman, whose husband perished many years ago,
she will go on playing the same trick to you,
and she will destroy you if she can.' Omaiyah said,
* How can we get out of it?' He answered,
' Assemble your camels, and if she comes and does
what she has done, say seven times in a high voice,
and seven times in a low voice, " In thy name,, O
God!" and she will not be able to do you any
harm. ' '-
Omaiyah returned to the caravan, and related
there what he had heard. The old woman came
and did as she had done on former occasions, and
he pronounced seven times in a high voice, and
seven times in a low voice, " In thy name, O God."
After that the camels did not move. The woman
said, " I know your man, he is white at the top and
L
146 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

black at the bottom." They continued their journey ;

and the next morning they saw that Omai'yah was
attacked with leprosy on his face, neck,, and chest,
whilst the lower part of his body was black. When
they came to Mekka they related this event, and
the inhabitants of that city began to put at the
head of their writings, " In thy name,, our God
l*$Xn jC***lj" This formula was in use till the
Islam was introduced ; then it was replaced by the
formula, "In the name of the merciful, clement
God!"
Omai'yah had several adventures besides this,
which we have related in our Akhbar ez-zeman and
other works.
Warakah (Warikah) Ben Naufel Ben Asad
Ben Abdul-' Ozza Ben Kosai'y ^.^ JJ^j (Jjrj XS^
^A^i* ^j <fy*JJ *XAC ^j *x^, the uncle of Khadijah,
the daughter of Khowai'lid, the wife of the Prophet,
lived also in the Fatrah. The perusal of the Scrip-
tures led him to enter into discussions, for he was
anxious to pick up knowledge, and to shake off
idolatry. He informed Khadijah that Mohammed
would be the Prophet of the Arabic nation, but that
he would be ill-treated and disclaimed as a story-
teller. He met the Prophet, and said to him, " O
my cousin (dear friend), be firm in thy career, and
by him, in whose hand is the soul of Warakah,
thou art the Prophet of this nation. Thou wilt be
ill-treated, and called a liar. They will drive thee
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 147

out from thy house, and fight against thee. My only

wish is to be still alive then, that I could lend my
aid to the cause of God."
It is controverted whether he died as a Christian
or as a Moslim ; for some authors say that he was no
more alive when Mohammed entered his prophetic
office, whilst others bring forward the following
words, which he said in praise of Mohammed:
" He is mild, forgiving, and never revengeful,
refraining anger and bitter feelings when he receives

injury."
Another man who lived in the Fatrah was

'Odasah, a freed slave of 'Otbah Ben Ilabi'ah

Syujj Cj^ *^c £** *~^*xc *, who was a native of
Ninive ; and he met the Prophet at et-Tayif, when
he was come there to preach the Islam to that
town. He had, on this occasion, long discussions
with the inhabitants, in the palm-grove. Although
he had acknowledged the Prophet, he fell as a
Christian in the battle of Bedr.
o ^

Abu Kais Sarmah Ben Abi Anas &*j& y^/Jf ^»\

was one °f the Ansar belonging to

* 'Otbah was the father of Hind, Mo'awiyah's mother.

t The author of the Kamus (p. 1650) seems not to be very
J O
sure about this name; he says, /.wl 3! iy*t? (• ?i *-«y^

2Loj40 ji\ j\ (jMJt J-t i*yi\ ^ (J*^^ Hence I preferred the

L 2
pronunciation marked in the copy of Leyden.
148 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the Beni en-Nejjar ^ls\M- He devoted himself to

an abstemious life, dressed in rough clothes, and
disapproved of idolatry, consecrating the house in
which he lived to a chapel, from which menstruat-
ing women and polluted persons were excluded ;
and he professed to worship the God of Ibrahim.
When the Prophet came to Medinah, he embraced
the Islam, and proved a good Moslim. For him
the verse of the Koran * was revealed which is
called^snJJ x»t (the verse of the day-break J, which
runs, u Eat and drink, until you can plainly dis-
tinguish awhite thread from a black thread by the
day-break." The following words on Mohammed
have been said by him : ' ' There lives a number of
ten persons amongst the Koraishites who are visit-
ing Mekka, to see whether they find a man who
•loves truth."
Abu 'Amir el-Ausi, whose name was 'Abd
'Amr Ben Saifi Ben en-No'man, of the Beni 'Amr
Ben 'Auf, who belong to the el-Aus tribe ^-«U ^>\

u»jW c> *•*** (jj-^ *)* <&t wno ^s the same person
as Abu Hantalahj and has the surname Ghasil el-
Malayikah xL^I J^^, was a chief, and had lived
abstemious, in rough clothes, at the time of igno-

* In the second Surah.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 149

ranee. When the Prophet came to Medina, he

had a long conversation with him: subsequently he
left that city, with fifty slave boys, and died in
Syria, as a Christian.
Another man of the Fatrah is 'Abdullah Ben
Jahsh el-Asadi tf*x*^ (jksi /^j <*MI &*.&. : he was
of the tribe of Asad Ben Khozai'mah X^iy^, and the
husband of Omm Habibah, who was the daughter
of Abi Sofyan Ben Harb, before she was married
to the Prophet. He had read the Scriptures, and
inclined to Christianity. When Mohammed had
entered his prophetic office, he emigrated, with
other Moslims, to Abyssinia, and with him his wife,
Omm Habibah. There he apostatized from the
Islam, and died as a Christian.
S- £

He used to say ^'A^^ USSVAJ t>! that is to

say,, " We see, and you attempt to open your eyes."
The expressions of this saying are taken from
young dogs; for it is said of a dog, when he opens
the eyes after birth, ^Jij &3 (he opens his eyes) ;
but if he attempts to open his eyes, and is unable
* £

to do it, it is said U>U>. After his deatlv, the

Nijashi (the king of Abyssinia) married Omm
Habibah, the daughter of Abi Sofyan to the
Prophet, and gave her a dowry of four hundred
dinars. O-j

Bohaira l^os? the monk, lived also in the Fatrah;

he was a believer on Christ, and his name in
150 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Christian books is Serjis (Sergius) u*^.**. Bohaira

was of the Abdulkais tribe. When Mohammed
went to Syria with Abu Taleb, Abu Bekr, and
Belal, at an age of thirteen years, on mercantile
business, they passed by Bohaira, who was sitting
in his cell, and he recognized the Prophet, com-
paring his appearance and the signs which he
bore on him with what he had found in his books,
and observing the cloud which shaded him whenever
he sat down. Bohaira received them as guests,
paid them great respects, and gave them refresh-
ments. He went forth from his cell to see the seal
of the prophetship, between the shoulders of the
Prophet, he placed his hand upon it and believed on
him. Bohaira informed Abu Bekr and Belal of his
destination, and he asked him to come back with
him the same way. He guarded them to be
watchful for him against the believers on the
Scriptures. His uncle, Abu Taleb, having received
this information, returned with him. When he was
come back from his journey to Mekka, he began his
acquaintance with Khadijah, and the signs were
wrought which, together with the account which she
received of his journey, made her believe that he
was a prophet.
El-Mas'iidi says, This is a review of the history
from the Creation as far as we have followed it up.
We attended only to those facts which are stated in
the revelation and related in the books (Scriptures,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 151

particularly the Koran,) and which have been

explained by the prophets. Now we shall trace the
beginning of the kingdoms of the Hindus and
review briefly their religious speculations, then we
will follow up the history of other empires, having
given an account of the history of the Kings of the
Israelites, as we have found it in the sacred books.
152 EL-MAS'IIDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

SEVENTH CHAPTER.

An abridged account of the Hindus, their religious

opinions, and the origin of their kingdoms.

EL-MAS'UDI says, all historians who unite maturity

of reflexion with depth of research, and who have a
clear insight into the history of mankind and its
origin, are unanimous in their opinion, that the
Hindus have been in the most ancient times that
portion of the human race which enjoyed the bene-
fits of peace and wisdom. When men formed
themselves into bodies, and assembled into commu-
nities, the Hindus exerted themselves to join them
with their empire, and to subject their countries, to
the end that they might be the rulers. The great
men amongst them said, " We are the beginning
and end; we are possessed of perfection, pre-emi-
nence, and completion. All that is valuable and
important in the life of this world owes its origin to
us. Let us not permit that anybody shall resist
or oppose us; let us attack any one who dares to
draw his sword against us, and his fate will be flight
or subjection."
They were prevailed upon by these consider-
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 153

ations to elect a king. He was the highest

Barahman, the greatest king, and the foremost
Imam. In his days flourished philosophy, and the
wise men stood at the head of the nation. They
extracted iron from the mines, and forged swords,
daggers, and several sorts of warlike instruments :
they raised temples, adorned them with precious
stones of the finest lustre, represented in these tem-
ples the spheres of the heavens, the twelve zodiacal
signs, and the stars. They gave by representation
an idea of the system of the worlds, and went even
so far as to show by these means the influence of
the stars on this world, and the way in which they
produce the different animals, both rational and
irrational. There was the position of the greatest
ruler to be seen, that is to say, the SUN.
The Barahman wrote a book, which contained
the proofs of all these subjects, and conveyed a
clear idea of them to the minds of the Exoteric
J^xJt, whilst he implanted into the minds of the
Esoteric <_j^iLl the knowledge of what is above all
that, pointing to him who is the first cause, and
called all beings to existence, embracing them with
his bounty. The Hindus obeyed this king. Their
country was well cultivated, and he made them
enjoy the utmost of worldly prosperity.
He assembled the wise men, and they composed
154 EL MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

during his reign the book es-Sind-hind, which

means ''The last end of the ends*." Upon this
Ja*»sls\j j^^y\ i_Ax£T <_*X£jJ C^ejJ xLejjj&M +&*

* M. Colebooke( Dissertation on the Algebra of the Hindus,)

identifies the Sind-hind with the Siddhanta of Brahmegupta, who
lived about twelve hundred years ago. The meaning of Sind-
hind, as explained by our author, confirms the identity of the
two words, for Siddhanta means the perfect end. But the
Sind-hind in question must be another astronomical work of the
name of Siddhanta, than that of Brahmegupta; for the Arkand
and Arjabhar are more ancient than Brahmegupta, whereas they
are here stated to be derived from the Sind-hind ; besides, it seems
that the theories here alluded to by el-Mas 'udi are of an earlier
date than those of Brahmegupta. This is of importance for the
history of astronomy, and particularly for the history of the dis-
covery of the precession of the equinox, and the connexion of
this theory with some ancient chronologies ; for it would appear
that the Arabs had no original translation of the Siddhanta ; but
that only the system had been known to them ; and if later authors
allude to the Sind-hind, the system of the Siddhanta, as laid
down in the work el-Khowarezmi, which bears the title es-Sind-
hind, is meant.
This is clearly stated by the author of the Fihrist, who must
be considered as the highest authority in these points, on account
of his exactness in bibliography and proximity in time, having

written 377 A.H. : ^^Jyu *<**^ **>j& J**' O"^J <j_>^

J04 Juu»SL ^iJj*^ Jlx!^ b$\ *&j ^c "The astrono-
mers trusted before and after the observation on his two tables,
which together were known under the name of Sind-hind." He
means the tables of Mohammed Ben Musa el-Khowarezmi, who
was one of the astronomers of el-Mamun. Would they not have
taken the Siddhanta itself as a standard work, if they had had
another translation than a paraphrase of a Persian work on this
system. Compare chapter 126 infra, note.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 155

book other works are founded, as the Arjab-

The statement of the Fihrist is further explained and con-

firmed byel-Kefti (Bibl. Philosoph. MS. of Leyden, No. 159),
who states, that el-Khowarezmi was a follower of the Sind-hind,
which was one of the three Hindu systems of astronomy. I
insert his own words, without correcting the faults, and without
translation; for I have at this moment no means of verifying the
proper names which occur in the passage : —

(3"*** (^ *X*:SS

But if the Arabs have not been in possession of a translation

of the Siddhanta, how could they be acquainted with the system ?
Various reasons make us believe that they received it from the
Persians, whose literary connexion with the Hindus is historically
proved. First, the theory, as it is exhibited here, seems to be a
combination of that of Persia and India, as further notes tend to
show. Second, almost all Arabic astrology comes from the Per-
sians, and their astronomy was derived from the same source
previous to the translation of the ^eyia-rr] trvvral-is. For this rea-
son most terms are borrowed from the Persians, although some
of them may ultimately be Sanscrit ; and the most early Arabic
astronomers were natives of such parts of Persia, which had ever
been famous schools of science, as Balkh, &c., or of Harran.

Third, Hamzah, of Isfahan, a contemporary of el-Mas'iidi, (apud

Anquetil Du Perron, torn, ii., p. 352,) refers to a book based upon
156 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

bar* and the Almagest: from the Arjabharthe Ark-

the Avesta of Zoroaster, which contains a similar theory. " Le
dieu supreme a fixe a 12,000 ans la vie (la duree) du monde, du
commencement a la fin. Le monde resta sans mal pendant 3000
ans, dans sa partie superieure," &c.
Es-Sind-hind was. therefore, as the above passages unequivo-
cally prove, at the same time the name of the Siddhanta system of
astronomy, the only astronomical system of the Hindus known to
the Arabs; and of an original Arabic work on this system.
Admitting that it was considered in the first sense as a Sanscrit
word, meaning the perfect end, I should suppose, in order to
account for the seemingly arbitrary alteration of the sound, that
it is in the second sense an imitation of the Sanscrit term in two
Arabic words, (as the Arabs are very fond of plays on words,) and
that one ought to read <X*gH <XA«J. J<Ju*Ji means that a tradition
is mosnad,orthat one can point out the persons through whom it has
been handed down, up to Mohammed. But the word is also used
in a similar meaning in other instances, and not only in speaking
of traditions as, JsJJ jfo U, ^ Vj yJJ iU cAAixJJ U^

ft^xM <^*~» ^UajuN). "There is nota

trace be found ^4&
oV*^to U^1*^ of the philosophical sciences (in the Maghrib,)
and still less a system, because the continuance of instruction has

been interrupted by the destruction of civilization." &^\ jj^

might therefore mean continuance of (the system) of the Hindus
or introduction of the Hindu system amongst the Mohammedans.

Ya'kub Ben Tarik o^Ub /.jj vy^V. wrote a work, in two

books, the first of which contains the science of the spheres of
the heaven ; and the second shows how they exercised their influ-
ence upon the fate of dynasties. He professed to follow the doc-
trine of the Siddhanta, and calls his work Zij es-Sind-hind. Of a
more scientific character seems to be the Zij es-Sind-hind of Ibn
Amahurji^.LcJ, whose full name is Abul-Kasim 'Abdullah Ben
Amahur. These two authors lived both before the middle of
the fourth century.
* This is the name for aryabhatta. The Sanscrit t, it is to be
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 157

and* derives its origin, and from the Almagest the

book of Ptolemy t, and subsequently the Astrono-
mical Tables;}: have been based upon them.
They invented the nine figures which form the

read) Xx

remembered, is the character of a peculiar sound often mistaken

for r, and which the Arabs were likely so to write, rather than
with a te or a tau. The Hindi t is generally written by the

English in India with an r ; example, Ber (vatd,*) the Indian fig,

vulg. Banian tree (Colebrooke ibidem}.
* Arkand is a corruption of Area, which is still prevalent in
the vulgar Hindi (Idem^ ibidem).
f The words, " The Book of Ptolemy," are probably an appo-
sition to Almagest instead, " which is a book of Ptolemy." In
this case, the names of the numerous works which owe their
origin to the Almagest, are left out by the copyist. Not only all
MSS. of el-Mas'udi, but also the transcript of this passage in
en-Nowairi (MS. of Leyden, N. 273, p. 956) has this mistake.
If the words, " The books of Ptolemy," are not an apposition,
el-Mas'udi must mean the liber quadripartitus of Ptolemy ;
for he knew perfectly well that the Almagest is the work of
Ptolemy, and calls him occasionally " the author of the Almagest."
t Cl>Ls£ \JJ, sing. f~\'fi\. This word is derived from the
Persian *\ (a corde), and means the Astronomical Tables upon
which the Astronomical Kalendar

is made. From this word &s:!yj is to be distin-

guished, which is derived from the Persian J-,\» (birth), and
158 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

numeric system of the Hindus*. Barahman was

the first who explained the apogseon of the sun;
and stated that the apogseont is three thousand
years]; in every sign of the Zodiac: at present,

i_#I S5ULS z^$ J ^ W j*> u"*^J ^ 4 (Jtf

means the square or circle drawn round the stars in a certain
region of the heavens by astrologers in casting nativity. (MS.
of Leyden, N. 514.)
* The Zero, which is expressed by a dot by the Arabs, is
not considered as a figure.
-j- Auj, apogeum, is a term borrowed from the Persian, in this
language it is written, x.^ or S$\ ug. g>}$\ jfo the orbit
of the apogeum is the name for the ecliptic, which is also called
the excentric orbit %TJMjr JULj <j5jM? because its centre does
not coincide with the centre of the earth. The period of a revo-
lution of this orbit is called yuga of the solstice in Sanscrit, hence
it is very likely that the Persian word ug, is derived from yuga.
These two words have a great affinity with the Greek mwj/, which
is to be written with a digamma. It seems that this term
migrated and changed its meaning with the idea.
f Siirya Siddhanta, and the herd of Hindu astronomers,
reckon the motion of trepidation to a degree and a-half in a cen-
tury; whereas here one degree is reckoned. It is therefore very
likely that the researches of these astronomers had not been known
to el-Mas'udi, else he would have taken them up the readier as
el-Battani had come nearly to the same result about thirty years
before the Meadows of Gold was written ; computing the motion
of the stars at a degree in sixty-six years. The period of three
thousand years is mentioned in the Zend-Avesta, (Boun-Dehesch,
Paris 1771, torn, ii., pp. 345 and 347). The circumstance
that el-Mas'udi takes no notice of the corrections of the trepidation
which had been discovered, is a corroboration of what is said in
the note, p. 154, supra.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 159

that is to say, in 332 A.H., it is in the Gemini,

according to his opinion. When it comes into the
signs of the southern hemisphere, the face of the
earth will be changed, and what is now inhabitable
will turn uninhabitable, * and vice-versa ; for the
south will be north, and the north south *. He
deposited the dates of the formation (of the
planetary system) in a golden house: they form the
most ancient (astronomical) chronology, and the

xj ^9

* The Arabs believed the south -pole to be the extreme of

heat, as the north -pole is the extreme of cold, and they thought
that it is for this reason that the southern hemisphere is uninhabi-
table ;and that this would be changed when the apogaeon of the
sun would be in the southern, and the perigseon in the northern
hemisphere. Compare the next chapter.
| These words are only in the copy of Cambridge, and in the
extract which en-Nowa'iri gives of this passage.
J One copy bears » and, instead of ^ on, which alters
somewhat the meaning. Other variants of some importance are
inserted in the text between crotchets.
160 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

basis upon which the Hindus make the kalendars

(of the changes) of the moon, and calculate the
rising of the full moon for India; but not for other
countries. They comment much on the moon;
but we cannot insert wliat they say on it in this
book, it being a work on history, and not on philo-
sophical inquiries and speculations; besides, we
have given a summary of these subjects in our
Kitab el-ausat.
Some Hindus believe that the world is regene-
rated every thousand Hazarwan*, and that as often as

U^k } (read
read) i^\
UAxT 6 &\

f The MS. of Cambridge and two other copies bear " every
seventy thousand years of the Hazarwan." As copies do not
agree, the following correction may be admissible, considering the
the word thousand put in by the way of exaggeration u* : " every
seventy-two Hazarwan." A Hazarwan would mean in this case
a maha yuga; and the period in question would be a Menu yuga,
which consists of seventy-two maha yugas, or three hundred
and eleven million, forty thousand years. (Aryabhatta, apud
Colebrooke.)
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 161

this period expires, existence is renewed*, the pro-

pagative power returns, quadrupeds again pasture,

By reading ]&* M#, instead of *JU* year, before Hazar-

wan as XJu*» can have no meaning, and is left out in some copies ;
the number of years would agree with the time generally assigned
to the four yugas together, viz., seven millions, six hundred thou-
sand years, save the number of zeros.
* This theory was not only familiar to the Hindus and Per-
sians, but the ages of the world of Greek and Latin poets owe to
it their origin. According to Plato, in his Timaeus, the Greeks
had received from the Egyptians the doctrine of the earth's
undergoing certain dissolutions, effected by the alternate violence
of water and fire, which were succeeded by regenerations, and
followed one another periodically. They were called apocatastasis,
and J. Firmicus computes that there is a period of three hundred
thousand years, from one mundane apocatastasis to another. In
an Egyptian narration relative to Osiris and Typhos, preserved
by Synesius, we find also an allusion to the greater mundane
apocatastasis. And it is curious that this doctrine was not yet
lost in Egypt after the conquest of the Arabs. The reader will
find some extracts from el-Makrizi in the notes to the thirty-first
chapter, where they are mentioned in the most fabulous shape ;
but such confirmations teach us to appreciate and explain fables, if
sacred by antiquity, and the belief of a whole nation.
It would appear from a tradition of Wahb Ben Monabbih,
that the ancient Arabs had equally some notions of a periodical
destruction of the earth, which was effected by water, according to
their opinions. They supposed, namely, that the fish and the
bull, who support our planet (see p. 44, supra), swallow up the
M
162 EL-MAS'fjDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the waters flow, animals creep, herbage grows, and

breezes breathe through the air. Most of the
Hindus are of opinion that certain cycles return
periodically,, beginning through powers* whose cor-

(read eXxxj

water till they are full, and then a universal flood would take
place.
Respecting similar doctrines with the Chinese, the reader may
consult Bailly, Hist, de 1' Astronomic.
* These powers are the IDEAS of Plato. Our author adheres
closely tothe spirit of the Hindus ; for the Arabs, who followed the
dialetic philosophy, as it is more congenial with the Arabian nation
and religion, considered the principle of life in matter as a mere form
of its existence, and used therefore the word 2,*.^ form, in the
above meaning. In this sense, says Ibn Khaldun,

" the natural, first and sole reason is, that the dynasty and royalty
is for civilized society what the form is for matter: it is the
shape which preserves its existence through its own peculiarity."
As it appears to be of some importance to have a clear notion
of the signification of the word ^- <J>, it may not be amiss to
add examples where it has very nearly the same meaning as in the
text. XXfeUJt Jult \ (read Sulx&t) VU&1 ^ LJ/i <£

l (Ibn Khaldun's Proleg. in

the last chapter of the fifth book).
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 163

poreal existence sleeps in latent life; but their

nature is mighty, and their essence is immutable.
They define the limits, and fix the time required for
the process (of the re-incarnation of these powers),
which forms the great cycle and developement.
They place it into the abyss of ages, and calculate
the time from its beginning to the end to thirty-six
thousand years, repeated in twelve thousand years
(periods)*. This forms with them the Hazerwan,

" We have already stated with respect to penmanship, that

it exists in the rational soul of man as faculty (power), which
will not be developed from possibility (power) to reality except
by the introduction of sciences."
The same author uses this word exactly in the same meaning
in several other instances as, JjuW JJ s

^UU ^ vw.UxH wyu, JJ ^

" One must know the relation of these quantities in order to be
able to bring plans into execution, (literally to draw plans out from
power to reality,) according to certain rules."
* This gives four hundred and thirty-two millions of years
If we take two zeros away, we have the number of years assigned
by Aryabhatta to the maha yuga, and if we add one, we have that
of the calpa of Brahmegupta. But all MSS. agree, and the
expression is such, that each of these changes would be arbitrary,
M supposed
The one factor, thirty- six thousand, is the anciently 2 time
164 EL-MAS'uDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

which developes and influences the powers. The

(lesser) cycles render everything that exists in
them longer or shorter (according to the age of the
world). The life of things is longest at the begin-
ning of the renovation (or great cycle); for as it is
just opened, the powers are more free in their
action; whereas the lives are shortest at the end of
the renovation, for the cycle is more narrow ; they
are confined: and the frequent repetitions (of the

of one re volution of the equinox through the zodiac, and the other
factor, twelve thousand, expresses the number of an age of the Gods
according to Menu (Institutes, i. 71), and corresponds with the
great cycle of the Persians, after which Ormuzd would be
victorious over Ahriman: perhaps, every one of these years
has been considered by the Persians, at a later period, as a revo-
lution of the equinox or thirty- six thousand years; in order to
make agree the chronology of their sacred books with that of
Hindu astronomers, just as our geologists make the seven days
of the creation longer periods of time. This explains the some-
what singular expression of the original " repeated in twelve
thousand years ;" for only one copy bears the more natural
expression, " multiplied."
There is, therefore, not one date in this theory which is not
found in the Persian cosmogony, as well as in that of the Hindus.
 AND MINES OF GEMS 165

incarnation or becoming life of the powers) are

injurious to the lives; because the powers of the
bodies and the purity of matter are predominant at
the beginning of the cycle, and free in their mani-
festation: for purity is anterior to impurity, and
limpidity is above the dregs, and the length of life is
in proportion with the purity of the crasis ; and the
powers which animate the elements (or matter).,
extend the influence of their perfection to the mix-
tures (bodies) which, as they form the wordly
existence, are the source of deterioration, alteration,
and decay. But at the latter part of the great
cycle, and the end of the great developement, the
appearance of things will be deformed, the souls
weak, and the crasis impure; the powers are im-
paired, what is perishable goes to decay, and every-
thing goes in inverted narrow cycles ; wherefore the

U *

(read
166 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

space of life is no longer computed by a period of

ages (but only by years).
The Hindus assign the reasons upon which the
theories which we have just given are based. They
allege proofs on the first origin (of all things), and
on the distinctions of the cycles of the Hazarwans,
as we have explained them ; and they teach various
mysteries and subtilties respecting the soul; its
connexion with supernatural things, and its origin
which proceeds in the direction from above down-
wards ;and other doctrines which have been laid
down by el-Barahman in the beginning of the time.
El-Barahman reigned until he died, three hun-
dred and sixty-six years. His descendants have the
name Brahmins x$\j^\ up to our time. They
are in high respect with the Hindus, and form their
highest caste and their nobility. They abstain from
all animal food, and men and women wear a yellow
thread on their necks, which is put on like the belt
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 167

of a sword, as a mark of distinction between them

and other castes of their nation.
In ancient time and during the reign of el-
Barahman, there assembled seven sages (Rishis?)
of the Hindus, to whom the nation looked up, in
the golden house; and they said to one another,
(f Let us unite our speculations to decypher what is
the state and mystery of this world ; where we come
from, and where we are going to ; and whether we
are created from nothing to proceed to the essence of
wisdom or the reverse ? and whether the Creator who
is the cause of our existence and who gives growth
to our bodies, derives any benefit from having made
us? or whether he averts any disadvantage from
himself in making us fade from this world? Whe-
ther he is susceptible of want and diminution as we
are, or whether nothing influences him? but if so,
why does he destroy and annihilate us, after he has
called us to existence, and after we have enjoyed
ourselves?"
The first of 'the sages, to whom all others
looked up, said,, "Do you find one man who has a
correct notion of things, present or distant, and
who is certain and positive (in his knowledge)."
The second wise man said, " If the wisdom of
the Almighty had come into any one's mind, it
would be a diminution of his wisdom. The object
is incomprehensible, and human reason is too short
to understand matters."
The third sage said, " We must begin our study
168 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,
with the knowledge of ourselves, for this is the
thing nearest to us, before we enter into investiga-
tions of what is distant from ourselves*."
The fourth sage said, " The experience of every
man, whatever field he may have chosen, proves
that he requires in it self-knowledge. "
The fifth sage said, " Hence it is required to be
in connexion with wise men, in order to be assisted
by their wisdom."
The sixth wise man said, " It is necessary for
any man who loves his own happiness, not to
neglect it, particularly since the stay in this world
is limited, and since it is certain that we must
leave it."
The seventh sage said, c< I do not understand
what you say, but I know that I came into this
world without my will ; that I lived in it astounded
with what I see; and that I am sorry to leave it."
The Hindus agreed at all times respecting the
opinions of these seven sages. Everybody followed

* This sentence is not to be understood in the moral meaning,

that one ought to know one's own frailties, but that man is the
microcosmos, which, if well understood, leads to the knowledge of
everything else, or rather, that the human mind is the mirror
of the universe.
Quid mirum noscere mundum
Si possent homines, quibus est et mundus in ipsis ;
Exemplumque Dei quisquis est in imagine parva?
(Manilius.)
F. Hegel believes that the yva>6i atavrov of Solon, is to be
taken nearly in the same meaning.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 169

(originally) their doctrines and professed their

system; but in subsequent times, they no longer
agreed respecting their systems and doctrines, and
they split into seventy distinct sects.
El-Mas'udi says, in the book of Abul-Kasim
el-Balkhi, called " The Fountains of questions and
answers," tSUl^i^ JoUJll ^#& and in the work of
el-Hasan Ben Musa en-Nubakhti * ^^ ^j (jju»^.!,
which has the title, " On the philosophical and
religious doctrines and the sects of the Hindus;
their opinions, the causes which gave rise to them,
and the reasons why they burn themselves and

inflict various torments upon themselves ;" v^*

not a word is said of all we have just

explained, nor do they allude to the subject on
which we have spoken.
Authors do not agree concerning the Barahman:
some believe him to be Adam and a prophet for
the Hindus; others think that he was a king, as we
have stated ; and this is the opinion most universally
received.

* This patronymic is variously spelt, o&c'JJJt (MS. of

Cambridge,) CfjvaCyJJ (MS. of Leyden;) <sCa=?yiJl (Fihrist el-

Kotob, p. 120,) <£a$'j%\ (et-Tanbih, fol. 221, verso). Compare

Chapter 126, infra.
170 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

The Hindus lamented in the deepest mourning,

the death of the Barahman. They made his eldest
son king, who had been designed by his father to be
his successor, and to whom he had given his
instructions. His name was el-Bahbud ^xfcUU
(:>y&UJj). He followed the example of his father in
his government; he had the best views, built new
temples, invested the wise men with power,
increased their dignity, encouraged them to teach
wisdom, and sent them out to acquire it (by
travelling). He reigned till he died one hundred
years. In his reign the game of tables or backgam-
mon* JjxM was invented. This game shows how
one obtains gain, for it is neither the result of
sagacity and contrivance, nor is subsistence earned
by cleverness in this world. Some say Azdeshirf
Ben Babek invented the game of the tables and
played it first. He expressed in this game the acti-
vity of the world and its inhabitants, and the differ-
ence of their conditions. The twelve points of the
tables answer to the twelve months of the year, and
the thirty tablemen <->*& are expressive of the thirty
days of the month. The dice are meant as symbols

* T. Hyde wrote a prodigiously learned Historia Nerdiludii,

which forms the second book of his Historia Shahiludii.

t r>-£»JjU The MS. of Leyden which is very correct, writes

this name constantly with • instead of .. Compare the observa-
tion of Fleischer on this subject, (Abulfeda, p. 206.)
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 171

of fate and the way in which it deals with mankind;

for the player who is favoured by luck, will attain in
this game what he wishes, whilst the clever and
provident is less lucky than another, if the other is
favoured by fortune ; for gain and good fortune are
a mere chance in this world.
After el-Bahbud reigned Ramah st^, (WU^ or
^LoJj), about one hundred and fifty years. There
are different histories and accounts extant of this
king. He had several wars with the kings of Persia
and China,, the leading points of which are related in
our former works.
After him came Fur ^ (Porus) to the throne.
Alexander gave him a battle, and killed him in a
single combat, after a reign of one hundred and
forty years. Then succeeded Daisalem jJu*oJ
(fa fUMJ,) who is the author of Kalilah wa Dimnah,
which has been translated by Ibn el-Mokaffa'.
Sehl Ben Harun composed a book for el-Mamun,
entitled " The fox and the boar" a^ic ^ sxXxS ^->\3S,
in which he imitates the Kalilah wa Dimnah,
writing on the same heads, and narrating the same
parables; but his book is superior in beauty of
style. He reigned one hundred and twenty years.
Some give a different number of years.
Then succeeded Balhit dv^Xj (clv^Xj). In his
reign the game of chess g^ax* was invented, and
he recommended the play in preference to back-
172 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

gammon, pointing out that the clever is the

winner, and not the idiot. He studied the numbers
(of the product of the squares) of this game^ and
wrote a work* on the subject for the Hindus^
which is known under the title Tor ok Hankd ta'idd

By these means chess became their favourite game,

and he used to play it with the wise men (of his
court), and gave to the pieces the figure of men
and animals, distinguishing them by certain degrees
and ranks, as the king *1&J, the administrator
jo*xU (the queen), the officer yMjjJI (the bishop) ;
similar offices are represented in other pieces.
He laid also an allegory of the higher bodies in
the chess, that is to say, of the stars of the heavens,
observing the number seven and twelve. Every
piece was consecrated to a star. This game served
also to preserve the empire ; for whenever they had
to do with an enemy and the stratagems of war,
they represented on the chess-board the movements
of the troops, both light and heavy ^^ J^-U.
The Hindus have a method in the multiplica-

* A similar work has been written by the Arabic mathema-

tician, Abu Yusof el-Missisi] ^aAXOtJij whose full name was
Ya'kiib Ben Mohammed, under the title O
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 173

tion of the squares of the chess-board, which they

keep secret. The result of this multiplication is
a number which exceeds the astronomical dates,
and those of the first cause, amounting to
18,446,744,073,709,551,615. The series of the
thousands is this: the first number is to be pro-
nounced with six times thousand*, then comes
thousand five times, then four times,, then three
times, then twice, then thousand is to be pronoun-
ced once.
The Hindus attribute to itf a meaning by
which one may explain what is to happen in future
ages and centuries, and the influence which the
heavenly bodies have on this world ; and by it may
be predicted how long the human soul is to dwell in
this world.
The Greeks, Romans, and other nations, con-
nect equally various theories with chess t. It is

* The Arabs, like the Teutonic languages, have no words

which comprises a higher number than a thousand. They express
therefore a million by thousand times thousand, and so on with any
higher number. In order to avoid mistakes, they add at the end
how often thousand is to be taken or multiplied with itself, as is
here the case.
f The author leaves it uncertain whether he means the game
of chess, or the above number.
J It seems, indeed, that the game of chess attracted even
in Europe, a much greater attention in the middle ages than
at present; as may be exemplified by the existence of some
174 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

played in different ways, as is explained in the

books written by the Shatrenjees* on this subject,
by early writers, as well as by es-Suli and el-'Adeli
J*xx!^ d**A\> wno are the best players in our days.
Belhith ci^^L reigned till he died, eighty years,
or, according to other copies (of the work from
which we derive our account), one hundred and
thirty years.

German manuscript, which contains a poem on this subject, in the

Library of the Arsenal at Paris, (MS. Allem. No. 6). It is a
thick quarto written in the year 1418, but the author, whose name
is MICHAEL SCHERER of Strasburg, says himself, that he com-
posed itin 1337, after a Latin work on the same subject. The
allegorical meaning of the pieces, moral precepts, and even
theological disquisitions, form the greater portion of its contents,
but there are also some curious historical facts related in it.
The Dutch are in possession of a similar poem of ancient date.
* As the luxurious Mamun happened to be fond of the chess-
board, a number of men studied the game and wrote on the
subject, collecting and inventing traditions to prove that this game
was permitted, enquiring into the history and fixing the rules to be
observed in playing. These men were called • ±*^J[a.£A\. An
Arabic work of this nature, by el-Hasan el-Basri, is in Mr. Rich's
collection in the British Museum in London, (No. 75 15,) but it
contains no historical facts not found in Hyde's Historia Shahi-
ludii and Sir W. Jones' works, (vol. i. p. 521.) More curious
are the details which en-Nowa'iri furnishes on this subject, in his
Encyclopaedia. On the literary history previous to el-Mas'iidi,
concerning this subject, as well as any other of which our author
speaks, the reader may consult the additional notes.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 1/5

He was succeeded by Kurush*, who introduced

new religious ideas amongst the Hindus, as he
thought them suited to the spirit of the time ; and
adapted to the tendency of his contemporaries,
relinquishing former systems.
In his reign lived es-Sondbad ^L^x^, who is the
author of the book The seven Vezirs, the teacher and

boy, and the wife of the king jkx+Wj &***»\\ \jj£\ <-A^*
JJJIJ s!j*«t* *&*J\j. This is the book which bears the
name Kitdb es-Sondbdd ^U«XJUJ1 vlxf. In the
library of this king the large work " On pathology
and therapeutics" CLjW^xU^ * \^\ j J^M AJ^JUJ ^
was compiled J^, with drawings and pictures of
the plants.
This king reigned till he died, one hundred
and twenty years. After his death the Hindus
disagreed in point of religion : they divided them-
selves into parties, and formed distinct states; and
every chief made himself independent in his district.
Es-Sind was ruled by its own king; another king
reigned in el-Kinnauj; another over Kashmir
jx^3 yoj\ ; and another resided in the city of el-
Mankir (Monghir?) j+&&\> which is the great
metropolis. He was the first who had the name

* LTJU^* This is the way in which Abulfaragius (Hist-

dynast, p. 82.) writes the name of Cyrus. En-Nowairi writes

the name of this Hindu king ni*J" Kush.

176 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

el-Ballahra c^XxM (^JuJ\), which became subse-

quently the title of every sovereign of that great
capital, down to our time, which is the year
332 A.H.
India * is a vast country, having many seas and

0j\ Literally, the country of the Hindus, which, it

must be remembered, comprizes only the south and east of the
peninsula : whereas the north-eastern part is called by the Arabs,
the country of the Sind nation.
As in the translation the name of the country in most cases
is substituted for expressions like bilad es-Sin, (the dominions of
the Chinese,) ardh er-Rum, (the country of the Byzantines,)
memlekat el-Jelalikah, (the kingdom of the Galicians,) &c.: it is
well to notice the peculiarity of the Arabs in this respect, which
is characteristic, and which may also be observed in Genesis.
As we adapt our notions of others to our own ideas as pro-
duced by circumstances and education, just as the hump-backed
will paint every body with a hunch; — the wandering- Arabs
who have no country, being solely connected by the feelings and
pride of their tribes Xxxxax!!, cannot conceive how any nation
can be so degraded as to be dependent upon a country or any
other possession : they estimate the honesty and value of a man
after what he is, and not (as it is the case in modern legislation,)
after what he possesses. Hence they consider the name of every
country as that of a tribe, and are most anxious to find out or
to invent the genealogy of the patriarch (father) of such a tribe,
as they know the ancestors of their own tribes ; so, for instance,
they received from the Persians the name of Chin ^£>~, • which
means China (the country), but the Arabs consider it as the
name of the father of the nation (tribe), and consequently of the
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 177

mountains, and borders on the empire of ez-Zanij,

which is the kingdom of the Maharaj g|j$U» the
king of the islands, whose dominions form the
frontier between India and China, and are con-
sidered as part of India.
The Hindu nation extends from the mountains
of Khorasan and of es-Sind as far as et-Tubbet.
But there prevails a great difference of feelings,

nation itself; and they called the country the territory of the
Fin or Sin (Chinese).
In subsequent times, however, when the victorious Arabs had
settled in cities, the tribe feeling gave way to the habits of settled
life, and the names of countries are in later authors again con-
sidered as such.
This will explain the form of the word XxJ&Jj (Galicia,)
and some other proper names which else must appear arbitrary ;
it is the plural of cJiXiJ or Gallic (Gallicus), just as X*a^cl£JJ
is the plural of (ja£Jl or comes, (count).
In the history of Europe, we find that proper names have
changed in the same way their meaning by the change of facts,
as with the Arabs by the change of notions ; so were the Parisii,
Lugduni, &c., originally tribes, and now they are cities.
Here an addition to the note, p. 19 supra, may find place.
It is stated there that the military cantonments were called Misrs,
which means Egypts. The Western Arabs being in constant
contact with the Egyptians, became necessarily aware of their
settled condition ; and Misr means, therefore, the country of Egypt
(and not the nation,) at all periods of the Arabic language. It
was therefore very natural that they should say, we Egyptianize
yj&+j, when they settled in those cantonments. Hence y^oaJJ
means with Ibn Khaldun constantly — a country where the inha-
bitants are settled and civilized.
N
178 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

language, and religion, in these empires; and they

are frequently at war with each other. The most
of them believe on the metempsychosis, or the
transmigration of the soul. The Hindus are dis-
tinct from other black nations, as the Zanj gjtt>
ed-Demadem ^U«xJl (-aUyj), and others, in point
of intellect, government,, philosophy, colour, appear-
ance, good constitution, talent, and intelligence.
Galen says that the Negroes have ten qualities
which are peculiar to them, and not found in any
other nation : crisp hair, scanty eye-brows, expanded
nostrils, thick lips, sharp teeth, stinking skin, black
complexion, fissures in the skin of their hands and
feet, long am mentulam, and great levity. The same
author states further, their levity is owing to the
bad quality (organisation) of their brains ; for this
renders their intellectual faculties weak. What
other authors say on the levity of the Negroes, and
their gay temper, and on the still higher degree of
levity, which is peculiar to the Zanj, and which
distinguishes them from other Negroes, is to be
found in our former works.

Ya'kub Ben Ishak el-Kindi ui*£\ ^j vy^

c^jJ^M asserts, in a memoir on the influence of the
higher individuals (i.e. stars) and heavenly bodies
upon this world -U*.=»^ *tjkd\ ^sUsSM JUit ^ *^
fUxil *«k£ ^ Xj^UvJ!, that God has arranged
it so that everything that he has created acts at
 179
AND MINES OF GEMS.

the same time as cause upon others, and the cause

produces an effect in the object upon which it acts,
which corresponds with the cause; but the object,
which is passive, does not create any impression
upon the cause, which is active. Spirit is the cause
of heaven jfaJJ*, and not its effect: hence it does

* Arabian astronomers express thus their notions of the

heaven or sphere. Lnw^JJ ^c Jf^s=U> tf^

" The heaven is a simple body (not compounded,) which has

the shape of a ball (ii. 4), and turns round its own centre, which
it fully surrounds (i. 2). It has neither levity nor gravity
(i. 3), and it possesses not heat, cold, moisture, nor dryness, nor
is it susceptible of separation or coalition."
With this may be compared the words in the Ayeen Akberi,
(vol. iii. 2,) where it is said that this is the opinion of the ' er-
sians, Egyptians, and Greeks, and that the heaven is eternal, and
endowed with reason.
The references which I added in the translation, refer to
Aristotle's book de Ccelo, where the same ideas are expressed.
Here another passage of Aristotle, relative to the same subject,
may be quoted, which sets the belief, that the heaven exercises an
influence upon the earth and its inhabitants, in its proper light, and
connects the notions of the Hindus, Persians, and Greeks, on
this subject.
Qvpavov 8e KOI aorpow ova-Lav p.ev alOepa ffaXov/MP, ovx coy nvcs,
8ta ro TTvpos &r) ov(rav, cu&cr&u, Tr\r)p,p.€\ovvTcs Trepl rr\v ir\f1crTov Trvpos
aTnjAXa-yfiei/?;!/ Swap-iV aXXa 8m TO deWc'iv KVK\o<popovp,€vr)v oroi^eToj/
ovvav crepov ra>v recro-apwj/, a^parov re KOI Selov. Arist. de Mundo,
cap. 2, vol. i. p. 465.
<; We call the matter, of which the heaven and N the
2 stars con-
 180 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

not receive impressions from it. It is, however, a

sist, ETHER ; not because it is a fire as some believed, who had

exceedingly wrong notions respecting that power (matter), which
is very far from being a fire; but because it is an ELEMENT
which observes the circular form in its motion, and it is different
from the four other elements, being everlasting and divine."
It is strange that this fifth element of Aristotle has never been
noticed, although the four elements have found advocates in the
German Metaphysico-physiologists, (see Carus, Lehrbuch der
Physiologic, vol. i.,) in whose system it would suit admirably well.
But the doctrine of a fifth element is much more ancient than
Aristotle, even amongst the Greeks. Ocellus, (translation of
Taylor, p. 10,) who lived about five centuries before Christ, at
the time of Pythagoras, seems to have had the same notions of it
as Aristotle. " But the Fates themselves distinguish and separate
the impassive part of the world from that which is perpetually
moved (mutable). For the course of the moon is the isthmus
of immortality and generation. The region indeed above the
moon, and also that which the moon occupies, contain the genus
of the gods; but the place beneath the moon, is the place of
strife and nature."
The idea of Jive elements is general amongst the Hindus.
They call the ether, Akas; and, although its natural place is,
as with the Greeks, above the other elements, it pervades every-
thing and is the vehicle of sound. Amongst the ancient Persians
it seems to have been considered even as the principle of vege-
tative life, hence the Zend-Avesta calls it " un feu qui ne brule
pas et qui anime tous les etres." It was probably after the Per-
sian idea that some Greek philosophers believed the ether was a
fire. The Arabs have probably found this theory of the heaven
in the schools of Persia, before they have been acquainted with
the writings of the Greeks, after which they have put it in a
scientific shape.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 181

law in nature that the spirit* follows the organisa-

tion of the body, if there is nothing in the way.
So it is with the Zanji. His country being very
hot, the heavenly bodies exercise their influence
upon it, and predispose in the humours a tendency
to go to the upper parts of the body: hence their
eyes are large, the lips thick, the nose flat and big,
and the head high. The crasis of the brain is,
therefore, out of proportion, and the mind cannot
perfectly manifest its action ; the nicety of dis-
tinctions and the action of the understanding are
confused. Ancient and modern authors have

The heavens, or spheres, which preside, according to the

astrologers, over the destiny of this world are, therefore, not
different from the ether of the philosophers, which is the divine
element of life ; nor from the Zeus of the Greeks, and the Hawa

<gj£\ (air)> which was worshipped by the Arabs, before the

Islam, as we learn from the Koran, where it is said, ^ CoLsl

x\*£> <XA!\ <Xi.J, and from a tradition of Ibn 'Abbas. See also
Maimonides, p. 157 of the Engl. Transl.
* In the Cambridge copy the quotation from el-Kindi is left
out altogether. From an allusion of Ibn Khaldun to this passage
of our author, on the Negroes, it would appear that he did not
find it in his copy again.
The MS. of Leyden bears ^*\A!^ instead of yjijjl, which
is only found in the (for the rest very incorrect,) copy of the
Asiatic Society of Paris. However, if this reading was not con-
firmed bythe context, it might safely be adopted on the authority
of Aristotle, from whom the whole of el- Kindt's reasoning is
borrowed. At Sidvoiai eTrovrai. TOIS O-W/LUWI, Physiogn. cap. 1.
182 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

spoken on the causes under the influence of which

the Negroes are placed; and they entered upon
their position relative to heaven, the seven planets,
and particularly the five planets, which preside
over their developement, and have alone influence
upon the formation of their bodies. But this hook
is not solely devoted to this subject. We state
here only the facts as they have been advanced by
various authors, referring for further details and the
exposition of their arguments in proof of those
facts, to our book the Akhbar ez-zeman. We have
also explained in that book the theory of those
astrologers and astronomers who ascribe the cha-
racter ofthe Negroes to Saturn, as this is expressed
in the verses of some modern Mohammedan writer:
" One of them (the planets) is Saturn, who is
an old man and powerful king. His complexion is
black *, and this is the colour of his dress, and of
his sulky mind. He exercises his influence upon
the Zanj and the slaves, and to him leadf and iron
are sacred."

* This description of Saturn answers exactly the picture which

el-Kazwmi gives of this planet, which is to be found beautifully
illuminated, in a MS. of the East India House, No. 1 377, and in its
outlines in the Fundgruben des Orients, vol. i., but there it looks
the contrary way by a mistake of the artist.
f A slight alteration would change the sense into " and he
is the enemy of iron." This is more probable because iron was
sacred to Mars, and has still the name of this planet in medicine;
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 183

Tawus el-Yemani, the companion of 'Abdullah

Ben el- 'Abbas ^j\ aHJ *x>^ t-^U? jl^l u^lk
u^U*!! would not eat any meat slain (or sacrificed)
by a Zanji. He used to say, a Zanji was a hideous
slave. We have heard that Abul-'Abbas er-Raddhi
Ben el-Moktader would never take anything from
the hand of a black man, saying he was a hideous
slave. I do not know whether he has initiated
Tawus in his system, or in a sort of philosophical
and religious sect.
'Amr Ben Bahr el-Jahit k^ lit j^s? ^j ^
wrote a book " On the national pride of the
Negroes, and their disputes with the white men."

No king can succeed to the throne, according

to Hindu laws, before he is forty years of age, nor

for physicians acknowledge that their art originated from astro-

logy to this day, in this as well as in some other names, as
lunar caustic (Nitrate of silver). Mercury, crystals of Venus
(neutral sulphate of copper), &c. Not only metals, but everything
on earth had a patron in one of the planets with the astrologers,
and almost everybody was as far an astrologer as his scientific
education went. And it appears that in the dark ages a medicine
was considered as the mediator between its respective star and
the patient; and hence it had frequently no efficacy if not prepared
under a certain constellation. These follies seem to have origi-
nated in the ancient religion of the Sawad of the Tigris and
Euphrates. Compare Maimonides, English Translation of Dr.
Townley, p. 158; and Zend-Avesta, i. 2, p. 28.
184 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

appears their sovereign ever before the public,

except at certain times, which are fixed at long
intervals, and then it is only for the inspection of
state affairs; for, in their opinion, the kings lose
their respect and give away their privileges if the
public gazes at them*. The measures of govern-
ment must be carried by mildness in India, and by
degradation from a higher rank.
El-Mas'udi says., I have seen in the country of
Serendib (Ceylon), which is an island of the sea,
that when a king dies, he is laid upon a car, with
small wheels, and made for the purpose. His hair
touches the ground, and a woman with a broom in
her hand sweeps dust on his head, crying out, " O
people, this was yesterday your king, and you were
bound to listen to his orders. See what now has
become of him! He has left this world, and the
King of the kings has taken his soul (life) f. He
alone is living, and dies not. Do not be given to
life after this example." These words have the ten-
dency to exhort to a pious and abstemious life in
this world. After a procession with the body

* Institutes of Menu, vii. 6, " Nor can any human creature

on earth gaze on him (the king)."
f " The king of death has taken his soul into eternal *o«X»
life. Thus bears the copy of Cambridge, but *j«X5 has not
the signification which the context would give to the word, if the
passage was correct.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 185

through the streets of the town, they divide it into

four parts, and burn it with sandal- wood, camphor,
and other perfumes which they have prepared: the
ashes are thrown to the winds. This is the funeral
ceremony for kings and their courtiers of the most
nations of India *. They state the reason for so
doing, and the object which they have in view.
The royalty is limited upon the descendants of
one family, and never goes to another f. The
same is the case with the families of the vizier,
kadhi, and other high officers. They are all (here-
ditary and) never changed nor altered J.
The Hindus abstain from (spirituous) liquors
i_>^.£!\$, not in obedience to some religious precept,
but because they do not choose to take a thing
which overwhelms their reason, and makes cease the
dominion which this faculty is to exercise over men.
If it can be proved of one of their kings, that he
has drunk (wine) , he forfeits the crown ; for he is
(not considered to be) able to rule and govern (the
empire) if he is given to such habits ||.
They hear frequently songs and musical per-
formances <|&U^ ^UvJi, and they have various sorts

* Compare ancient accounts of India and China, p. 31.

f Ibidem, p. 32.
J The king must appoint seven or eight ministers whose
lineage is noble. Menu, vii. 84.
§ Ancient accounts of India and China, p. 33.
|| Compare Institutes of Menu, v,ii. 47, 50.
 186 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

of musical instruments which produce on man all

shades of impressions between laughing and crying.
Sometimes they make girls drink (wine), to excite
them to show their mirth in their presence, and in
order to be inspired with gaiety by their merriment.
The Hindus have various interesting institu-
tions, and are rich in curious facts. We have
given many sketches from their history and biogra-
phy (manners) in our book, the Kitab Akhbar ez-
zeman, and Kitab el-ausat. A specimen, however,
shall be inserted here.
One of the most curious stories of the kings of
the Hindus, and a strange (yet characteristic) ex-
ample of the line of conduct of the most ancient
Hindu kings, and their institutions., is (exhibited in
the following narration) of a king of el-Komar*
j($l\ (Comorin). From this kingdom and tract of
India the Komdri aloes c?^l$Jl J^c has its name.
This country is not an island of the sea, but it
belongs to the continent, and is very mountainous.
Few parts of India are more populous than this,
and the inhabitants distinguish themselves before
the other Hindus by their agreeable breath, which
they acquire by rubbing their teeth with aloes- wood,
as it is the habit amongst the Mohammedans.
They consider, like the Mohammedans, fornication

* Compare ancient accounts of India and China, p. 65, et

seqq.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 187

to be unlawful, and they avoid (like them) unclean-

liness, and the use of wine. In this practice the
Hindus of the higher ranks are like those of the
lower classes.
They (the inhabitants of el-Komar) are for
the most part infantry, on account of the mountain-
ous character of the country, which is broken by
rivers, and has few plains, or high table-lands ^Lcr'J.
The country of el-Komar is the point of communi-
cation with the dominions of the Maharaj ^\^^\9
the king of the islands, as the Isle of ez-Zanij,
Kolah XXT, Serendib i-vA>j~» (Ceylon), and other
islands.
It is related that an inconsiderate man ruled in
ancient times over el-Komar. One day he sat on
the royal throne in his palace, which stood on a
large river of sweet water, like the Tigris or Eu-
phrates, and was one day's journey from the sea.
The vizier was with the king, who said to him,
"The splendour and high civilization of the empire
and islands of the Maharaj are celebrated. This
excites a desire in my mind which I wish to
realize." The vizier, a prudent man, who knew
the levity of his master, asked him "What is thy
desire, O king?" " I wish," replied the king, " to
see the head of the Maharaj, the king of ez-Zanij,
laying (in a dish) at my feet." The vizier saw
that envy had inspired him with these thoughts,
188 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and he said, after some consideration, " I do not

think the king will permit this idea to rest in his
mind, as there has never existed any difference
between us and that nation, neither of yore, nor of
late; nor have they ever done us any harm. Be-
sides they are far from us, in islands, and by no
means neighbours ; nor have they any design
against our possessions. The distance between the
dominions of the Maharaj and those of el-Komar,
is from ten to twenty days across the sea. It is
therefore better, O king," continued the vizier, " not
to persist in this scheme." The king made no reply,
he was enraged with anger, and shut his ear to
advice. He acquainted his officers and the chiefs
of his men, who were present, with his project ; and
so it was divulged, and went from tongue to tongue
till it reached the Maharaj, who was a prince of
great prudence, and a middle-aged man.
The Maharaj called his vizier, related to him
the account which he had received, and said, " Con-
sidering the project of this madman, which has
come to publicity, and the intentions which he has
formed, with his inexperienced and overbearing
spirit, and after his words have become generally
known, we can no longer preserve peace with him,
he has forfeited the crown, and deserves to be
deposed." The king ordered his vizier to observe
secrecy of what had passed between them, and to
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 189

prepare a thousand of the best ships

V^XJ k«sjt, with full equipment, to provide them
with the arms necessary, and to man them with a
sufficient number of the best soldiers. He pre-
tended that these preparations were meant for an
excursion into his islands, and he wrote to the
kings (governors) of these islands, who were under
his sway, and his subjects, that he had the intention
to pay them a visit, and to make an excursion to
their islands. This rumour spread, and the king
of every island made all possible preparation for the
reception of the Maharaj. When everything was
ready and in order, he went on board and sailed
with the army to the kingdom of el-Komar. The
king of el-Komar was not aware of the expedition
before he came up the wadi (river,) which washes
the walls of the royal palace. The Maharaj ordered
his men to make an assault upon (the palace,) and
they surrounded it unaware, and took possession of
it. The inhabitants appeared before the Maharaj,
he ordered to proclaim "quarter," and sat on the
throne on which the king of el-Komar used to sit,
who was now a prisoner, and commanded to bring the
king and his vizier in his presence, and said, " What
gave rise to those intentions which are beyond
thy power? And if thou hadst attained thy object
thou wouldst not have been the happier." The
facility of the execution of the project did not afford
any excuse (to the captive king), and so he remained
190 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

silent. "If thy desires/' continued the Maharaj,

"to see my head before thee in a dish had been
joined with the intention to make thyself master of
my dominions, and the throne, and to spread
destruction in any part of the country, I should
do the same thing to thee. But thou hast dis-
tinctly expressed thy object, and I will now visit
it on thee; and I will return to my country
without touching anything in thy empire either
small or great. Thou shalt be an example for
posterity, that none may dare to transgress the
portion which Providence has given to him*."
After these words he beheaded him ; and turning
to the vizier, "Thou hast tried all," said he, " that
a good vizier can do: I know thou gavest good
advice to thy master, which he ought to have
accepted : consult who may be most fit to succeed
this madman, and put him on the throne." The
Maharaj returned immediately to his country, and
neither he nor anybody of his army touched anything
in the kingdom of el-Komar.

LAJK CyJ*1 JJJ jCx3 *XT Jji ^

M. Renaudot had evidently the same
words which are transcribed here ; but he differs from the above
translation.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 191

When the Maharaj was come back into his

dominions, he sat on his throne, from whence he
enjoyed the view over a hay which was called the
Bay of the Ingot of Gold «-^jJJ ^xJ* ^»^5 and
before him was placed the dish with the head of the
king of el-Komar. He assembled the great men of
his kingdom, narrated to them his exploits, and
exposed the reason which had brought him under
the necessity of undertaking them. He was
received with the marks of admiration, and prayers
for his welfare. Then he gave orders to wash
the head of the king of el-Komar, to embalm it, and
to send it in a vase to the king who had succeeded
him in el-Komar; and he wrote to him: ll Our
motive in acting as we have done with thy prede-
cessor having been his hostile intentions towards
us and to offer an example to his equals, it appears to
us well to send back his head to thee, since we have
obtained our object, as there is no use in keeping it,
for this trophy would not add to the glory of our
victory." The news of this action reached the
ears of the kings of India and China, and the
Maharaj rose greatly in their estimation ; and since
this time, the kings of el-Komar turn their faces
every morning towards ez-Zanij, and prostrate them-
selves to express their veneration for the Maharaj.

* ..^A! Seems to be the technical term for ingot, in Arabic

coinage; at least it is used as such by en-Nowairl.
192 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

El-Mas'udi says, the meaning of the words

v-^> &\ ^J ^j^Xc (the bay of the ingot of gold) is
this, the palace of the Maharaj stands on a little
bay ^Jvr, which is in connexion with the greatest
strait of ez-Zanij. At high tide this strait is filled
with sea water, and at low tide sweet water flows in
it. The treasurer ^Lc^j of the king goes every
morning into this bay, carrying an ingot of gold
with him of several pounds UuJ, but we do not know
its exact weight. He throws it before the king
into the bay. When the tide comes in, the water
covers this and other ingots which may be there;
and when the water retires, it appears again, and it
shines in the sun. The king sits in the room of
reception from which he delights to see it .The habit
of throwing every day a golden ingot into this bay, is
continued during the whole reign of the same king,
and they are never touched. When the king dies,
his successor has them all taken out, and none of
them are put into the bay again; but they are
counted, melted, and distributed among the royal
household; amongst the men,, women, children,
leaders, and servants ; to every one according to his
station, and the class to which he belongs; and
what remains is given to the poor and indigent.
The number of golden ingots and their weight
is registered, and it is said such and such a king
reigned so many years, and left such and such
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 193

a number of ingots, of such a weight in the royal bay,

for distribution after his death. Kings who had
a long reign, set their glory on leaving many
ingots.
The greatest king of India in our times is the
Ballahra, the lord of El-Mankir. The most kings
of India turn, in their prayers, their face towards
him; and they pray (adore?) his messengers yiT^

when they receive them. The dominions of the

Ballahra border on many other kingdoms of India.
Some kings have their territory in the mountains,
and are not in possession of a sea, as the er-Ray
<$VjJJ (Raja), who is the king of el-Kashmir J*C&A!I
> and the king of et-Tafi ^UUt (^UJl or
and other Hindu sovereigns. Others
are in possession of land and sea. The country of
the king el- Ballahra is eighty Sindi farsangs ^w ^
x>jJLo, from the sea; every such farsang has eight
miles. His troops and elephants are innumerable,
and his army consists mostly of infantry, for his
dominions are mountainous. At some distance
from him is the territory of Barudah 22^ (*#^
or *£f> or *jjj})9 who is one of those kings of
India who have no sea, and resides in the town of
el-Kinnauj*. This is the name for every sove-

* In other passages of this work the title of this king is

O
194 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

reign who rules over this country. He has large

armies garrisoned in the north and south, and in
the east and west; for he is surrounded by warlike
neighbours. We shall insert a general account of
the kings of es-Sind and India, and of other places
of the world, farther on in this book, where we
speak of the seas,, their wonders, and of the
nations, kings, &c., in them, and round them. We
have treated on these subjects in our former works.
There is no strength nor power except in God.

clearly written Budah k'^j. The name or title of the king of

el-Kinnauj, at the time of the conquest of Mahmud of Ghizna,
was Rajbal
 AND MINES OP GEMS. ] 95

EIGHTH CHAPTER.

On the globe, the seas, the beginning of rivers, the

mountains, the seven climates, the stars which
preside over them, the order of the spheres, and
other subjects.

EL-MAS'UDI says, the mathematicians have divided

the earth into four quarters, the east, west, north,
and south. Another division is into the inhabited
and uninhabited, cultivated and uncultivated world.
They say the earth is round, its centre falls in the
midst of the heaven, and the air surrounds it from
all sides. It is the dot (centre) in reference to the
zodiac.
The cultivated land is considered to begin from
the Eternal Islands (Fortunate Islands) jo^il
okxJlii, in the Western Ocean, which is a group of
six flourishing islands, and to extend as far as the
extremity of China ^xaJJ. They found that this is
a space of twelve hours (of the daily revolution of
the sun) ; for they know that when the sun sets in
the extremity of China, it rises again in the
cultivated islands of the Western Ocean ; and when
it sets in these islands, it rises in the oextremity
2 of
China. This is half the circumference of the earth,
196 EL-MAS'UDl'.S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and the length of the cultivated parts of the globe,

which, if reduced into miles, amounts to thirteen
thousand five hundred geographical miles *.
The researches into the breadth of the culti-
vated land have shown that it extends from the
equator as far north as the isle of Thule Jp, which
belongs to Britannia XAJU^J, and where the longest
day has twenty hours.
They state that there is a point of the equator
of the earth between east and west, which falls in
an island between India and Habesh (Abyssinia),
somewhat south of these two countries; and as
it is in the middle, between north and south, so
it is in the middle between the Fortunate Islands
and the utmost cultivated districts of China; and
this is known by the name of the Dome of the earth

u*j $\ Xxi', and defined by the description which we

have just givenf.

* Literally "of those miles which are in use in measuring the

circumference of the earth."
f Messrs. Reinaud and Baron Slane, (Aboulfeda, p. 376,)
collected the most important passages from Arabic authors,
bearing on this dome of the earth, and traced the origin of
the idea to India. But it appears it also existed amongst the
ancient Greeks.
6s ('OSuo'evs) 8») drjdd <f)i\a)v OTTO TrfjfMaTa nd^fi,
Nqo-os fv dfjiffripvTr), 061 T OM$AAO2 eori 6a\d(T(Tr)5.
Homer, Odyss. i. 51.
The navel of the earth is also mentioned in the Scriptures;
but as the Greeks have neglected this idea in subsequent time, it
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 197

The breadth from the Isle of Thule to the

equator makes nearly sixty degrees: this is one-
sixth of the circumference of the earth. This
sixth, which represents the breadth of the cultivated
parts of the earth, multiplied with one-half, which
expresses the length, gives as product the extent of
the cultivated world (jji/*JJ of the northern hemi-
sphere. This product is half one-sixth (or one-
twelfth) of the surface of the globe.
THE SEVEN CLIMATES*. The first climate is the

seems that it had arisen from considering the earth as a round

plain, convex in the centre, which is this dome. It belongs there-
fore to the doctrine of the Jummoodeep of the Hindus, about
which, the reader may compare Ayeen Akberi, vol. iii., p. 25.
Bazih s^Lj is a town near the dome of the earth, on the same
meridian as Khojandah, in Transoxania; and this meridian was
considered as the absolute division between east and west (Meta-
tih el-'olum).
* The basis of all researches in ancient history must unques-
tionably be to trace when and where ideas have risen ? how they
have been propagated? what changes they underwent? and
what was their influence upon the life, freedom, and happiness of
man in their different phases. It is in this point of view that this
notice of our author on the seven climates is important, for it
shows us that it is neither an invention of the Greeks, as Pliny
observes (lib. vii., cap. 39), nor originally founded upon the
observations of the gnomon having reference to the northern
latitude, as the same author, and everybody else after him,
believed.
The seven climates, as we see here, are independent of the
latitude of places ; and owe their origin to the circumstance that,
198 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

country of Babil, which includes Khorasan, Faris,

in the star worship, every part of the earth was sacred to one of
the seven planets.
This was not only the habit amongst the Persians, but we find
that they have been imitated by Ptolemy, who assigns equally
to every country a planet as a patron, in his Tetrabiblos. I have
no means of referring to this book at present, and do not remem-
ber whether he makes the same divisions, but nothing is more
natural than that the city of Baal or Babylon, [for even Arabic
writers (et-Tanbih, fol. 25. verso,) confess, that the Persians and
Nabathaeans derive Babel from Bil J^,, which means the planet
Jupiter c5^p.^JL\ J should be sacred to Jupiter ; and the countries
of the black nations to the dark and gloomy Saturn ; whilst the
lively Arabs worshipped particularly the bright star of Venus in
San'a ; Thaut was the god of the grave Egyptians, and it is very
likely that the Sabeans of Harran, worshipped the moon in
preference to other planets ; the warlike Turks, or Tartars, found
in Mars their patron ; whilst the most eastern country, the Shave
of the Zend books, was naturally sacred to the sun.
As we conclude that a map in which the first meridian goes
through Greenwich, has been made in England, so we can have
no doubt that a division of the globe, in which Babel stands on the
head, has been made in Babylonia; for the rest we have a direct
proof in the Tenblh, where the author says distinctly that the
Persians divide the earth into seven climates, consecrating them
to the seven planets. Maimonides, Nev., p. iii., cap. 27, assigns
the division of the earth after the seven planets to the Sabeans
(Chaldeans).
The Zendavesta mentions these seven climates in several places,
but the fire worshippers leave out the planets who presided over
them. The Zend word for climate is Keshvar.
It is very curious that Pliny includes all the countries in the
first climate, which we find in el-Mas'iidi as being subordinate to
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 199

el-Ahwas, el-Mausil, and the Jebal*. The Aries

and Sagittarius are the zodiacal signs of this climate,
and Jupiter is its planet.
The second climate includes es-Sind, India,
and es-Sudan (Nigritia): their sign is Capricorn,
and their planet Saturn.
The third climate is Mekka, Medina, Yemen,
et-Tayif, the Hejaz, and the intermediate countries:
their sign is Scorpio, and their star is Venus.
The fourth climate is Egypt t, Afrikiyah (Africa

it. He names (lib. vi. cap. 39,) Parthyene (Khorasan) ; Persae

(Faris) ; Susiane (el- Ahwaz) ; and Mesopotamia (el-Mausil) :
although these countries belong, according to Pliny's principle of
division, to the third climate. Nobody will therefore say the
division of the earth into seven climates was a Greek invention, or
was originally made according to the latitude of the places,
although the honour of having reduced it to this more scientific
principle is owing to the Greeks.
* These countries formed the Iran or holy land of the Per-
sians, which is called KHOUNNERETS in the Zend books. This
name would be an additional proof to confirm what has been stated
in the preceding note, if such was required. The Keschvar or
climate of Khounnerets, means the climate of Babel, (exactly the
same as our author calls it), for el-Mas'udi informs us in the
Tanblh (MS. 337, de St. Germain, Royal Library of Paris, fol.

25, recto)) that Kha'inereth C,J.AAS*. is the Assyrian or Chaldean

name of Babylon. This throws a great deal of light on the
Zendavesta; for Khounnerets is mentioned as the most sacred
place. It may lead to important conjectures, why this climate has
its name from Babel and not the pure Persian name Iran.
T This climate has the name of Arze in the Zend books, and
200 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

provincia), el-Berber, Spain, and the interjacent

countries: their sign is the Gemini, and their
planet is Mercury.
The fifth climate is Syria and el-Jezirah (Meso-
potamia)*: their sign is the Aquarius, and their
planet the Moon.
The sixth climate is et-Turk (Turkestan), el-
Khazar j^\9 ed-Dailom jju<x!l, and es-Sakalibah
XxJUuoJJ (Slavonians) f: their sign is the Cancer, and
their star is Mars.
The seventh climate is ed-DabilJ
or J^JJl, and China: their zodiacal sign is the
Libra, and their planet the Sun.
Hosain the astronomer, who is the author of
the Astronomical Tables p.^Jl J g$\\ v^> relates
from Khaled Ben 'Abdul-Melik el-Marwazi tfj^Xt
G^jJtAO' and the others who have observed the sun
in the plains of Sinjar ^l^uw, in Diyar Rabi'ah§, by
order of el-Mamun, that the length of one degree

the chief of this climate is there (Boun-Dehesch, cap. xxx, p.

408), said to be Schaschega, which is clearly the name of the Sesak
of the Scriptures. It would not be difficult to find out the nameg
of the chiefs of the other climates, if it was worth while.

* One copy adds " and er-Rum," the Byzantine empire.

f These nations and countries were all on the coasts of the
Caspian.
f Perhaps Daibol, which is the last seaport in es-Sind, is to be
read.

§ The llabi'ah tribe held the South of Mesopotamia.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 201

of the earth is equal to fifty-six miles : they mul-

tiplied this number with three hundred and sixty,
and found the circumference of the globe, which is
covered with land and seas, to be twenty thousand
one hundred and sixty miles. The circumference
of the earth, multiplied with seven, gives as pro-
duct one hundred and forty-one thousand one hun-
dred and twenty; and this, divided with twenty-
two, gives the length of the diameter ^3 of the
earth as the result, viz., six thousand four hundred
and fourteen miles, and nearly half a tenth of a
mile. The length of the radius of the earth is
three thousand two hundred and seven miles, six-
teen minutes, and two-thirds of a second, which is
equal to one-fourth and the fourth part of one-tenth
of a mile (eleven-fortieths). A mile has four thou-
sand black cubits : these are the cubits which have
been introduced by the Khalif el-Mamun for mea-
suring cloths, buildings, and grounds: one cubit
has twenty-four inches £*j&\.
The philosopher o^X/jUt (Ptolemy) gives an
account in his book entitled "Gighrafia" loiyL*.
(yecoypa^ia) of the world, its towns, mountains,
seas, islands, rivers,, and wells. He describes the
inhabited towns and cultivated tracts. There were,
according to him, four thousand five hundred and
thirty towns in his time. He names these towns,
adding to every one of them in what climate it is
situated. He says in his book what colour the
202 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

mountains of the world have, red, yellow, green,

or any other colour. There are about two hundred
mountains (named by Ptolemy). He gives their
dimensions, mentions the mines which are in them,
and the mass of which they consist (or the gems
found in them). The philosopher says that the
seas which surround the globe are five seas. He
names the islands which are in them, stating whe-
ther they are cultivated or not; but only the more
celebrated islands are mentioned, and not those
which are less known. So, for instance*, there is
an Archipelago in the Abyssinian Sea, consisting
of nearly one thousand islands, called ed-Dinjat
£»L*u&Jl (^LsryjjOi), all of which are cultivated.
The distance from one island to another is two or
three miles, more or less.
He states in his geography that the sea of the
Byzantine empire and of Egypt (the Mediterranean)
begins from the sea of the idols of copper (Columrus
Herculis) ; that the number of all the great springs
on earth is two hundred and thirty, not counting
the lesser ones; that there are two hundred and
ninety great and perennial rivers; and that the
extent of every one of the seven climates, which
we have just mentioned, is nine hundred farsangs

The Cambridge copy

bears Aj ^ j$*j » an(^ ^le mentions that there is an Archipelago.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 203

square. Some seas have cultivation (in islands);

others have none. Into the number of the latter
enters the ocean, or the sea, which surrounds the
world kxsi?J ^i. The reader will find in the fol-
lowing pages a description of the division of the
seas. They are all represented in the geography
(of Ptolemy) in drawings of different colours, di-
mensions, and forms. Some have the form of a
cloak ^U^Xxk, some of an armour, and others of
intestines*, and are round, or triangular; but the
names in that book are in Greek : hence they are
unintelligible.
The diameter of the earth is two thousand one
hundred farsangs [but the correct number is one
thousand six hundred farsangs f] : a farsang is equal
to one thousand six hundred cubits.
The orbit of the lowest star is the sphere (or
heaven) of the moon, and has one hundred and
twenty-five thousand six hundred and sixty far-
sangs in circumference. The diameter of the
heaven, from the limit of the head of the Aries to
the limit of the head of the Libra, measures forty
thousand farsangs.

* This word • L*ax>, intestine, is, I believe, not found in

any dictionary. It is, however, used in vulgar Arabic, and fre-
quently found in books.
f This correction is only in one copy.
204 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

There are nine spheres (or heavens) cftUi. The

first; which is the smallest, and nearest to the earth,
is the sphere of the Moon^W*; the second is the
sphere of Mercury JjlkxJ!; the third, of Venus
*jj*>j$\; the fourth, of the Sun y^^t; the fifth, of
Mars £jtt ; the sixth of Jupiter <gJrJ&\ ; the
seventh, of Saturn J^JJ; the eighth, of the fixed
stars; the ninth, of the Zodiac ^$j&. The form
of these spheres is like one ball in another. The
sphere of the Zodiac is called the universal sphere
^XSftjfo. The revolution of this sphere is the
cause of day and night ; for it carries the sun,

* The word Kamar (moon), says en-Nowairi, means white ; Zoh-

rah (Venus) resplendent, Zonal (Saturn) is explained as meaning
ill-natured and wandering; Mirrikh (Mars), say some authors, means
originally an arrow without feathers, and this name was applied to
Mars on account of its irregular course ; others seek for a more
natural meaning of this word, and derive it from the name of a
tree called markh ^ ^9 the branches of which are rubbed against

each other and produce fire; 'Utarid (Mercury), says the same
author, means a penman : and, indeed, this planet is represented
as such ; but whether this word is ever used for penman in Arabic
is more than doubtful. Ibn Bai'tar mentions a plant which is
called Sonbal er-Rumi by the Arabs, and 'Utarid by the Naba-
theans. This might lead to the opinion that this strange-sounding
word derives its origin in its astronomical meaning, as well from
that language, to which several other terms and notions of Arabic
astronomy seem to owe their origin.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 205

moon, and all the stars, once in a day and night,

with itself, in the direction from east to west, round
the two poles, which are fixed the one in the north,
and this is the pole of the Bear ; and the other in
the south, which is the pole of Canopus. The
signs of the zodiac have no other sphere than this ;
for they are certain places in heaven which have
received this name*, in order to fix after them
the position of the stars, in reference to the uni-
versal sphere. The sphere of the zodiac must there-
fore be narrow towards the two poles, and become
wide in the middle,
The line which cuts the sphere in two halves
running from the east to the west is called the
equinoctial line J^tt\ Jjo^ *jjte- Both poles are at
the same distance from this line. It has the
name equinoctial line, because when the sun is upon
it, day and night are equal in all countries of the
world. The direction from north to south in the
sphere is called latitude o^c> and the direction
from east to west longitude J^. The spheres are
round; they include the world (earth), and turn
round the centre of the earth, which stands like the
centre of a circle in the middle of them. The

* This explains why the Signs of the Zodiac were called boruj,
sing, borj, which means stronghold, or fortress, and answers to the
Persian word Alborj, and the German Burg, Berg.
206 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

spheres of the heaven are nine; the nearest is the

sphere of the moon, above it is the sphere of Mer-
cury, then that of Venus, then the sphere of the sun,
which is in the middle between the seven spheres (of
the planets); above the sphere of the sun is that of
Mars, then the sphere of Jupiter, then the sphere of
Saturn. In every one of these seven spheres there is
only one star. Above Saturn is the eighth sphere, in
which are the signs of the zodiac, and all other
stars. The ninth sphere is the largest and widest,
it is called the greatest sphere, and includes all
others which we have just enumerated, with the four
temperaments and all qualities*. There is no star
in it. It turns from east to west, making one com-
plete revolution every day. And in its revolution
it carries with itself all the spheres which are below
(within) it. But the seven spheres (of the planets)
turn from west to eastt. The ancients prove what

* XJuXiU £A^ ZxjjM £>ULM, literally "the four

natures, and every quality." The four natures imply warmth
and cold, dryness and wet. Two of these qualities were consi-
dered as necessary for the existence of a body as the three geo-
metrical dimensions. Arabic pharmacologists begin, therefore,
the description of drugs by stating which two of these qualities, or
temperaments, they possess.
Quality XJuXiJ is the characteristic property which distin-
guishes one individual from another. (Bahr el-Jewahir.)
f This astronomical theory is copied from Ptolemy, and is of
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 207

we have said with many arguments, but it would be

too long to repeat them here.
The stars visible to the eye and all others are in
the eighth sphere, which does not make its revolu-
tions round the pole of the general sphere (being
excentric). They bring as proof for the difference
of the motion of the sphere of the zodiac from that
of the other spheres, that the twelve zodiacal signs
follow each other in their course, without change in
their relative position and alteration in their motion
in rising and setting. Every one of the planets has
a different motion, for there is a discrepancy in their
course ; sometimes the motion is quicker, sometimes

little interest. I give the explanation of the idea of the seven

spheres in the precise words of La Place (Exposition du Systeme
du Monde, Paris, 1808, p. 343): " Ptolemee 1'adopta (the theory
of the circular and uniform motion), et pla^ant la terre au centre
des mouvements celestes, il essaya de representer leur inegalite
dans cette hypothese. Que Ton imagine un mouvement sur une
premiere circonference, dont la terre occupe le centre, celui d'une
seconde circonference sur laquelle se meut le centre d'une troisieme
circonference, et ainsi de suite jusqu'a la derniere, que 1'astre
decrit uniformement. Si le rayon d'une de ces circonference s
surpasse la somme des autres rayons, le mouvement apparent de
1'astre autour de la terre sera compose d'un moyen mouvement
uniforme, et de plusieurs inegalites dependantes des rapports
qu'ont entre eux les rayons des diverses circonferences et le
mouvement de leur centre et de 1'astre ; on peut done, en multi-
pliant, et en determinant convenablement ces quantites, repre-
senter toutes les inegalites de ce mouvement apparent."
208 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

it goes towards the south, other times to the

north.
They (the astronomers), define the SPHERE
JjjU! as the end Sul^iM (universe), for it embraces
the higher and lower nature*. The definition in
reference to its natural quality is, that it is a round
form, and the largest (concrete) form which includes
all others f.
The rapidity of the motion of these stars is
different, so the moon stays in every sign (of the
zodiac) two days and half a day, and she goes
through all the heaven in one month ; the sun stays
in every sign one month; Mercury stays fifteen
days; Venus twenty-five days; Mars stays in every
sign of the zodiac forty-five days; Jupiter stays in
every sign of the zodiac one year, and Saturn
remains thirty months in every sign of the zodiac.
Ptolemy, the author of the Almagest ^-

* The ether and the four elements of the earthly bodies : the
former has its natural place above the lunar region, and is the
essence of life ; whilst the latter form the dead mass of bodies.
Compare the note to p. 179, supra.
f El-Khalil, the great grammarian, defines the word better:

*UwJJ i*fijj* *& jfollj "felek (sphere) is the round of the

heaven:" the word has, therefore, originally only reference to
the form, and not to the matter; and this is borne out by the
original signification of the word, for it means anything round :
hence it would appear that all these ideas have not been in the
nation, but have been imported, for else they would have a word.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 209

states, the circumference of the earth, with all its

mountains and seas, is twenty-four thousand miles;
and its diameter, that is to say, its width and depth,
seven thousand six hundred and thirty-six miles.
These data were found by taking the northern alti-
tude in two towns which are under the same meri-
dian, namely, at Tadmor, which is in the desert
between Syria and el-Trak, and at er-Rakkah.
They found the town of er-Rakkah to be under the
thirty-fifth and one-third degree of northern alti-
tude, whilst the elevation of the north pole in
Tadmor is thirty-four degrees. The difference
between both is one and one-third degree. Then
they measured the distance between Tadmor and
er-Rakkah ; and they found it to be sixty-seven miles.
Sixty- seven miles of the earth is therefore the
known quantity yfclliM of the circle jfoW. They
divided the whole circle into three hundred and
sixty degrees, for a reason which they state ; but it
would be against our object to demonstrate it here.
This division is correct in their opinion; for they
found that the heaven is divided into twelve parts
by the zodiacal signs, and the sun, remaining in
every sign one month, goes through the whole
heaven in three hundred and sixty -five days.
The sphere which makes the daily revolution
turns round an axle and two poles, just like the
wheel of the carpenter or turner, who makes balls,
boxes, and other articles of wood. Those who live
p
210 EL MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

in the middle of the earth, that is to say, on the

equator, have all the year round day and night of
equal length; and they see both poles, the north
and south poles ; whilst those who inhabit the
northern hemisphere, see only the north pole and the
Bear, but not the south pole, nor the stars near it.
For this reason they never see the Canopus in
Khorasan, whilst it may be observed in el-'Irak
some days in the year. If a camel looks at this
star it will die, according to the common belief
which we have related, together with the reason
which is assigned that it should be fatal only to
this species of quadrupeds. In the northern coun-
tries they never see the Canopus all the year round.
The different schools of the sciences of the spheres
and stars do not agree about the axles upon which
the heaven rests, whether they are immoveable, or
whether they have a rotatory motion. Most of
them are, however, of opinion that they do not
move. The reader may find a further develope-
ment of the opinions, whether these axles are
immoveable, or whether they form part of the
sphere (and turn)*, in our former works.

* There seems, notwithstanding the gross notions alluded

to in this passage, to have prevailed a dark idea of the mutual
attraction of the heavenly bodies, amongst the Arabs, at least el-
Makrizi informs us that some astronomers suppose that the earth
is attracted from all sides by the heaven, as by a magnet.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 211

The philosophers are at variance about the

form of the seas. Most of the ancients, such as the
mathematicians of the Hindus and Greeks, believe
that they are convex ^»»\A**O (round). This hypo-
thesis, however, is rejected by those who follow
strictly the revelation*. The former bring for-
ward many arguments in proof of their statement.
If you sail on the sea, land and mountains disap-
pear gradually, until you lose even the sight of
highest summits of the mountains, and, on the
contrary, if you approach the coast, you gra-
dually perceive, first, the mountains, and, when
you come nearer, you see the trees and plains.
This is the case with the mountain of Doma-
wand jJ^Ufc> between er-Rai and Taberistan. It is
to be seen at a distance of one hundred farsangs, on
account of its height: from the summit rises a
smoke ; and it is covered with eternal snow, owing
to its elevation. From the foot of the mountain
gushes forth a copious river, the water of which is
impregnated with sulphur, and of a yellow hue
like the colour of gold. The mountain is so high

They probably oppose passages of the Koran, like these,

or

01 UJ

P 2
212 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

that about three days and nights are required to

ascend it. When on the top, a platform is dis-
covered, of about a thousand cubits square ; but
as seen from below, it appears as if terminating
in a cone. This platform is covered with red
sand (scoriae?), into which the feet sink. No
animal can reach the summit, not even a bird, on
account of the height, the wind, and the cold. On
the top are about thirty holes, from whence issues
clouds of sulphurous smoke, which is seen from
the sea. From the same wind-holes < AJJ^ pro-
ceeds, sometimes, a noise to be compared with
the loudest thunder, which is accompanied with
flames. It frequently happens that a man who
exposes himself to danger, by climbing up to
the highest mouths of these holes, brings a yellow
sulphur back like gold, which is used in different
arts, in alchemy, and for other purposes*. From

* 'Ali Ben Zorairah g^, ^^ (^^ ^c, a man well versed in

natural philosophy, who made himself known through many
works, says, that he has ascended this mountain, with several
persons of Khorasan, and gives almost literally the same descrip-
tion as el-Mas'udi ; so that it is probable our author has derived
his account from him — if he is earlier.
El-Kazwini, in whose 'Ajaib el-Makhlukat the above author
is quoted, gives, under the head jebal en-nar (volcanoes), the
following account: —
" Volcanoes are numerous. There is one in Turkestan with
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 213

the top the mountains all around appear like hillocks,

however high they may be. This mountain is
about twenty farsangs from the Caspian. If ships
sail in this sea, and are very distant, they will not
see it ; but when they go towards the mountains of
Taberistan, and are within a distance of one hun-
dred farsangs, they perceive the north side of this
mountain of Domawand ; and the nearer they come
to the shore the more is seen of it. This is an
evident proof of the spherical form of the water of
the sea, which has the shape of a segment of a
ball.
In the same way if a man sails on the sea of
er-Rum, which is the same as that of Egypt and of
Syria, he loses sight of the mount el-Akra* £^*^»
which has a height beyond measure, and is near
Antakiyah (Antioch) X/J1W, and of the mountains of
el-Ladikiyah 3ui'i&H (Laodicea), Atrabolos
(Tripolis), and those of the Isle of Kobros
(Cyprus), and other places in the Byzantine empire ;

a grotto, which may be compared to a large house ; and every

animal that goes into it dies instantly : another is in Kolistan (?)
/. ^

There is a place in this mountain which causes instant death

to every bird that approaches it : it is therefore surrounded with
dead animals. In the neighbourhood of Domawand is another
mountain, like the mountain of Domawand: at night fire is seen
burning on the summit, and smoke issues during the day.]
214 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and he does not see these places although nothing is

between him and them. We shall give a more
complete account of the mountain of Domawand in
this book, relating what the Persians say of it.
Edh-Dhahhak, with many mouths*, is bound with
iron on the summit of this mountain. The holes
on its top are some of the great chimnies (craters) f
of the earth.
There are many disputes respecting the size of
the globe. Most mathematicians believe that the
distance from the centre of the earth to the limit of
air and fire (atmosphere) amounts to one hundred
and sixty-eight thousand miles. The earth is
somewhat more than thirty-seven times greater
than the moon, thirty-two thousand times greater
than Mercury, and twenty-four thousand times
greater than Venus; but the sun is one hundred
and sixty times and one-fourth and one-eighth
times greater than the earth, and two thousand six
hundred and forty times larger than the moon; so
that the whole earth is equal only to half a tenth
(one-twentieth) of one degree of the sun. The

J'lxv/oJi "the Laugher," is one of the Arabic

names for Zohak, the Semitic invader, in the Persian empire.
Some identify him with Nimrod. The popular tradition, that he
is tied on mount Domawand, is confirmed by Ferdusi and the
Zend books.
t Ubl sing.
 AND MINES OF GEMS, 215

diameter of the sun is forty-two thousand miles.

Mars is sixty-three times larger than the earth ; its
diameter is eight thousand seven hundred miles.
Jupiter is eighty-two times and one-half and one-
fourth (three-quarters) larger than the earth ; its
diameter is thirty-three thousand two hundred and
sixteen miles. Saturn is ninety-nine and a half
times as large as the earth; its diameter being
thirty-two thousand seven hundred and eighty-six
miles. The bodies of the fixed stars of the first
magnitude, of which there are fifteen, are every one
of them ninety-four and a half times greater than
the earth.
DISTANCES OF THE STARS FROM THE EARTH.
When the moon is nearest to the earth the distance
is one hundred and twenty-eight thousand miles,
and when it is remotest from our globe, it amounts
to four million one hundred and nineteen thousand
six hundred miles. The greatest distance of the
sun from the earth is four million eight hundred
and twenty thousand miles and a half : the greatest
distance of Mars is somewhat more than three hun-
dred and thirty million six thousand miles. The
greatest distance of Jupiter from the earth is some-
what more than fifty-four million one hundred and
sixty thousand miles: the greatest distance of
Saturn is more than seventy-seven million miles.
The greatest distances of the fixed stars are in the
same proportions. Upon the divisions, degrees,
216 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and distances, which we have mentioned, the calcu-

lations of time and eclipses are founded. The
principal instruments for astronomical observation
are the astrolabes CL>lj^k-»^I (armillary spheres).
Books have been written entirely on this subject.
We have devoted this chapter to the explanation of
some of those matters which are the subject of so
many discussions. Our observations may serve as a
guide to enter deeper into this subject, on which we
have treated more fully in our former writings.
Those inhabitants of Harran* who profess the

* Abulfaragius states, that Harran was built by Kainan, and

so called after his son. This town is mentioned in Genesis, and
by several Latin and Greek authors. The passages of the
classics respecting Harran, have been collected by Vadianus.
It is probably owing to its advantageous situation, that Mer-
wan the last Oma'iyide Khalif in the East, chose it as his residence,
and built there a palace at the expense of several millions of Dir-
hems. The Abbasides may have felt repugnance to take their resi-
dence in this town, in which Ibrahim the predecessor of es-Seffah
the founder of their dynasty, suffered death after long imprison-
ment. But under the Seljuks, Atabeks, and as late as the crusades,
Harran was a place of importance and frequently the site of one
of the feudal sovereigns; it flourished particularly under the
Beni Hamdan, who ruled over Mesopotamia, at the beginning of
the fourth century of the Hijrah.
It seems that Harran has always been one of the principal
sites of learning. Near this town was a sacred place of the
Sabeans , and the Harranians continued faithful to their religion,
which was that of the ancient Chaldeans, after the rise of the
Abasside dynasty, although the population round them had twice
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 217

religion of the Sabeans*, and who aspire by trum-

changed their faith: first they embraced Christianity, and then

they professed the tenets of Mohammed.
Their yearly pilgrimage to the pyramids in Egypt, brought
them into contact with the Alexandrians ; this led to an exchange
of ideas which is very perceptible in the writings of the latter,
and which encouraged the literary activity amongst the Sabeans
of Harran, so much, that the greatest share in the regeneration
of the philosophical sciences amongst the Arabs is owing to them.
All armillary spheres and other astronomical instruments were
originally made by them ; and a number of Harranians distinguished
themselves as translators or original authors, at the earliest period
of Arabic literature, as Thabet Ben Korrah, his master in astro-
nomy BenKamita UiA+5, el-Battam ^IxxJJ, Ibn er-Ruh _. ^\9
the Sabean, and many others, which will be mentioned in another
place of this book.
* Hottinger devotes the eighth chapter of the first book of his
Historia Orientalis to the exposition of the Sabean religion. He
follows up his subject with much learning, and had a most excel-
lent guide, having made use of the Fihirst of Mohammed Ben
Ishak en-Nadim, (not el-Kadim or prisons as he writes,) known
under the name of Abul-Faraj Ben Abi Ya'kub, who wrote in
377, A,H., and died in 385.
Hottinger knew neither the title of the book nor the age when
the author lived. Both are of importance, for the date shows
that he was contemporary with men who professed this religion;
and to be the author of the Fihirst gives him the character of an
exceedingly learned and exact writer.
He lived most likely in Babylonia, and was thus in constant
contact with Sabeans. We may therefore perfectly rely on what he
says. His treatise on Sabeanism and other religions, forms the last
chapter of the Fihrist; this is the third of the last volume, of
which there is an ancient and perfectly correct MS. at Leyden.
218 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

pery pretensions*, to the knowledge of ancient

philosophy,, although they are uninstructed in the

With more caution the extracts which Hottinger gives from

Maimonides must be used.
It has been advanced by Spencer (De Leg. Hebr.) that the
Sabeans are very modern and not more ancient than Mohammed,
for they are the first time mentioned in the Koran. Now Sabi is an
Arabic word, applied to almost all Gentiles ; therefore, no wonder
if the word is found only in the writings of Arabic or Rabbinical
authors, and the Koran is the most ancient book in Arabic litera-
ture, excepting some poems collected afterwards. Hamzah, of
Ispahan, (MS. of Leyden,) informs us that the name of Sabeans
meant originally a sect of Christians, and has not been applied to
the Harranians before the time of el-Mamun, when they adopted
this name in order to escape a prosecution. Still more pre-
posterous is the opinion expressed in Calmet's Fragments,
DC XIII., where Sabeism is derived from St. John the Baptist.
Arabic authors who have lived with the Sabeans, state unani-
mously that they worshipped principally the seven planets. Sup-
posing this worship had been recently introduced in Harran, it was
certainly ancient amongst their brethren the Canaanites, (both the
Harranians and Canaanites spoke the Aramean language) ; for
Manassah received from them the same religion (2 Kings, xxxiii.),
we may therefore safely suppose that the Sabeans were not
materially different from the Chaldeans, who are called astrologers
on account of their star worship. Perhaps the Sabeans of Harran
are the Orcheni of Strabo (Lib. xvi., p. 701), who were a sect
of Chaldeans in Mesopotamia.
Strabo and other Greek authors agree with the Arabs in
making the Chaldeans astrologers and star worshippers ; but we
have to account for the allusions made to them in the Scriptures,
from which it might appear that they worshipped almost merely
* Literally, " And are the rabble of ancient philosophers."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 219

wisdom of the Greeks (Chaldeans?), have

idols. On examining the names of those idols, we find that they

are the Semitic names of the planets. Aserah JTV10N <>r Astarte,
is az-Zohrah syfc-JN the Arabic name for the planet Venus ; which
was also called Balthi ^XxJ\ (Beltis in Greek authors).
Thamus may be taken for shomus u*j.$£JJ, plural of shams, the
sun, for Adonis, with whom this deity is identified by Jerom, is
the sun as well; Merodach is Merrikh, the name of the planet
Mars in Arabic, the word is derived from mar ad ^w«, which
means to be rebellious both in Arabic and Hebrew; and as the
original meaning of marad is the same as that of maras ^wo
and marakh £•}<*, it seems that only mar is the primitive syllable,
it is therefore not surprising to find the name of this planet
written Merodach, Merrikh, and Mars. Nebo means a prophet,
which is the name of Mercury or 'Utarid amongst the Sabeans;
for this planet is the patron of the priestclass ; as it has already
been noticed by Norberg, who establishes the fact by the testimony
of the Syro-Chaldeans.
Baal means lord, and is the name for Jupiter, but frequently
applied to the sun ; perhaps some of the sects of Chaldeans con-
sidered the sun as lord, and called it consequently Baal : the
identity of Baal with Jupiter is confirmed by the testimony of
Herodotus, which is worth more than that of all later authors,
who transcribed one another as far as it suited their purpose, and
referred in their learned ignorance to books and never to what
they could have witnessed themselves. See also p. 1 99 supra note.
More examples could be added and errors of mythologists cor-
rected, but these will do for our purpose. The representations of
the stars as idols, seem therefore to have been intended for the
exoteric; for we must distinguish here more than with any other
nation between the notions of the exoteric and those of the un-
initiated. The reader will find a developement of the former
in the additional notes to this chapter.
220 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

adopted a gradation of the priests in their temples,

which is an imitation of the system of the
nine spheres*. The highest priest is called rds

* El-Makrizi (MS. of the Earl of Munster, vol. iii., Korrah

40) says nearly the same thing of the priests of ancient Egypt ;
" A priest who has served the seven planets seven years, has the
title Bahir jJ&L, and a priest who has served them forty-nine
years, seven years each, has the title Katir »k|y '•> he enjoys such
high honours that the king rises before him, allows him to sit
down on his side, and consults him in every action which he does.
Then the other priests come in, and with them the artisans, and
stand opposite the Katir. Every one of their priests is exclusively
destined for the service of one planet, and he must not pass to
another. He is called a servant of such a planet, so one says
the servant of the moon, the servant of Mercury, the servant
of Venus, the servant of the sun, the servant of Mars, the servant
of Jupiter, and the servant of Saturn. When they are all mar-
shalled, the Katir says to one of them, Where is thy Lord to day ?
and he answers, in such a sign of the zodiac, and in such a degree
and minute. Then he asks the next, and so he goes through all
of them ; and when he knows their position in reference to the
sphere of the zodiac, he says to the king, you ought to do such
and such a thing to-day: he tells him what he is to eat, when he
may go into his harem, when he is to go on horseback, and so
on, to the most minute thing. A secretary writes down every
word that he says. Then the Katir turns to the artisans, and
orders them what they are to do/' &c.
f The word Stt^T is not in the copy of Cambridge. The
variants between crotchets are all from the Cambridge copy.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 221

Komorr*. The Christians, who came after them,

arranged the orders of priests in their hierarchy
after the system which had been laid down by the
Sabeans. The Christians call this gradation ordina-

(read

* This word is met with in the Scriptures (2 Kings, xxiii. 5,

&c.), where it is exactly spelt as here "1D3. The Hebrew language
does not afford an explanation of its meaning ; for those which
have been advanced, as that it means black, or priest of the
moon ^5 (o and not with a J), are not founded. In Arabic it
means penis, or longum penem habens vir, and it is exceedingly
likely that this word was taken in this meaning, for the office
of the Komorr answered to that of Batrick, which represents, as
we may observe, something higher than the ninth sphere. Arabic
astrology, which is the daughter of the Pagan religions of Asia,
places there the procreative power, which the Arabs sometimes
call God, and sometimes the throne of God ; for an incorporeal
being is not so well adapted to the system. In the first mean-
ing, says our author, page 46, supra, " God commands, and there
flows what he likes from heaven to heaven (or sphere to sphere),"
&c. And in the second meaning, we read, in el-Kazwini, " Some
Moslims make agree the revelation of God and the opinion of
the philosophers, and think that this sphere is the stool, and the
tenth sphere, which is the greatest of all, is the throne of God."
222 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

tion (el-'Atab). The first (lowest) order is es-Salt*,

* The Salt answers to the Ostiarius in the Roman degrees

of ordination, and to the sphere of the moon, in ancient astrology.
As it may lead to interesting comparisons between the exoteric
notions and the various forms under which they were made
available to the uninitiated, the characteristics of the seven
spheres and planets are detailed in this and the following notes
after Abu Ma'sher, Balinos, and el-Kazwmi, and occasionally
their views have been compared with those of the Greeks, and of
the Zend-Avesta, to show the identity of ancient religions, philo-
sophy, and astrology.
The moon is a female planet (Zendavesta, vol. ii., 382;
Arist. Hist. Anim., vii., 2; Pliny, lib. ii., 104), and has an affi-
nity with the female element the water which she attracts ; and
hence she causes the tide (Zendav., tome ii., 370, 385 ; Pliny,
ibidem). She is the concentration of light, and was, before the
introduction of Greek astronomy amongst the Arabs, believed to
shine with her own light (Zendavesta, vol. ii., 18, and p. 80,
supra). She is the planet which gives fertility, increases the
seed, animal warmth, and affection (Zendavesta, i. 26, p. 426 ;
Aristotle, de Generat. Animalium, ii. 4). To the moon silver is
sacred amongst the metals, and white amongst the seven colours,
every one of which, it seems, was considered to be fixed in a
metal, and sacred, together with the respective metal, to one of
the seven planets. All white or grey animals, of a meek tem-
per, are equally consecrated to her, particularly such birds, also
mules, fruit-trees, &c. The sphere of the moon is the isthmus of
immortality ; under it is the fire and air (atmosphere) of the earth,
which is mutable ; but above the moon everything is pure and
divine (supra lunam pura omnia ac diuturnae lucis plena: Pliny,
lib. ii., cap. 7) : hence she is called the gate of the heaven, and
 s AND MINES OF GEMS. 223

the second Aghsat *, the third Nudakirf, the

the order of priests sacred to her sphere must naturally be the

Ostiarius, or Porter.
The moon, considered as a goddess, is frequently not distin-
guished from Venus.
* To this order answers the atmosphere, or sphere of Mer-
cury, which is three hundred and eighty-eight thousand four
hundred and eighty-miles thick. The planet itself is described as
radians by Pliny (ii., 29), an epithet which is equally given to
the sun by the same author. It is probably this quality of diffus-
ing its rays which has also been noticed by astrologers, that this
planet is considered to diffuse the light of wisdom and knowledge.
He is the god of penmanship XjlxXf \, and a child born under the
influence of this planet will be meek and clever. It was, at all
events, a correct notion, that the next step after the gate of the
heaven should be the pons asinorum, and that wisdom should be
the first degree in heaven, and in the hierarchy within the gate :
hence this order in the Catholic Church is called Lectorship, and
the Lector receives a book at the Ordination. The astrologers
are probably equally right in calling the patron of the Savans
and priests cJi^UU (the unprincipled, or hypocrite). They say
that he adds energy both to lucky and unlucky constellations, as
he happens to meet them.
•)• This order answers to the sphere of Venus, which is three
million seven hundred and ninety-five thousand and ninety- two
miles thick. The lovely star which animates this sphere, and
keeps always near the sun like a lover, and approaches to him, or
recedes for a short time like a coquette, was represented as the
224 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

fourth Shemasheryam *, the fifth Kissis f, the sixth

beauty of the heavens at all times and by all nations. Arabic

astrologers call her the lesser luck JU^M <>sx*JJ, and ascribe to
her influence mirth and love. Pliny and the Zend-books agree
with them in assigning to her the procreative (not generative)
power. To this star brass was sacred, and the green colour
(verdigris); also fish, serpents, bees, grapes, sparrows. The
ancient Christian Church seems to have found no higher ideas
respecting the lucky influence of this star amongst the Sabeans,
than that it averts evil; hence this order has the power of
destroying the bad effects of evil spirits, and the priests of this
order are called Exorcistes in Greek and Latin. If there was no
other evidence of the mixed nature of the Ritual of the Romish
Church, the gross superstition of having an order of exorcists
would be proof enough.
* The Greek name of the order is Acoluthos (follower) : he
has the same office as the clerk in the Anglican Church. The
order answers to the sphere of the sun, which is ten million one
hundred and seventy-six thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight
miles thick, and was considered as the mediator, as will be shown
in the additional notes. The Acoluthos is the highest of the four
minor orders, and is also the mediator between the people and
higher orders, as the sun between the lower and higher planets.
f The sphere which corresponds with this order is that of
Mars, which is ten million one hundred and seventy-six thousand
nine hundred and ninety-eight miles thick. The blood-red colour
of this planet has brought it into discredit with astrologers, who
call it the lesser misfortune JU^J y**^\J!, besides its course
appeared to the ancients (Pliny, ii., cap. 15) so irregular, that
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 225

Barduth *, the seventh Huzabiskatos f : he is after

they are justified in calling him the Marikh, rebellious. He is

the god of iron, and the red colour (peroxyde of iron), of war,
lions, tigers, hyaenas, of the Turks, and everything terrible.
Under his protection are birds of a red colour, and the lapwing
«\^>J^J!, which is one of the best known ill omens in Oriental
superstition.
* This order was the representation of the sphere of Jupiter,
and is called Diaconate in Greek and Latin. I am not suffi-
ciently acquainted with its office and ceremonies to know its
relation to this sphere. Jupiter is the greatest of all the planets,
and if the ether was the essence of the heavens, and the stars
like the souls of the ether, this star had a natural claim to be the
lord of all other planets. The astrologers call him the great
luck rS$\ JuuJl* and ascribe to him all the good. To Jupiter,
blue (the colour of the sky), and copper (vitriol, or sulphate of
copper), is sacred ; also emerald, onyx, jasper, ruby, and all sorts
of precious stones ; farther musk, wheat, and every thing that is
esteemed.
f This order represents the highest of all the planetary
spheres ; that of Saturn, which is twenty-one million six hundred
and six miles thick. Saturn is represented as an old man, and
this is the name of this order in the ancient Christian Church;
for Presbyter has the same signification. Arabic astrologers call
Saturn the great misfortune jS$\ ^r^xM, and Pliny seems to
think that this planet must be cold and dreary, on account of its
great distance from the sun.
To Saturn the heavy and ignoble metal lead, and black is
sacred, and all unclean animals, as pigs, dogs, &c.
[The Reader
Q
 226 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the Bishop. The eighth is the Akkaf *; the ninth

is the Mitran (Metropolitan), which means the
head of the town. And above all these ranks is
the Batric (Patriarch), which means father of the
fathers, or of the mentioned orders, and the laymen.

The reader will find in the additional notes to this chapter at

the end of this volume, more philosophically accounted for, the
qualities attributed to the spheres of the heaven and the planets.
* This is a corruption of eVto-KOTroy, Bishop, or literally who
inspects from above. This appellation is very well chosen ; for
the order represents the signs of the zodiac which do look down
from above on the planets.
f I transcribed the copy of Mr. Gayangos, with all its faults
in order to give to the reader the variants which it presents in the
names of the orders:

Lo ^C l^Jol^ ^ Xi^Xfj XA-J^J Lf*<Sj\*s>\\

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 227

This is the opinion of the Esoteric Christians

respecting these orders ; but the Exoteric give other
reasons, alleging that a king had introduced them
and other things which it would be useless to
relate. These are the orders of the Melikites
(Orthodox), who form the main body, and are the
original Christians ; for the Eastern Christians, or
'Ibad*, who are called Nestorians and Jacobites, are
branches of them, and their imitators. The Chris-
tians took, as we have said, the whole of the insti-

* Other Arabic authors take the name 'Ibadites in a more

limited sense, applying only to the Christians of el-Hirah.

Q 2
228 EL-MAS UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

tution of their orders from the Sabeans: Kissis,

Shemas, and other ranks.
Manes rose as Heresiarch after the Messiah,
and Ibn ed-Dai'san and Marcion followed his ex-
ample. From Manes the Manicheans have their
name ; from Marcion the Marcionites ; and from
Ibn ed-Daisan the Daisanites. In subsequent times
rose from them the Mozdakians, and other sects,
who follow the Dualistie doctrine.
The reader will find in our books,, the Akhbar
ez-zeman, and the Kitab el-ausat, a number of
anecdotes respecting these sects, and an account of
the fabulous stories which they tell, and of their
laws which they assign to God, although they are
made by man. We have also treated on these
sects in our book " On the various opinions on the
principles of religion0 ^\ J c^UiU ^ VUT
CjUUx!!. We have spoken of the books of these
religious opinions, and the destruction of these
sects, in our work entitled the "Explanation of

read)
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 229

the principles of religion"

In these chapters we enter on the points on which
scholastic theology dwells, and which are the prin-
ciple objects to be described. We allude only to
striking facts, by way of narrative, and with the
view to give an insight into the history of the sects,
lest this book should be found defective in such in-
formation respecting them, as a well-informed man
ought to know; but we do not mean to enter into
any polemic discussions.
230 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

NINTH CHAPTER.

A concise account of seas that have changed their

places, and of great rivers.

THE author of the Logic <JikzJ,J (Aristotle) says,

that the seas change their places in the lapse of
centuries and the length of ages. And indeed all
seas are in a constant motion; but if this motion is
compared with the volume of water, the extent of
their level, and the depth of their abysses, it is as if
they were quiet. There is, however, no place on
earth that is ever covered with water nor one that is
ever land, but a constant revolution takes place
effected by the rivers which may run in one place
or discontinue their course, for this reason the
places of sea and land change, and there is no
place on earth always land nor always sea. At
periods there will be land where there once has been
sea; and the sea will occupy what one time has been
land. These revolutions are caused by the course
and origin of the rivers,, for places watered by
rivers have a period of youth and decrepitude, of
growth and of life and death, like animals and plants,
with the difference that growth and decay in plants
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 231

and animals do not manifest themselves now in one

part and then in another, but all parts grow
together, so they wither and die at the same time.
But the earth grows and declines part by part.
This is also connected with the revolutions of the
sun.
The learned are at variance about the rivers and
springs, and their origin. Some are of opinion that
all have the same ultimate source, namely, the

greatest sea. This is the sea 'adab c_> «xc j^e, and
not the Okianos (the Atlantic). Others suppose
that the water is in the earth in the same way as the
veins in the body. Some reason thus : It is a law of
nature that the surface of the water be level, but
as the earth is in some places high and in others
deep, the water goes to the deepest part, and when
it is enclosed in caverns it has a tendency to form
steam, which produces a pressure on the earth from
beneath ; it gushes forth and gives origin to springs
and ( rivers. Frequently water is the product of the
air which is in the bowels of the earth, for water is
no element djJU&wf o-rot%etoz/), but it is the product
of the rottenness* and the exhalations of the earth.
We forbear mentioning here the various controver-
sies which are extant on this head for fear of tres-

* X>*A£ This is a medical term which means gangrene, and

implies the last stage of inflammation which precedes it.
232 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

passing our limits, for we mean to abridge what we

have said in other works in detail.
Much has been said on the beginning, course,
length, and end of large rivers; like the Nile,, the
Euphrates, the Tigris, the river of Balkh or Jaihun,
the river Mihran j,|^-o in es-Sind JsJUJJ cSo^-*'
the Ganges <j~s^> which is a large river in India,
and the Atanabus u*oUkJ (Danube), which falls
into the sea Nitus (Black Sea), and other large
rivers. I saw in the geography (of Ptolemy), a
drawing of the Nile as it comes forth from the
mountain el-Komr j$\ J,**-, rising from twelve
sources ; then the water falls into two lakes which
are like the marshes (of Babylonia between Wasit
and el-Basrah) ; further on the water is collected in
its course into one stream which passes sandy
districts, and (on the foot of) mountains. It pro-
ceeds, flowing through that part of the country of the
Sudan (Negroes), which borders on the country of
the Zanj, and a branch g^L goes off from it into
the sea of the Zanj ^'^j^» This is the sea of the
island Kanbalu* which is well cultivated, and the
inhabitants are Moslims but they speak the Zanjee
language. The Mahomedans have conquered this
island and made the inhabitants prisoners, just as

they have taken the isle of Crete (jiJajjj'J in the

* The MS. bears

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 233

Mediterranean. This happened at the beginning of

the 'Abbaside and end of the Omaiyide dynasties.
From this island to 'Oman, the distance is, according
to the account of the sailors, about five hundred
farsangs by sea. This however is a mere conjecture,
and not geometrically measured. Many of the sailors
of Smlf and 'Oman who visit this sea, say, that they
found in it, at or before the time when the Nile
increases in Egypt, different colours within the
small space in which the river continues its course
in the sea, for it forces its way to some distance on
account of its rapidity. The river comes from the
mountains of the Zanj and is above a mile wide.
The water is sweet and becomes muddy at the time
of the increase. There live in it susmdr (alliga-
tors) ^Uw^xJ! which means crocodiles like those in
the Nile of Egypt, they are also called Warl ^\.
El-Jahit supposes that the river Mihran in
es-Sind is the Nile, alleging as a proof that cro-
codiles live in it. I cannot understand how this
proof can be conclusive. This he states in his book
" on the leading cities and the wonders of the coun-
tries" (^tXXxJJ 4-^b^^La^^! i_>ur. It is an excel-
lent work, but as he has never made a voyage and few
journies and travels through kingdoms and cities,
he did not know that the Mihran of es-Sind comes
from the well-known sources of the highland of es-
Sind, from the country belonging to Kinnauj
234 EL-MASJUDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,
£

in the kingdom of Budah **#, and of Kashmir

5, el-Kandahar ^Lfrjafl!, and et-Takin (sfU&\
, the tributaries which rise in these coun-
tries run to el-Multan and from thence the united
river receives the name Mihran. El-Multan
^lU^U means meadows of gold. The King of
el-Multan is a Kora'ishite, and of the children of
Osamah Ben Lawi Ben Ghalib ^j c5>J ^j 2UL-J
«-*Jlc. His dominion extends as far as the frontier
of Khorasan. The lord of the kingdom of el-
Mansurah ^y^JLtJ! is a Koraishite, who is descended
from Habbar Ben el-Aswad* Jy-^J ^^ J^9 who
has been one of their t kings. The crown of el-
Multan has been hereditary, in the family which
rules at present, since ancient times, and nearly
from the beginning of the Islam.
From el-Multan the river Mihran takes its
course to the country of el-Mansurah, and falls
about ed-Daibol into the Indian ocean. In this sea
are many crocodiles, for it has several estuaries and
gulfs as the estuary of Sindabur j^^^o (^^tX^)
in the kingdom of Baghar ^L (L>.) in India;

' The reader finds a notice of this family in Reiske's notes

to Abulpeda's Historia Islamitica. Vol. I.
f El-Mansurah is taken as the name of the inhabitants, and
for this reason the plural is used here. Compare the note to p.
176, supra.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 235

the estuary of ez-Zanj in the dominions of the

Maharaj and the gulfs of el-A'nab vUs^M (grapes),
which extend towards the island Serendib (Ceylon).
The crocodiles live particularly in sweet water, and,
as we said, in the estuaries of India the water of
which is for the most part sweet, on account of the
streams which arise from rain and fall in them.
Now we return to the description of the Nile of
Egypt. The philosophers say, that its course on
the face of the earth, through cultivated and waste
countries, is nine hundred or one thousand farsangs
before it comes to Oswan in Upper Egypt. The
boats from el-Fostat go as far up the river as
Oswan ; but some miles from Oswan are mountains
and rocks, and as the Nile takes its course through
the midst of them, the navigation is rendered
impracticable. These rocks form the line of separa-
tion between the Nile navigation of the Abyssinians
and Moslims. This part of the Nile has the name
of huge stones and rocks j^*aJi ^jUij (cataracts).
Having passed through Upper Egypt the Nile comes
to el-Fostat. It passes the mount et-Tilemun
^^^wJaM, and the dam of el-Lahun ^yfc&H at el-
Fayyum. In this place is the island which Joseph
had chosen for himself and which was granted to
him £kju.« The history of Egypt, of the landed
property there, and the buildings raised by Joseph,
will be related in the thirty-first chapter. As the
236 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Nile continues its course it is divided into many

branches which go to Tinms, Dimyat, Rashid, and
el-Iskandariyah (Alexandria), but the canal which
goes to Alexandria had no water previous to the
inundation of this year 332. I have heard [I am in
Antakiyah (Antioch) and the Syrian frontiers], that
the Nile rose to eighteen cubits, but I do not know
whether the water runs through the canal of Alex-
andria or not.
Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedonia,
has built Alexandria on this branch of the Nile.
The most part of the water of this river had then
its course to it, and irrigated the country round
Alexandria and Maryut ^^, so that it was in the
most flourishing state of cultivation, and an unin-
terrupted line of gardens extended from Maryut to
Barkah Xi^j in the Maghrib. Vessels went up the
Nile, and came down as far as the markets of
Alexandria. The bed of the Nile in the town was
paved with stones and granite. In subsequent
times the water deposited so much mud that the
canal was filled, and the passage of the water ob-
structed. Others assign a different cause, which
rendered it impossible to keep the bed of the canal
clear. We cannot enter on their opinions ; for
the plan of our book excludes such details. The
Alexandrians began to drink the water of wells ;
for the Nile runs about one day's journey from
Alexandria. We shall give a full historical account
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 237

of this town in the chapter devoted to the descrip-

tion of Alexandria.
The water which, as we stated, falls into the
sea of the Zanj, forms an estuary, which comes
to the upper part of the course of this river through
the country of the Zanj, arid separates this country
from the remotest provinces of Ahyssinia. If it was
not for this gulf, interjacent deserts, and marshes,
the Abyssinians could not defend their country
against the Zanj ; for they are superior in numbers
and bravery.
The river of Balkh, which has the name Jaihun
(Oxus), rises from several sources, and, having
passed et-Tirmid «x«y3J, Asfarayin ^y.iyu-k and
other places of Khorasan, it takes its course
through Khowarezm : there in several places it
branches off: the rest falls into a lake, on which
the town of el-Jorjaniyah X/JU*^it is situated in the
lowest part of Khowarezm. This is the greatest
lake there, and many believe that it is the greatest
lake in the cultivated world; for it is about one
month's journey long and wide. There is some
navigation carried on in this lake : it also receives
the river* of Ferghanah and esh-Shash, which runs
through the country of el-'Adat ci»hUSJ and the

* The Sirr Suyi ^y0\~* of the Tatars, and Sa'ihun •

of the Arabs.
238 EL-MAS'uof S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

town of Hai's JJMA^, on which boats go down

into the lake. On this river the Turkish city
named Newtown «x>»xiJ &j<x« (Yanghi Kant) is
situated, amongst the population of which are some
Moslims; but the majority are Turks. The popu-
lation of this place consists of Ghizians*, who are

* One copy bears XxKxJJ, and another 3o «JJ. Isstachri

places there the *jjy \ 1 this seems to be more correct, and is
confirmed by the author of the Oriental Geography, who writes
• £ . They are, therefore, the nations whose name is spelt Ghozz

in the Kamus, and Ghiz in the Jagata'i dictionary printed at Cal-

cutta, and who are better known in Western Asia under the name
of Seljiiks, as the founders of several dynasties, and, in their
original site, under the name Kirghiz, as nomades. Kir jo
means a plain, and Kirghiz ytro a Ghiz of the desert, or a
nomade. They took this name probably in contradistinction of
their brothers, who were at Bagdad domineering slaves ; and at a
subsequent period servile masters over almost all the Moham-
medan dominions. For this reason the addition Kir to the name of
the Ghiz seems to be comparatively modern, although Abulghaziy
connects them with Oghuz-Khan. This seems to be confirmed by
the Chinese writers, who call them Ha-Kya-szu (pronounced
Hakas) in ancient times, and Ki-li-ki-szu, which is pronounced
Kilgis since the thirteenth century. As the names Kirghis and
Seljuks came into use, the name Ghiz Oghuz or Hakas disappeared.
Before we go further in the history of the name Ghiz, it is
necessary to make a few remarks on its sound and the way in which
this sound is expressed by different writers and in the various
compounds in which we meet it. The first letter is g. This
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 239

mostly nomades; but some are settled. They are

Turks by origin, and divided in three hordes dU^t,
the higher, middling, and lower horde. These are

letter is not in the Arabic alphabet, hence Abulghaziy (p. 26

of the Tatar text.) writes the name Kirghiz in three different ways ;

yfjS' KirJciz, yij*S Ckirghiz, and \.A3j3 CkircMz. The

same author informs us further that g is pronounced by some
Tatar tribes like j, and that they spell Kipjak (or Kapjak)
oLsEVJ, and Jipjak oUs^V£»« The second letter has the same
V * V *
sound as the u in French and the v in Greek, and which, in Greek
as well as in Tatar words, is sometimes expressed by a Kasrah or i
in Arabic, sometimes by a Dhammah or o, and sometimes by a
^ or u. The third letter seems to be a z, but it would appear
that some Tatar hordes pronounce it like th or t. The name of
the Circassians (Jerkez), for instance, seems to have been pro-
nounced Cercetse at the time of Pliny (vi., 5.)
The Archbishop Siestrencewicz de Bohusz proves in his
work, Sur Y Origins des Sarmates, Petersbourg, 1812, vol. iv.,
p. 637, with a host of testimonies from ancient authors, that the
Scythians called themselves Goths, or Gots: this is, therefore,
clearly the same name as Ghiz. The Archbishop derives from
Goth the word Scyth, saying the S may have been added by the
Greeks. He could have confirmed this conjecture by the exam-
ple of some other name of the same nation, to which an S is pre-
fixed, although the name of the man, from which it is derived,
does not begin with an S. Herodotus (iv., cap. 6) derives
namely the /Scolotes from Col (Colaxain).
Eichwald (Alte Geogrophie des Kaspichen Meeres) identifies
the Scythians with the Judes, and there can be no doubt that
both names are only different pronunciations of the name Ghiz.
We find the name Ghiz farther in the Getes, Tyragetes (or Getes
240 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the bravest of all Turks, and have the smallest eyes,

and most diminutive stature. The author of the
logic (Aristotle) observes, however, in the four-

who lived on the Tyras), and Massagetes of the ancients, and in

the Tunghiz, Targhiz, Taghizghiz, &c., of Oriental authors. It
seems tliat 'he word Ghiz is pronounced like Gete in Tatary, and
not a Greek corruption : hence we read Gete in the history of
Timour (Transl. by Petis de la Crois, vol. i., p. 26), which
is written 3uj=». Jitta in the Persian original (MS. of theEarl of
Munster). The identity of the Kirghiz with the Massagetes of
Herodotus is shown by their geographical position, and confirmed
by Chinese authors, who give the same account of them as
Herodotus.
Although the Massagetes of Herodotus and other classics,
and the Ghozz, Kirghiz, &c., of Oriental authors, are undoubtedly
of Tatar origin, it has been proved by Eichwald, that the Getes
and Tyragetes of the classics were Slavonians. It seems, there-
fore, that the name Ghiz or Gete, which is so widely spread in
Central Asia, and which has been so sacredly preserved since the
most ancient times, applied originally rather to a religion than to
a nation, to which the Budini (Buddhists?) seem to have been
opposed. In this case the name of the Goths may not be different
from that of Ghiz. We find that Arabic authors use the name
Ghozz and Turk indiscriminately: as Turk is undoubtedly the
name of the Tatar race, the other must have originally meant
their religion, the founder of which was most likely Oghuz Khan
^jUi^E^. As this note is already too long, we reserve it for
the additional notes to say something more on this man and reli-
gion. The division of the Ghiz into three hordes, of which
our author speaks, is still existing, notwithstanding their numerous
emigrations; and it seems to have existed as early as the time
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 241

teenth and eighteenth books of his work on the

animals ^j^JL^, where he speaks of the bird
called el-Gheranik ui^\^ (yepavos the crane), that
there are some Turks who are of a still smaller
size*. The reader will find an account of all the
Turkish hordes in occasionally interspersed notices,
and under a peculiar head further on in this
work.
The town of Balkh has a Ribatf , named el-
Ahashban ^U&^J (^Uo^j), about twenty days'

when they made the inroad into Persia, recorded by Herodotus ;

for his Massagetes are undoubtedly the Getes, or Ghiz, of the
great horde ; masa means great in Pehlewi ; and we cannot doubt
that Herodotus derives his knowledge of the fact from the
Persians.
* Aristotle, Historia Animalium, viii. cap. 12. says, the cranes
go from the Scythian steppes to the marshes above Egypt, from
which the Nile comes, and fight with the Pigmies. The Arabic
translator seems to have correctly rendered the word Scythians
by Turks; but he has misunderstood the passage in placing the
Pigmies in Scythia, and making them Turks.
-(- Ribat kU . is a frontier place, exposed to the invasions of
those who have not embraced the Islam. In order to form in
such places an armed population, for the defence of the Moslim
territory, some worldly advantages, all possible privileges in
heaven, and the title tajL~« were attached to a residence in them.
Most divines declare a place where the unbelievers have once
made an invasion, as a Ribat for two years; after the second
inroad, for forty years; and after a third invasion, for ever
(Hidayah, and its commentary the Kefayah).
R
 242 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

journey from the city, in the most distant of its

dependencies. Beyond this Ribat live various un-
believing nations, as the Turks, called Ukhan*
j,U^ (^U^J); and Tubbet ciuJ south of these
Turks are others, named Inghan ^Uut (Talighan?f).
In their country rises a great river, which bears the
name River of Inghan J ^Uwt ^J O&Q- Some
persons, who are acquainted with those localities,
believe that it is the beginning of the river of JBalkh,
or the Jaihun. The length of its course is about
one hundred and fifty farsangs : some make it four
hundred farsangs, from the beginning of the river
of the Turks, that is to say, the Inghan. Geogra-
phers who think that the Jaihun falls into the
Mihran (Indus) of es-Sind, are wrong §. We

* Perhaps they are the Ouhoun of Deguignes, Histoire de

Huns, vol. ii. pp. 24 and 50, or the Auchatae of Herodotus, iv. 6.
f Burnes' Travels to Bokhara, vol. ii. p. 202.
J Isstachri, p. 114, gives to the main stream of the rivulets,
which form the Jaihun, the name of L ^ «ly»-j and to the country
whence it comes from, that of loW1^ Wajan, on the frontier of
Badakhshan. This is probably a more correct reading than
Inghan.
§ This is the opinion of the Zend-Avesta (p. 392), and it
came probably from the Guebers to the Mohammedans : " Le
Veh roud passe dans le Khorassan, parait dans la terre de Sind,
et coule dans le Zare de 1'Hindoustan; la on 1'appelle le Mehra
roud." And p. 393, " Le Veh roud est encore appelle Kase;"
car dans le Sind on 1'appelle Kase." And again, " Le Kase va
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 243

will not speak here of the Black and White

dans la ville de Tous; la on 1'appelle le Casp roud." We have

here three rivers, which form a semicircle, and separate Iran from
three Keshvars, or climates : India, Tibet and China, (Frededafshe
and Videdafshe), and from Tatary (Vorojereste?). The name
for the whole line of water is Veh roud. Kase seems to be
at the same time the Oxus (Jaihun), and the river of the
Penjab, which rises near the sources of the Oxus. It is
very likely that the name OPUS is formed from Kase by prefix-
ing the Greek article 6, and subjoining the termination os. The
Casp roud is the Ochus of the ancients. The opinion that the
Oxus once fell into the Caspian, seems to owe its origin to the
circumstance that the Guebers did not sufficiently distinguish the
Oxus and Ochus. Mehra, or Mihran is still now the name
of the lower course of the Indus. These three rivers had all the
same importance for the Persians, as frontier, as well as in a
commercial and agricultural point of view ; hence they said, for
the sake of system, that the whole line of water falls into the
Gulf of 'Oman, since the principal river has there its mouths. It
appears, namely, that they had the idea that their sacred land was
on all sides surrounded by rivers, and that the Veh roud, or
south and eastern semicircle, corresponds with a north and western
semicircle, called Arg roud, formed by the same sea and the Tigris
with which they may have connected the A raxes. This will explain
what is said in the Zend-Avesta, ii., p. 390: "Les deux rouds
(the Arg roud, and Veh roud), de deux extremites, font la tour
de toute la terre (of Iran), vont (passent) dans le Zare, et
mangent tous les Keschwar. Ensuite tous les deux se jettent
dans le Zare Ferakh Kand (the Sea of 'Oman, and Persian Gulf)."
As the frontier of Iran [or rather the Khounnerets, i.e.9
Babylon (see p. 199, supra); for this idea being so wrong res-
pecting eastern rivers, must have had its origin in the west] was
extended, the Ochus was neglected in the north-east, R 2 and the
244 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Arisht* o&Aj^l C*x>j\ ^ s^W ^£^, on which the

kingdom of Kai'makf Baighur % ^ybo ^V(u^)
is situated, who are also Turks, beyond the river
Jaihun. On these two rivers live the Ghaznians
(Ghiz?) X/JytM (SujpjJl), who are equally Turks.

Euphrates, and even the Nile, with the Mediterranean, were

taken into account in the west. The Tigris (Arg roud) conti-
nued, nevertheless, to be the sacred river, as it is in the Zend-
Avesta; and even under the Khalifs, there was no Mohammedan
festival celebrated with so much pomp as that on the Tigris, at the
time of the summer solstice. The Tigris separated the sacred
land from the three other Keshvars or climates; Arabia (Shave),
the West and Egypt (Arze), Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (Vo-
robereste?); so that it is literally true that these two lines of
rivers water (mangent) all seven climates, or Keshvars. The
division into these seven climates (which el-Mas'udi has described
p. 199, supra) is, therefore, originally relative to the place where
the division was made.
As the Arg and Veh roud consist ultimately of four rivers,
as many flow in the paradise of Moses.
* If the nations on this river are the Uigurs, this name
should be written Irtish, else it may be the Sirr (the Saihun of
Arabic geographers, and the Jaraxes of Strabo), which is also
called Ariss, or Arsh.

-j- Perhaps it is the same name as the Ka'imar l^f mentioned

by Abulghazi (Edit. Tatarica, Kasan, 1825) in the genealogy of
the Turks as one of the fathers, which always means a tribe or
nation. There is for the rest a Turkish horde of the name of

Ka'imak, mentioned in the Jihannuma apud J. v., Hammer,

Hist, de 1'empire Ottoman.
| Probably ^yfcx-j instead of ,ybJ Ighur, or Uighur.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 245

Many tales are related about those two rivers. We

do not know the length of their course.
Various accounts are current respecting the
Ganges u^s^*, which is the river of India: it rises
in the mountains of the most remote parts of India,
towards China, not far from the Turkish frontier,
and falls, after a course of four hundred farsangs,
into the Abyssinian Sea ^^^>sr, on the coast of
India.
The Euphrates ci»|;iH has its sources in the
country of Kalikala &u)|? (Arzen-er-Rum., vulgo
Erzerum), on the Armenian frontier, from the
mountains called Afradohosf yM^^!
about one day's journey from Kali-kala
The course of the Euphrates goes through the By-
zantine territory, till it enters (into the Moslim
territory) at Malatiyah jUkXx>. A Moslim, who has
been a prisoner of war in the Christian countries,
tells me that the Euphrates receives in its course
through the Byzantine territory many tributaries.
One of them comes from the lake of el-Mazerbun
j which is the largest lake in the

* The Mohammedans had lost sight of the Ganges when

Alahmud of Ghiznah conquered India; and they called it then
iT, after the Persian way of spelling,

f Compare St. Martin, Mem. sur I'Armenie, vol. i., p. 45.

 246 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Byzantine empire; for it is one month long

and wide, or more. They ply boats on it.
The Euphrates comes to Jasr Manbij ^y
after it has passed the castle of Somaisat
which is built of clay: then it comes to Balos L
and passes Siff in ^^A*?, the field of the battle be-
tween the Moslims of el-'lrak and Syria (under
'Ali): farther on it passes er-Rakkah, er-Rahabah
Su^ll, Hit iJlAx4>, and el-Anbar ^Uttl, In these
places several canals are derived from it, like the
'Isa canal, which passes Bagdad, and joins the
Tigris. The Euphrates continues its course to Stir
j**> G!***)> Kasr Ibn Hobairah SJAX*
el-Kufah, el-Jami'in ^^lii, Ahmedabad(?)
* el-Yerman j^N (u~j&\), and et-Tafuf
; then it runs into the marshes between el-
Basrah and el-Wasit. The whole course of the
Euphrates is five hundred farsangs or more. The
greatest part of the water of the Euphrates had
once its course through el-Hirah: the bed may still
be traced, and it has the name of 'Atik (ancient).
On it was fought the battle between the Moslims and
Rostam (at the time of 'Omar), called the battle of
el-Kadesiyah. The Euphrates fell at that time
into the Abyssinian sea, at a place which is now
called en-Najaf cju?UJ ; for the sea came up to this
place, and thither resorted the ships of China and
India, destined for the kings of el-Hirah. Many
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 247

ancient historians, who are well acquainted with

the battle days of the Arabs, as Hesham Ben Mo-
hammed el-Kelbi csvJKit, Abu Mokhnif Lut Ben
Yahya, and esh-Sharki Ben el-Katami ^j ^*j~\\
^LkJfJ!, relate that the inhabitants of el-Hirah for-
tified themselves in the white tower of el-Kadesiyah,
and in that of the Beni Bokailah(or Bakilah) XXxJu csu,
when Khaled el-Mekhzumi ^^^\ marched
against them, in the reign of Abu Bekr, from el-
Yemamah, with the victorious army which had
slain the false prophet of the Beni Hanifah csu
XJux-*. These were the towers of el-Hirah, which
lay now [in 332 A.H.] in ruins, and nobody lives
there. The site of the town is three miles from el-
Kufah. When Khaled saw that the Hirians were
fortifying themselves against him, he encamped his
army not far from en-Najaf: he himself rode with
Dhirar Ibn el-Azur el-Asadi er«3w>^J j£*$\ ^jjj ^\j*>,
who was one of the Bedouin horsemen, to the city ;
and they came to the tower of the Taghlebites
j*£. The Christians ^^Uc threw pots
jjyaL on them, which made his horse shy. Dhirar
said, "May God make thee quiet, for this is the
greatest stratagem which they are prepared to
make." Khaled returned to his camp, and sent
to them that they should depute an intelligent
aged man to him, that he could ask him about
their affairs. They sent 'Abd el-Mesih Ben 'Amr
248 EL-MASJuni's MEADOWS OF GOLD,
Ben Kais Ben Hayyan Ben Bokailah el-Ghassani
to him, who had built the white citadel. Bokailah
had this name because he went out one day in a
green silk dress ; and the people said, who is this
bokailah? (herb XXJu). This is the same 'Abdul -
Mesih who went to Satih <g&** el-Ghassani the
soothsayer, to ask him about a dream of the
Miibeds ^Jjw^U, and the earthquake which the
palace of the Persian kings at Ctesiphon had sus-
tained, and other things which had reference to the
Sasanian kings.
'Abd el-Mesih was then three hundred and fifty
years of age when he came to Khaled. He was
walking: Khaled looked at him when he drew near,
and said,
" Whence dost thou descend, O Sheikh?"
He answered, " From the kidnies of my father."
" Where dost thou come from?"
" From the womb of my mother."
"Where art thou?"
" On the ground."
" In what (place) art thou?"
" In my clothes.''
" Art thou by reason or insane?"
" Why, by God, I am a leader, (and therefore
certainly an intelligent man)."
" The son of how many art thou*?"

* This is an Arabic idiom, meaning " of what age are you?"

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 249

" The son of one man."

" By God, I requested them to send a man of
their city to me," said Khaled, " and they depute
an idiot, who, if I ask one thing, answers another."
" By God," replied the man of el-Hirah, " I answer
precisely to thy questions, ask further."
" Are you Arabs or Nabatheans?"
" We are Nabathized Arabs, and Arabized
Nabatheans*."
"Do you wish for war or peace?'*
16 For peace."
" And what is the meaning of these fortifica-
tions?"
" They are built for mad people who are shut up
in them till they come to their senses."
" How many (years) are come over thee?"
" Three hundred and fifty."
" And what hast thou seen?"
" I have seen the ships of the sea coming up to
us in this deep country (cjbdli) with the goods of
es-Sind and India: the ground which is now under
thy feet was covered with the waves of the sea.

* That is to say, we are agriculturists, retaining some Bedouin

habits, for Arab c_^c means only a Bedouin; (See E. Lane's

Modern Egyptians), and Nabathean J^J means as it will be
shown in a note to the twentieth chapter, the agriculturists on the
skirt of the desert, of Bedouin origin.
250 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Look how far we are at present from the shore. I

remember that a woman might set out with her
basket on her head, and would find the whole coun-
try in so flourishing a state, covered with villages,
plantations, trees, and cultivation, intersected with
canals and ponds full of water, as far as Syria, that
she would not require more than one cake for her
provision*; What is it now? It is destroyed and
desert. So God visits his servants and country."
Khaled, and all who were present, were asto-
nished at what they had heard. They recollected
the name of 'Abdel-Mesih, for he was famous
amongst the Arabs for his great age and sound
reason.
They say he had a poison with him, the effects
of which were instantaneous.
Khaled asked him, " What hast thou here? "
11 Virulent poison," was his answer.
11 What wilt thou do with it?"

* The reader must bear in mind that it is a duty in the east

commanded by feelings and sacred by habit, religion, and honour,
to be hospitable to strangers. Hence it is only in deserts that they
carry their provisions with them.
Other authors describe in similar terms the nourishing state in
which the Ahkaf has once been, saying, that the palm-trees were
so fertile and abundant, that if a woman went out of doors with a
basket and put it down, she would find it after a while full of dates,
wherever it may have stood, and without any exertion on her part.
Perhaps the words of our author had originally the same meaning.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 251

He answered, " I took it with me with the in-

tention that if I should receive such proposals from
thee as may be agreeable to me and favourable for
my countrymen. I would accept them and praise
God for them, (and not take the poison). But in
the contrary case, that I might not be the first
who returned home laden with disgrace and sorrow,
I intended to devour this poison and to quit this
world, for only a short time more is allotted to

me."
" Give it to me," ordered Khaled, and took it
in the palm of his hand, saying, " In the name of
God, and by God, in the name of the Lord of heaven
and earth, in the name of the Almighty, in whose
name nothing on earth goes wrong." After he had
pronounced these words he devoured it ; he immedi-
ately fainted away, and his chin sank on his chest.
They opened his clothes ; he recovered and was
full of vigour.
The 'Ibadite returned to his people. He was an
'Ibadite ^j JUr by religion, which means a Nestorian
Christian. When he came into the town he said,
" O people, I come from the Satan ; he has devoured
poison of which the effects are instantaneous, and it
has not done him the least harm ; do what you can
to have him far from your town."
"They are a people full of ardour, and their cause
is rising, whilst that of the Sasanians is sinking.
This religion will have a success which will extend
252 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

over all the earth, but corruptions will creep into it."
They made peace with Khaled under the condition
that they should pay one hundred thousand dirhems,
and wear a black sash ^LJUlaJJ yt^ ^Ls (rolled
round their heads, and hanging down behind as a
humiliating mark of distinction from the Moslims.)
Khaled broke off from es-Kirah, and said the fol-
lowing verses on the subject.
" How is it possible that after the Mondirs a
price should be laid on (the two splendid palaces of
the kings of el-Hirah) el-Khawarnak u&jjsi \ and
es-Sodair ^*XwJJ, although they are protected by
the horsemen of every tribe, against the roaring
lion. And how comes it that I should pasture in
the gardens between (the canals of) Marrah *^o
and el-Jofair j>*4-\. We were become (united) like
the flock on a rainy day, after the (tribe) Abu-
Kais have perished. We have slain the Ma* add
tribes in open combat like camels destined to be
sacrificed. We raise tribute like the Kings of Per-
sia, and it is paid to us by the (Jewish tribes of

Khaibar), the Beni Korai'tah j&jjjiJl, and en-Nad-

hir j#£ti\. So the chances which lay in the bosom
of time are uncertain, to-morrow may bring joy or
sorrow."
We have inserted this story here in confirmation
of our statement, respecting the changing places of
the seas and the shifting of the waters and rivers in
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 253

the course of time, and daring the lapse of ages.

When the waters did not run any longer to this
place the sea became land, and at present there is a
distance of several days between el-Hirah and the
sea. Whoever has seen the Najaf will fully enter
into our views.
In the same way the Tigris has changed its
course; there is a great distance between the pre-
sent course of the river and the dry bed which is
stopped by the sand, and called Batn el-fauhi
gf=L\ L.J*j ; it runs close on the town of Bados u^L,
in the district of Wasit of el-Irak to Dafiri
turning towards Sus u*^ in Khuzistan <
whilst the new bed passes east of Baghdad, at a
place called Rakkah esh-Shemasiyah 3u*»U&!J £>,;
and an inundation has brought the river to the west
where it runs at present between Kotrobbol Jo^k*
and the Town of peace (Bagdad), so that it passes
the villages called el-Kobb v^* esh- Shark! &j"&9
and other estates, which belong to Kotrobbol. The
inhabitants of these places have had a law -suit, with
those of the eastern side, who are in possession of
Rakkahesh-Shemasiyah, in the reign of el-Mokta-
der, in the presence of his Vizier, Abul-Hasan 'Ali
Ben 'Isa. What well-informed men have deposed
at this occasion, and what we have stated are facts
which are well known at Bagdad. If the water
changes its course in about thirty years the seventh
254 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

part of a mile it will make nearly one mile in two

hundred years ; and if the water of a river retires
four hundred cubits from its original place, this
place will be waste. Through these causes places
are rendered uncultivated, and if the water finds a
declivity or a descent it widens by its course and
rapidity the bed as it carries the ground away to an
immense distance, and wherever it finds a wide and
low place it fills it and forms lakes, marshes, and
lagunas. By these means places which have been
cultivated become deserts, and those which were
without cultivation become cultivated. Everybody
of common sense will understand and appreciate
what we have said.

El-Mas'udi says, all historians who possess just

ideas respecting the history of the world and its
kings, know, that in the year in which the Prophet

of God sent messengers to the Kisra ^^J**, and

this was the seventh year after his flight from
Mekka to Medinah, the Euphrates and Tigris were
so much swelled that they never had been so before;
the water made immense breaches and holes which
were greater than the canals, and as the canals
could not hold the water the dams and mounds gave
way, and the water filled the lower country.
The Persian King, Abrawaiz ^^ (Perwiz),

* This is the Arabic pronunciation of the Persian title

Khosraw j^.**±i, which means possessed of an extensive kingdom.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 255

endeavoured to confine the water again, to repair

the dams, and to open the trenches olj^Lfc; but
he was unable to control the river, it took its course
towards the place where, in our time, are the
marshes. The cultivation and fields were sub-
merged, and whole districts were changed into the
marshes which are there at present, his exertions to
stop it being inefficient. The Persians were soon
after occupied with the Arabic wars; the water
broke through its limits, and nobody could turn his
mind to the reparation of the dams, so the marshes
became wider and more extensive.

When Mo'awiyah had come to the Khalifat he

appointed his adoptive 'Abdullah Ben Derraj *XAC
of el-'Irak, and he
raised landstheon tribute
from^ theover
&\j* cj^ the marshes fifteen million
(of Dirhems*) worth by cutting the reeds grown in
these marshes, and taking the whole as property of
the state. In subsequent times the water made
more breaches through the dams and mounds, and
when Hassan en-Nabti, the adoptive of the Beni
Dhobbah, was revenue cellector under the Khalifat

* Arabic authors frequently mention the sums without stating

what sort of money is meant. In these cases it is a general rule
that Dinars are understood if they speak of those countries which
had been under the sway of the Byzantine empire ; and Dirhems,
if the provinces in question had formed part of the Persian
monarchy.
256 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

of el-Walid for Hejjaj Ben Jusof, he gained some

lands from the marshes.
The whole extent of the marshes which the
water occupies at present, is about fifty far sang s
long and as many broad. In the centre is a round
place in which the ground rises; this is a city
covered with water, and if the water is clear one may
see at the bottom the ruins of buildings; some
stones are still standing in their place whilst others
have fallen down. One may still trace the plan of
the buildings. The same is the case with the lake
of Tinnis and Dimyat (Damietta) , in which may be
seen the farms and towns as we have related in
another place in this book, and in other works.
Now we will resume our subject and describe the
Tigris, its sources, course, and mouths. It comes
from the country of Amid <x*J, which belongs to
Diar Bekr, but the sources are in the country of
Khelat k&^, which forms part of Armenia. It
receives various tributaries as Sarit k>>r-o (^uy*)
and Satid JuSU-, which come from the country of

Arzan, and Mayyaf arikin (^b'Uc ; and other rivers,

as the river Dusha l^J, el-Khabur, which comes
from Arminiah, and falls between the country of
Masura* and Faiz-Sabur f , in the countries of

or \jy* or
j or jUai' or
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 257

Kerda and Bazenda*, into the Tigris, and the

A'wari cf j}Z\ (jJv$L>), which comes from el-Mausil
and its dependencies, the country of the Beni
Hamdan. The poets say of these rivers, "On
the Karda and Bazenda it is delightful to spend the
summer and spring ; for their water is as cool
as the Salsabil (a spring in Paradise), whilst the
ground of Bagdad is as hot as live coals, and the
heat is oppressive." The river el-Khabur is not the
same which has its sources at the town of Ras el-

'ain, and falls below the city of Karkisia IA^A^J into

the Euphrates. The Tigris passes in its course the
towns of Balad jJL» and el-Mausil : it receives below
el-Mausil and above the Hodaibiyah (the rough
country) of el-Mausil J^U jU^x-*, the river ez-Zab
vl>M» from Arminiyah; this is the greater Zab,
farther on the other Zab, which comes equally from
Arminiyah and Aderbaijan, pours its waters into it.
The Tigris proceeds to Tikrit, Samarra J^oL*, and
Bagdad, receiving the Khandak ojjil!, es-Sorah
x\j*d\ (*\j&\), and nahr-'Isa ^^AC ^: these are
the canals which we have said run from the
Euphrates into the Tigris. When the Tigris has

or

copy of Leyden bears J^JL!

from the country of Karenda, and the (river) Zahadra comes from
el-Mausil.
S
258 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

quitted Bagdad, it receives a great many rivers

(canals), like the Badnal jbjo (iL^j or <S\^), and
Nahras u^j (Nahr-Nar, or Nahr-Shir?), the
Nahr-Wan, not far from Jarjaraya L^.^, es-Sib
v***JJ> and No'maniyah XoLjJJL Having passed the
town of Wasit, the Tigris is divided into several
branches ; some of which run into the marshes of
el-Basrah, as the river called Baradud V^> or
the el-Yahudi river, and the Shami (or Samarri)
branch. On the stream which goes to el-'Akar
jjud\ (^k£!j), the greatest part of the navigation
from Bagdad and Wasit to el-Basrah, is carried
on. The whole course of the Tigris is about three
or four hundred farsangs.
We have omitted many rivers, describing only
the larger ones, which are better known; for we
entered into details in our works, the Akhbar ez-
zeman and the Kitab el-ausat. We shall give
further notices in this book of rivers which have
been named, and of such as we have omitted to
mention.
El-Basrah has several great rivers, like the
Nahr-Shirin (.ju^ Nahr-ed-Dair ^*xM> and the
Nahr-Ibn-'Amr. There are also some considerable
rivers in the province of el-Ahwaz and the country
between this province and el-Basrah. We forbear
entering upon them here, having given accounts of
them, and of the shores of the Persian Gulf at el-
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 259

Basrah and el-Obollah, and of the place known

under the name of Hezarah *j^.=U (or el-Herarah),
which is a strip of land projecting into the sea*,
close to el-Obollah, and which is the cause that the
sailors go into the harbour of el-Basrah. There are
marks of wood erected for the sailors in the sea, at
Hezarah, on the side of el-Obollah and 'Abbadan,
which look like three seats in the middle of the
water, and upon which fires are burnt by night, to
caution the vessels which come from 'Oman, Siraf,
and other ports, least they run against the Hezarah;
for if they run there, they are wrecked and lost.

* The MS. of Leyden differs from the other two copies, and
bears on the contrary, there is a bay *^\ ^ j^^^ u-»
in which the vessels lay.
 260 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

TENTH CHAPTER.

Account of the Abyssinian sea, its extent, gulfs,

and straits.

ESTIMATES have been made respecting the extent of

the Indian sea, which is identical with the Abyssi-
nian sea : its length from the most western part of
Abyssinia as far as China in the east, is eight thou-
sand miles, and its breadth is in one place two thou-
sand seven hundred, and in another one thou-
sand nine hundred miles, for it varies in different
places. These dimensions have been disputed, but
\ve will not enter into the different statements,
because there are no proofs upon which they rest.
This is the greatest sea of the habitable world. It
has a gulf extending from Abyssinia as far as Ber-
bera, a country situated between the territory of the
Zanj and the Abyssinians. This gulf is called the
Berberian gulf <?^» jUt giM it is five hundred
miles long, and at the beginning and end one hun-
dred miles wide. These are not the Berbers *r>\n
who live west of Afrikiyah (Africa pro vincia), for
that is a different country although it has the same
name. The sailors of 'Oman go on this sea as far
as the island of Kanbalu f>JUj£, in the sea of the
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 261

Zanj. This island is inhabited by Moslims, and by

Zanj who have not embraced th Islam. The
sailors of 'Oman to whom we have just alluded,
believe that this gulf, which is called the Berberian
gulf, and with them the sea of the Berbers and of
the country of Jofuni ^yL^ *&j, is much greater
than we have said. The waves of this sea are huge
like high mountains.
These are blind waves ^S^^-o; this (marine)
term means waves which rise as high as mountains,
and between which abysses open like the deepest
valleys but they do not break; hence no foam is
created like that produced by the collision of the
waves, in other seas. They believe that these waves
are enchanted. The sailors of 'Oman who sail on this
sea are Arabs, of the tribe of el-Azd ^W, and when
they are on board a ship, sometimes lifted up by
these waves, and then again sinking between them ;
— they say verses whilst they are at work, as, " O
Berbera and Jofuni and thy enchanted waves.
Jofuni,, and Barbera, and their waves,, as thou seest
them."
These sailors go on the sea ez-Zanj as far as the
island of Kanbahi ^JUxi* and the Sofalah (low coun-
try), of the Demdemah*, which is on the extremity

' One copy bears JJ^LJJ ^ XJU-o S&j and another MS.
XJUL*. It does not require any explanation why these
two readings have been changed in the translation.
262 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

of the country of the Zanj and the low countries

JJUJ thereabout. The merchants of Siraf ^j^jl j**Ji
are also in the habit of sailing on this sea. I have
made a voyage on it from Sohar*, which is the
capital of 'Oman, with a crew of Sirafians ; they
are the owners of the vessels like Mohammed Ben
Zindibud and Jauher Ben Ahmad, known under the

name of Ibn Shirah ^\ ^ y*y^ "K*^j &t <x*s2

(jy*j) 5^Aj£ ^..jjlj oj^xU, who perished in this sea
with his whole crew.
And, in 304 A.H., I made a voyage from the
island of Kanbalu to 'Oman, in a vessel of Ahmad
and 'Abd es-Samad 4*^1 ^XAC, brothers of 'Abd
er-Rahim Ben Ja'fer of Siraf. I passed then the
spot where, subsequently, the vessel of Ahmad and
'Abd es-Samad was wrecked, and where these two
men perished with their whole crew. When I
made my first voyage on this sea, Ahmad Ben Helal
Ben Okht el-Kattal JUXJ1 Z

* Both copies bear Sinjar AZCUJ, and M. Quatremere followed

this reading- in the extract which he gives of this passage in the
Memoires sur 1'Egypte, vol. ii., page 182, the true reading seems
to be 1^.

f The MS. of Cambridge gives him the name , . ^

0$ ^.AA*M fj&Jj Mohammed Ben Zeidum (?) of Siraf. It is

probably the same person as Abu Zeid of Siraf, in Reinaudot,
(p. 39).
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 263

was Emir of 'Oman. I have frequently been at sea;

as in the Chinese sea ^jywa!^^, in the seaofer-
Rum, in that of the Khazar j^\ (the Caspian), of
el-Kolzom ~^&\ (the Red Sea), and in the sea of
el- Yemen: I have encountered many perils, but
I found the sea of the Zanj which we have just
described the most dangerous of all.
There is a fish in this sea called el-Owal $\j$\
(whale), which is from four to five hundred 'Omari
cubits tsjf.\\ £,[>^ l°ng> these are the cubits in use
in this sea. The usual length of this fish is one
hundred perches ^L. Frequently when it swims
through the sea only the extremities of the two fins
are to be seen, and it looks like the sail of a ship
£\jid\ j&j £X*. Generally the head of the whale is
out of water; and when it powerfully ejects water, it
gushes into the air more than one bowshot high.
The vessels are afraid of it by day and night, and
they beat drums <_^lj j and wooden poles to drive it
away. This fish drives with its tail and fins other
fish into its open mouth, and they pass down its
throat with the stream of water. When the whale
sins God sends a fish about one cubit long called
esh-Shak &z\\* , it adheres to the root of its tail

* Quatremere translates this passage in his Memoires sur

1'Egypte, vol. ii., p. 491, and found this word written sal; one of
my copies bears
264 EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and the whale has no means to make itself free from

it. It goes therefore to the bottom of the sea and
beats itself to death; its dead body floats on the
water and looks like a great mountain. The fish
called esh-Shak, adheres frequently to the whale.
The whales, notwithstanding their size, do not
approach vessels; and they take flight when they
see this little fish, for it is their destruction*.
In the same way a little animal which lives on
the banks and islands of the Nile, is the destruction
of the crocodile. The crocodile has no natural
passage through its body; and whatever it eats is
turned into worms in its belly: when it feels any
inconvenience it goes out on the land and lays on
its back, opens its mouth, and there come the water-
birds like the Taitawif cf^LJaJJ, the Hasani
jU^it QUait), the Shamirek J^clwJJ, and other
sorts of birds, to eat the large worms which may be

* The translation of M. Quatremere of this sentence runs,

" L'okal qui ose attaquer un vaisseau, quoique grand qu'il soit,
prend la fuite des qu'il appergoit ce petit poisson qui est son
plus terrible ennemi." This sounds much better than the transla-
tion which I give. Since probability and the authority of this
distinguished orientalist is against me, I transcribe the original
after three copies, ^

1^3 £Xj'l? ^ L£*^ ^ would certainly be more natural if the

words did run l^IoxJ _ J^|
t See Calilah et Dimnah, p. 124.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 265

in the belly of the crocodile. This little animal

watching in the sand, seizes this opportunity to
jump on its scales, and goes down its throat. The
crocodile throws itself violently on the ground, and
goes to the bottom of the Nile. The little animal
devours its intestines and gnaws its way out. This
little animal is generally about one cubit long,
resembles a weasel, and has legs and claws.
In the sea of the Zanj are many and variously
shaped species of fish, if people do not tell stories to
cover their ignorance. But as it is not our object
to relate the wonders of the sea, nor to describe the
aquatic animals, serpents, and other strange crea-
tures, which live in it, we will now return to the
description of its various divisions, gulfs, inlets, and
tongues of land. Another gulf of the Abyssinian
sea is that which comes up to the town of el-Kolzom
fjAjiH* which belongs to Egypt, and is three days
from Fostat. On this gulf is the city of Allah, the
Hejaz*, Joddah »*x^, and Yemen. It is one thou-
sand four hundred miles long, and where it is widest
two hundred miles broad. Opposite the mentioned
places as Ailah and the Hejaz, on the western
coast of this gulf is el-'Allaki, el-'Aidab v^**J'>
which belongs to Upper Egypt, the country of
el-Bojah £s\M &>j\ ; then Abyssinia and Nigritia

* The MSS. bear \ and *)A.

266 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

, which form the coast of the Red Sea,

as far as the frontiers of the Sofalahs, (low district,)
_ U3UJ of the Zanj. At the Sofalah of the country
of the Zanj another gulf branches off, and this is the
Persian sea which comes up to el-Obollah,, to the
Khashabat, cijU^ 1, (the wooden sea-marks), and
to 'Abbadan j,bU«, which belongs to el-Basrah.
The length of this gulf is one thousand four hun-
dred miles, and the breadth at the entrance five
hundred miles, but in some places it is not above
one hundred and fifty miles wide. This gulf has
a triangular shape, at one angle el-Obollah is
situated, thence the gulf extends towards the east
along Faris. Of the places situated on this coast,
we name Persian Daurak u^iM ^^9 Maherban
^LjjfcU (Mahruban), and Shiniz ; from this town
the embroidered Shinizee cloth has its name;
for this and other sorts of clothes are manu-
factured there: farther the town of Jannabah,
whence the Jannabee cloth X>oUil v^t has its

name*; the town of Najiram p*^0, belonging to

Siraf JJjA-a, then the countries of Ibnf 'Imarah
? the coast of Kerman and the coast

* 'ITiese manufacturing and other towns were destroyed at

the time of Abul-Feda owing to the rule of the Turkish soldiers,
whom the 'Abbasides had called in to keep up the course of
absolutism against their own nation.
f Some copies leave out the word Ibn.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 267

of Mokran ^JC*, which is the country of the

Khawarij, who are Heretics *\j£S\ ^^ gjl*^*
The whole of this coast is a palm country: then
comes the coast of es-Sind there are the mouths
of the river Mihran ^jfr*> which is the river of
es-Sind (Indus), and has been described. In the
es-Sind is the town of ed-Da'ibol. Then comes
the coast of India, the country of Borudh u^'
whence the Borudhi cinnabar has its name.
Thence extends one interrupted coast as far as
China, partly cultivated, partly waste.
On the coast opposite the mentioned countries
as Kerman and es-Sind is el-Bahrain, the islands of
Kotr ^33, the Shatt of the Beni Jadimah ^ k£
&:<x^, (who belong to the 'Abdel-Kais tribe), Oman,
the country of el-Mahrah s^Xt, as far as the
promontory of el-Jomjomah **2aj?i u^l;, in the
country of esh-Shihr ^s^l; on this coast is also
el-Ahkaf, and near the coast many islands are
situated, like the island of Kharak J^U., which
belongs to the country of Jannabah, and has its
surname after it: between this island and the con-
tinent isa strait of a few miles,, in which the pearls
called Kharaji pearls are found. Another island is
called the isle of Awal _J^ *j*y?> there live the
Beni Ma'n ^.j** ^ij, the Beni Mismar J^*»*9
and a great number of other Arabs. It is about
one day or less from the towns of the coast of
268 EL-MASJUDIS MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Meran, which belongs to el-Bahrain. On this coast

which is called the coast of Hajar jz&&, are the
towns ez-Zarah i^tyi and el-Katif. uLlaxH.
After the isle of Awal are many other islands
as the isle Lafit L^O^, which is also called the island
of the Beni Kawan ^\J6 csu. It has been con-
quered by'Amr Ben el-'Asi, and there is his mosque
standing to this day. This island is very populous
well cultivated, and has several villages. At a short
distance from it is the island of Haijam ^ Urufc. There
the sailors take in water. Then the mountains
known under the name of Kosair, Owair, ^s. ^ ?*•»$•>
and a third one the name of which is not known.
Then ed-Dordur, which is called the terrible Dordur
> and by the sailors the father of hell;
£» ^\) at these parts of the sea rise
enormous black rocks high overhanging the water,
neither plants nor animals can live on them, and under
them the sea is very deep and stormy, hence every-
body who sails there is filled with fear; they are
between 'Oman and Siraf, and vessels cannot help
sailing through the midst of them. There is a
constant current of the water which makes it foam.
This sea, I mean the Persian gulf, which is also called
the Persian sea, is skirted by the countries and towns
which we have enumerated, as el- Bahrein, Faris,
el-Basrah, and Oman, and extends as far as the
promontory of el-Jomjomah. Between the Persian
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 269

gulf and the gulf of el-Kolzom and Ailah (the Red

Sea,) is the Hejaz and el- Yemen ; this land extends
fifteen hundred miles between the two gulfs, forming
a peninsula which is surrounded for the most part
by the sea before described.
On this sea extending from China along India,
Faris, 'Oman, el-Basrah, el-Bahrain, Yemen,
Abyssinia, the Hejaz, el-Kolzom, ez-Zanj, es-Sind,
and in the islands which it surrounds, are so many
and various nations, that their description and
number is known only to the Almighty who has
created them, and every section of them has a name
by which it is distinguished from the rest. The
water forms one uninterrupted sea. There are
many places in this sea where they dive for pearls
s. s-

jM. On these coasts, cornelians, Madinj

which is a sort of coral, and different
sorts of rubies, sapphires, diamonds, and turquois
are found. There are mines of gold and silver in

the country of Kolah X# and Serirah '^^ and

on the coast of this sea are mines of iron, in the
countries about Kerman. 'Oman produces copper.
From the countries which form the coast of this
sea, come different sorts of perfumes, scents, am-
bergis, various drugs used in medicine, plantane,
cinamon, cinnabar, and ruscus ^1,^x^01. We shall
hereafter specify the places where all those precious
stones, perfumes, and plants are found.
270 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

This sea which we have described, bears the

general name of the Abyssinian Sea ^z^\ J&-
The winds of the different parts of this sea which
we have described, and every one of which has a
distinct name, as the Persian gulf, the sea of Yemen,
the sea of el-Kolzom, the sea of Abyssinia, and the
sea of ez-Zanj, are different. In some seas the wind
comes from the bottom of the sea, stirring up the
water ; waves rise therefrom as in a boiling kettle,
where the particles J^ of the heat of the fire come
from underneath. In others winds and storms come
partly from the bottom of the sea, partly from the
air, and in some seas the wind arises wholly from
an agitation of the air without any wind coming
from the bottom of the sea. Those winds which,
as we have stated^ come from the bottom of the
sea, arise from the winds which blow from the land
and penetrate into the sea, from whence they rise to
the surface of the water. God knows best how this
comes.
There are several winds in those seas which are
known to the sailors to blow in particular directions
at certain times. This peculiar knowledge is ac-
quired by theory, practice, and long experience.
They also have a knowledge of certain signs and
indications by which they can tell whether the wind
will be high or not, and when a storm maybe expected.
What we have said here of the Abyssinian Sea, may
be applied in some measure to the Mediterranean,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 271

where the Byzantines and Moslims have certain signs

by which they can tell if the wind will change. The
same is the case with the sailors of the sea of the
Khazar, (the Caspian) who go to Jorjan, Taberistan,
and ed-Dailem. We shall give in the following
pages, a view and some details of the description and
history of those seas, and their wonders, if it is the
will of God, for there is no strength but in God.
272

ELEVENTH CHAPTER.

The different opinions on ebb and flow, and all that

has been said on this subject.

FLOW ,x*JJ means the coming in of the water

according to its nature and the laws of its motion.
The ebb j^ii is the going out of the water, and rests
on laws which are the reverse of those of the flow.
This may be observed in the Abyssinian sea, which
comprehends the seas of China, India, and the gulfs
of el-Berbera and Faris, as we have said in the pre-
ceding chapter. With respect to the ebb and flow,
the seas may be divided into three classes, the first
of which comprehends those seas in which ebb and
flow take place, and are apparent and evident ; the
other in which ebb and flow take place, but are
not perceptible ; and finally, there are seas in which
there is no ebb and flow at all. In those seas which
have no ebb and flow, the cause of their absence
may be threefold. The first cause is this : if the
water remains some time quiet it becomes salt,
heavier, and denser: it happens frequently that the
water goes into certain places for one cause or
another, and forms a sort of lake, diminishing in
 AND MINES OP GEMS. 273

summer, and increasing in winter, and one may

observe that it is increased by the accession of rivers
and springs. To the second class belong those
seas which are far from land and extensive, a cir-
cumstance which renders it impossible to observe
the ebb and flow. The third class comprehends such
seas as are on volcanic ground, for if the ground is
in volcanic action the water is in a constant current
to another sea, being increased in volume and
swelled by the air which is originally in the earth,
and thence communicated to the water. This is
particularly frequent with seas that have an exten-
sive line of coast and many islands*.
A variety of opinions have been started respecting
the causes of the ebb and flow. Some ascribe them
to the influence of the moon, for she being congenial

ju *iu

\j Means an increase in volume without an (apparent)

addition of matter. If this increase be effected by heat it is
c£>Jiij J^fsW^, and if by the absorption of another stuff as air
and humidity, it is called <s\LsxiJJ ^sik^CJJ. The secondary
meaning, which alone is found in Dictionaries is to boil.
T
274 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,
with water makes it warm and expands it. They
compare her influence with that of fire: if water is
exposed to the influence of heat in a kettle, although
only one-half or two-thirds of the kettle be full, it
will rise when it boils, until it runs over, for its
volume becomes apparently double whilst its weight
is diminished, it being a law of heat to expand bodies,
and a law of cold to contract them. The bottom of
the sea becomes warm, and by these means sweet
water is produced in the earth, which is changed (into
salt water) and becomes warm, as it happens in
cisterns and wells. When the water is warm it
expands, and when it is expanded, it is increased in
volume ; and when its volume is great, every particle
pushes the particle next to itself, and so it raises the
level as it rises from the bottom, for it requires more
space. The full moon communicates a great deal of
heat to the atmosphere, hence the water increases in
volume. This is called the monthly tide (spring
tide).
The Abyssinian sea runs from east to west
along the equator; after this line the moveable
heavenly bodies and those fixed stars which stand
vertically over it make their daily revolutions.
When the moveable bodies are at a sufficient dis-
tance from the equator their action upon the sea is
suspended, but when they are near the line they
exercise their influence upon the sea from one end
to the other every day and night; with all that, the
 AND MINES OF GEMS, 275

place exposed to their influence shows but little

increase; it is therefore particularly in rivers and
other channels through which the water flows into
the sea, that the flow is distinctly seen.
Others say, if the ebb and flow is the same phe-
nomenon as the expansion of water in a kettle under
the influence of fire, which makes the water rise,
the sea will, after it has been removed from the
bottom of its basin, go according to its nature
(gravity), to the deepest places of the earth, and so
it will return into its former place, just as the water
which boils in a cauldron goes as fast back to the
bottom of the vessel as it is displaced by the particles
of the fire (heat). Now the sun is the warmest
body ; and if the sun was the cause of ebb and flow,
the latter would begin with the rising of this
luminary, and the former with its setting. They
believe therefore that ebb and flow is caused by
vapours, which are produced in the bowels of the
earth and continue to be generated, until they are
discharged. This discharge pushes the water of the
sea, and it remains in this state until the pressure
from underneath it is diminished; then the sea
returns to the depths of its bed and the ebb succeeds.
Hence ebb and flow take place indiscriminately
during day and night, summer and winter, indepen-
dent of the rising and setting of the sun and moon .
They say further the fact is evident, for as soon as
the ebb is over the tide comes in, and the T2 end of the
 276 EL-TMAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

flow is immediately succeeded by the ebb, for the pro-

duction ofthese vapours is constant; when they are
discharged they are replaced by others. Whenever
the water of the sea runs back into its basin vapours
are generated by the contact of the water and earth.
When the sea returns vapours are produced, and
when it rises they are discharged.
The strictly orthodox say, everything, the course
and reason, of which cannot be discovered in nature
must be ascribed to the (immediate) action of God, and
is an additional proof of his unity and wisdom. For
ebb and flow no natural cause can be assigned.
Others say the motion of the waters of the
sea is not different from the vicissitudes of the
temperaments pl& in men. You may observe
in choleric, sanguine, and other persons, that their
temperament is roused for a time then it is quiet
again. In the same way the sea rises by degrees,
and when it has come to the greatest intenseness, it
sinks by degrees.
Another hypothesis has been advanced, opposed
to those already mentioned. It is assumed that the
air which is in contact with the water of the sea,
produces a constant decomposition of it : the con-
sequence ofwhich is that the waters of the sea are
expanded and rise, and this is the flow ; but in the
mean time, the water spreads and produces a decom-
position ofthe air which makes the water return into
its former place , and this is the ebb. These actions
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 277

are constant, and follow each other without inter-

ruption, for the water decomposes the air, and the
air decomposes the water. It may be greater when
the moon is full, for the activity of this (chemical)
change is increased. The moon is therefore the
reason of a more copious flow, but not of the flow
altogether, for the flow takes place although the
moon be in the last quarter. And the tide in the
Persian gulf is sometimes greatest at the rising of
the first quarter.
Many of the Nawajidah gj^ly [this is the name
for the sailors of Siraf and 'Oman, who are con-
stantly on this sea, and visit various nations in
the islands and on the coast,] say that the ebb and
flow takes place only twice a year in the greatest
part of this sea, once in the summer months, then
the ebb is six months north-east, during which the
sea of China and of other countries of that quarter
of the globe is high, for the water flows then from the
west ; and once in the winter months, then the ebb
is six months south-west, for in winter the sea is
fuller in the west, whilst the sea of China ebbs.
The motions of the sea cohere with the course of
the winds, for when the sun is in the northern
hemisphere, the air moves to the south, hence the
sea is during summer higher in the south, for the
northern winds are high and force the water there.
In the same way when the sun is in the southern
hemisphere ; the course of the air, and with it the
278 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,
current of the water, is from south to north, and
hence there is less water in the south. The shifting
of the water in these two. directions, from south to
north and from north to south is called the hyemal
ebb and flow; the ebb of the north is flow, in the
south vice versa, and if the moon* happens to
meet with another planet in one of these two direc-
tions, the warmth is increased by their joined
action, and hence the current of the air is stronger
towards the hemisphere which is opposite to that
where the sun is.

El-Mas'udi says, this is the hypothesis of el-

Kindi and Ahmad Ben et-Taib es-Sarakhsi, and what
we have said is borrowed from them ; namely, that
the motion of the sea coincides with the course of the
winds. I saw a curious phenomenon in the country
of Kanbayat in India, from which the laced Kanbayan
shoes X-,A.>UA£JJ JlxiJI have their name, for they are
made in this and the neighbouring towns like Sindanf
and Stibarah s^L^w (Sufarah) . I visited this place
in 303, A.H., during the government of Babina UoL

* The text is probably corrupted and should run, and if the

sun happens to meet with the moon or another planet, &c.
f Some MSS. bear JJ^^XXA*, and others ^l^&; supposing
the first part of the word being correctly spelt in the first reading,
and the finale ^ in the second, we have the name which Abul-
feda gives to a town on the coast of India, viz.,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 279

lo'L), who was appointed there as Brahman <&

by the Ballahra* ^^XxJI, the sovereign of el-
Mankir jJolXU This Babina liked to enter into
disputations with Moslims or persons of any other
religion, who visited his province. The above-men-
tioned town is situated on an estuary which is as
wide as the Nile, or like the Tigris antl Euphrates.
On the banks of the estuary one sees towns, villas,
cultivation, gardens, palms, cocoanut-trees, guinea-
fowls, parrots, and other Indian birds. The city of
Kambayah is two days or less distant from the
mouth of this estuary. The ebb is so marked in
this estuary that the sand lays quite bare, and only
in the middle of the bed remains a little water. I
saw a dog on this sand, which was left dry by the
water like the sand of a desert ; the tide coming in
from the sea like a mountain caught him although he
ran as fast as he could to the land to escape, and the
poor animal was drowned notwithstanding his swift-
ness. Between el-Basrah and el-Ahwaz in the
places called el-Basiyan ^U* UM and el-Kaidem
f<x*£Hj the tide comes in with equal violence and is
called there the crime (Boaref), full of noise, ebuli-

* The original title of this prince is according to the Mefatih

el-'olum, ts J *ktyt Behlway or .jb Ji.j Baluhar.

-f- See Major Rennel's Memoirs on the map of Hindoostan,
p. 353, who describes the passage of the Boare up the Hoogly.
280 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

tion, and danger: the sailors are afraid of it, and

the place is well known to everybody who has passed
it on his way to Daurak o^ and Faris.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 281

TWELFTH CHAPTER.

The sea of er-Rum (the Mediterranean^ , its length

and breadth, beginning and end.

THE sea of er-Rum -^Jl, of Tarsus vy»j*9 Adanah

sl3.it, el-Misslsah 'i^j^\9 Antakiyah (Antioch), el-
Ladikiyah ZJ* &N (Laodocia), Atrabolos uJbV^t
(Tripolis), Sur^xs, and of other places on the
coast of Syria and Egypt, as of Alexandria and on
the coast of the Maghrib, is five thousand miles long;
the breadth varies being in some places eight hun-
dred miles, in others seven hundred, six hundred
and less; so it is stated in the astronomical works of
many authors of astronomical tables, as Mohammed
Ben Jaber el-Battani jUxJJ ^jU. (Jj.j <x*:«2. This sea
begins from the strait which connects it with the sea
Okianos (the Atlantic), and which is narrowest
between the coast of Tanjah *^J& (Tangiers) and
Sabtah XZx*s (Ceuta), in the Maghrib, and between
the coast of el-Andalos (Spain) ; this narrow passage
has the name of Saita lk>~» (Ceuta), the distance
between the two coasts is not more than ten miles;
 EL-MAS5UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

hence it is the route to cross over from the Maghrib

to el-Andalos, and from el-Andalos into the Magh-
rib. It is generally called the Zokak oli'j^l (lane).
We shall speak in our account of Egypt of the
bridge, which joined the two coasts, and of the navi-
gation on this sea; also that the island of Kobros

u~j±* (Cyprus) and el-'Arish (fit j.x$\ were once

connected by land, so that caravans passed from one
place to another.
On the limits where these two seas, the Mediter-
ranean and the Ocean join, pillars of copper and
stone, have been erected by King Hirakl the giant*.
Upon these pillars are inscriptions and figures,
which show with their hands that one cannot go
further, and that it is impracticable to navigate
beyond the Mediterranean into that sea (the ocean),
for no vessel sails on it: there is no cultivation nor
a human being, and the sea has no limits neither
in its depths nor extent, for its end is unknown.
This is the sea of darkness, also called the green sea
or the surrounding sea l*^\ ^ ^*a^l ^ cAiJsJJ ^i
Some say that these pillars are not on this strait, but
in some islands of the ocean and their coast.
Some people consider this sea as the origin of all

* Hirakl JJf jjfc is generally the Arabic name for Heraclius

but here, as the reader perceives, the pillars in question are the
Herculis.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 283

others. There are some wonderful stories related

respecting it, for which we refer the reader to ourbook
the Akhbar ez-zeman ; there he will find an account of
those crews who have risked their lives in navigating
this sea, and who of them have escaped, and who
have been shipwrecked, also what they have encoun-
tered and seen. Such an adventurer was a Moor
of Spain, of the name of Khoshkhash <j£.»ici
He was a young man of Cordoba : having assembled
some young men they went on board a vessel which
they had ready on the ocean, and nobody knew for
a long time what had become of them. At length
they came back loaded with rich booty. Their
history is well known among the people of el-
Andalos (the Moors in Spain).
The length of this strait which forms a current
from the ocean into the Mediterranean is consider-
able, extending from the mentioned pillars as far as
el-Ahjar. The current from the ocean is so great
that it is perceptible. From the sea of er-Rum, of
Syria and Egypt, a gulf branches off which is five
hundred miles long, and passes the city of Rome
XA-CJJ &LKX.O. This gulf is called the Adriatic u^jM
in the language of Rome. West of this strait* (or

* One copy leaves out this sentence altogether, and the other
gives it incomplete; for it seems that the author continued his
account of the Adriatic naming some towns of Italy situated on it
before he comes again to speak of the strait of Gibraltar. This
description of the Adriatic however is left out in all MS.
284 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

gulf) a town is situated, named Sabtah (Ceuta), it

lays on the same side as Tanjah, opposite the cities
on the coast of Spain, and the Jebel Tarik 3^.
jjUs (Gibraltar) , so named after the freed-slave of
Musa Ben Nosair. The time for crossing from
Sabtah to Spain is from morning to noon. This
strait is very boisterous, and there is sometimes a
great swell although there is no wind, for the water
runs through it into the Mediterranean. The Moors
in Spain and in the Maghrib call this strait Lane
oli'^J!, for it has this shape.
There are various islands in the Mediterranean,
as the isle of Cyprus u»j*S9 between the coast of Syria
and er-Rum, Rhodes u*^j, opposite Alexandria,
Crete J&yt y>J, and Sicily *JuU>. We shall speak
of Sicily when we treat of the mount Borkan ^ ^
(^Etna), which throws out fire variously shaped,
representing sometimes enormous carcases. Ya'-
kub Ben Ishak el-Kindi and Ahmad Ben et-Taib
es-Sarakhsi c^i ^ ^^^ <s*&\ <Jbswt ^ vy*V.
^y^juwJJ, differ respecting the length and breadth
of this sea from the account which we have given, as
we shall have an opportunity to observe further in
this book where we describe these seas according to
the plan of the work.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 285

THIRTEENTH CHAPTER.

On the sea ofNitus (Pontus), and Mdyotis* (Maoris),

and the strait of Constantinople.

THE Pontus extends from the country of Ladikah

XJ'^ to Constantinople, and has a length of one
thousand one hundred miles. Its breadth at the
beginning is three hundred miles. The great river,
named Tanabus u^uUk (Danube), which we have

* The name of this sea being variously spelt in different copies,

the spelling of Abulfeda has been followed in page 30, supra ; for
although this author may be incorrect in some cases, he is more
correct than any other Oriental geographer, particularly in the ortho-
graphy of proper names, and his geography has lately been pub-
lished byM. Reinaud and Baron Slane, with such exactness, that
it must be considered as the standard work and canon in writing
geographical names. Most copists write ^JajLc, and this seems
to be the correct way of spelling it; for if we add the vowels
we have as nearly the Greek word Matcorts, as it can be expressed
in Arabic. It appears for the rest from this chapter that the Arabs
had exceedingly wrong notions respecting the Pontus, as well as
the Palus Maeotis; for although they had in the earliest time
pushed their conquests as far as the coasts of the Black Sea, and
although they carried on some trade on it, they referred in geo-
graphy, as well as in other branches of human knowledge, seldom
to experience, being led entirely by the authority of more
ancient information, which was frequently misunderstood.
286 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

already mentioned falls into this sea. It comes

from the north, and runs through the country of
many Japhetite nations. It rises from a large lake
in the north, which receives its water from springs
and mountains. The course of this river is about
three hundred farsangs long. Its banks are all along
cultivated by the children of Yafeth Ben Nuh. It
flows through the sea of Mayotis into the Pontus, ac-
cording to the opinion of many well-informed men.
This is a large river in which there are various
stones, plants, and medical substances, and hence
notice has been taken of it by many ancient philo-
sophers.
Some people consider the sea of Mayotis as a
lake, to which they give a length of three hundred
miles, and a width of one hundred miles. From
this sea the strait of Constantinople branches off,
which connects it with the Mediterranean; the
length of this strait is three hundred miles, and its
breadth on an average fifty miles. On its western
bank Constantinople is situated, and there runs an
uninterrupted line of cultivation from the beginning
of this strait to the end, and as far as Rome and
Spain. The opinions of those astronomers must
therefore be true, who maintain that the sea
of the Targhiz j£J3\*, Russians cr^Ji, and

* This name is mostly spelt vc j>U or not dotted at all. I

suppose it is the same nation as the Tyragetes of Herodotus.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 287

Nagaiz*, who are three nations of Turkish origin, is

the same as the Pontus. We shall speak of these
nations in the progress of our work if it is the
will of God the Almighty, distinguishing those who
sail on this sea from those who do not navigate it.

* Amongst the various readings rutf v^ seems to be

the most correct. The Nagaiz live north-east of the Black Sea
towards Stavropol.
288 EL-MAS'lTDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

FOURTEENTH CHAPTER.

The sea of Bab el-Abwdb, of the Khazar and of

*7orjdn (the Caspian), and the relation in which
the seas stand to each other.

THE sea of the Barbarians* ^U^l ^s? which is so

called because their abodes are on its coast, is sur-
rounded from all sides with cultivation; it is
generally known under the name of the sea of Bab
el-Abwabf v^^ v^>^> the sea of the Khazar,
of el-Jil (Ghilan), of ed-Dailem, of Jorjan, and of
Taberistan. On this sea live various nations of
Turkish origin. It extends along Khowarezm
which forms a province of Khorasan, and is eight
hundred miles long, its breadth is six hundred

means any person who is not Arab, but particularly

the Persians. In this passage it must be taken in the more
extensive meaning, in which it answers exactly to the Latin
barbarus. Ibn Khaldun uses in this sense the expression

l " a wild animaL"

-j- Our author writes this name in all instances Bab wal-
Abwab, i.e., the gate and the gates, instead of Bab el-Abwab, i.e.,
the gate of the gates, and comes therefore nearer to the ancient
name Portce Caucasia.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 289

miles, and it has nearly a round shape. In the

progress of our work we will describe all the nations
who live on this sea, which has the name of the sea
of the Barbarians.
In this sea are many Tenanin*, which is the
plural of Tinnin. They are equally frequent in the
Mediterranean, particularly about Tripolis, Laodicea,
and Jebel el- Akra', in the district of Antioch, for under
this mountain the sea is deep and boisterous ; hence
this place is called the Knot of the Sea j.s\!\ *J-=M-
On the coast of this sea are situated Antioch,
Rashid, Sakandarunah'!' (Alexandria Cilicise), Hisn
el-Markab^, on the mountain el-Lokkam, Missi-
sah, where the river Jaihan falls into the sea,
Adanah XJit with the mouth of the Saihan, Tarsus
with the river el-Berdan ^b jJJ, which is the river
of Tarsus ; further on is waste land, which forms the
frontier between the Moslim and the Byzantine

* It appears from what follows, that tinnin (in Hebrew,

tannin), which is the usual word for dragon, means originally
water- spout, and that the signification dragon owes its origin to
the popular belief, that the water-spout is a sea-monster, which,
according to el-Kazwinl, has sometimes a length of two farsangs.
Some further details, respecting the fables to which this pheno-
menon has given rise, as those of the Gorgons, of Perseus and
Andromeda, of St. George, &c., will be given in the additional
notes.
f The MSS. bear Alexandria, although it comes later.
i. The MSS. bear tyJu^Jl and o^i^Jl.
U
290 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

territory: then we come to the towns of Kalamiah

3UjlJ', Yunos u*^.j and Kerasia U~»jj£ ; then to

Solukiah a/Ji^X*, which has a large river that falls
into the Mediterranean; from thence the sea is
skirted with a line of fortresses, which extends as
far as Constantinople. We have omitted many
rivers of the Byzantine dominions which fall into
this sea, as the Cold River ^UJt^xM, the Honey
River J^xJt ^3 and many others. The coast of the
Maghrib, beginning from the strait on which Tan-
giers is situated, is equally in a flourishing state of
cultivation all along the coast of Afrikiya, Susah,
Tripolis, the Maghrib, (in its narrower sense),
Alexandria, Rashid, and Dimyat, up to the Byzan-
tine frontier, which joins the coast formed by the
Byzantine dominions: further on is the coast of
Rome, and beyond it the coast of Spain as far as the
coast opposite Tangiers, on the strait from which we
began our description. The whole coast just de-
scribed presents an uninterrupted line of well-culti-
vated countries, belonging partly to the Moslims,
partly to the Roman dominions, and intersected by
several rivers which fall into the sea and the strait
of Constantinople, which is only one mile wide.
This sea has several gulfs and estuaries, but they
are merely inlets, and do not communicate with any
other sea.
The shape of this sea has been compared to a
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 291

cabbage *-»**j&\, of which the strait of Gibraltar

forms the stalk ; but it will appear, by comparing
the length and breadth which we have given, that it
is not round.
The Tinnins (dragons) are quite unknown in the
Abyssinian sea and in its numerous estuaries and bays.
They are most frequent near the Atlantic (jluUs'l-
Different opinions have been advanced as to what the
dragon is : some believe that it is a black wind in
the bottom of the sea, which rises into the air,
that is to say, the atmosphere j4-\, as high as the
clouds, like a hurricane whirling dust aloft as it rises
from the ground, and destroying vegetation. The
shape of the dragon becomes longer the higher it
ascends in the air.
Some people believe that the dragon is a black
serpent which rises into the air, the clouds are at
the same time black, all is dark, and this is suc-
ceeded bya terrible wind.
Some are of opinion that it is an animal which
lives in the bottom of the sea, and that, when it is
haughty and overbearing, God sends an angel in a
cloud, who draws it out. It has the shape of a
black shining serpent. When it is carried through
the air it goes so high that it does not touch any
thing with its tail, excepting, perhaps, very high
buildings or trees ; but it frequently damages
many trees. It is carried in the clouds to
Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and Magog). u The 2 clouds
292 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

kill the dragon through cold and rain, and give it

to Gog and Magog to devour. This is the
opinion of Ibn 'Abbas. There are various other
popular traditions respecting the dragon, which are
recorded by biographers of Mohammed and other
prophets, but we cannot insert them all here. They
say, for instance, that the dragons are black serpents
which live in the desert, whence they pass, by rivers
swelled by rains, into the sea. They feed there on
sea animals, grow to an immense size, and live a
long time ; but when one of them has reached an
age of five hundred years, it becomes so oppressive
to sea animals, that there happens something like
what we have related, as being the account of Ibn
'Abbas. Some, they state, are white, and others
black like serpents.
The Persians do not deny the existence of
dragons. They believe that they have seven heads*,
they call them ^U<x^Jf, and allude frequently

* The representation of the constellation called Dragon in el-

Kazwini (MS. of the East India House, No. 1377,) has equally
seven heads.

* By the change of j into . we may pronounce this word

el-Agorghan ^LjLjs*^, which would leave no doubt of the
identity with the Greek name Gorgons. In this case the name
of Perseus could be derived from the Persian word Peri ^ ^
which means an angel. Several pages being wanting in the MS.
of Leyden, I have this passage, unfortunately, only in one MS.,
else the comparison with other copies would show how far this
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 293

to them in their tales. God knows best what the

dragons really are.
Many persons believe the stories connected with
this subject, whilst they are rejected by many
sound men. We will not repeat tales like that of
'Imran Ben Jabir, who is said to have reached
the sources of the Nile, and to have crossed the sea
on the back of an animal, laying hold of its hair
This, they say, was a marine animal, of such celerity
that it accompanied the sun in its course. By
seizing its hair 'Imran crossed the sea, seeking the
bed of the sun, at once he saw the Nile as it comes
forth from golden palaces; they say also that the
angel who guards the sources of the Nile gave
him a bunch of grapes, and that he returned to the
man who had seen him when he set out, to describe
to him how he had managed to reach the Nile,

conjecture is correct, and whether the Greeks have borrowed

the fable of the Gorgons, and of Perseus and Andromeda from
the Persians, or whether they owe it to the Syrians and Phoeni- v/
cians. For the rest it is very likely that ^IsJ^^J is to be read
as two words: in this case the translation would run, " And they
give to them a name which sounds 'an (or rather ghan ; for the
Persians have not the sound of the ^) in the singular."
The Kamus, p. 1728, informs us that the Persian name for
the constellation called Dragon ^jLxJJ is .^oJjufc. This word
(Haftorang) occurs repeatedly in the Zend-Avesta, and has been
mistaken by Anquetil Duperron for the Great Bear.
294 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

but he found him dead. They relate further some

adventures which he had with the devil, several
tales respecting the bunch of grapes, and other
stories.
It is asserted on the authority of a tradition (of
the Prophet), that in the middle of the green sea,
(ocean) are all sorts of curious stones and gold, on
four pillars of ruby, sapphire, emerald, and chry-
solith, from every pillar comes forth a river, and
these four rivers go from the ocean into the four
quarters of the globe without mixing with the sea
water. The first of these four rivers is the Nile,
the second is the Jaihan (in Syria) ^Lsx^., the

third, the Sai'han ^Isx*, and the fourth is the

Euphrates*.
Another story of this sort is, that the angel to

* In Boun-Dehesh it is said that all the rivers fall into the

Ferakh-kand, and come from thence ; meaning, no doubt, by the
evaporation of the water, which falls down as rain, and forms the
rivers. The vulgar version of this theory, which is related here,
afforded an opportunity to connect a fiction with the sacred rivers,
of which there are everywhere four in Eastern tradition, although
they do not agree as to their identity. Compare the note to page
243, supra.
This idea had been known to the Greeks, and defended by
some of their philosophers in its grossest version. " Some think,"
says Aristotle, Meteor, ii., 2, " that the rivers flow (peiv) from
the sea, and again into the sea : they become sweet by being fil-
tered in their passage through the earth, and loose by this
means their saltness."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 295

whose care the seas are confided immerges the heel

of his foot into the sea at the extremity of China,
and, as the sea is swelled, the flow takes place.
Then he raises his foot from the sea, and the
water returns into its former place, and this is the
ebb. They demonstrate this by an example : If a
vessel is only half full of water, and you put your
hand or foot into it, the water will fill the whole
vessel, and, when you take out the hand, the water
will be as before. Some think that the angel puts
only the great toe of his right foot into the water,
and that this is the cause of the tide.
The theories* just alluded to are neither proved

JSAxVc *.A*J sljjTi Lc

(read
UJLc ^^ c^l U

Jji
5 &\J4jj\

]! .aJfef L«
As the
296 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

as facts, nor are they articles of faith (although

they are put into the mouth of Mohammed) : they
belong to that class of traditions which may be
believed or rejected, for they rest ultimately on the
authority of only one (of the companions of the
Prophet), and but few have handed them down :
they cannot be traced to many (of the companions),
nor have they ever been generally acknowledged.
And this is required to give to traditions authority,
removing all possibility of interpolation. Only,
if a tradition is founded on such (historical)
evidence, which leaves no doubt respecting its
authority, one must subject (one's reason) to it,
and be guided by it ; for God has commanded that
sacred traditions should be considered as positive
laws, in the words "Receive what the Prophet has
given (permitted) to you, and forbear from what he
forbids you :" but the above traditions have not
the character of authenticity. We have explained
the different opinions on this subject. We have
thought it necessary to enter into these details,
in order to convince the reader that we are
competent to judge on the questions which have

As the word UJ^A^, which has been taken in the trans-

lation as a technical term, and applying only to the knowledge of
law, might be translated, " And we have made ourselves master
of the subjects on which we speak in this book," the original
text has been added.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 297

reference to revelation, alluded to in this or in any

other of our works, and that he may not be misled
by the misconstruction of critics of some other
subjects on which we have treated.
Some people count four seas in the cultivated
world, others five, others six, and some bring them
to seven ; all of which are connected and uninter-
rupted. The first is the Abyssinian sea ^
then the Mediterranean ^jjJJ, the Pontus L
the May otis ^kiLc, the Khazarian sea
and the Ocean cr-JUil, which is also called the
Green Sea, the Surrounding Sea, and the Dark Sea.
The sea Mayotis is connected with the Pontus,
which communicates with the Mediterranean
through the strait of Constantinople; and the
Mediterranean stands again in connexion with the
Ocean or the Green Sea; they form therefore only
one sea, as the waters are not separated. But they
are in no connexion whatever with the sea of the
Khazar (the Caspian). The Mayotis and Pontus
should also be considered as one sea, and although
these two seas, the greater of which is called the
Pontus u*kJo, and the smaller and narrower Mayotis^
yJajLo, are only connected by a strait ; one ought
to give to both together only one name, calling them

* Both copies bear, the smaller sea is called Pontus, and the
larger Mayotis. This must be a fault of the copyists.
298 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

either Pontus or Mayotis. If we use hereafter the

name Pontus or Mayotis, be it understood that the
terms are to be taken in this meaning, (each of these
two names) implying the smaller and the greater sea.
El-Mas'udi says, many people have the wrong
opinion that the sea of the Khazar stands in con-
nexion with the Mayotis, but I have not seen one
merchant who goes into the country of the Khazar,
nor anybody else who sails on the sea of Mayotis
and Pontus, to the Byzantine dominions or to the
Targhiz, who agreed with the opinion that the sea
of the Khazar is connected with any other sea
either by a canal or by a strait, or in any other
way excepting through the river of the Khazar.
We will speak of the kingdom of the Khazar, and
how the Russians brought their vessels into this
(the Caspian) sea, (from the Black Sea), which
happened after the year three hundred (of the
Hijrah), in the chapter on the Caucasus and the town
of Bab-el- Abwab.
I have referred to many ancient and modern
authors who have a great knowledge of the sea, and
found that they state in their works that the strait
of Constantinople begins from the sea of Mayotis,
and proceeds to the sea of the Khazar, connecting
them. I cannot comprehend how they come to
this idea ; whether they know it from experience, or
whether they deduce it from premises and conclu-
sions, or perhaps they are under wrong impressions,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 299

and believe that the Russians who sail on this sea

(the Black Sea) are the Khazar. I sailed from
Aboskun ^^L^\9 which is a seaport on the coast
of Jorjan, to Taberistan, and other countries, and
asked every merchant and sailor possessed of any
knowledge, whom I met, respecting this point,
and every one of them informed me that one could
not come by water into the Black Sea, except by the
way which had been taken by the Russians. The
inhabitants of er-Rum, Aderbaijan, el-Bailkan, [in
the country near Berda'ah and other provinces,] of
ed-Dailem, el-Jil, Jorjan, and Taberistan, were
alarmed and made a general rise against them, for
they had never before seen an enemy coming against
them from those quarters, nor was such an invasion
recorded since the most remote time. The fact to
which we have just alluded is well known in the
above-mentioned cities, nations, and countries, and
they cannot deny it on account of its publicity. It
happened in the reign of Ibn Abi-s-Saj.
I read in a book, which bears the name of el-
Kindi, and his disciple^ es-Sarakhsi, who lived with
the Khalif el-Mo'tadhed, that there is a great lake
in the north, at the extremity of the habitable world,
extending as far as the north pole, and that there
is a town near this lake of the name of Tuliah
SJ^j, on the limits of the habitable world. This
lake is also mentioned in the Memoirs of the
Beni el-Monajjim. Ahmad Ben et-Taib es-Sarakhsi
300 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

states, in his Memoir on the seas, waters, and

mountains JUi^ *^U ^la^JJ ^ XJLw^,, on the autho-
rity of el-Kindi, that the Mediterranean is six thou-
sand miles long in its extent from Sur, Atrabolos
(Tripolis), Antioch, el-Markab* t-o^U9 the coast of
el-Missisah, Tarsus, and Kalamiah Xx^i' (Xx^Xi'), to
the pillars of Hercules, and that it is four hundred
miles wide where it is broadest.
This is what el-Kindi and Ibn et-Taib say. We
have now stated what both parties say on this
subject, and how far they differ from the astrono-
mers, as we have found in their works, or heard
from their followers. We cannot add the proofs
with which they strengthen their statements ; for
we have made it a rule for ourselves to be concise
and short in this book.
The various opinions of the Greeks and of other
ancient philosophers, on the origin and cause of
the seas, have been given in full detail in the
second book ^3 of our Akhbar ez-zeman, which
consists of thirty books: there all the theories
respecting this subject are specified, under the
names of their authors: the present work, how-
ever, shall nevertheless contain a summary view of
the various theories on this head.
Some are of opinion that the sea is a remnant

* The MSS. bear 4_Jul \ el-Mankib.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 301

of the primitive humidity, the greater portion of

which has been dried up by fire, and that portion
which remained has undergone a change through
the process of burning, and has become salt.
Some maintain that, when the whole of the primi-
tive humidity underwent the process of burning
under the revolutions of the sun, the pure part
was separated, and the rest became salt and bitter*.
Some consider the sea as the sweat of the earth f,
which is caused by the constant revolutions of the
sun round our planet. Some believe that the sea
is the rest of the secondary humidity, which was
left after the earth had extracted the purer part of
it for the production of solid bodies : the same thing
happens with sweet water ; if you pass it through
sand, it will be found salt. Some are of opinion

* " Some say, the region nearest to the solid mass of the
globe was originally occupied by water round the whole earth;
but subsequently it was evaporated, and dried up by the heat of
the sun ; wind, and the revolutions of sun and moon, converted v
the water which was left into sea (i.e., salt-water)." Aristotle,
Meterol. ii., cap 1.
This idea is universal, and is met with as early as Genesis. El-
Kazwini seems to think that the greater part of the water which
once surrounded our globe is now concentrated in the south-
ern hemisphere, being attracted by the heat of the sun, which is
greatest in the south pole, according to the ideas of the Arabs.
f This opinion was defended by Empedocles. Pliny, lib. ii.,
Aristotle, Meteorol. ii., 1 .
302 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

that the sweet and salt waters were originally mixed :

the sun attracted the lighter (i.e., sweet water),
and raised (evaporated) it. Some think the sun
evaporates (the sweet water which is raised from
the sea water) and feeds upon it*. Others object
that the vapour becomes again water after it has
been purified ; for, as the vapour rises to the higher
and colder regions, it is condensed by the cold.
Some persons argue that that portion of elementary
water which has existed as vapour in the air, and
has been condensed by the cold to which it was
exposed there, is sweet ; whilst that portion of
elementary water which has been exposed to the
influence of burning is salt.
Some reason thus : the water which flows into
the sea from the high and low grounds of the
earth absorbs, according to its nature, the salt
which the earth throws out into its basin ; the
particles of fire which are naturally in water,
together with the particles of heat which emanate
from the sun and moon, and cause the water, being
mixed with it, to come forth from the earth, raise
and evaporate the water by their raising (expansive)
power, the finer particles of water, when it is above,
are turned into rain. This process is constantly
repeated, because this water becomes again salt ;

* Aristotle, Meleorol. ii., 2.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 303

for the earth embues it again with saline particles,

and the sun and moon deprive (the sea) again of the
finer and sweet portions of the water (by evapora-
tion). It is for this reason that the sea remains
unchanged both in quantity and (specific) weight
(salt dissolved in it); for the heat raises the finer
portion of the sea water, and changes it into
atmospheric humidity, in the same proportion
as the same water flows again into the sea, in the
form of streams, after it has become terrestrial
humidity SUxJ^J*; for, being in the form of streams,
it has a tendency to stagnate, and to form marshes
flowing to the deepest places of the earth, and so it
comes into the bed of the sea. The quantity of
water remains, therefore, constant, and is neither

* The Arabs have quite distinct names for different sorts of

waters, as if they had considered them as different substances. This
passage and what follows leads to the same idea; and, indeed, what
can be more different in its reference to man than sea-water and
spring- water ? We read, therefore, in the Zend-Avesta (vol. ii.,
p. 394, Boun-dehesch), u II est parle dans la loi de sept especes
d'eaux : s^avoir, la premiere eau est celle qui est sur les arbres ;
la seconde, celle qui, coulant des montagnes, forme les rouds ;
la troisieme, 1'eau de pluie; la quatrieme, celle qui est appellee
Armiste (creusee) ; la cinquieme, la semence des animaux, et
celle des hommes ; la septieme, la sueur des animaux, et celle des
hommes."
After these seven humours follow seven others in the Zend-
Avesta, which are produced by them.
304 EL-MAS'tiDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

increased nor diminished. The springs are the

hidden veins of the earth, pouring into the brooks,
which fall into the rivers. This has been compared
with the construction of animals. When an animal
takes food, the limpid part of it is distributed
through the body by the influence of warmth, and
is destined for nutrition ; but the salt and bitter
parts remain behind to be secreted as excrements,
being not possessed of limpidity v^r> and this is
the stuff of which urine and sweat consist. And as
the nutritive humours are changed under the in-
fluence ofwarmth, into bitterness (bile) and saltness,
one will find that bitter (bilious) excrements, besides
the urine and sweat, are secreted from the body,
if the warmth is increased beyond its regular
standard ; for all water that has been burnt is bitter.
This is the theory of all ancients*.
This can be demonstrated by an experiment. If
you heat any liquor which contains a nutritive
substance, like wine, vinegar, rose, saffron, or gilly-
flower water, the spirituous particles fly away with
the vapour which rises from it ; but if you heat salt
water the case is different : the absorbed spirituous
(salt) particles remain behind, particularly if the
process of heating is repeated. The author of
the Logic f (Aristotle) has many discussions on

* Compare Aristotle, Meteorologica, ii.. 2 and 3.

f Locis laudatis.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 305

this subject ; so he says that the sea- water is denser

and more turbid than sweet water, which is limpid
and clear; and that if we give to a piece of wax
the shape of a vessel well shut, and lay it into salt
water, we shall find that the water which penetrated
into the vessel is sweet to the taste, and specifically
lighter than sea-water ; whereas, the water round
the vessel is more salt, and specifically heavier.
Flowing water is called river ^ ; water coming
forth from the earth is called spring (jj*c ; and
water collected in a great mass is called sea j*=- *•
El-Mas'udi says there are many treatises extant
on the water and its causes. In the second book
of our work Akhbar ez-zeman, which comprises
thirty books, we have exposed the proofs which
have been brought forward in confirmation of the
theories respecting the extent of the sea, its dimen-
sions, the use of its saltness, its connections
and divisions, its being neither liable to increase
nor decrease, and respecting the reasons that the
ebb and flow is greater in the Abyssinian sea
than anywhere else.
I have had many conversations with merchants
of 'Oman and of Siraf, who are in the habit of
navigating the seas of China, India, es-Sind, ez-

* This includes lakes; for s^sr, the Arabic word for lake,
is the diminutive of ..-ST sea.
X
 306 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Zanj, Yemen, el-Kolzom, and of Abyssinia, and

received information which differed from the ac-
count given by philosophers and other men of
learning, upon whose authority the dimensions and
extent of the seas is usually stated. The sailors
say that this sea, in certain directions, has no end. I
made, also, the acquaintance of the sailors on the
Mediterranean, both those on board of ships of war
and of traders: they are the Nautse XAJ'^JM, the
officers of the men*, and the captains L^l, and
others who are intrusted with the management
of vessels of war, as Lawi g^y Go^0> who has
the surname Abul-Harb, and is a slave of Zorakah
»3}jj, the governor of Tripolis, in Syria, on the coast
of Damascus. They are well acquainted with the
length and breadth of the Mediterranean, with its
gulfs and straits. I found such information in
'Abdullah Ben Wazir, the governor of the town
of Jobailahf, on the coast of Hims, in Syria; and at
present,, that is to say, in 332 A.M., there is no
man who knows the Mediterranean better than he.
All vessels, the ships of war as well as traders,
follow his advice, and trust in his knowledge and
science, on account of his long experience. We

* It is very likely that the original reading was , . ^.A

and not Jca..^.
f MSS. bear 2u*JLc, &k*. and
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 307

have related the wonders of this sea, and the

information which we have gathered respecting it, in
the preceding pages, and we shall insert in our
progress some further notices respecting it.
Various signs have been stated which are said
to indicate that water is to be found in the earth on
digging. Some say experience has shown that in
places where reeds, aquatic plants, grass, and other
herbage grows, water will be found on digging; but
the absence of such plants shows that water is
distant.
I have found the following rule in the works on
agriculture : If you wish to know whether the water
is near or far, dig three or four cubits into the
ground, then take a kettle of brass, or an earthen-
ware jar, with a wide mouth; besmear the inside of
it equally with grease: take clean white wool and
a stone of the size of an egg, which you enclose
in the wool, making a ball of it; then besmear
the side of this ball with melted wax, patch it
into the jar which has been anointed with oil or
grease, and let it down into the bottom of the pit.
The wool will be attached to the bottom of the jar
through the wax, and it will be glued on the stone.
Throw earth upon the vessel, one, two, or more
cubits deep. All this is to be done after sunset. Hav-
ingleft it in this state during the night, you remove the
earth the next morning before the rising of the sun ;
and if you find many drops of water adhering to the

X 2
308 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

inside of the vessel, one near the other, and if the

wool be wet,, you may be sure that you will soon find
water in that place; but if the drops be distant from
each other, and if the wool be but little wet, you must
dig to a great depth before you arrive at water; and
if you see no drops, or only very few, either in the
vessel or on the wool, you will find no water in this
place, not even on digging deep.
I found, in another copy of the works on agricul-
ture, other rules concerning the same subject. If
you wish to know whether you will soon come to
water on digging, you have only to examine the
back of the ants of that place: if they be thick,
black, and heavy in their carriage, you will find the
distance of the water in proportion to their carriage.
But if they be light, and run so fast that you can
hardly catch them, the water is at a distance of
forty cubits. And the first water will be good and
sweet, but the second will be heavy and salt.
These are the signs for a man who means to dig for
water: we have given a full account of this subject
in our Akhbar ez-zeman. In this book we give
merely general notices of subjects which are necessary
to be known, without entering into details and illustra-
tions, referring to the Akhbar ez-zeman, where we
enter at greater length on these subjects. Let us
now speak of the kings of the Chinese, and what
belongs besides under this head.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 309

FIFTEENTH CHAPTER.

The Chinese Empire : its kings : their lives and

government.
THE historians do not agree respecting the Chinese
and their origin. Many of them say that the
children of 'Abur Ben Batwil Ben Yafeth Ben Nuh
cm
went north-east, when Falegh Ben 'Aber Ben
Arfakhshad divided the earth amongst the sons of
Nuh. A portion of them, descended from Ar'au jsj,
took their way towards the north, dispersed there
over the country, and formed a number of nations
and kingdoms, as ed-Dailem jJoJJJ, el-Jil ^A.\
et-Tailisan ^LJUW? (UX^l et-Tatar*
xU and el-Mukan

* This nation must live west of the Caspian; I doubt, there-

fore, whether Tatar is a correct reading. A MS., 7496, in the
British Museum, which contains an ancient o-geographical work,

mentions frequently this name; spelling it j\AJ! el-Bab r, and in

one instance el-Bair.
f This name is written el-Mufan in the MS. which appears
to be nearest to the true reading of the name. The beginning
of this chapter has been compared with an extract in en-Nowairi.
The proper names have been transcribed in Arabic characters, as
they are in the MSS., with all their faults; but, where it was safe,
they have been corrected in the English transcript.
310 EL-MAS'tfDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

or ^UyUi)* Further are the inhabitants of

the Caucasus, who consist of various races of el-
Lakz y&J (yfl or ^jSi\\), the Alans ^Wl (j,
the Khazar ^yUthe Abkhaz Ji*y\ (jb$\ or
the Serir jij*il\, the Cossaks ^£T, and other
nations descended from them. They are spread
over those tracts and over the country along the
Black Sea and the Mayotis, as far as Terabizond
(Trebizond). They inhabit, also, the coast of the
sea of the Khazar, of the Targhiz (Bulghar) , and
other neighbouring nations.
The children of Abur set over the river of
Balkh (Oxus) : the most of them proceeded to
China <jjyo, spread over the country, and formed
empires, as the Khottal JJC-L! (j^il), who are the
inhabitants of Khottalan £&££ (^dH**)* the Dii-
shan(?) ^l&jJ Cu^au or u^^)» ^e Oshrusanah
x+r».pZ,y\9 the inhabitants of the Soghd «x*aH who
live between Bokhara and Samarkand, the Fergha-
nians* Xj^VjiJ!, and the inhabitants of esh-Shash
jiUJI, of Isbijab (Isfijab) ^l^^-^ (cj^J or ^1^0'
and of the country belonging to Tarab cii^lXH

* The Ferghanians formed one of the best corps of Turkish

troops in the service of the 'Abbasides, and are frequently
mentioned by historians; but as the dot upon the A is sometimes
omitted in MS 8., Reiske and other authors have been led astray,
and, considering the word to be derived from Fir'aun, they believed
them to be Egyptians.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 311

(u^UM or jjjUJJ or eM^/jdJ. Some of these nations

built cities and villages, whilst others live in
steppes. Of the same origin are other nations, as
the Turks £j£\, the Kharlajians* gO^Al (gojAJ)>
and the Taghizghizf ^iy&J! who inhabit the town
of Kusan ^^ (o^/O^ forming an empire between
Khorasan and China; and they are at present [in
332, A.H.] the bravest of all Turkish hordes. Their
king has the title Irkhan;}: ^U-,1 (o^ or 6^ or
^bjjj), and professes the doctrine of the Mani-
cheans, which no other Turkish horde acknowledges.
Farther are descended from 'Abur the Kaimakians
/JI^M)' tne Marghinanians (?) XJU
or axxsS'JsJJ or X/Jl^Jj), the Baunah
, and the Jaghrians (?) x>j*iJ (*j*L\ or

* The Tatar name of this horde is Kal-aj ^Jb*: t^iey claim

to be descended from Oghuz Khan. Deguignes, Hist, des Huns,
Vol. ii., p. 9, and Abulghazi Bahadur Khan, edit. Tatar, p. 14.
f On the various ways in which the name of this horde is
spelt, from which the Tulunides were descended, the reader may
consult Roorda's Abul Abbasi Ahmedis Vita, Leyden, 1825,
p. 50.
J Irkhan (.jU^ot means the khan of men. The reading
of one copy is Ilkhan i.e., the khan of the nation ; the latter is a
title frequently met with in Tatar history, and this reading should
have deserved the preference, if this title were not in all other
passages of el-Mas'udi, where this prince is mentioned, distinctly
written Irkhan.
312 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

or AAjyiit). The bravest of them are the

Ghizians *tyA\, and the best formed and hand-
somest are the Kharlajians X/oiyLt (^i^t or
XxT^L! or X/J->i!) who inhabit Ferghanah XJU^J,
esh-Shash jfclcjJJ, and the adjacent country. They
have the sway over the Turks, and the Khakan of
the Khakans (^Si^L! 6^'^ is of their horde:
all the Turkish nations obey him, and all other
Turkish kings are his vassals. One of these
Khakans was Ferasiab the Turk, who conquered
Persia: another of them was Sanah 3oL>. The
Khakan of the Turks extends his sway at present
over all Turkish kings, since the town in the
steppes of Samarkand, which had the name 'Amat
c»l$ (c>Uc), was destroyed. We have related under
what circumstances the government was removed
from this city, in our book called Kitab el-ausat.
One part of the children of 'Abur came as far
as the frontiers of India. The climate of the country
impressed its character upon them ; and they are in
their complexion like the Hindus, and not like
other Turks. Some of them are settled, whilst
others are wandering. Another portion of them is
settled in et-Tubbet dL^xJ!. They placed their
government to the hands of a king, who was
subject to the khakan ; but, when the power of the
khakan had ceased, the Tubbetians gave to their
king the title khakan, imitating the former Turkish
kings.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 313

The majority of the children of 'Abur followed

the course of the river to the extremity of China.
There they spread over the country, fixed their
abode, and cultivated the land ; they formed communi-
ties, established capitals, and built towns. They
founded a large city for the residence of their king,
which they called Anku* yu! (yot or ly*J)}; this
city is three months' journey from the Abyssinian
sea; the whole interjacent country is covered with
towns and well-cultivated. Their first king in this
new settlement was LotsatisBenNa'ur BenYarej Ben
'Abiir Ben Yafeth Ben Nuh U

L» ^jj. When he was on the throne

he spread his subjects over the country, dug canals,
planted trees, taught the use of the fruits as food,
and killed the lions (wild beasts). He reigned
about three hundred years ; then he died, and was

succeeded by his son 'Arun Ben Lotsatis (^j#jz*

He put the corpse of his father in a golden statue
JlA^JI, as an expression of his veneration and
regretf . The statue was put on a golden throne,

* Abulfeda writes Yanju >-•**? \ the «. j and o k in these two

ways of spelling seem both to be meant to express the sound of g.
This town is supposed to be Nanking, which is called Kiang-
Ming by the Chinese.
j It is well known that this practice prevails among the
314 EL-MAS'uDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

studded with precious stones. He himself took his

seat under this throne, worshipping the dead, and so
did all the inhabitants of the kingdom every morning
and evening. He reigned about two hundred and
fifty years. After him, his son 'Abirun Ben 'Arun
6^^ (^ Uij*1^ (j&**s came to the throne. He
also put the body of his father into a golden statue,
which he placed one step lower than that of his
grandfather. He first addressed his prayers to his
grandfather, and then to his father. His government
was very good, and he never did anything without
asking his subjects for their opinion. Equity was
everywhere exercised, the population increased*, and
the soil was cultivated during his reign, which
lasted two hundred years. His son 'Athinan Ben
'Abirun J^AXC ^ u^c (^AAC) succeeded him.
He observed the same usage, of putting the body of
his father in a golden statue and worshipping it.
His was a long reign, and his territory extended to
the country of the Turks, the descendants of his
uncle. In his days, arts to promote the comforts of

Chinese. Abulghazi ascribes the same usage to the ancient

Tatars ; and he agrees in this point, as in many others, with
Herodotus, lib. iv.
* It deserves to be noticed that the increase of mankind is
considered in the east as the object of human society and the
criterion of a good government, just as we consider the greatest
happiness to the greatest number as such.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 315

life, and other trades, became frequent. He lived

four hundred years, and had Jaraban his son
^U-JAT lrjj ^^ as successor. He ordered, first,
ships to be built, manned them, loaded them with the
produce of China, and sent them to India, es-Sind,
Babylonia, and other kingdoms near and far. He
made to the kings the most rare presents, and sent
them costly gifts; and he gave orders to his sailors
to bring him from every country what is beautiful
and exquisite for the table, or for dress and furniture,
not found in his own kingdom. He ordered them to
make themselves acquainted with the forms of govern-
ment of every empire, and with the religious tenets,
laws, and moral state of every nation; and that they
should ask the people for precious stones, perfumes,
and instruments. The vessels went out, and sepa-
rated to visit various countries, following the orders
of their king. Wherever they landed the inhabitants
were surprised at them, and admired what they
brought. Kings, whose dominions were on the sea
coast, built vessels, and ordered them to sail to
China, in order to import into China such products
as were wanting there. They wrote to the king,
acknowledging the presents of his country and send-
ing others in return. So China advanced in her
civilization and prosperity. The king died after a
reign of about two hundred years, to the greatest
affliction of his subjects. The public mourning
lasted one month. Tutal Ben Jaraban
316 KL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

y.'jjj was his son and successor. He

put the corpse of his father into an image of gold,
and observed the usages of former kings. He
brought his affairs into order and made some praise-
worthy new institutions : the like none of his prede-
cessors had made. He said to his countrymen, an
empire cannot exist without justice, for justice is
the balance of God,, and it is productive of an
increase of prosperity and of good actions. He
created courtiers and nobles, and gave crowns as
marks of distinction. He formed ranks among the
people according to their pursuits. He went out to
seek a place for a temple, and he found a spot with
luxuriant herbage, covered with flowers and well
watered. There he marked out the foundation of a
temple. Stones of various colours and descriptions
were brought to the spot, and the construction went
on. A cupola was raised on the top with air-holes,
and the whole fabric was in perfect symmetry. In
the temple were cells for persons who wished to
shut themselves up for the service of God. When
the whole edifice was completed, he put in its
uppermost part the statues which contained the
bodies of his fathers, giving orders to worship
them.
He assembled the great men of his empire, and
acquainted them of his intentions to unite all his
subjects into one religion, to which they could
always appeal. Religion should be the tie of union
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 317

and order; for he observed that, if a government has

lost sight of religion, it is exposed to dissolution,
corruption, and vice. He founded the government,
therefore, on sacred laws and positive regulations
dictated by reason, which should form the basis: he
made a penal code : he fixed the conditions under
which matrimony should be legitimate, to induce
women to become mothers, and to render the ties
between father and child firm ; and he made a
distinction between the laws; enforcing some as
positive and obligatory commands, which are
violated by neglecting the observance of their
tenor ; whilst he left others open to the will of
the individual ,JJ!p ; for they should only serve as
guides. He prescribed to his subjects certain
prayers, and regulated the divine service. There
is, however, no inclination nor prostration observed
in their prayers, which are performed at fixed times
of day or night ; but, in the prayers which are to be
said at certain times in the year and months, pros-
trations and inclinations are to be made. He
instituted feasts. Fornication is under certain
restrictions belonging to the criminal laws. If a
woman means to prostitute herself, she has to pay
a certain tax ; but if she refuses the embraces of
men for some time, or if she gives up the practice
altogether, she has no longer to pay the tax.
The sons of such women are enlisted in the (stand-
ing) army of the king; but the girls are left to the
318 EL-MAS'UDI5S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

mothers, and are generally initiated in their trade.

He prescribed sacrifices and incense which were to
be offered in the temples. To the stars incense
was offered; and for every star a certain time was
fixed on which its favour was particularly solicited,
by burning incense, perfumes, and certain drugs.
He defined everything which his subjects had to do.
He enjoyed a long life, had a numerous pos-
terity, and died after a reign of about one hundred
and fifty years. This king was much lamented.
They put his body into a coffin of gold ornamented
with precious stones, and built him a grand mau-
soleum, on the top of which they placed seven gems
of different colours, answering to the seven planets,
that is to say, to the sun and moon (^1^1), and
the five stars, in shape and colour. The day of his
death was celebrated as a holy day, in which they
assembled at his mausoleum and said many prayers.
His portrait and an account of his life were engraved
on a plate of gold, and deposited on the top of the
mausoleum, where everybody could see them, that they
should serve as an example, and as an exhortation
to follow his good government. The history of his
life and his portrait are also represented on the
gates of the town, on coins of gold and copper <j*>Xj
and on dresses*.

* Ibn Khaldun observes that the Persian kings had dresses the
woof of which was gold, and represented various figures, particu-
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 319

Their money consists, for the most part, of

copper and brass coins. This city became the
residence of the kings of China. The name of it
is Anku lyut 0>+^), and it is three months' journey
distant from the Abyssinian sea. They have
another large town called Madu _j<x« («\*i Amid), in
the north-west of their empire, towards et-Tubbet
C^AAJI. Madu and et-Tubbet keep up a constant
warfare, without either party being conquerors or
conquered.
Order in the affairs of the empire, good govern-
ment, and prosperity continued under the suc-
cessors of this king: justice was everywhere
exercised, and injustice was banished from their
country. They followed the regulations made by
the former kings, whom we have mentioned; and
they kept up the wars with their enemies. Their
frontiers were well guarded by soldiers, the armies
received their pay regularly., and merchants flocked
there, by land and sea, from all parts of the world.
They were of the ancient faith, the Samanean reli-
ligion* X/JfxJI XJu, which is about the same as the

larly the portraits of the kings : they were manufactured in their

own palaces, and given as presents to men of distinction. This
costume went over to the Arabs.

* The Mefatih el-'olum (MS. of Leyden, No. 314) contains

the following important passage respecting the Samaneans :—
320 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

belief of the Koraishites before Mohammed. They

worshipped symbols, towards which they turned
their faces in praying. Persons of intellect ad-
dressed their prayers to the Almighty, andi they
considered the images of idols and other symbols

" The Samaneans are the Arabs who follow the doctrine of
Saman. They are idolaters, who maintain that the world had no
beginning: they believe in the metempsychosis, and that the
earth is constantly declining.
" In the most ancient times all the nations were either Saman-
eans or Chaldeans. The Samaneans are idolaters. The Chal-
deans are also called Sabeans and Harranians ; for the remnants of
them live in Harran and el- 'Irak. They believe that Yudasif
(Yudasp), the rebel of India, was their prophet. This Budasif
(Budasp: this seems to be more correct than Yudasif) was
contemporaneous with the king Tahmurth, and the Persian
writing comes from him. The name of Sabeans was applied to
them at the time of el-Mamun, and meant originally a Christian
sect. In India and China are the remnants of the Samaneans."
Hamzah of Ispahan (MS. of Leyden) confirms literally the
words of the Mefatih el-'olum.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 321

merely as objects to fix their eyes upon

whilst the uneducated and ignorant confounded
these symbols with the Almighty, and worshipped
them both (God and the symbols) together. The
adoration of the idols brought them nearer to God,
although the notions expressed in their religious
service were too concrete to be adequate to the
sublimity, greatness, and majesty of the divinity.
The service which they performed to these idols
was nevertheless an expression of obedience to God,
and it brought them nearer to him.
This continued until speculations and sectarian-
ism grew up in China: then rose the Dualists, and
those who believe on a time without limits J^i
^fcjO!. Previous to these innovations, they had
worshipped images, like the higher and lower classes
in India. These religious quarrels caused a com-
plete revolution: they had not been without specu-
lation, but they had referred in all questions to the
ancient sacred laws.
The Chinese empire borders on the kingdom of
the Taghizghiz y.y&£\t and it was from them that
they received the doctrine of Manes 45^-0 > °f a g°d
of light and darkness. Previously they had been
in ignorance, and had the same system of worship
as the various Turkish hordes, until a satan of a
Manichean came to them, and preached to them in
flowery phrases of the discord which prevails in this
322 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

world ; the opposition of life and death, health and

illness, rich and poor, light and dark, separation and
union, continuity and division, rising and setting,
existence and non-existence, night and day, and other
things which are opposite to each other. He named
to them the different pains and frailties to which all
animals are subject, hoth those endowed with speech
and those deprived of this faculty; and by which
even children, and persons not possessed of their
mental faculties, are tortured ; adding that, as God
the Almighty did not stand in need of their suffer-
ings, they must be ascribed to a powerful opposite
principle, which was active in contaminating what
is good and moral ; and that this was in God. Far
be from God what he professed ! for he is the
Exalted, the Great. Manes mislead by this and
similar theories their reason, and they believed
them. When the King of China was a Shamanean
c^oi he sacrificed animals, and was constantly at
war with Irkhan ^U^l the king of the Turks;
but, when he had turned Manichean, they became
on terms of friendship.
The kings (and governors) of China follow
different sects and religions, and they are at variance
in their faith. But they are not biassed so as to
abandon the laws commanded by reason, and sacred
by usage, in making regulations and passing sen-
tences. The laws of reason are acknowledged by
all sects.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 323

The Chinese are divided into tribes and branches,

like the tribes and families of the Arabs. They
bestow great care upon the preservation of their
genealogies; and some persons can name fifty an-
cestors: many know them as far back as 'Abur.
Persons of the same family do not intermarry ; so,
for instance (referring for an example to Arabia), a
man of the Modhar tribe would marry a woman of
the Rabi'ah tribe, and a man of the Rabfah would
marry into the Modhar tribe; or a Kahlan man
would marry a Himyarite woman, and a Himyarite
a woman of the Kahlan tribe. They are of opinion
that the children of such a match will be of a good
constitution; and, indeed, tjiis law contributes to
public health and longevity.
China* continued to be in a flourishing condi-
tion, as it had been under the ancient kings, up
to the year 264 of the Hijrah, when some event
happened which destroyed order, paralysed the
laws, and prevented the nation from opposing their
enemies, up to our time [332 A.H.]. These dis-
orders were caused by a rebel, who, although he
was not of royal blood, rose in some town of China.
His name was Baishu Shirrir jj.jJ* ^\-> Orf^
He began with liberality, by which he

* Compare Ancient Account of India and China, from page

40 to page 44.
Y 2
324 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

atracted the worst and lowest classes. The king

and the lords of the council were not watchful
enough, on account of his obscurity ; for he was a
man of no importance. His cause became strong,
his name famous, and his numbers and power
increased; for the bad came to join him from far
and near.
When his army was numerous enough, he
quitted the place where he had begun the rebellion.
He sent corps out to make predatory incursions
into the well-cultivated parts of the country ; and
finally he besieged the city of Khaniku lyuU.
(Canton). This is a very large town, situated on a
river greater than the Tigris, or about the same: it
falls into the sea of China, six or seven days'
from the said city. Through this river the
ships go up which come from el-Basrah *j*3^\,
Siraf oV^-i, 'Oman ^l£, the various towns of India
and es-Sind, the islands of ez-Zanij, from es-Sinf,
and other countries, with their cargoes and goods.
This town is inhabited by Moslims, Christians, Jews,
and Magians, besides the Chinese. The said rebel
marched towards this city, besieged it, and put the
army of the king, which was come to relieve it, to
flight. He violated what is sacred; and, having
increased his army, he took Khaniku by storm.
When he was master of the city, the victims
who fell under the sword of the rebels were innu-
merable; and the number of Moslims, Christians,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 325

and Jews alone, exclusive of the Chinese population,

who were killed or drowned for fear of the sword,
amounted to two hundred thousand. These were
counted ; for the kings are in the habit of keeping a
census of the population of their dominions, both of
their subjects and of foreigners who are resident
there. There are special officers and men for the
census Lei. This gives them a view of the state of
the population of their empire. The assailants cut
down the mulberry plantations round the town, which
were of importance, their leaves being the food of
the silkworm, which yields the silk. This destruc-
tion of the trees was the cause why silk has '^"failed^
T^^^C' "
.
and that the exportation of this article into the
Moslim countries is stagnated. Baishii overran ,
with his army one place after another; and having
increased his troops with people of bad character,
whose only object was plunder, he marched towards
Ankii, which is the residence of the king. He had
an army of three hundred thousand men, cavalry
and infantry. The king and his court met him with
about one hundred thousand men. About one month
of constant fight both parties stood their ground,
but after this period the king was defeated and put
to flight: the rebel pursued him a long way. The
king took refuge in a town in the extremity of
China. The rebel took possession of the metropolis
and the royal palace, and appropriated to himself the
treasures of the former kings, and those which they
326 EL-MAS'UDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

had given to their higher officers. He overran the

rest of the country, and conquered other towns; but
he saw that he could not keep the throne, not being
of royal blood. He spread destruction over all the
country, confiscated property, and shed blood.
The town in which the king had taken refuge was
Madii, of which we have already spoken as being
on the frontier of et-Tubbet.
The king of China wrote to Irkhan, the king of
the Turks, to implore his assistance : informing
him how he was situated, and explaining to him
what was the duty of kings, if asked for aid by
their brother kings, and that it was a law of royalty
and a duty to assist each other. The Turkish
monarch sent his son in aid,, with four hundred
thousand men, cavalry and infantry. The two
parties met, and the war was undecided between
them for about a year : the numbers of men killed
on both sides was enormous. Then the rebel
disappeared, or, as some say, he was killed or burnt.
His children and court were made prisoners, and
the king of China returned to his residence.
The common people give to the king the title
Baghbur (or Faghfiir*), which means the son of

or jJuW' In tne Kamus the first syllable is

marked with a dhammah ; but this seems to be wrong. Bagh
means, according to el-Asma'i, god or idol : hence Bagdad means
the gift of God, and Bagistan a temple (Bagoda ?), in the Sind
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 327

heaven *UvJl ^j] ; but the title by which he is

addressed is Ti'emhian ^U:=zv*k, (Tien-hia,) and
not Baghfur.
The governor of every district made himself
independent in his province, in the same manner as

the kings of the satrapies cJbyjJ J'^Ju, after

Alexander, the son of Philip, the Macedonian,
had killed Dara Ben Dara, king of Persia, and
almost in the same way as it is with us at present,
in 332 A.H. The king of China being satisfied with
their nominal submission, and that they laid the
affairs of the empire before him, did not chose to
send armed force into every one of his provinces,
to fight those who had made themselves masters of
them. As the king's power was so limited, those
independent governors of the provinces withheld
the revenue, and he was glad enough to be in peace
with them. Every one of these petty kings invaded
the country of his neighbours as much as his power

and Persian languages, particularly in Pehlewi. Bur means son.

In the East the ether or heaven has been considered as God; and
hence the word Bagh seems to imply both meanings. Bagfur
is, therefore, a literal translation of Tien-t9e. " Pour mieux
faire comprendre de quel ciel ils veulent parler," says Visdelou,
" ils poussent la genealogie plus loin. Ils lui (to the emperor)
donnent le ciel pour pere, la terre pour mere, le soleil pour frere
aine, et la lune pour soeur ainee."
328 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

allowed. By these means the public order and

welfare were destroyed which had existed under
the former kings,, under whom the government
and administration were good, and justice was ad-
ministered according to the law of reason (for they
had no revealed code like the Koran).
It is related* that a merchant of the town of
Samarkand, in Khorasan, went from his home, with
a good stock of wares, to el-'Irak, where he
bought many goods of this country, and preceded
to el-Basrah. He went by sea to 'Oman, whence
he directed his voyage to Kolah XK, which is half
way to China, or about that. It is at present the
commercial mart of the Moslim vessels of Siraf

and 'Oman, where they meet with the merchants of

China, who come to this island in their own vessels.
In most ancient times it was different ; for the
Chinese vessels used to come to 'Oman, Siraf, to
the coasts of Faris, and el-Bahrein, to el-Obollah,
and el-Basrah (which had then the name of Farj
el-Hind); and in the same way the vessels went
from the ports mentioned as far as China. But
since justice was no longer practised, and under
the depraved state of government which we have
described, both parties meet half way.
The said merchant went at Kolah on board a

* Compare Ancient Account of India and China, translated

by Renaudot, London, 1733, from page 69 to page 73.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 329

Chinese vessel, which brought him into the sea-port

of Khaniku. The king sent a eunuch from his
court, on whom he had particular confidence (to
purchase wares). In China eunuchs are appointed
in the revenue department and other offices : some
parents, therefore, castrate their children, in order
that they may rise to power. This officer (the
eunuch) came to Khaniku; there he sent for the
merchants, among whom was the Khorasanian.
They showed him the wares which he required, and
he chose what he thought might meet the king's
wishes. The Khorasanian asked a higher price
for his wares than he felt inclined to pay: after a
dispute, it came so far, that the officer gave orders
to imprison him, and to force him (to yield). The
merchant had confidence in the justice of the king,
and went directly to Anku, the residence of the
king, and presented himself in the place of the
oppressed (court of appeal). It is the usage of
the country, that the plaintiff, whether he come
from a remote place, or is a resident of the capital,
puts on a peculiar dress of red silk,, which is like a
shirt, and presents himself in a place designed for
appeals against oppression. Some of the provincial
kings have to receive there the plaintiffs who may
present themselves. They come, therefore, before
this court, from the distance of one month by post.
This was the case with the said merchant, and he
stood before the officer of this department. He
330 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

came to him and said, "Thou undertakes! an im-

portant matter,, and exposest thyself to great danger ;
consider well whether thou art sure of the truth of
thy statement : if not, I will send thee back to the
place from whence thou earnest." These words are
addressed to every one who comes to demand
redress; and if the party shrinks, and vaccillates in
the accusation, he is sent home, after a bastinado of
one hundred strokes ; but, if he insists on his state-
ment, he is brought before the king to trial. When
the merchant continued in his* prosecution, and
when they saw that he insisted on the truth of his
assertion without fear or hesitation, he had an
audience of the king. He stood before him and
related his case. When the interpreter had ex-
plained his complaint to the king, he allotted him
a habitation, and loaded him with kindness.
He sent for the vizier, and for the leaders of
the centre and of the right and left wings. These
are officers who are appointed to these commands
in time of peace, that, in case a war should break
out, every one may know his place and duties.
The king ordered every one of them to write to
their respective officers in Khaniku, [for every one
has a lieutenant in every province of the king-
dom, with whom he is in correspondence,] and to
request them to send in a statement of the particulars
of the case of the merchant and the eunuch. The
king wrote equally to his lieutenant in that province.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 331

The case had become known there, and the letters

which came back by post confirmed the truth of the
merchant. The king of China has, on the roads of
all his provinces, mules with docked tails*, for the
post, and for the transport of parcels WyLt«
Then the king sent for the eunuch, he deprived
him of his favour, and he said, " Thou hast ill-
treated a merchant, who has come from a distant
country. He has made a long journey by land and

* Jo >xJ!j post, is derived from the Persian word buridah

jjju vj, which means dock-tailed: for the mules used for this
purpose had their tails docked. Berid means the post mule, the
messenger who rides it, and the distance from one station X5ws
to another, where the mules were changed, which was about two
farsangs : some authors say four ; and from Ibn Khordadbeh it
appears to have been six miles. The letter-carrier is called
c VU^iU in Arabic: this word is a corruption of the Persian

word xJLwj a servant. In the post-office jy nj\ /.J*J«* every

letter or parcel put to post, or come by post, was entered *S*.j

in a list - uXjtj which was called ^jX^^J in Arabic, that is to

say, (_£ .b tS \\» In this list the number of letters and parcels
was named, and the address of every one of them specified.
The Bodleian library of Oxford is in possession of a very
ancient MS. of Ibn Khordadbeh's Geography. The author was
post-master-general somewhere in Khorasan, towards the end of
the third century, and his book is nothing more than a road-book,
naming all the post stations, and the distances from one place to
another. From this book the distances of places in all other
Arabic geographers are copied, but not always very correctly.
332 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

sea, and has passed many kingdoms without any

adversity. He made up his mind to come to my
empire, in confidence on my justice, and thou hast
treated him thus ! If he had returned from my states
thus ill-treated, he would have spread unfavourable
reports in other kingdoms, and my name and
government would have been branded with ignominy.
If it were not in consideration of thy former services,
I should put thee to death ; but now I will inflict a
punishment upon thee which is harder than death.
I appoint thee (to guard) the tombs of the kings.
Thou shalt be with the dead, since thou hast
acquitted thyself so ill of thy duties and my orders
among the living."
The king heaped great favours on the merchant,
and sent him to Khaniku (Canton), saying, " If
thou meanest to sell to us such wares as we may
choose, thou shalt have a good price for them; but
if thou dost not feel inclined to sell, thou art the
master over thy property. Stay if thou likest, sell
what thou pleasest, and go wheresoever thou
choosest." The eunuch was sent to the tombs of
the kings.
There is a curious story related of the king of
China*. A man of Koraishite origin, of the family

* Compare Ancient Account of India and China, by two

Mohammedan travellers, translated by Renaudot, London, 1733,
from page 51 to page 59.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 333

of Habbar Ben el-Aswad,* Jy^ ^j ,/**» came,

during the well-known invasion of the leader of the
Zanj, from el-Basrah to Siraf. He had been a
great man at el-Basrah, and had a good fortune.
From Siraf he made a voyage to India : there he
went from one vessel into another, landing in
various places of India, until he came to China.
When he had come to Khaniku, he had a fancy to
visit the royal residence, which was then in the
town of Hamdan (Cumdan) ^Jj^: this is one of
the largest and most important cities of the empire.
He remained a long while in the royal palace, and
sent a memorial to the king, in which he stated
that he was of the family of the Arabic prophet.
The king provided him with lodgings, and ordered
whatever he might require to be given him, and
every comfort procured for him. In the mean time
he wrote to the king (governor) at Khaniku, and
gave him orders to inquire of the merchants
respecting the man who claimed to be a relation of
the prophet of the Arabs. The answer of the
governor of Khaniku confirmed the truth of what
he had said. The king gave him access to the
court, and made him rich presents, with which he
subsequently returned to el-Irak.
He was an intelligent man, and related that,

* See, for a notice of this family, Reiske's notes to Abul-

feday Annal. Moslem, vol. i.
334 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

when he was presented before the king, he asked

him respecting the Arabs, and how they made an
end to the Persian empire. "We were assisted by
God," answered the Arab, " because they wor-
shipped the fire, sun, and moon, instead of the
Almighty God. The Arabs have conquered the
most celebrated, populous, and richest countries,
which have the greatest deltas (which are the
sources of fertility) : they have subjected nations of
the greatest intellect and fame." He asked him
further what was the gradation in dignity of the
kings of the earth. " I do not know," replied the
Arab. The king ordered the interpreter to ex-
plain to him: " We count five great kings: the
most powerful of them is he who is in possession of
el-'Irak; for this country is in the middle of the
world, and is surrounded by all other kingdoms.
We give him, since ancient times, the title of king
of kings. After him ranks this our king, to whom
we give the title of king of men (mankind (j*UJj).
No government is better than ours, no monarch
more absolute and firm in his power than our
king, nor do the subjects of any other mo-
narch yield such strict obedience as we to our
king. We are the kings of men. After our-
selves follows the king of the lions £U**M J0u ;
this is the king of the Turks, our neighbour. They
are men-lions. Next to them ranks the king of
the elephants; that is to say, the king of India,
which has with us the name of the kingdom of
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 335

wisdom ; for the Hindus have invented philosophy.

Then follows the Byzantine king, whom we call the
king of men (jU.yf) ; for no men on earth have
better constitutions or finer countenances than the
Byzantines. These five stand at the head of kings:
all others are beneath them."
He asked him through his interpreter whether
he could recognize his Lord, that is to say, the Pro-
phet, ifhe should see him. " How can I see him?"
said the Arab; " he is with God." " I do not mean
it literally, " said the king, "but in a representation."
He answered in the affirmative. The king ordered
a box to be brought ; and, when it was before him,
he took a casket out from it, and said to the inter-
preter, show7 him his Lord; " and I saw (relates the
Arab), in the casket, the images of the prophets.
My lips muttered benedictions upon them. The king
did not know that I knew them ; hence, he said to
the interpreter, ' Ask him why he moves his lips.'
He interrogated me, and I answered him that I was
pronouncing benedictions upon the prophets. He
asked me further how I recognized them, and I told
him that I knew them by the attributes with which
they were represented. ' This,' I exclaimed, ' is
Nuh in the ark ; he has been saved with those who
were with him whilst God submerged the whole
earth, and all that was on it.' He smiled, and
said, £ It is Nuh, as thou sayest ; but it is not true
that the whole earth was inundated. The flood
336 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

occupied only a part of the globe, and did not reach

our country. Your traditions are correct, as far as
that part of the earth is concerned which you inha-
bit; but we, the inhabitants of China, of India, of es-
Sind, and other nations, do not agree with your
account; nor have our forefathers left us a tradition
agreeing with yours on this head. As to thy belief
that the whole earth was covered with water, I must
remark that this would be so remarkable an event
that the terror would keep up its recollection, and all
the nations would have handed it down to their
posterity.' I endeavoured to answer him, and to
bring forth arguments against his assertion in
defence of my statement. Then I continued, ' This
is Musa with his rod, and the Israelites.' 'Yes,'
observed the monarch, * it is he with his energy
*X>Jt £X$ against the corruption of his nation.'
'There is Christ/ exclaimed the Arab, 'riding on
an ass, and with him the apostles.' The king
made the observation that his career was but short,
having hardly lasted longer than thirty months."
A great number of other prophets were shown, and
comments made on their history. So much we
have selected as a specimen (of the account of this
Korai'shite).
This Koraishite, who was known under the
name of Ibn Habbar J^& (^^> recollected to have
seen long inscriptions over every figure, containing,
as he believed, the name, the country, the length of
 AND MINES OP GEMS. 337

the life, the reason of the prophetic mission, and

the biography of every prophet.
" Then," proceeds this man in his narrative, " I
saw the image of the prophet Mohammed sitting on a
camel, and surrounded by his companions, who wore
Arabic shoes of camels' leather on their feet. They
had girdles tied round their waists, on which
their dentifrice was suspended. I could not help
shedding tears at this sight, and he made the
interpreter ask me for the reason of my emotion.
' This,' I answered, * is our prophet,, our lord and
my nephew (relation) ; may God bless him !'
'What thou sayest is true,' replied the king; 'He
and his nation came to the possession of the finest
territories, he himself, however, had them not under
his power^ but his successors.' I saw the images
of many prophets: one of them joined his fore-finger
and thumb into a ring, as if he meant to indicate
that the creation of God forms a ring ; another had
his fore-finger and thumb pointed to the heavens,
expressing that he resigns all the goods of this
world for what is above.
" The king asked me respecting the khalifs,,
their dress, and many questions concerning the
divine laws, and I answered him to the best of my
knowledge. He asked me also what we believe to
be the age of the world. I said, 'The Moslims do
not agree in this point; some state it to be six
thousand years, and some give a higher, and others
z
338 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

a lesser number.' He asked me whether this had

been taught by our prophet. I answered, 'Yes.J
He and his vizier laughed, and he expressed by a
sign that he did not approve of my answer. * I do
not think/ said he, 'your prophet can have said
this: thou must be wrong.' I made a mistake, and
answered, 'Yes, he said so.' When I made this
reply, I saw by his brow that he disapproved of it.
Then he ordered his interpreter to tell me that I
should weigh my words, observing that kings wish
to have a positive and true answer. ' Thou allow-
est that you do not agree on this head, and yet
thou sayest that you have a tradition of the Pro-
phet on it. What prophets say excludes contro-
versy, and it must be received with faith. Take
care, therefore, not to say such contradictions/
He made many other observations, which I cannot
remember, on account of the length of time.
Finally, he said, 'Do not separate thyself from thine
own king; for he is nearer to thee than I, both with
respect to home and consanguinity.' I related to
him the circumstances which brought me from
el-Basrah to Siraf; 'Then,' I continued, (l had
a great desire to see thee, O king! having heard so
much of the stability of thy empire, of the per-
fection of thy institutions and justice, and of thy
excellent government, which extends its beneficial
influence over all thy subjects. I was longing to
see thy kingdom, and to witness its prosperity;
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 339

and now, having seen it, I shall return to my native

soil, and into the dominions of my nephew (rela-
tion), to relate how perfect and glorious I found
this kingdom, how extensive this country, how
universal the practice of justice, which emanates
from thy wise institutions. Every word shall ex-
press my admiration and thy praise, O, most glo-
rious monarch!' He was delighted with my
words, awarded precious gifts to me, and sent me
by post to Khaniku. The governor of the last-
mentioned city received orders to treat me respect-
fully, to present me to all distinguished persons
there, and to lodge me till I could set out on my
voyage. I lived there most splendidly until I left
China."
El-Mas'udi says,, Abu Zai'd el-Hasan (Moham-
med) Ben Yezid, of Siraf, gave me an account
of Ibn Habbar at el-Basrah, where he was settled
after he had left Siraf. This was in 303 A.H.
Abu Zaid el-Hasan was the nephew of Abu Yezid
(Zaid), Mohammed Ben Mozdin (^j-^v* G^U),
Ben Sasiat CLjU*- U (jU UA*J), the governor of
Siraf; he was a man of much information and intel-
ligence, and he told me that he had asked this
Koraishite, Ibn Habbar, respecting the town of
o^
Hamdan ^Ux*-; its description, extent, &c.; and
he told me how large it was, the number of inhabi-
tants, and that it was divided into two zparts,
2 which
340 EL-MAS'UDIS MEADOWS OF GOLD,

were separated by a long, wide, and straight road.

The king, his vizier, the kadhi of the kadhis, the
garrison, the eunuchs of the king, and all his house-
hold, reside on the right side, which is towards the
east: from this part of the town the lower class and
markets are excluded. Through the streets run
canals, and they are shaded by trees, which are
symmetrically planted, and the houses are spacious
and magnificent. On the left side, which is
towards the west, are the tradespeople, the stores
for provisions, and the markets. In the morning
I saw the stewards of the king, his household, the
slave boys of his leaders and their guardians, going on
foot and horseback to the quarter of the town where
the markets and tradespeople are ; they provided
themselves there with necessaries, and returned.
None went again at any other time to that quarter
before the next morning, for in their own quarter
there is every pleasure., beautiful lakes and canals,
but no palms ; for palms do not grow in China.
The Chinese are the most clever people on
earth : they have extraordinary skill in plastic and
other arts, so that no other nation can be compared
with them in any kind of workmanship. The court
awards prizes for well made works, in order to pro-
mote them ; and the king orders them to be shown
in a public exhibition in his palace for one whole
year (before the prize is given) ; and if nobody can
discover a fault during this time, in a piece of art
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 341

exhibited there, the prize is awarded, and it is put

into the collection of arts; bat, if there be found any
imperfection, it is turned out, and no reward is
given. A man had made an ear of corn on which a
sparrow was sitting, and this was considered for
some time as a prize piece: a humpbacked man
saw it, and noticed that there was a fault in it.
''Where?" he was asked. "Everybody knows,"
replied the humpbacked, " that if a sparrow sits on
an ear it bends; the artist, however, has made it
upright, although the sparrow sits on it: this is a
fault." The judgment of the humpbacked man was
found correct, and the artist was not rewarded. The
object in acting thus is to stimulate artists to exert
themselves, and to be more careful and considerate
in what they do.
China is rich in remarkable objects, and there
are many interesting accounts of the inhabitants, of
which we will give an abstract in the progress of this
work. We have related them all in our books, the
Akhbar-ez-zeman and the Kitab el-ausat; in the
latter we give such accounts as are omitted in the
Akhbar-ez-zeman ; and in this book we relate some
facts which are wanting in both those works.
342 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

SIXTEENTH CHAPTER.

A comprehensive view of the accounts of the seas, of

their wonders, and of the nations who live in
islands, or on the coast. The relative position and
dignity of various kings. The history of Spain
and other countries. The places and substances
which yield perfumes. The various kinds of
perfumes.

IN the preceding pages of this work we h^ve given

a general account of the seas, both those which are
in communication with each other, and those which
are separated. Here we will recapitulate all the
accounts which we possess, connected with the Abys-
sinian sea, speaking, at the same time, of the kings
and kingdoms situated on this sea ; also of their
respective position, and other matters of interest.
We repeat that the seas of China, India, Faris,
and Yemen, are connected, and form only one
mass of water. The difference of the currents
and height of the water is to be attributed to
the direction of the winds, the season when
they rise, and other causes. The Persian sea is
most stormy, and most dangerous for navigation, at
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 343

the time when the Indian sea is quiet; and, again,

the Persian sea is quiet when the sea of India is
boisterous, stormy, dark, and rough. The sea of
Paris begins to be stormy when the sun enters into
the sign Virgo, about the time of the autumnal
equinox; it continues so, and storms increase every
day, until the sun comes into the sign Pisces : it is
roughest at the end of autumn, when the sun is in
the sign Sagittarius: then it becomes more quiet
until the sun enters again into Virgo, and it is most
quiet at the end of spring, when the sun is in
Gemini. The Indian Sea is stormy till the sun
enters into the sign Virgo: then begins the navi-
gation on it; for it is easiest when the sun is in
Sagittarius. They sail all the year round on the
Persian Sea, from 'Oman to Siraf, which is a dis-
tance of one hundred and sixty farsangs, and from
Siraf to el-Basrah, which is a voyage of one hun-
dred and forty farsangs. But at this time it is not
navigable, excepting in the two mentioned routes,
or to neighbouring harbours.
Abu Ma'sher yb** ^\y the astrologer, confirms,
in his " Great Introduction to Astronomy" J^j^U
p-s=vxM ^ $ j**ffJ> what we have said, that the
stormy and quiet seasons on these seas begin when the
sun is in the above-mentioned signs of the zodiac ;
and he relates further, that it is impossible to sail from
'Oman on the sea of India in the Tirmah (June),
344 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

except with first-rate* vessels and light cargoes.

These vessels are called et-Tirmahians SUALojAxM.
In India is at that time winter f\S~\\ ^ jT,U*j,
and the rainy season ; for (the two Syriac months
called) Kanun and the month Shobat, (December,
January, and February,) are their summer months :
our winter being their summer, whilst the month
Taimis (July) and Ab (August), which are sum-
mer months with us, are their winter. This change
of seasons is the case in all the towns of India, es-
Sind, and the neighbouring countries, through the
whole extent of this sea. From this circumstance,
that their winter is in our summer, the saying has
Ml

its origin *xx$M ^L ^**j (_o^; that is to say,

" he wintered in India." This is owing to the dif-
ference ofthe distance from the sun.
Pearl fishing, in the sea of Faris, is carried on
from the beginning of Nisan (April) to the end of
Ailul (October) ; but there is no pearl fishing from
Ailul to Nisan. The places where pearls are found
in this sea have been named in the preceding pages
of this book. There do not exist pearls in any
other but the Abyssinian sea, near the coast of
the countries of Kharak J^U., Kotr^y?, 'Oman j,l$,
Serendib ^jjo^, and other places. In our former

* The word which I render first-rate vessels is doubtful in

all MS S.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 345

works we have mentioned how the pearls grow, and

the various opinions on this subject. ; for some
believe that they are produced by rain, whilst others
maintain that their formation is independent of rain ;
we have described the pearls, both the old (fine) and
the new ones, which are called ^Lsxjl, but gene-
rally known under the name of J^X^!. The flesh
and grease which are in mother of pearl are of an
animal which has the anxiety of a mother for the
pearls that are in it, at the approaching of the
divers*. We have given a description of pearl
fishing. The divers must not eat any other food
but fish, dates, or what is prepared of grain
c>\j$\ : their ears are split, to give a passage to the
breath (through the Eustachian tube), instead of
breathing through the nostrils ; for they put a little
ball of tortoise-shell into the nostrils : [the tortoise
*UJ.*vJJ is a kind of marine animal, and of its shells
combs and other instruments are made, instead of
using wood:] and they put cotton with a little oil
into their ears ; and, when they walk at the bottom

^c 21 jU cy^f. This is the reading of all the MSS.,

and still I cannot help thinking that it is a corruption instead of

Xs. 2jJlf * " in which the pearls rest like the foetus in the
womb of the mother."
 346 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

of the sea, they let the oil ascend, to receive by this

means a glimpse of light. Their feet and legs are
blackened with soot ; for the marine animals of which
divers are afraid are shy of soot. Their voice
(from the bottom of the sea) sounds like the barking
of dogs. The sound passes through the water till it
reaches the ears. In our former works we have
given a full account of many curious matters con-
nected with divers, pearl-fishing, the pearls, and the
animals that produce them; also of the descriptions,
marks, prices, size, and weight of pearls.
This sea begins from el-Basrah and el-Obollah,
and extends along el-Bahrain from the sea-marks
of el- Basrah. Then comes the sea of Ladiwa (of
the Lacadives) <s^ j^z G&J^ j-^v) : on this sea
Safura ^yL*>, Subarah *j\~>f~>, Tanah £lj', Sindabur
^yjjsx*-, Kanbayat x>.UxT, and other places of India
and es-Sind, are situated. Then comes the sea of
Horkand *xiT^ ^^sr ; then the sea of Kilah x^ j^s:,
which is also spelt Kolah *XT, and of the islands ;
then the sea of Kardebinj gv*V >*; (^O^ >=0 >
then the sea of es-Sinf <— i^aJl, from which the
Sinfi aloes has its name; for it comes from thence;
then the sea of China, which is the sea of Saihu jssyo
(i^s^ or ^.=?U>) ; and there is no sea beyond it.
We have said that the Persian Gulf begins from
the sea-marks of el-Basrah, and a place called el-
Kankela ^H £*&J or jOXl\. There are
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 347

marks of wood erected in the sea, to insure the

navigation to 'Oman, which is a distance of three
hundred farsangs. On the coast of this sea are
Faris and el -Bahrain. From 'Oman, the capital of
which is Sohar*, which the Persians call Maztin
CD^r* CcL.vtrO? to el-Maskat LjuJLI, which is a
village where the sailors take in water from the
fresh- water wells which are there, are fifty farsangs.
From Mask at to the promontory of el-Jomjomah
are also fifty farsangs. This is the limit of the sea
of Faris, the whole length of which is four hundred
farsangs. This is the division recognized by
sailors.
The promontory of el-Jomjomah £*^sx*iJ ^j
is a mountain, which stands in connection with (the
deserts of) esh-Shihr^£JI and el- Ahkaf, in Yemen.
No one knows to what distance the sand extends
under the water : but it is most copious under the
promontory of el-Jomjomah. There are, as we
have said, mountains in the sea, under water, like
those on the land; and they are called in the
Mediterranean sofalah XJUuJi. Such a sofalah is in
a place which is known by the name of coast of
Salukiyat LJ^L*, in the Byzantine empire: it
extends under water nearly as far as the Isle of
Cyprus, and the greater part of the shipwrecks in the

* The MS. bears here^l*c\^, as in page 262, supra.

348 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Mediterranean happen there. The sailors have, in

every sea, peculiar expressions by which they un-
derstand each other.
From the promontory of el-Jomjomah, the ves-
sels enter, from the sea of Faris, into the second
sea, which has the name Ladiwa <s^y . Its depth
is unfathomable, its extent cannot be measured,
and the mass of water is beyond calculation. Many
sailors believe that no description can comprehend
all its parts, it being of an almost endless extent,
as we have already stated. The vessels cross it in
two or three months, or in one month, as they have
the wind. On the side of this sea extend the sea
and country of the Zanj.
This sea has not much ambergris ; for it is
mostly thrown on to the coast of the Zanj, and of
esh-Shihr, in Arabia.
The inhabitants of esh-Shihr are of the tribe of

Kodha'ah Ben Malik Ben Himyar Jju ^ XeLa*

j*&* CU^' anc^ °f °tner Arabic tribes. The inha-
bitants ofArabic origin in this country, which is
also known under the name of el-Mahrah 2
are called the people of hair and body ^yc
~*Jjj. Their language differs from pure Arabic :
the difference consists in using shin instead of Kaf
uJKM ; for instance, (jti^J^j J ClAS U*3 yiA Ju&
<s 30 i ^xsr" ^ which is the same as
t Jj LlJL J
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 349

cf<SJJJ £• The same is the case in other

phrases. They are a poor and needy people :
they have a sort of camel called Mahri camel <-**?
: it goes as fast as the Bejawi camel t-r^srW
.=svJJ, or even faster, as some think. On these
they ride along their coast ; and when the camel
comes to ambergris, which has been thrown out by
the sea, it kneels down ; for it is trained and
taught to do so : thus the rider can pick it up.
The ambergris, which is found on this coast, and
on the islands and coast of ez-Zanj, is the best : it
is round, of a blue colour, and is of the size of an
ostrich's egg, or smaller. There is a sort of amber-
gris which is brought on shore by a fish, called
whale JtjSN, of which we have spoken. When the
sea is stormy, pieces of ambergris are thrown up
from the bottom of the sea, as big as mountains, or
smaller, as we have described. This fish devours
the ambergris, which causes its death; and it floats
on the surface of the water. When people of ez-
Zanj, or others, observe the whale, they throw
hooks and ropes on it from their boats, open its
belly, and take the ambergris. The ambergris
found in the belly of the fish has a foetid smell, and
is known to the perfumers of el-'Irak and Faris

* " How dost thou mean what thou hast said to me? I have told
thee to put what I have with me to what thou hast with thee."
350 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

under the name of el-mand *x;U ; but that which is

found in the back of the fish is delicious and exqui-
site. Its quality depends on the length of the
time which it has been in the entrails of the fish.
Between the third sea, which is the sea of
Horkand^, and the second, which is the sea Ladiwa,
are many islands ; and they form the division
between these two seas. Some say there are about
two thousand, but, in fact, there are no more than
one thousand and nine hundred, every of one which is
cultivated. All these islands are ruled by a woman,
for it is an ancient habit with them not to have a
man as sovereign.
These islands yield much ambergris, which is
thrown on shore by the sea. It is sometimes the
size of the largest rocks. I have learned from
several sailors of Siraf and 'Oman, when I visited
those two towns, and from others who used to sail
to these islands, that the ambergris grows in the
bottom of the sea, and is of various kinds, as there
are various sorts of Agalloche ££ : it is white, black,
spongy, and the like, and, when the sea is strong,
it throws up rocks and stones, and with them
ambergris.
The inhabitants of these islands are united

* Compare Renaudot's Ancient Accounts of China, from page

1 to page 8.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 351

under one government ; they are very numerous,

and have immense armies. The distance from
one island to another is one mile, or one, two,
or three farsangs. Their palm tree is the cocoa-
nut palm j^^UJJjJsr, but they have no date palms.
Persons who understand the generation (physiology)
of animals, and the vegetation of plants, believe
that the cocoa-nut tree is originally the same as the
wild palm tree, which yields the fruit called mokl
JJiU J^?> hut that the soil of India impressed its own
character on it, when it was transplanted, and that
it changed it into the cocoa-nut palm. We entered
in our work called ^.^UKJ! ciA^l^' "axioms of
experience," upon the influence which the climate
and air of every part of the globe exercise on the
nature of men and animals, and vegetation. Thus,
it is to be ascribed to the influence of the climate
that the Turks have peculiar features, and small
eyes ; and even their camels bear the stamp of the
climate : their legs are short, their neck thick, and
their hair white. The country of Yajuj and Majuj
(Gog and Magog) partakes of the same character.
There could be brought forward many other ex-
amples, which have been pointed out by persons
who possess a knowledge of the races that inhabit
the east and west, as we have described.
No other island of the sea can boast of such
skilful artisans as the inhabitants of this group,
352 EL-MAS'lTDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

in all arts and trades, as in making cloth, instru-

ments, and so forth.
The treasures of this country consist of shells,
(concha veneris) £*». These shells form the habi-
tation of certain animals; and, when there is no
money in the public treasury, the inhabitants receive
orders to cut branches of the cocoa-nut tree, and to
throw them on the water, with the leaves. These
animals fasten on the branches, and are thus
gathered ; then they are spread upon the sand
on the beach, and, as the animal perishes in the sun,
the shell remains empty. So they fill the public
treasury. These islands have, together, the name
of ez-Zanjat £>Lsx>- Jl*, and they export the great-
est quantity of cocoa-nuts J*^jUM yt>^ g\^\. The
most important of these islands is Serendib <— v.*x^«
(Ceylon). At a distance of about a thousand farsangs
from Serendib is another archipelago, called er-
Ramin (^ycl^l: these islands are cultivated, have
many gold mines, and are governed by kings. In
the same sea is Fansur jy^xi, whence the Fansuri
camphor has its name. In years in which hurricanes,
storms, inundations, and earthquakes are frequent,
camphor is most abundant, and when these cala-
mities are of less frequency, camphor is scarce.

En-Nowairi(MS.
i of Leyden, p. 26,) writes, after Benel-Jahit,
er-Rithhat.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 353

In almost all the islands which we have named

they eat cocoa-nuts: from these islands, bokkam (a
dye similar to our Brazil wood) fjulf and ruscus*
&[)j$L\ are exported; they have also gold and
elephants. Some of the inhabitants are cannibals.
This archipelago stands in connection with the
islands of el-Jebalus ^Litf, which have a popu-
lation of a very singular appearance. They bring
in boats ambergris, betel, and other articles, to
the vessels which pass them, to exchange these
articles for iron and some clothes. They do not
employ money. Next to them are islands called
Andaman eU!*xJ\ (^UljJl), which are inhabited by
Negroes of strange appearance and look. Their
hair is woolly, and each of their feet is larger than

* The Haisran is identified with the t$\J(j*J in the MS.

1075, anc. fonds of the Royal Library at Paris, and Laguna
informs us, in his excellent notes to his Spanish Translation of
Dioscoridcs (Valencia, 1695, p. 100), that it is the ruscus; but
he, as well as Banqueri (Libro de Agricultural leave it uncertain
what species of ruscus. In the said MS. of Paris, the Haisran
is thus described: "It is imported to us from China; it has the
form of ropes a finger thick, which are used for various domestic
purposes. They are particularly useful for hanging cloth on them,
for they do not make marks. Some say they are the branches of
some shrub; others believe that they are roots." En-Nowa'iri
informs us, that the sceptre of the khalif was of this wood.

f En-Nowairi writes, jj^U^J and ^Sl&J Langalus;

and in the MS. of the British Museum No. 7496, their name r
2 A
written ^^jKj'U
354 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

one cubit. They have no vessels, and, if a ship-

wrecked sailor is thrown on their shore, they devour
him. They do the same with the crew of vessels if
they land there.
I have been told by many sailors, that they have
sometimes seen a small strip of white cloud over this
sea, from which a long white tongue comes forth
stretching down to the sea; and, when it reaches the
water, the sea rises towards it in a terrible hurricane,
which destroys everything that may come within its
reach, and it is followed by a heavy shower.

The fourth sea is that of Kilah Bar JL>**M

as we have said. It has also the name of the Sea

of Kolah XK ^^ (xX/J"). The water in this sea is

shallow; the shallower a sea is, the more frequent
are accidents, and the greater is the danger. In
this sea are many islands and sedadi <s ^U*? (<sj\j*>
sing. tf^*?). This word is a plural of sadi cfJ^>; so
the sailors call a land between two straits, if they
have to pass it. Several islands and mountains of
this sea are worth notice; but our object is to give
general ideas, and not to enter into details.
The fifth sea, which is known under the name

of Kerda'* gijT, is equally shallow, and full of moun-

tains and islands, from which the camphor and the
essential oil of camphor ^ytffl *U are procured.
Camphor has little essential oil,, but much vehicle,
from which it can hardly be extracted.

* Page 346 supra, this sea has the name of Kardebinj.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 355

These islands are inhabited by various nations.

One race is called el-Maht i^sswM («_~*asJt) ; they
have crisp hair and strange features. They come
in boats to the vessels which pass by, and throw a
sort of poisoned arrow. Beyond these people, and
between the country of Kolah, are mines of white
lead (tin), and mountains rich in silver, which con-
tain also gold and lead; but it cannot be separated.
Next follows the sea of es-Sinf (— i;>^!\^^:,
according to the division which we have just made.
In this sea are the dominions of the Maharaj, the
king of the islands. The population and number of
the troops of his kingdom cannot be counted ; and
the islands under his sceptre are so numerous, that
the most fast sailing vessel is not able to go round
them in two years. This king is in possession of
several kinds of spices <5o^W and perfumes ; and no
kingdom has more natural resources, nor more
articles for exportation, than this. Among these
are camphor, aloes, gillyflowers, sandal-wood, betel-
nuts, mace, cardamoms, cubebs, and the like. The
limits of this sea, which extends from these islands
towards the sea of China, are not known, and its
extent is unexplored.
In some parts of this island are high mountains,
with a dense population, who have slit ears, and a
white complexion. Their faces look like a piece of
a hammered shield ; they wear their hair long, as
we (the Mohammedans) wear our beards. From
these mountains issues fire, by day and night. By
356 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

day it has a dark appearance, and at night it

shines red. It rises to such a height, that it reaches
the regions of the heaven (i.e. it ascends above the
atmosphere). The explosion is accompanied with
a noise like the loudest thunder. Sometimes a
strange sound proceeds from these volcanos, which
is indicative that their king will die ; and, if the
sound is lower, it foretells the death of one of their
chiefs. They know the meaning of these sounds,
by long habit and experience. This is one of the
great chimneys (craters) of the earth. At no great
distance is another island, from which, constantly,
the sound of drums, lutes, fifes, and other musical
instruments, and the noise of dancing, and various
amusements, are heard. Sailors, who have passed
this place, believe that the Dajjal (Antichrist)
occupies this island.
To the dominions of the Maharaj belongs Sarirah
*jjj.~>, the extent of which is estimated at four
hundred farsangs. The whole island is well culti-
vated. He is also in possession of the island of
ez-Zanij, er-Ramni tfUij-H, and many other islands
which are not known to us. The Maharaj is the
lord of the sixth sea, which is the sea of es-Sinf

The seventh sea is the sea of China

which is also called the sea of Saihu *

* One MS. reads >ss\**j and another

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 357

this is a stormy and dangerous sea, and there is a

great deal of <-*ssd\; this word means
w
a great raging

on the sea jssd\ ^ X^xM 'i&£A\ <-*sd\ j>+JiSj, and

is one of the maritime terms which are common
among the sailors of every sea. In this sea are
many mountains, between which the vessels must
pass.
When a great storm comes on, black figures
rise from the water, about four or five spans long,
and they look like little Abyssinians. They mount
on the vessels; but, however numerous they may
be, they do no harm. When sailors observe them,
they are sure that a storm is near ; for their ap-
pearance isa certain sign of a gale. They prepare
themselves for the storm, which will either be their
ruin, or they will be saved from it. Those who are
to be saved frequently observe something like a
luminous bird at the top of the mast JJ»<xH. The
sailors of the sea of China, and of the whole Abys-
sinian sea, call the mast $3M (jj^xJ!); and the
sailors of the Mediterranean call it <^jl^\. This
appearance on the top of the mast is of such
brightness that the eye cannot behold it, nor can
they make out what it is. The moment it appears
the sea becomes quiet, the gale lulls, and the
waves subside. Then this brightness vanishes,
and no one can perceive how it comes, or how
it disappears. It is the sign of safety, and the
assurance that they have escaped. What we have
358 EL-MAS'UDIJS MEADOWS OF GOLD,

related is confirmed by the sailors and merchants

of el-Basrah, 'Oman, Siraf, and others, who have
navigated this sea ; and, however marvellous it
sounds, it may be true that God sends such a
sign ; for his servants are saved, through his
power, from the dangers of the sea, and guided in
their voyage.
In this sea is a sort of crab, of the length of
one cubit, or a span, more or less : if it comes forth
from the sea in rapid motion, and goes on shore, it
loses the qualities of an animal, and is petrified.
This stone forms an ingredient in the collyria, and,
generally, in medicines for the eye. It is, therefore,
well known. There are wonderful accounts reported
respecting the sea of China, and those which are in
connection with it. We refer the reader to our
books on these subjects, which we have frequently
had occasion to bring under his notice.
Beyond the coast of China is no other kingdom
known or described, excepting the country of es-
Sabal y^\ (es-Sila?), and the islands which
belong to it. No one from el-Irak, or any other
place of the West, frequents this country. The
air of this country is wholesome, the water
good, the soil fertile, and the precious stones are
brilliant and genuine : hence, the country is rich ;
and it seldom happens that any of the inhabitants
leave their native soil. They are allies of the
Chinese, and the kings of both countries constantly
exchange presents.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 359

Some say they are descendants of 'Abur, who

settled there in the same way as the Chinese took
possession of their country.
In China are many rivers, which may be com-
pared with the Tigris and Euphrates. They come
from the country of the Turks, et-Tubbet, and of the
Soghd JouaJi. The Soghd live between Bokhara and
Samarkand. In their country is the mountain en-
Nushadir* jiliytfl (the mountain of sal-ammoniac),
from which fire rises in summer at night, which may
be seen at a distance of nearly one hundred farsangs ;
and by day smoke issues, which is so dense that
the rays of the sun cannot penetrate through it.
This mountain yields sal-ammoniac ^sliy . Tra-
vellers insummer take their road from Khorasan to
China by this mountain; for there is a valley
through it, which is forty or fifty miles long. At
the entrance of the valley wait some men who offer
themselves to carry the baggage, if they are well
paid. They use sticks to drive the passengers on
their journey; for any stoppage or rest would be
fatal to the traveller, in consequence of the irritation
which the ammoniacal vapours of this valley pro-
duce on the brain, and on account of the heat. The
way becomes more and more narrow till the travellers

* This volcano has been introduced to the notice of Europe by

Klaproth, Abel Remusat, and Humboldt.
360 EL-MAS5UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

come to the end of their perilous passage. Here

are pits with water, in which they throw themselves,
to obtain relief from the depressing influence of the
vapours of sal-ammoniac, and of the heat of the air.
No animal passes through the valley in summer, nor
anybody who is excited by fanaticism*. The sal
ammoniac throws out flames in summer. In winter
much snow and rain fall, which extinguish the
heat and flames: at that time men and animals can
pass it without inconvenience. When travellers
arrive in the Chinese. territories,, they are beaten as
in passing (to counteract the congestion of blood in
the brain). The distance from Khorasan to China,
through the pass just mentioned, is about forty days'
journey; partly through steppes, solitudes, and
deserts. The other road, which is used for animals,
is about four months' journey ; but on that the tra-
veller enjoys the protection of several Turkish tribes.
I have seen a very intelligent and agreeable man

* c^sfi ^ £\* gjyt Jfo JUo y>: literally, "No

caller (or one who makes proselytes,) nor one who answers, (or
a proselyte,) passes this valley." I doubt whether the meaning
which I have given to this passage in the text is correct ; but I do
not know the true sense. Perhaps the author means to say one
must not speak; but why should he use such an artificial expres-
sion ? Moreover, if he meant to circumscribe the word speak, by
saying the traveller must neither ask nor answer, he would have
used JoUj, and not cb •
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 361

at Balkh, who had made the journey to China,

several times ; but he had never been at sea. I have
seen many other persons who went from the country
of the Soghd, through the mountains of en-Nushadir,
to et-Tubbet and China. Khorasan is contiguous
to India, and es-Sind, in the direction of el-
Mansurah and el-Multan. The same caravan
goes from es-Sind to Khorasan, and the caravans of
India go in the same manner into this country, as
far as Zabolistan j,UuJJj, which has the name of

Fairuz Ibn KaTk JC/J" ^.jj\ jjj±*- This is an ex-

tensive country: it has many astonishingly strong
castles, and is densely inhabited by nations of
different tongues. Historians do not agree respect-
ing their origin. Some trace their descent from
Yafeth Ben Nuh, and others connect them with the
first Persians, giving a long genealogy.
The country of et-Tubbet (Tibet) is separated
and distinct from China. The rulers of et-Tubbet
are the Himyarites, who were led there by one of
the Tobba's, as we shall relate in the history of
Yemen, to which we shall devote some of the
following pages of this book ; and it is to be found
in our Akhbar ez-zeman. The population of et-
Tubbet consists partly of nomades, and partly of
settled inhabitants. The wandering Tibetans are
of Turkish origin, and so numerous that they
cannot be counted. They yield to no nomadic nation
of the Turks, and are respected by other Turkish
362 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

hordes ; for in ancient times the king (khdkan)

was of their horde ; and it is generally believed,
among all Turks, that they will again obtain the
royal power.
The country of et-Tubbet has some peculiarities
in its air, water, soil, plains, and mountains, which
deserve notice. There, man lives gay and full of
cheerfulness, which is neither interrupted by sor-
rows, nor cares, nor by reflection. The varieties
of fruits, flowers, meadows, and rivers, of this
country, are innumerable. The nature of this
country predisposes men and animals to be light-
hearted and cheerful ; you will not even see old
men or old women dull ; but old and young are
equally gay. This cheerfulness, joviality, and gaiety,
lead them to indulge in music and dancing; and
it goes so far, that the relations of persons who die
do not feel such deep sorrow as other people feel
at the loss of a beloved individual, or in the absence
of one to whom they are attached ; but, notwith-
standing this levity, they are affectionate to each
other.
This country has the name of Thobbet after
those Himyarites who had settled LH^xS (thobbit)
there. This is expressed in the poem of Di 'bil
Ben 'All el-Khoza'i ^r^kvM ^c ^j J^c^, in which
he lowers the Komait il^&i, boasting of the superi-
ority of the Kahtan tribes above the Nizar^J tribes.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 363

" They have put an inscription on the gate of

Merw and on the gate of China. Both these are
our inscriptions. They have named Samarkand
after (their king) Shamir, and they have colonized
et-Tubbet."
We shall relate, in the chapter on the history of
the kings of Yemen, the principal events in the
history of the kings of et-Tubbet, and of those who
made (military) excursions. Et-Tubbet borders on
one side on China, and on the other side on India,
Khorasan, and the Turkish steppes. It comprises
extensive cultivated lands and many towns, some
of which are fortified. In ancient times, they gave
to their kings the title Tobba5, in imitation of the
title of the king of Yemen. But, as time changes
every thing, the Himyaritic language was lost
amongst them, and exchanged for a language which
is similar to those of the neighbouring countries
and nations ; and they called their king Khakan

The Tubbetan and Chinese musk comes from

contiguous countries, in which the musk deer U&
jCJLI lives; and the superiority of the Tubbetan
musk over the Chinese musk depends on two causes :
the musk deer of et-Tubbet lives upon spikenard
and all sorts of aromatic herbs, whilst the Chinese
musk deer has none of those odoriferous plants;
further, the Tubbetans leave the musk in the blad-
der, as it is in its natural state, and the Chinese take it
364 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

out from the bladder, and adulterate it with blood

and other sophistications. Besides, the Chinese
musk is imported to us by sea, and is thus exposed
to moisture and different air. When the Chinese
have spoiled their musk by adulteration, they put it
into pots and bottles, which they carefully close, and,
in this state, it is imported into the Moslim territory
by the seaports of 'Oman, Paris, el-Irak, and other
large towns*.
The musk which the zebif yields, immediately
after it has come to maturity, is the best and most
exquisite, such as the musk of et-Tubbet is. There
is no difference between the musk gazelles J^JU ^j*
and the common gazelles £^>*> as to form, appear-
ance, colour, or horns; the sole difference that
exists is, that they have canine teeth, resembling
the projecting teeth of the elephant. The musk
deer has two such teeth projecting from the jaw,
which are very strong, white, and straight, and about

* En-Nowairi gives some precious details respecting the trade

of perfumes, which was the most considerable branch of foreign
commerce under the Abbasides. He confirms the statement of
our author, saying that the musk of et-Tubbet and of China are
originally of the same quality ; but that the Tubbetan musk is
imported by land »^liJ\ .Jks. through Khorasan, and preserves
its fragrancy; whilst the Chinese musk, although it comes origin-
ally from Tubbet, is brought from Canton (Khaniku) by sea, and
loses its strength.
f Compare Ancient Accounts of India and China, p. 71.
 AND MINKS OF GEMS. 365

one span long, more or less. The Chinese and Tub-

betans set nooses, nets, and traps, to catch the
musk deer ; sometimes they shoot them with arrows.
They pull them down and cut out the musk bladder.
The blood in the navel has a foetid smell, and, as
long as it is fresh, it has not only no fragrance, but
it is very offensive. After it has been kept for some
time, it loses that offensive smell, and it becomes,
under the influence of air, musk. It undergoes
exactly the same process as fruits, if they have been
taken from the tree before they have their flavour.
The best musk is that which is found in the navel
of the animal, and matured in the bladder till it has
its fragrancy. The blood is accumulated in the
navel of the animal, and, when its particles have
undergone a change there, it receives an agreeable
smell. The animal, feeling some inconvenience,
rubs its navel on rocks and stones which are
warmed by the sun, for this excites a pleasing
sensation. By this means (this changed blood) is
discharged, and adheres to the stones. The sen-
sation may be compared to the relief felt if a
tumour or boil, in which much matter has been
collected, is discharged. When the musk bladder
which is the Persian word for navel]* is

*~> i>^ Sj.* j£«Ju ^ X4-1J. The word is

written &jU in Persian, and does not mean " navel," generally,
but, as in Arabic, especially, " the navel bag of a musk goat."
366 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

emptied of its contents, it cicatrizes, and the blood

accumulates there a second time, as in the first
instance. The Tubbetans go out to the rocks
and mountains, and there they find the blood con-
gealed on the stones, which has been matured by
nature in the animal, and dried by the sun, after it
has been exposed to its influence. This is the
most exquisite musk, and is, in gathering, put into
the musk bladders which have been taken from
hunted deer, and brought for the purpose to the
spot where the musk is gathered. This is the musk
used by the Tubbetan princes, and which they send
as presents to each other; but it is seldom exported
from their country. There are many towns in et-
Tubbet, and the musk is called after the town or
district from whence it comes.
The kings of China, of the Turks, of India, of
the Zanj, and all other kings of the earth, looked up
to the king of the climate (kishwar) of Babel
with great respect; for he is the first king on earth,
and occupies the same position with respect to
others as the moon* with respect to the stars. For
his country is the noblest and most populous : he is
the richest of all sovereigns ; he is most favoured by
nature ; and he has a powerful and firm government.
This was the case in ancient times ; but now, [in

One copy reads, in the margin, as a correction, " the sun.1

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 367

332 A.H.,] this description does not at all agree with

the sovereign of this country. The ancient kings of
Babel had the title of Shahan Shah ali^UU, which
means the King of Kings. He has the same position
with regard to the rest of the world as the heart in
the body, and the buckle in a necklace. Next ranks
the king of India, who is the king of wisdom and
of elephants ; for it was acknowledged amongst the
Khosraws that wisdom comes from India. After
the king of India ranks the king of China, who is
the king of wise government, good institutions, and
perfection in arts. No king on earth pays more
attention to internal government than the king of
China, nor keeps any other the citizens, soldiers, and
persons in office, better under control. His people
are brave, strong, and powerful. He is able to defend
his country with well equipped armies. His troops
receive pay, as it was the case under the kings of
Babel. The first rank after the king of China is
claimed by the king of the Turks ; who resides in
the city of Kofristan* ^U*- jjLf, and rules over the
Turkish nation called Taghizghiz. He is called the
king of lions (tigers) and of horses ; for there is no
nation on earth braver, nor more lion (tiger) -like in
shedding blood, than his subjects; nor has any
country greater abundance of horses than this. His

* One copy reads Kushan j^li

368 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

country is between China and the steppes of Kho-

rasan. The title of this monarch is Irkhan WU^5
(the Khan of Men). The Turks have several kings,
who rule over different hordes, and are not under
submission to the irkhan; but there is no other
Turkish king who excels him. The Byzantine king,
who follows next, is named the King of Men ; for
there are no men on earth better formed than his
subjects. This gradation was recognized in ancient
times ; but subsequently the kings of the earth
have become more equal in their positions. A
man who takes a very correct view of the history of
the world, describes thus, in some poem, the
kings of the world :—
" There are two famous palaces on earth, the
Iwan (of the Khosraws, at Ctesiphon), and the
Ghomdan (of the kings of Yemen, at San'a); and
there are only two great royal families, the Sasa-
nians and Kahtanites. Faris is, in preference,
called the earth, and Babil the climate (or Kishwar).
The site of the Islam is Mekka, and Khorasan
is the world. The two royal cities, Bokhara and
Balkh, form the two corners (of Khorasan), and
render it formidable. El-Bailakan ^liX/^! and
Taberistan are its frontiers ; er-Rai is its Sharwan
(fortified frontier pass). In society some men are
distinguished by higher rank, as the Marzoban (in
the Persian empire),, the Batrick (or Patrician,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 369

amongst the Romans), and the Tarkhan*. The

title of the Persian king is Kisra; the Romans call
their monarch Caesar; the Abyssinians Nejashi;
and the Turks Khakanf."
The king of Sicily XJJus and Afrikiyah, in the
Maghrib, had, before the Islam, the title Jirjis
U^AJS*^. (George) ; and the king of Spain had the
name Lodrik c— Jijj«M (Roderic) , which was common
to all the kings of Spain. The inhabitants of this
country are said to belong to the nation of el-Ishban

* Tarkhan is the title of the Tatar Magnates. A Tarkan had

the right to go to court whenever he pleased, and to commit nine
crimes without being subject to the laws. These privileges were
inherited through nine generations. The Hungarians, who are
Tatars, have preserved and extended these humane institutions.
A Hungarian Magnate may commit as many crimes as he chooses;
he is never checked by the court of Vienna, except if he should
dare to wish to better the condition of his country; and his
privileges are inherited by his whole posterity without end.

2 B
370 EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

j,U-&yJ (Hispani), who are descen dents of Yafeth

Ben Nuh, and are spread over this country. But
the more generally received opinion amongst the
Moslims in Spain is, that Lodrik (Roderic) was of
the Galician nation, who are a French race. He
was the last sovereign; and was killed by Tank
L^jVjUs, the freed slave of Musa Ben Nosair, when
he conquered Spain and entered Tolaitilah *XkJik
(Toledo), which was the metropolis and the residence
of the king. Through this city runs a large river,
which has the name Taj ah* <^lj' (Tagus). It comes
from the country of the Galiciansf Xi'^i^ and the
Basques;};. They are a great nation, ruled by a
king who goes as frequently to war with the Mos-
lims in Spain, as the Galicians and the French
£saj>jj^i. This river, (the Tagus,) falls into the
Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the most celebrated
rivers in the world: in the middle of its course it
passes the town of Toledo. Over the Tagus goes
the arched bridge es-Saif i^ix**!! ^ko, which was
constructed by ancient kings ; it is one of the

* Almost all MSS. read the name of this river Abirah SJAO!,
and it is evident from what follows, that our author did not suffi-
ciently distingTiish between the Tagus and the Ebro.
H- This is the plural of <JiX:s», as it has been said in the note
to page 177 supra. The Arabic name of the country is Jiilikiyah

All MSS. read &£\\ instead

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 371

most remarkable buildings on earth, and much more

surprising than the bridge Sajineh* £Lsx->, on the
frontier between Mesopotamia and the Byzantine
empire, not far from Somaisat kL»A*-o, in the coun-
try of Sarujah f X^*-. This, and the city of
Toledo,, are fortified, and have strong walls.
The (Mohammedan) inhabitants of this city
rebelled against the Omaiyides after the conquest,
and defended themselves two years with success
against them; but, in 315, the town was taken by
'Abder-Rahman Ben Mohammed Ben 'Abdullah
Ben Mohammed Ben 'Abder-Rahman Ben el-
Hakam Ben Hisham Ben 'Abder-Rahman Ben
Mo'awiyah Ben Hisham Ben 'Abdel-Melik Ben
Merwan Ben el-Hakam, and he is at present [332
A.M.,] king of Spain. Many buildings of this city
were destroyed when it was taken. Kortobah
AA^J was made the metropolis of Spain, and con-
tinues to be so to this day. It is seven days' jour-
ney from Toledo, and about three days from the
sea: one day's journey from the sea is the town
Ishbiliyah *JlAA£f (Seville). The cultivation and
towns of Spain extend about two months' journey,
* This seems to be a corruption of the Greek word ^evy^a,
or of the Arabic name Jasr Manbij, and to mean one or the other
of these two bridges over the Euphrates.
f Abulfeda writes Saruj. But en-Nowa'iri in an autographic
copy of one of the volumes of his history (MS. of Leyden), spells
the name like our author.
2 B 2
372 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and amongst them there are nearly forty renowned

cities.

The Omai'yades in Spain, are called the sons

of the khalifs cjb^i! \ csvj, but they do not give
them the title khalifah (successor of the prophet),
for no prince has a claim to this title, in their
opinion, who is not master of the two holy cities
(which formed the dominions of the Prophet).
'Abd er-Rahman Ben Mo'awiyah Ben Hisham
Ben 'Abd el-Melik Ben Merwan went to Spain in
in the Rebi' of 137* A.H. (and died in 171). He
was succeeded by his son Hisham Ben 'Abd er-
Rahman, who reigned nine years (180). Then
reigned his son, el-Hakam Ben Hisham, nearly
twenty years (206) f- At present reigns 'Abd
er-Rahman Ben Mohammed (350) in Spain as we
have said. He has a very good government.
He made in 327 A. H., an expedition against the
Christians, with more than one hundred thousand
men, and encamped before the capital of the king-

* One copy reads the year 137, and another 139; the real
date is the tenth of Rebi'L, 138.
f Here the names of 'Abd er-Rahman Ben el-Hakam [238] ;
Mohammed Ben 'Abd er-Rahman [273]; el-Mondir Ben Mo-
hammed [275]; and Abdullah [300]; are left out in all copies
by a mistake of the transcribers. The dates between crotchets
are the years of the death of the kings, and have been borrowed
from Conde's Historia de la Domination de los Arabes en
Espana, Madrid, 1820.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 373

dom of the Galicians, which is called Samurah,

'ijjv* (Zamora), and surrounded with seven walls,

which form one of the most wonderful buildings
raised by ancient kings. From one wall to another
is a considerable distance, in which run ditches
filled with water. He conquered two walls, and
then the besieged made a sally upon the assailants,
and killed as many as they could reach; the
number of those who fell under the sword, or were
drowned, amounted to forty thousand men. This
gave to the Galicians and Basques the superiority
over the Moslims, and they took the towns and
frontiers towards France from them. On this
frontier is the city of Orbunah XJ^t, which the
Moslims lost in 300 A.H., with other towns and
fortresses, but the town is still existing after the
conquest, to this day 332 A.H.
In the eastern part of Spain, on the Medi-
ter anean, isthe city of Tortushah *&£> j^ ; and
a little farther north, is Faraghah Xr^j on a large
river, then Laridah SJ^, and still further north
lies csvxb ; the last mentioned town is on the
French frontiers. This is the most narrow pass of
the Pyrenees.
A short time previous to the beginning of the
fourth century of the Hijrah, ships landed in Spain
which had thousands of men on board, who made
incursions on the coast. The Moslims of Spain
374 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

believed that they were a Magian nation ^ U

jM^sOlJ (fire worshippers) who were in the habit of
visiting this country every two centuries. They
came from a gulf of the Ocean, and not from the
strait on which the pillars of copper (columns Her-
culls) stand. I suppose this gulf is connected with
the sea of Mayotis and the Pontus, (through a
northern passage,) and that the invading nation
were the Russians * u*j^5 of whom we have
spoken; for no other nation sails in the seas which
stand in connexion with the Ocean. In the Medi-
terranean f,not far from Crete, planks of vessels
of Indian plantain wood have been found, which
were well cut and joined with fibres of the cocoa nut
tree. It was evident that they were of wrecked
vessels, and had been a long time in water; vessels
of this description are only found in the Abyssinian
sea, for the vessels of the Mediterranean and of the
West are all joined with nails. In the Abyssinian
sea, iron nails would not be applicable for sbip
building, for the water of that sea corrodes the iron,
and the nails become thinner and weaker in the
water; hence the planks are joined with fibres and
besmeared with grease and quicklime. This is a
proof that the seas have a communication. The

* They were the Normans. This suggestion, although it is

not correct, does honour to the sagacity of our author.
f Compare Ancient Accounts of India and China, translated
by Renaudot, page 59.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 375

sea towards China and the country of es-Sila

^XA*J! (jo-Jl), goes all round the country of the
Turks, and has a communication with the sea
of the West c-^jdj^ (the Atlantic), through some
straits of the great ocean ^^ u*^^'
On the coast of Syria, ambergris has been found
thrown on shore, although it has never been a pro-
duction of the Mediterranean since ancient times,
and it is possible that it came there through the
same way by which we suppose that the planks of
the vessels came there from the sea of China. God
knows best. The sea of Spain * abounds in am-
bergris, and it is exported from Spain to Egypt and
other countries, from the coasts of this sea called
Shantirin ^.^J^JU-K (Santarem), and Shodaunah
*3j*xi (Sidonia) . The ounce ,in Bagdad weight, is paid
with three mithkals of gold in Spain, and in Egypt
with ten dinars, although it is of an inferior quality.
It is probable that the pieces of ambergris found
on the Byzantine (Syrian) coasts have been propelled
there by the waves, for the sea of Spain is in com-
munication with the sea that washes these coasts.
In Spain are considerable mines of silver and
quicksilver, and since this is the best quicksilver
that exists, it is exported into all Moslim, and not
Moslim, countries. Other articles of exportation

* Compare Al-Makarri, History of the Mohammedan dynas-

ties in Spain, translated by M. Gayangos, vol. I. p. 89.
376 EL-MAS'lJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

from Spain are saffron and ginger roots J^-ST y\ \

The principal ingredients of perfumes are five:
musk, camphor, aloes, ambergris, and saffron ; they
all come from India, except saffron and ambergris,
which are found in the country of the Zanj, in esh-
Shihr, ^.=i=UJJ, and Spain.
The kinds of spices x^Ut are twenty-five, viz.,
the hyacinth (spikenard) J^JUJI, gilly-flower
sandal-wood ^AxaJJ, betel-nut (nutmeg)
the rose ^\9 cassia Xs:Ou*J!, the bark of pomegra-
nate «-o;^ the finer species of cinnamon XJ^iM,
cardamoms xXsijiH, cubeb<£ XjUJft, a species of
cinnamon* |yxlL^J\, the berries of Ceesalpinia Sappa
^XA!\ «-7-^5 the roots of the Nymphea S^ULM,
a species of grain resembling cherry-stones (growing
in Aderbaijan) ^Lsv*!!, saffron of Yemen <j^»^>
costus-root \a.*»&\, clove jlxli^i, the gum of the lada
^J^M^ styrax X*xU, the seed of satonicum
calamus aromaticus HiXjjjOi ^^9 orobanche j
We have described the mines of silver, gold, quick-
silver, and the places where all sorts of perfumes
are found, in our work, the Akhbar ez-zeman: we

* The Arabs distinguished particularly two species of cinna-

mon which are both mentioned here: one of them is most likely
the cinnamon of Ceylon (laurus cinnamonum)j and the other the
cinnamon of China (laurus cassia?) or perhaps the Malabrathrum.
•j- The names of three drugs are left uncertain in the MSS.
 AND MINF.S OF GEMS. 377

may, therefore, dispense with entering further on

this subject in this book.
The accounts which are reported respecting the
sea of the west, are marvellous, particularly those
which regard the sea that washes the cultivated
districts of the Sudan (Negroes), and the extreme
west. Men who are possessed of an extensive
knowledge of our globe, say, that the Abyssinians
and Sudan (Negroes) occupy a country of seven
years' journey; that Egypt forms the sixtieth part
of the country of the Sudan ; and that the country
of the Sudan forms only a small portion of the sur-
face of the earth, the dimension of which is five
hundred years' journey. One third of it is inha-
bited, one-third is desert, and one-third is covered
with seas. The country of the Sudan borders on
the most distant plains of the dominions of Idris
Ben Tdris Ben 'Abdullah Ben el-Hasan Ben el-
Hosain Ben 'All Ben Abi Taleb, in the Mag rib,
which is the country of Tilimsan ^U^Xj, Tahart
djjjblj, and Fas ^ (Fezz) : then comes Sus el-
adna ^^1^*^, which is about two thousand three
hundred miles from el-Kairwan, and twenty days'
from Sus el-aksa. The cultivation extends, with-
out interruption, as far as the Wadi-r-raml (valley
of sandj and Kasr el-aswad (the black palace).
Farther on come deserts of sand, in which one finds
a town, of the name of Medinat en -Nonas wa
378 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Kibab er-Rasas (the town of copper, and the cupo-

las of lead) .
Musa Ben Nosair has penetrated as far as
Medinat en-Nonas, under the reign of 'Abd el-
Melik Ben Merwan. The wonderful things which
he has seen, are related in several books which are
known to every one. Some are of opinion that
the town which has been stormed by Musa, is in
the plains of the Ardh el-Kebirah S^AA&J u*j\ (the
main land), which extends (north of the Peninsula)
of Spain. Maimun Ben 'Abd el-Wehhab Ben 'Abd
er- Rahman Ben Rostam el-Farisi, who was of the
Ibadhian sect *\AC ^.j u-jl^H tX^c (.^j (_^^^>
^Uyfc ^ L5*»;UJi jr*»j ^.j ^^J has spread there
the tenets of the Khawarij. Some historians believe
that the inhabitants are remnants of the Ishban,
who have cultivated those countries. Maimun
had several wars with the Talebites. We shall
speak on the different opinions respecting the
Ishban ^jU£t in another chapter of this book.
Some connect them with the Persians, deriving the
name from Isbahan ^1$.^.
In these places of the Maghrib are found some
of the sect of the Khawarij, called the Harurians*

* One copy reads " Sofrians (Sj^JUaJl." They are a

fraction of the Harurians, so called from Saffar, the founder of
the sect.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 379

l. They possess several cities, like the town

of Dar'ah* Xj^a, which has large silver mines: this

town lies towards el-Jasrf j*»*L\, and is contiguous
with the country of the Abyssinians, with whom
the inhabitants are at constant war. In our book
called the Akhbar ez-zeman, we have related the
wars of the Maghrib; and we have described the
towns of that country ; we have named the sects of
the Khawarij, as the Ibadhians, Sofrians, and the
Mo'tazilite sects, who live there ; and we have re-
lated the wars which arose between the followers
of those two religious opinions. We have also
acquainted the reader with the history of el-Aghlab
et-Temimi ^&\ cAc^, who was appointed by el-
Mansiir over the Maghrib %, of his residence in
Afrikiyah, of the state of his affairs, during the
reign of er-Rashid, and the succession of his son, as
an independant prince, over Afrikiyah, and other
provinces of the Maghrib, till Abu Nasr Ziadatul-
lah Ben 'Abdullah Ben Ibrahim Ben Ahmed (Ben
el-Aghlab Ben Ibrahim Ben Mohammed §) Ben

* The MSS. read XcJo and SufJ.

f One copy reads " towards the South."
J Abulfeda and Rasmussen (Annales Moslim.) say, that
Ibrahim Ben el-Aghlab is the founder of the dynasty, and that
he has been appointed by er-Rashid.
§ It should run Ben Mohammed Ben Ibrahim, leaving out
Ben Aghlab. Compare Abulfeda ad annum 296.
380 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

el-Aghlab, one of his successors, was expelled by

Abu 'Abdullah, the Mohtesib, who was a Sufi, and
an emissary of the governor of el-Mahdiyah. He
drove him out, with the assistance of the Ketamah
5LoUr, and other tribes of the Berbers, in 297, A.H.,
during the Khalifat of el-Moktader. All this is
related in the Akhbar ez-zeman, where we also
describe his march to er-Rakkah. This man had
originally been Mohtesib (officer of police) at
Ramhormuz, in the Ahwaz.
We now resume our subject, and continue to
name the kings, postponing the description of the
kingdoms situated on the Abyssinian sea, which we
intend hereafter to introduce to the notice of the
reader.
The king of the Zanj is Wafliman (2j^X
the king of el-Lan is Kerkendaj glxiTjT (
the kings of el-Hirah were the No'mans XJ
and the Mondirs *,iUU ; the king of the mountainous
country of Tabaristan was Faran ^U (cv,lj or jjjU),
and el-Jebel is named after him and his sons to this
day. The king of India is the Ballahra cf^XxJl;
the king of Kinnauj, who is one of the kings of es-
Sind is Budah SA^J (»)^ or iatp) ; this is a title
general to all kings of el- Kinnauj *: at present this

* En-Nowa'iri states, that the title of the king of Kinnauj is

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 381

city is under the sceptre of the Islam, for it forms a

province of el-Multan. Through this town passes
one of the (five) rivers, which form together the
river Mihran in es-Sind, which is considered by el-
Jahit k^lit as the Nile, and by others as the
Jai'hun of Khorasan*. This Budah, who is the
king of el-Kinnauj , is an enemy of the Ballahra the
king of India. The king of el-Kandahar ^U^XJ!,
who is one of the kings of es-Sind ruling over this
country, is called Jahaj ^\^-. (^^v^-) ; this name is
common to all sovereigns of that country. From
his dominions comes the river Rayid <>oV,, one of
the five rivers which form the Mihran of es-
Sind. Kandahar is called the country of the Rahbut
(j *•
(Rajbut) ls}*&>^\ (k^/jfc^H); another river of the
Panjab is called Hatil JJsbb ; it comes also from the
mountains of es-Sind, and runs through the country
of er-Rahbut, which is the country of el-Kandahar:
the fourth river of the Panjab comes from the coun-
try of Kabul and its mountains, which forms the
frontier of es-Sind towards Bost k*»j, Ghaznahf

Ray (S\y Perhaps the difference of the times when el-Mas'udi

and en-Nowai'ri wrote, may account for the difference of their
statements.
* The first of these two errors came from the Greeks to the
Arabs, and the others from the Persians.
MSS. read -Js and
382 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Nafsh (?) (jliu (yjjju, er-Rokhkhaj g^jti, and

the country of er-Rawan* (^^ which is the fron-
tier of Sijistan. One of the five rivers comes from
the country of Kashmir ^^L3. The king of Kash-
mir has the name er-Rama ^\^\ (cfyi), which is
a general title for all kings.
Kashmir is situated in the mountains of es-
Sind, and forms a powerful kingdom, which com-
prizes from sixty to seventy thousand towns and
villages ; and his territory is unapproachable except-
ing from one side, so that he can shut up the whole
of his dominions with one gate ; for it is surrounded
by mountains of such height that neither men nor
wild animals can climb over them, and they are
only accessible to birds. Where there are no
mountains, there are inaccessible valleys, trees,
jungles, and rivers which defend the place by their
rapidity. The natural fortifications of this country
is well known in Khorasan and other provinces,
and it is one of the most wonderful things in the
world.
The dominions of Budah the king of Kinnauj,
extend about one hundred and twenty Sindian
farsangs in length and breadth ; one of their far-
sangs is eight of our miles. The above-mentioned
king has four armies, corresponding with the four

* MSS. read here and in other passages .* j.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 383

cardinal winds. Each of these four armies consists

of seven hundred thousand men. The army of the
north has to oppose the king of el-Multan and his
allies. The army of the south has to defend the
the country against the Ballahra, the king of el-
Mankir ; and in the same manner are the other
armies engaged against the other neighbouring
powers. It is said that the towns, villages, and
estates in his dominions, the extent of which we
have stated, amount, as far as can be counted, to
one million and eight hundred thousand villages,
surrounded by trees, rivers, mountains, and
meadows.
Although he possesses few elephants in com-
parison with other kings, he maintains near a
thousand war elephants. If an elephant is spirited,
pugnacious, and brave, a rider sits on his back, and
he has a Fautal jJ^j (J^O which is a kind of
sword, in his trunk. The trunk is covered with
mail and iron, and the rest of his body is protected
by an armour of iron and leather ; such an elephant
is surrounded by five hundred men, who protect
him from behind. An elephant thus equipped,
keeps his ground against six thousand horsemen.
He advances, retires, goes round (and makes the
military evolutions), like a horse with a rider on his
back. These are the manoeuvres of the elephants
of the Hindus in all their wars.
We have already stated that the sovereign power
 384 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

over el-Multan rests in the family of Samah* Ben

Lawi Ben Ghalib <-_*JU ^ ^ ^j JUU They
have considerable forces. Their territory is one
^ of the greatest of those Moslim countries, which
\ form a frontier against unbelieving nations. There
i are on the frontiers of el-Multan about one hundred
^thousand villages and estates, as far as they can be
'counted. There is the celebrated idol of el-Multan,
to which the inhabitants of es-Sind and India
perform pilgrimages by thousands, from the most
distant places ; they carry money^ precious stones,
aloes, and other sorts of perfumes, there to fulfil
their vows. The greatest part of the revenue of the
king of el-Multan, comes from the rich presents of
genuine komari aloes ; one mann of which is worth
two hundred dinars ; for it is so genuine, that it
receives the impression of a seal like wax ; and
from other objects of value, which are brought
there as offerings. When the unbelievers march
against el-Mi'iltan, and the Moslims do not feel
themselves strong enough to oppose them, they
threaten to break their idol, and their enemies
immediately withdraw their armies.
I visited el-Multan after 300 A. H., when Abu

* Page 234, supra, this name is spelt Osamah SLoLwJ in all

copies, whilst they read in this passage Samah, and lower down
they write the family name of this dynasty, es-Samf .
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 385

-d-Dilhat el-Monbad (el-Monabbih) Ben Asad el-

Karshi es-Sami

was king there. At the same time,

I visited el-Mansurah ; the king of that country
was then Abul-Mondir Omar Ben 'Abdullah
^3! ju>c ^j jS^**^] f*\. I was acquainted with
his vizier Riah ^.lj^> with his sons Mohammed and
'Ali, and with an Arab of the name of Hamzah,
who was one of the lords and kings of the Bedouins.
There were also many descendants of 'Ali Ben Abi
Taleb, of 'Omar Ben 'Ali, and of Mohammed Ben
'Ali, at el-Mansurah. There is some relationship
between the royal family of el-Mansurah and the
family of esh-Shawarib the Kadi ^IXM u_r,^^J!,
for the kings of el-Mansurah are of the family of
Habbar Ben el-Aswad, and have the name of Beni
'Amr Ben 'Abd el-Aziz el-Karshi, who is to be
distinguished from 'Amr Ben 'Abd el-Aziz Ben
Merwan, the Omaiyide (khalif).
When all the rivers which we have enumerated

have passed the Golden house (or temple) * ^^AJ

c_jui>«xH, which is the meaning of the name of el-
Multan, they unite at about three days' journey
below this city and above el-Mansurah, at a place

* It is probably a fault of the copyists that we read in a pre-

ceding passage, that the name of el-Multan means " meadow of

gold." 2 c
386 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

called Dushab v*A^> in^° one stream which pro-

ceeds to the town of er-Rud ^^\ (^<^0> which lies
on its western bank and belongs to el-Mansurah,
where it receives the name Mihran j,|j$-o. There it
is divided into two branches, both of which fall at
the town of Shakirah kyi-l, which belongs also to
one of the districts of el-Mansurah, into the Indian
sea, under the name of Mihran of es-Sind j,|^«
JsJUJ!, about two days' journey from the town of
ed-Daibol.
El-Multan is seventy-five Sindian fursangs from
el-Mansurah. Each farsang has eight miles, as
stated above. All the estates and villages under the
dependency of el-Mansurah amount to three hundred
thousand. The whole country is well cultivated,
and covered with trees and fields. They are at
constant war with a nation called the Mind «\j*H,
who are a race of the Sind, and with other nations
on the frontiers of es-Sind. El-Multan is equally
on the frontier of es-Sind, and so are the towns and
villages belonging to it. El-Mansurah has its name
from Mansur Ben Jamhur, governor of the Omai-
yides. The king of el-Mansurah has eighty war
elephants, every one of which is supported by five
hundred infantry in battle, as we have already re-
marked; and these elephants can oppose thousands
of horse.
I have seen two elephants of this king, which
had become famous at the courts of India and es-
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 387

Sind for their courage and success in wars. One

had the name Monkirkals y^Xi^Ju^o (y^X^^o), and
o-
the other Haidarah k^j^. Many curious stories
are related respecting Monkirkals, throughout all
India. On the death of one of his leaders, he did
not eat nor drink for several days, and he cried and
sighed like a human being who is mourning. Tears
fell from his eyes, and thus he continued for a con-
siderable time. Another story is, that he went out
one day from his hayir ^>U», which means the
stable of elephants; Haidarah was behind him, and
they were followed by eighty other elephants.
When they came to a narrow street in el-Mansurah
a woman came unawares on the elephant, and was
so frightened that she fell on her back, and she was
uncovered in the middle of the road. Monkirkals,
observing this, posted himself across the road, turn-
ing his right side in opposition to the elephants
coming behind him, to prevent them from injuring
the woman, and he gave her a sign with his trunk
to rise from the ground, having first placed her dress
in order and covered her. When she was in safety
with her husband, the elephant changed his position
and continued his way, followed by the others.
The natural history of the elephant is full of
interesting stories of this kind; and they are not
only used for war, but for many other purposes, as
for carrying burdens, drawing carriages, threshing
2 c 2
388 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

rice, and other sorts of grain £»tyH, as oxen tread

out corn on a floor. We shall speak on the ele-
phants in the chapter on the Zanj : for nowhere else
are they so numerous as in their country, where
they live in a wild state.
Let us now resume our short account of the
kings of es-Sind and India. The language of es-
Sind is different from that of India. Es-Sind is
the country which is nearer the dominions of the
Moslims, and India that which is farther from
them. The inhabitants of el-Mankir, which is the
residence of the Ballahra, speak the Kiriyah lan-

guage X.j^T (xyJ'), which has this name from the

places where it is spoken. On the coast, as in
Saimur (?) j»^v*», Subarah, Tanah, and other towns
on the coast of the Ladiwa sea, a language is
spoken which has its name from the sea which
washes these countries; and this is the Ladiwa sea,
which has been described above. On this coast
are many rivers,, which run from the south, whilst
all other rivers of the world flow from north to
south, excepting the Nile, of Egypt, and the Mihran,
of es-Sind. We have given an explanation why
this is the case, and we have stated what the
learned say on the subject, in our Akhbar ez-
zeman. In the same work we have named the
places which have a great elevation (above the level
of the sea), and those which are less elevated.
Neither in India, nor in es-Sind, is there a sove-
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 389

reign who disturbs the peace of the Moslims in

their own country*. The Islam is, therefore,
flourishing there. The mosques and jami's for
Moslim worship are large and splendid, their kings
are long-lived, and reign forty, fifty, and more
years, and the (Moslim) subjects believe, that the
length of the life of a sovereign depends upon his
justice and the respect paid to the Moslims. He
(the Ballahra) pays his army from the public trea-
sury, as the Moslims do. In his empire Talata-
wian 5u^kXk (Tatarian Xj^klk) dirhams are in cir-
culation, one of which weighs a drachm and a half.
The coins are impressed with the date when their
king succeeded to the throne. His war elephants
are beyond number. This country is also called
the country of el-Kiminker j&JJl (^XjJj). On
one side it is exposed to the inroads of the king of
the Khazar ^y^J, who possesses a great number of
horses, camels, and troops, and they believe that
there is no king on earth more glorious than he,
excepting the king of the climate of Babel, which
is the fourth climate ; for this king surpasses in
magnificence and valour all other kings of the
world. The Ballahra has a great animosity against

* One copy reads " who persecutes the Moslims in his coun-
try ; so, for instance, the Ballahra ;" and all that follows respecting
the longevity of the kings, is said there in reference to the Bal-
lahra.
390 / EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the Moslims. He has a number of elephants : his

dominions occupy a tongue of land, and are so rich
in mines of gold and silver, that gold and silver is
the medium of their commerce.
Next to this country is the kingdom of et-Takin
0y»lU!. The king is on friendly terms with the
neighbouring sovereigns and with the Moslims ; his
military forces are less considerable than those of
the kings whom we have named. In this kingdom
are the prettiest women of all India. They are
praised for their beauty in books, De Coitu <_o;r*
*U!J, and sailors are excedingly anxious to buy them.
They are known under the name of Takinians.
Beyond this kingdom is that of Rahma ^, which
is the title for their kings, and generally at the same
time their name. His dominions border on those
of the king of the Khazars ; and, on one side, on
those of el-Ballahra, with whom he is frequently
at war. Rahma has more troops, elephants, and
horses, than the Ballahra, the king of el-Khazar and
of et-Takin. When he takes the field, he has no
less than five thousand elephants. He never goes

* A work of this title, by the celebrated Rhazes, is in the

library of Ley den. The number of curious observations, the
correct and practical ideas, and the novelty of the notions of
eastern nations on these subjects, which are contained in this book,
render it one of the most important productions of the medical
literature of the Arabs.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 391

to war but in winter, because the elephants cannot

bear thirst. His forces are generally exaggerated ;
some believe that the number of fullers and washers
in his camp, is from ten to fifteen thousand. The above-
mentioned kings fight in squares, every one amount-
ing to twenty thousand men ; so that every one of
the four sides of the square has five thousand men.
In the kingdom of Rahma cowries are used as
the medium of exchange in commerce. His country
abounds in silver, gold, and aloes, and there the
finest cloths known are manufactured. From this
country a sort of hair, called ^QxA) saiman,
is exported, which is fastened on ivory and silver,
and used as fly-flaps. Servants, with such instru-
ments in their hands, stand at the head of the kings
when they hold court.
In his countryj is an animal of the name of
j{u<U (<JJuJj) ^l&Jt, which common people call the
unicorn ^jJ^fil- It has in its forehead one horn
and is not as great as the elephant, but much
higher than the buffalo. This animal bellows like
a bull. Elephants take flight from it, because, God
knows, there is no animal stronger than this. Its
bones are not divided into limbs, but the legs are
without articulation; hence, it cannot bend its limbs.
It lives in forests and woods, and when it sleeps it
leans on a tree. The Hindus and the Moslims in
India eat the flesh of this animal, for it enters into
392 EL-MAS'fjDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the class of bulls and buffaloes. Most Hindus are

unacquainted with this animal; but in the kingdom
of Rahma it is more frequent, and its horn is there
purer and finer. The horns are white, with a black
figure in the middle, on a white ground; representing
the outlines and shades of the figures of men,
guinea-fowls, fish, and of the unicorn itself, or of
some other animal found in those countries. This
horn is wrought, and they make girdles and ribbons
of it, just as such ornaments are made of gold and
silver. These articles form part of the dress of the
kings and nobles of China; and they are so much
valued, that such a girdle costs from two to four
thousand dinars. From these girdles ornaments of
gold are suspended, and they look exceedingly well :
sometimes they are inlaid with precious stones and
gold. The figures, in the horn of the unicorn, are
black, on a white ground; sometimes, however,
they are white on a black ground. El-Jahit be-
lieves, that the unicorn is a seven months' camel,
which stretches its head out from the womb of the
mother to graze, and then it draws it in again. He
relates this extraordinary fact in his book te On
Animals" ^V-^ v^- This story led me to
inquire of the merchants of Siraf and 'Oman, who
visit those places, and whom I saw in India : every-
body was surprised at my question, and assured me,
that the pregnancy and delivery of the unicorn are
not different from that of the buffalo. I do not
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 393

know how el-Jahit learnt this story; whether he

found it in some book, or whether it had been
related to him.
The king Rahma has maritime and inland
provinces. On his empire borders a kingdom,
which has no sea: the name of the king is el-Kas
i^l&J (u-U&O- Tne inhabitants are white; they
have their ears slit; and the men and women are
very handsome. They have elephants., camels, and
horses.
The neighbour of this king is the king of el-
Farbikh gi^AN (g^\ or ^yfll) (Kamirus?); who
possesses maritime provinces and inland provinces,
his dominions being situated on a peninsula. The
sea throws ambergris on shore, and the country is
productive of pepper and elephants. He is brave
and proud. But he is less powerful than proud,
and less brave than overbearing.
The inhabitants of the country of el-Maujah
x^.U which comes next, are of a white complexion
and handsome; they do riot slit their ears. They
have horses and the necessary warlike equipment
for defence. Their country is rich in musk. We
have described the musk-deer in the preceding pages.
The inhabitants dress like the Chinese. Their
country is defensible against invasion by its moun-
tains, the summits of which are white; and there
are no higher mountains, either in India or in
es-Sind, than these. The musk of their country is
 394 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

celebrated and is named after it, for sailors and

merchants, who export this article and carry on
commerce with it, call it Maujahian musk

Beyond el-Maujah is the kingdom of el-Mayid

jolU or JulU), which has a number of towns,
extensive cultivated districts, and numerous armies.
Their kings employ eunuchs in their service, and
for the administration of their provinces, which
yield very many natural products*, for levying the
revenues, and as governors ; as it is the habit with
the kings of the Chinese, which we have described in
their history. El-Mayid borders on China, and
there pass constantly ambassadors from one country
to the other with presents, which are exchanged
between the two courts. But these two kingdoms
are separated by great mountains, which are very
difficult of access. The Mayid are very brave and
strong. The messengers of the king of the Mayid,
which are sent to China, are watched lest they should
spy out the country, and take advantage of the
weak points ; and lest they should know the roads of
the extinsive dominions of the Chinese.

^J1 Literally, "they are mines." The word

mine is used in Arabic, as well for places which yield perfumes and
spices, as for such as yield metals. Another copy has ^UlJ
instead of • slxU, an(l gives to the sentence the meaning, *' as,
for instance, the province of el-Mawan."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 395

The Hindu and Chinese nations, which we

have mentioned, have their own manners and usages
in eating, drinking, husbandry, dressing, and in the
art of healing. They use actual cautery ^UJL ^\,
&c. An example of their manners is, that their
kings do not think it prudent to prevent the free
passage of wind, "for," they say, "it is a noxious
matter," and they do not think it at all improper to
let it freely escape under any circumstance. Their
sages had the same opinion and practice. They
thought, that restraint in this matter was unwhole-
some and productive of illness ; whilst they con-
sidered it as a cure, to give free psssage to the
wind. This they considered as the greatest remedy
as a preservative against cholic and constipation,
and as a relief for complaints of the spleen. Hence
they pass wind both gently and aloud, without any
restraint ; nor do they consider it to be against
good breeding. The ancient Hindus were well
skilled in medicine, and curious anecdotes are
related of them, which are connected with this
subject. An historian says of the Hindus, that
they consider it less genteel to cough,, than to
break wind aloud. An eructation is considered as
the same thing, as smothered effects of flatulency,,
for the noise in breaking wind loudly deprives it of
the offensive smell. The historian shows that what
he says respecting the Hindus is generally known,
and has been acknowledged in biographical, histo-
396 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

rical, miscellaneous, and poetical works, as in the

poem which has the title jAit cMi, which he quotes.
"The wise and eloquent Hindu pronounces an
opinion which I am embellishing with the charms
of poetry. Do not restrain loud wind whenever
you may feel it, but break it and open the doors to
it, for restraint in this matter is unwholesome ; but,
to give to wind free passage, brings you rest and
health. Coughing and blowing the nose is indecent
and ill-bread ; but not breaking wind aloud. Eruc-
tations and genteel winds are the same thing, with
the only difference, that a genteel wind has a more
offensive smell."
The wind in the bowels is, indeed, in both cases
the same, and only different with reference to the
way by which it is expelled ; that which comes up
is called eructation, and that which goes down is
called flatulency : it is the same as the distinction
between slapping (the face),, and a thump (on the
back of the head) (wyUaJ!^ X*kMi), the one is on the
face, the other on the occiput, but in reality they
are the same thing ; it is only a distinction of the
region of the body.
Man is subject to many affections, constant
accidents, and long diseases, as cholic, pains in the
stomach, and other accidents,, which arise from an
accumulation of impurities in the primes via, which
are not discharged when they are mobile, and when
nature makes its regular efforts to discharge them.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 397

Other animals are free from these evils ; for matters

which create disorders in the bowels are with them
immediately discharged, since they oppose no con-
straint. Ancient philosophers and the sages of the
Greeks, like Democritus u^^H**, Pythagoras
u^jys. UL5, Socrates k^Ju*, Diogenes u*jU»jS, and
other sages of all nations rejected every restraint
in these things, because they knew what harm
arises from it; and everybody who has the talent of
observation will have noticed in himself, that they
were right in their opinion ; for it is a rule, esta-
blished byexperience, and confirmed by reasoning.
But moralists find fault with it, for different rea-
sons, although it has nothing to do with them.
El-Mas'udi says, we have related the history of
the kings of India, their usages, interesting anec-
dotes, showing their manners j^~>, and their social
habits, in our Akhbar ez-zeman, and in the Kitab
el-ausat, where we have entered into details res-
pecting the Maharaj, who is the king of the islands
from which drugs and spices are exported, as well
as on other kings of India, as the king of el-Komar,
and other sovereigns of the mountainous districts,
which are opposite these islands, as ez-Zanij, and
others; and the history of the kings of China, of
the king of Serendib, and of the country of Man-
dura u^JsLo (&* (jjuy***)> which is opposite to
the island Serendib, as Komar is opposite the
islands of the Maharaj, to which ez-Zanij belongs.
398 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

Every king of the country of Mandura has the

title el-Kay idi £JuUH-
We shall give notices of the kings of the east
and west, south (^.j^l) and north, in this book,
speaking of the kings of Yemen, and of the Per-
sians, Romans, Greeks, the Maghrib and the differ-
ent Abyssinian and Negro nations, and of some
nations who have descended from Yafeth.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 399

SEVENTEENTH CHAPTER.

On the Caucasus; account of the Alans, Khazar ;

of the different races of Turks, and the Bulgarians;
also a notice of Bab el-Abwdb (Derbend), and the
neighbouring nations.*

THE mountain of el-Kaikhf £*&! (Caucasus) is a

large mountain, and is of such extent that it com-

* This chapter of our author, for the most part, is translated

into French in Klaproth's Magazin Asiatique, Paris, 1835. I
made this translation without being aware that there already
existed one ; but, subsequently, when I had seen the French
version, I compared mine with it, and, in several instances where
I differ from it, put the Arabic text, to justify myself.
f Caucasus means the lull mountain, from the Persian words
Hjfr^gdw Koh. It is therefore not to be considered as a mis-
take, ifHerodotus gives to the Caucasus the name Taurus, but
as a translation of the Persian name. The Boun-Dehesh offers a
sufficient explanation, why so many mountains were called Taurus
or Bull mountains. The Persians took the same view of the
mountains as of the rivers, which has been shown p. 243, supra,
attaching religious ideas to these natural fortresses, with which
Providence had protected their country on some parts. As
long as the empire had narrow limits, the Taurus was the end of
400 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

prizes a number of kingdoms and nations. In this

their world; when it extended further to the north, it was the

Caucasus, and the Imaus in the south, both of which received
therefore the sacred name of Bull mountain, which was con-
nected with star worship, for the Bull mountain was evidently
sacred to el-Borj _ oJj. The first meaning of this word is
stronghold ; and it has been applied to the signs of the zodiac,
for a reason which has been stated in page 205, supra, note.
These natural fortresses or strongholds of Iran were naturally
compared with the strongholds of heaven, and hence they are
simply called Alborj in the Zend-Avesta, whilst other writers call
them simply the Bulls (el-Kaf, i,e., Gaw).
Providence considered the welfare of Iran or Khunnerets,
at the moment of the creation, protecting this sacred country by
rivers and mountains; hence we find, even in Mohammedan cos-
mogony, that their world (the Khunnerets) is based upon a fish,
(/.<?., the four rivers, see p. 243, supra) which rests upon a bull,
on whose back stand the mountains, (see the third note to p. 44,
supra).

The name of the Caucasus ^£\ in Mas'udi is so variously

punctuated, that we can little rely on the correctness of the read-
ing of it by later authors. They make generally ^XiM of it,
because this word has a meaning in Arabic. I read it ^vxiJI
el-Ka'ikh, considering the word as a contraction of Gaw-Koh. This
suggestion is founded upon the authority of several Arabic authors,
(MS. of the Royal Library at Paris, No. 847, anc.fonds, fol. 22,
recto; en-Nowairi; Kamus, p. 1330; Isstachri, tabula xv.,and el-
Kazwini aja'ib el-Makhlukat, where by a mistake cJixXM is written),
who derive their knowledge of the Caucasus from a different source

than el-Mas'udi, and write jJuxM el-Kaik, which is only a dif-

ferent mode for expressing the same sound.
The passage to which I am alluding of the MS. 874, anc.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 401

mountain live seventy-two nations*, and every nation

has its own king and language which differs from
the others. This mountain has several passes and
valleys; in one of them, Kisra Anushirwan has
built the town of Bab el-Abwab. He constructed
also a wall between this town and the sea of the
Khazar (the Caspian sea) which runs even one mile
into the sea. This wall, which extends to the sum-
mit of the mountain of el-Kaikh, is about forty
farsangs long, and crosses mountains and valleys.
At the other end stands the fortress of Taberistanf
^(X*»j^3. Anushirwan made at every three miles,
more or less, according to the importance of the
way which leads to it, a gate of iron ; and he settled

fonds, is curious : " A man (whose name is not clear in the MS.)
related to me, that he had been sent by some king of the Cau-
casus i_JuxJ\ Jj^ to the king of the Russians, for he believed
that they had an inscription, engraved on wood. (When I came
there) they showed me some white pieces of wood, with drawing
.jifcju on them. I do not know whether they were the signs for
whole words or separate letters. They looked like this" — here
follows a drawing.
* Timosthenes finds in Diuscurias, the capital of the Colchians,
three hundred different nations and tongues. — Pliny vii., 5.
f Taberistan is a wrong reading met with in other authors as

well as in el-Mas'udi, instead of / . ^U^jJo Tabasseran, which is

the name of an ancient fortress, and of a province of Daghestan.
It has with the Persians, also, the name • U^xls Taberseran
(Klaproth).
2 D
402 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

at every gate, within the wall, people who were to

guard the gate and the wall near it, to check the
incursions of the nations who live on these moun-
tains: as the Khazar, el-Lan, the different Turkish
hordes, the Serir, Targhiz*, and other unbelieving
nations. The jebel el-Kaikh extends in length and
breadth about two months' journey ; and the people
who live upon and about it can only be counted by
Him who created them.
One pass of this mountain *jU£ Je^l leads
towards the sea of the Khazar (Caspian), and is not
far from Bab el-Abwab as we have mentioned.
Another runs towards the sea Mayotis, with which
the strait of Constantinople communicates as
we have before said. On this sea is the town

of Trebizond k'Joyj^k. There is a fair once a year,

at which merchants assemble from all nations —
Moslims, Byzantines, Armenians, and others from
the country of Kashakf S.ZS.

* All copies read ..cjjJJ. Klaproth reads JfcX>JJ Bulgarians;

and this seems to be correct, for there are some passages further
on in this chapter where our author speaks of the wars of this
nation against the Byzantines. And the comparison of his ac-
count with Greek authors shows, that he means the Bulgarians.
In the copy of Cambridge, JLL is written in some instances as a
correction on the margin. I thought it better not to change this
error, for, in some instances, it may be that our author means not
the Bulgarians, but a different nation.
f One copy reads " Alans."
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 403

When Anushirwan had built this city, which

bears the name of Bab el-Abwab, and the wall
which runs over land, water, and mountains, and
when he had settled people there, (a military
colony,) and kings, he assigned to them (the kings)
their ranks v^'lr* an^ districts, and marked the
boundary, as Ardeshir Ben Babek had done when
he assigned to the kings of Khorasan their ranks.
One of the kings in those districts which border on
the country of the Moslims, near the province of
Barda'ah Xc^j, to whom Anushirwan assigned his
rank, was a king of the name of Sharwan (jj^£>
and from him his dominions have this name*. His
title was Sharwan Shah *L2» (jj\-^, and every
king who is in possession of those districts has the
name Sharwan, (which sounds Sharwan-Shah with
the title). His kingdom has at present [332 A.H.]
about one month's journey in circumference, for he
has conquered several provinces which had not been
assigned to him by Anushirwan ; and these new ac-
cessions are now considered as part of his dominions.
The present king [we have just mentioned the date
in which we write] is a Moslim of the name of Mo-
hammed Ben Yezid. He is a descendant of Behram
Gur j^ -l^j. The ruler of Khorasanf at present

f This is probably an error instead of Khosru Shah (Abulfeda,

page 387). 2 D 2
404 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

[we have just mentioned the date] is one of the

descendants of Isma'il Ben Ahmed ; and Isma'il
derived his origin also from Behram Gur. Nobody
who knows genealogy will contradict it.
The king of the Serir, Mohammed Ben Yezid,
equally a descendent of Behram Gur who is the
Sharwan, is in possession of the city of Bab el-
Abwab, since the death of a near relation of his, of
the name of 'Abdul-Melik Ben Hesham <XXU«x*c
-Uob (JL^j? who was a man of the Ansar. He and
his forefathers, had been the governors of Bab el-
Abwab, and had been settled there since the time

when Moslemah Ben 'Abdul-Melik «xxc ^j.j '&*»**

c^XU and other Moslim leaders, conquered that
country in the beginning of the Islam.
On the kingdom of Sharwan borders another
kingdom of the mountains of el-Kaikh, which has
the name Layidan* j,1«x^ (e^W). The king is
called Layidan-shah sLS^Utf (*l-S» £^)- It has
recently been conquered by Sharwan Mohammed
Ben Yezid. He has also subjugated the kingdom of
the Mukanians *ol*jXi. The king of el-Kizf

* Klaproth found this name spelt • LjJ Abran.

f El-Kiz seems to be a wrong reading, instead of OCXM el-Lakz.
This seems to be the Arabic name for the Lesghiz, which has
some resemblance to the Georgian name of the same nation,
Lek'hethi : and the Lekos, mentioned in Vakhthang (apud St.
Martin, vol. ii., page 182) as one of the fathers of the Caucasian
nations, is in all likelihood the father of the same nation.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 405

is equally a vassal of Sharwan. The population

of this kingdom, which is situated on the mountains,
is innumerable. Some of them are unbelievers, and
do not acknowledge the Sharwan as their master:
they are the Dudanians 2Lob^«xM (X/Jb^JM or XiA^l),
who are pagans, and have no king. The usages
which they are said to have in their marriages and
traffic, are very singular.
There are passes and valleys in this mountain
which are inhabited by nations who are unac-
quainted with each other, on account of the diffi-
culty of communication, which is impeded by the
height and roughness of the mountains, by marshes
and forests, by the waters which flow down from
the summits, and by the immense rocks and stones.
This man, named Sharwan, has subjected many
kingdoms in these mountains which had been given
to various chiefs by Anushirwan and others who
organized that country. They are now all under
the sceptre of Mohammed Ben Yezid ; amongst
them is Khorasan Shah (Khosru Shah) and Rawan
Shah ^Lfc ^j (*t£ gUb). We shall relate how
he became master of the kingdom of Sharwan. He
and his father were in possession of Layidan, and
had no other kingdom*. The king of Sharwan is

Jj a
406 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the neighbour of the king of Taberistan ^.jU^x^,

who is, in our time, a Moslim of the name of Ibn

Okht 'Abdul Melik JiJH «XAC £^J ^J, who has been
Emir of Bab el-Abwab.
The nation nearest to Bab el-Abwab are the Hai'dan
(^.jjj^ ((^oyc*). They form one of the kingdoms
of the Khazar. Next to Haidan is the kingdom of
the Khazar. Their metropolis was the city of Se-
mender * ^*x;*~>, which is eight days' journey from
the town of Bab el-Abwab. This city has a nume-
rous population of Khazar, but it is no longer the
capital, for when Solaiman Ben Rabi'ah el-Bahili
^Lfc UJi ***j; £•> ^UxX*d conquered Semender in the
beginning of the Islam, the king transferred his
residence to Itil JJJ, which is seven days' journey
from Semender ; and since this time the kings of
the Khazar reside there.
This town (Itil) is divided into three parts, by
a large river, which rises from the higher regions
of the country of the Turks, and from which an
arm branches off, somewhere near the country of
the Targhiz y*j&\ (Bulgarians), and falls into the
sea of Mayotisf. This town has two sides. In

* Compare Fraehn, de Chasaris, in Actis Acad. Imp. Scient.

Petersbourg, 1822, vol. viii. Klaproth informs us, that the
modern name of Semender is Tarku, or Tarkhu »^.jjN
f The error that the Don is a branch of the Wolga is also
met with in Byzantine authors. (Klaproth.)
 AND MINES OP GEMS. 407

the middle of the river is an island, in which the

king resides. The palace of the king stands on the
extremity of this island, and is connected by a
bridge of boats with one of the two sides of the
town. In this town are many Moslims and
Christians, Jews and Pagans. The king, his suite,
[and the Khazar of his army*,] embraced the
tenets of the Jews, in the reign of er-Rashid. To
this king flock the Jews from all the Moslim dis-
tricts, and from the Byzantine empire ; for the em-
peror forced the Jews of his dominions to turn
Christians, and loaded the converts with favours.
The present [332, A.H.] Byzantine emperor is Ar-
manus u-^JU;! (Romanus II.). We shall speak in
another chapter on the Byzantine emperors ; how
many there were ; and we shall also give the history
of Romanus and his colleague. Under these cir-
cumstances, many Jews took flight from the By-
zantine empire into the country of the Khazar. As
we cannot insert in this book the history of the
conversion of the king of the Khazar to Judaism,
we refer the reader to our former works.
One of the various Pagan nations who live in
his country are the Sekalibah XxJlx*^ (Sclavonians),
and another the Rus y*^ (the Russians). They
live in one of the two sides of this town : they burn

* These words are left out in some copies.

408 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the dead with their cattle, utensils, arms, and orna-

ments. When a man dies, his wife is burnt alive
with him; but, when the wife dies, her husband is
not burnt. If a bachelor dies, he is married after
his death. Women are glad to be burnt; for they
cannot enter into paradise by themselves. This
usage prevails also among the Hindus,, as we have
said. But the Hindus never burn a woman with
her husband, unless it is her own wish.
The majority of the population of this country
are Moslims; for the standing army of the king
consists of Moslims. They are called al-Larisians
L^SUi (XAA*.^), and come from Khowarezm;
whence they emigrated at an early period, after the
spreading of the Islam ; on account of drought and
plague which had visited their country. They are
brave, good soldiers, and form the strength of the
king of the Khazar in his wars. They fixed certain
conditions under which they would establish them-
selves in his country; one of these conditions was,
that they should be allowed to profess publicly the
Islam; to build mosques and call out the prayers;
and that the vizier of the kingdom should be a man
of their religion and nation. The vizier there is at
present from amongst them; his name is Ahmed
Ben Kuwaih &*£ (Jj.j *x^. Another condition is,
that if the king of the Khazar should have a war
against the Moslims, they would remain separate in
his camp, (observe neutrality,) and not fight against
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 409

a nation who profess the same religion; but they

would fight for him against any other nation.
There are, at present, seven thousand horsemen
of theirs, in the army of the king, armed with bows
and equipped in cuirasses, helmets, and coats of
mail: he has also some spearsmen. In point of
arms, they are like the soldiers in Moslim coun-
tries. Their supreme judges, in religious and civil
matters, are Moslims.
In accordance with the constitution of the king-
dom of the Khazar, there are nine supreme judges in
the country; two of them for the Moslims; two for the
Khazars, who follow the laws of the Pentateuch in
passing sentence ; two for the Christians, who follow
the laws of the gospel in their decisions ; and one
for the Sclavonians, Russians, and the other pagan
population. The pagan judge decides after the
heathen laws; that is to say, the dictates of reason,
(not revelation). If any important case comes
before him, he refers to the Moslim judges, and lets
them decide after the law of the Islam.
There is no other king in these parts who has
paid troops, except the king of the Khazar. Every
Moslim has there the name Larisian, (although he
may not be of this nation,) and it is even extended
to such Russians and Sclavonians as serve in the
(standing) army or household of the king; although
they are pagans as we have said*. But there are
410 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

many Moslims in this kingdom besides the Larisi-

ans; they are artisans, tradespeople, and merchants,
who have been attracted by the justice and security (of
persons and property) afforded by the government.
They have a great public mosque £«U-f> the Minaret
of which rises above the royal palace ; and several
private mosques «xsa«Jlf, where children are in-
structed in reading the Koran. If the Moslims
and Christians, who are there, agree, the king has
no power over them.
El-Mas'udi says, What we have said does not
refer to the king of the Khazar himself, but we
mean the Khakan (jjbA^ (Major domus)-, for there
is a king in the country of the Khazar, besides the
Khakan. He is shut up in his palace : he never
makes a public procession, nor does he show him-
self to the nobility or the people, and he never
goes out from his palace. His person is sacred,
but he has nothing to do with the affairs of the
state, either to command or forbid. Everything
is administered by the Khakan for the king, who
lives with him in the same palace. If a drought,
or any other misfortune, befals the country of the
Khazar, or if a war or any other accident happens
to them, the lower and higher classes of the nation
run to the king, and say, "The administration of
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 411

tliis Khakan brings misfortune upon us: put him to

death, or deliver him to us, that we may kill him."
Sometimes he delivers him to them, and they put
him to death; at other times he takes charge himself
of the execution; and sometimes he has pity on
him, protects him, and sets him free without doing
him any harm, although he might have deserved it.
I do not know whether this institution dates from
ancient times, or whether it has been recently
introduced. The Khakan is chosen from among
the nobility * by their chiefs ; but I think that the
royalty of the present dynasty takes date from a
remote period.
The Khazar have boats, with which they go on
a river, which falls above their city (Itil) into the
river (Wolga) that runs through their capital (Itil).

»)\ cf iU Ahl bait, or ahl el-boyutdt

means, I believe, generally persons of family, or the nobility.
Klaproth and Frsehn differ from my opinion : the latter translates

the words (^yu* d^ J^l J $\ XxJlXiU <£***£ $3

" Dignitas autem non nisi certse alicui families competit," which I
should have rendered by " To the Khakanship only men of family
are competent, who have distinguished themselves." With the
Alites I^IAAJ ^&>\ means the members of the family of Moham-
med; and thus I ought to have explained it in the note page 52,

supra. In Persian history, t •* AJ'^AJI JjM are the ancient

nobility.
412 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

On the banks of this river, which has the name of

Bortas u-U^j, Turks have settled, who form part of
the kingdom of the Khazar. Their country is well-
cultivated, and lies between the Khazar and the
kingdom of the Targhiz (Bulgarians). The river
(Bortas) comes from the Targhiz (Bulgarians),
and there is an active navigation carried on be-
tween the Targhiz and Khazar. Bortas is origi-
nally the name of a Turkish nation, as we have
before said, who live on this river, and give to it
their name. From their country come the furs of
black and red foxes, which are called the Bortasian
furs. A black fur of this kind costs one hundred
dinars, and more; but the red are cheaper. Dresses
of these furs are worn by the kings of the Arabs
and the Barbarians ; and they form part of their
vanity; for they are considered more valuable than
the furs of sable jye*»> herrneline <*&*!!, and the like.
The kings wear tiaras (j*J&S, khaftans, and robes
g\j*, of these furs. If kings have their khaftans
and robes lined with black Bortasian foxs' fur, it is
excusable (although it is against the divine laws).
From the upper course of the river of the
Khazar (Wolga), an arm branches off (the Don),
that falls into a narrow gulf of the sea, Pontus,
which is the sea of the Russians ; for no nation,
excepting the Russians, navigates this sea. They
are a great nation, living on one of the coasts of
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 413

this sea. They neither have a king nor do they

acknowledge a positive law (revelation), X*j^.
Many of them are merchants, and trade with the
kingdom of the Targhiz. The Russians are in
possession of great silver mines, which maybe com-
pared with those in the mountain of Lahjir jsa&y
(^acuj) in Khorasan. The capital of the Targhiz
is situated on the coast of the sea Mayotis*. In
my opinion, this country belongs to the seventh
climate. The Targhiz are of Turkish origin. Their
caravans go as far as Khowarezm in Khorasan, and
from Khowarezm caravans go to them ; but there
live several wandering hordes of Turkish origin,
who are distinct from the Targhiz, between these two
countries which render the road of the caravans
unsafe.
The present king of the Targhizf [in 332 A.H.]
is a Moslim. He embraced this religion, in the
time of el-Moktader Billah after 310 A.H., in con-
sequence of a vision. His son has made the pil-

* The town of the Bulgarians, says Klaproth, is situated on

the Wolga, under the place where it unites with the Kama, and
not on the Black Sea. El-Mas'udi confounds the Bulgarians
who live on the Wolga with those on the Danube. So far Klap-
roth. Ithink that el-Mas'udi made a distinction, calling the one
nation Targhiz, and the other Bulgar JfcXjj and that some copy-
ists wrote in both instances Bulgarians, and others Targhiz.
f One copy reads Bulgarians, and this name agrees with the
Byzantine historians.
414 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

grimage (to Mokka), and was at Bagdad. Moktader

sent him one great and several small standards, and
presents of money. They have a great public
mosque. This king has made a holy expedition
against Constantinople, with about fifty thousand
horsemen. His predatory corps spread as far as
the territory of Rome, Spain, the country of Borjan
^U^j (Burgundy?), Galicia, and France*, which is
about two months' journey from Constantinople ;
the intermediate country is partly cultivated and
partly uncultivated. The Moslims had made a re-
ligious war from Tarsus, on the Syrian frontier,
against Jarkendiyah &<xj£^*, under the minister f
Thaml $£, the governor of the frontier, who is
known under the name ed-Daksi ^A^JA!! (^xJAll),
with the Moslim and Christian { vessels which he

* X-xr'w^! El-Ifranjah. I suppose this word means the French

in authors who wrote before the crusades, for the eastern Arabs
derived their knowledge of Europe from the Moors in Spain, who
were best acquainted with the French amongst all European na-
tions, ifthey were not the only Christian nation beyond the
Pyrenees of whom they had a precise knowledge. Since the
Crusades, the word Ifranjah means any European.
t ..tJliLj means that he had a place in the household of the
khalif. First, slaves were employed to serve the khalif ; subse-
quently, they took advantage of the weakness of the sovereign,
and the menial offices in his household became of more importance
than right or talent. Thus, Khadim, or servant, became a title
as minister with us.

J One copy reads xjljj^ (.jytu^U ^S\^9 "The Mos-

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 415

commanded, in A. H. 312; they passed through

the strait of Constantinople and entered a gulf of
the Mediterranean, which has no communication
with any other sea, and then they came into the
country of Jarkendiyah. On land they met a num-
ber of Targhiz who came to their aid ; and they said
that their king was not far off. This proves what
we have said, that the Targhiz had extended their
military expeditions as far as the Mediterranean.
Some went with the Moslims on board the Tarsian
vessels, and came to Tarsus.
The Targhiz (Bulgarians) are a great and power-
ful nation : they are brave and have subjected their
neighbours; and one horseman of theirs, who has
turned Moslim,to the number of which belongs the
king, can oppose three other horsemen and two
hundred unbelievers. The inhabitants of Constan-
tinople are not able to defend themselves against
them, excepting by their walls; the same is the
case with other districts in that neighbourhood ;
their only protection are their fortresses and walls.
The night is exceedingly short in the country of
the Bulgarians all the year round; some believe
that a Bulgarian cannot boil (meat in) his kettle

lim and 'Omanian vessels ;" and another ^ •juyoLUi t-»f]^

/.yAJj^AjJ " the Syrian and Basrian vessels." As they could
not bring the vessels from the Persian Gulf into the Mediterra-
nean, Iread the last word
416 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

before the morning comes. We have explained the

reason of this phenomenon in our former books, as
depending upon the spherical form (of the earth);
we have also said, that the night lasts in some
parts of the world six months without interruption ;
and then again, that they have six months' day,
and no night. This is about (the time when the
sun is in) capricornus cf<x^. The reasons which
are connected with the spherical form (of the earth)
are also stated by the authors of the astronomical
tables.
The Russians cr^t consist of several different
nations and distinct hordes ; one is called *A£te^JM
(*>l*jjXJ() (Lithuanians?). They go on their mer-
cantile business as far as Spain, Rome, Constan-
tinople, and the Khazar. After the year 300, they
had five hundred ships, every one of which had one
hundred men on board : they passed up the estuary
(of the Don) which opens into the Pontus, and is in
communication with the river of the Khazar
(Wolga). The king of the Khazar keeps a garrison
on this side the estuary, with efficient warlike
equipments to exclude any other power from this
passage, and to prevent them from occupying, by
land, that branch of the river of the Khazar
which stands in connection with the Pontus ; for
the Nomadic Turks, who are the Ghozz yai, try
frequently to winter there. Sometimes the water
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 417

(the Don) which connects the river of the Khazar

(Wolga) with the above-mentioned estuary is frozen,
and the Ghozz cross it with their horses, for although
it is a great water, the ice does not break under them.
The king of the Khazar himself frequently takes
the field against them, if his garrison is too weak
to drive them back, and he prevents them from
going over the ice, thus defending his dominions. It
is impossible for the Turks to cross the river
in summer.
When the Russian vessels came to the garrison,
on the entrance of the estuary, they sent to the
king of the Khazar to ask his permission to pass
through his dominions, to go down his river, and
enter into the sea of the Khazar, which is the sea
of Jorjan, Taberistan, and of other places of the
Barbarians ^U^t as we have stated, promising
him half the plunder which they should make from
the nations who live on the coast of this sea. He
gave them leave. They entered the estuary, and,
continuing their voyage up the river (Don) , as far
as the river of the Khazar (Wolga), they went
down this river, passed the town of Itil, and
entered through its mouth into the sea of the
Khazar. This is a very large and deep river. By
these means the Russians came into this sea, and
spread their predatory excursions over el-Jil, ed-
Dailem, Taberistan, Aboskun, which is the name
for the coast of Jorjan, the Naphtha Country
2 E
418 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

uIl, and towards Aderbijan, the town of Ardobil

J.AJ^J which is in Aderbijan, and about three days'
journey from this sea. They shed blood, plundered
property, made children prisoners, and sent out
predatory and incendiary corps in all directions.
The inhabitants of the coasts of this sea were
thrown into consternation, for they had never had
to contend with an enemy from these quarters ; for
the sea had only been frequented by peaceful traders
and fishing-boats. They had been at war with
el-Jil, ed-Dailem, and the leader of the forces of
Ibn Abi-s-Saj ^L? g] ^>\, but with no other
nation. The Russians landed on the coast of the
Naphtha Country, which is called Babikah XLL
(Baku), and belongs to the kingdom of Sharwan-
Shah. On their return from the coast, the Russians
landed in the islands which are near the Naphtha
Country, being only a few miles distant from it.
The king of Sharwan was then 'Ali Ben el-Haithem.
As the merchants sailed in boats and vessels in
pursuit of their commercial business to those islands,
the Russians attacked them ; thousands of Moslims
perished, and were partly put to the sword, partly
drowned. The Russians remained several months
in this sea, as we have before said. The nations
on the coast had no means of repelling them, although
they made warlike preparations and put themselves
in a state of defence, for the inhabitants of the
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 419

coasts on this sea are well civilized. When they

had made booty and captives, they sailed to the
mouths of the river of the Khazar (Wolga), and
sent messengers with money and booty to the king,
in conformity with the stipulations which they had
made. The king of the Khazar has no ships on
this sea, for the Khazar are no sailors; if they were,
they would be of the greatest danger to the Moslims.
The Larisians * and other Moslims in the country
of the Khazar heard of the conduct of the Rus-
sians, and they said to their king: " The Russians
have invaded the country of our Moslim brothers ;
they have shed their blood and made their wives
and children captives, as they were unable to resist ;
permit us to oppose them." As the king was not
able to keep them quiet, he sent messengers to
the Russians, informing them that the Moslims
intended to attack them. The Moslims took the
field and marched against them, going down the
banks of the river. When both parties saw each
other, the Russians left their vessels and formed
their battle array opposite the Moslims. In the
ranks of the latter were many Christians of Itil
ys\. The number of the Moslim army was about

AM,Jl al-Larisiah, or Allaris, for the syllable iah expresses

sometimes the plural; they are the Alares of the middle ages,
as Klaproth correctly supposes.
2 E 2
420 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

fifteen thousand men, provided with horses and

equipments. They fought three days, and God
gave victory to the Moslims: they put the Russians
to the sword, others were drowned, and only five
thousand escaped ; who sailed (first) along the bank
of the river, on which Bortas* is situated; (then)
they left their vessels and proceeded by land. Some
of them were slain by the inhabitants of Bortas, and
others came into the country of Targhiz, where they
fell under the sword of the Moslims. There were
about thirty thousand dead counted on the banks
of the river of the Khazar. The Russians did not
make a similar attempt after that year.
El-Mas'udi says, we have related this fact in
proof (of our statement that the Black sea and
Caspian are separated) against those who maintain
that the sea of the Khazar is connected with the sea
Mayotis and the strait of Constantinople, through
the Mayotis or Pontus ; for if this was the case, the
Russians would have made their voyage by this way,
being the masters of the Black sea, as we have
said. Besides, the merchants of all the nations
who live near this sea state, unanimously, that the
sea of the Barbarians ^U^ has no strait by which
it is connected with any other sea ; and as this
sea is but small, it can be known in its whole ex-

* One copy reads Autas

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 421

tent. The history of the Russian ships, which we

have related, is generally known amongst all nations
who live there. I have forgotten the exact date of
their expedition, but it happened after 300 A. H.
Perhaps those who maintain that the sea of the
Khazar is connected with the strait of Constanti-
nople mean, under the sea of the Khazar, the sea
Mayotis, and the Pontus, which is the sea of the
Targhiz and Russians ; God knows how this is.
The coast of Taberistan extends along this sea
(the Caspian) , and there is the town called es-Samer
^**J\ (*jdO> which is a seaport, and one hour of the
day from the town of Itil. On the coast of Jorjan
is the town Aboskun*, about three days' journey
from (the town of) Jorjan. On this sea are also
el-Jil and ed-Dailem. There is a constant naviga-
tion carried oa between the above-mentioned towns
and Itil. They go up the river [Wolga] as far as
Itil; they sail also to Bakah (Baku) XTL, which
yields white and other naphtha ; white naphtha is
found no where on earth but there. Baku lies
on the south of the kingdom of Sharwan. In this
naphtha country is a crater (chimney) from which
fire issues perpetually, throwing up a high flame.
Opposite this coast are several islands : one of them
is three days distant, in which there is a great vol-

* All MSS. write this name invariably

422 EL-MAs'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

cano which often throws out fire, at all seasons

of the year. The fire rises like a high mountain
in the air, and its light spreads over the greater part
of the sea, so that it is seen at a distance of one
hundred farsangs. This volcano is like el-Borkan
(jo^j-jJJ in Sicily, which is between the country of
the Franks and Afrikiyah. There is no volcano on
earth which makes a greater noise, nor any the
smoke of which is more black, or the flames more
copious, than that which is in the kingdom of the
Maharaj. Next comes the volcano of Barahiit
£»yt^j, which is not far from Asfar and Hadhramaut,
in the country of esh-Shihr, which is in the province
of Yemen and 'Oman. The noise is heard like
thunder at a distance of several miles, and it throws
live coals up from its depth like mountains, and
pieces of black rock which rise so high in the air
that they can be seen at many miles' distance; then
they fall down again, partly into the crater, and
partly round it. The live coals which are thrown
out are stones which have become red by the par-
ticles of heat which they have absorbed. We have
explained the cause which produces volcanoes
(springs of fire) in our Akhbar ez-zeman.
In this sea are islands opposite the coast of
Jorjan, where a sort of white falcons *!j.j are caught.
These falcons are soon made tame ; and one has
little to fear that they will associate (with the wild
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 423

birds) ; but they are rather weak, for the sports-

men who catch them in these islands feed them with
fish; and, if any other food is given to them, they
become reduced in strength. Men who distinguish
themselves by their knowledge of falconry ^j\yd\9
and of the different sorts of rapacious birds which
have been employed for the same purpose, among
the Persians,, Turks,, Byzantines, Hindus, and Arabs,
say, that falcons of a white colour are the quickest
and handsomest ; that they have the best shape and
chest; and that they are soonest tamed, and the
strongest of all falcons to rise in the air ; that they
have the longest breath, and fly furthest, for they
are very light and spirited*, and they have a hotter
temper than any other species of falcons. The dif-
ference of colour depends upon the difference of
climate. Hence, they are of a pure white in Ar-
menia, in the country of the Khazar, in Jorjan,
and the neighbouring countries of the Turks, on
account of the great fall of snow in those climates.
A sage of the Khakans (J^^\^9 or kings of
the Turks, to whom all other kings of the Turks
pay submission, says, " When the falcons of our
country bring out their young from the nest into
the open field, they rise in the air till they come to
a cold and dense atmosphere, where there are insects

* Literally? " there are parts of warmth in them."

424 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

with which they feed them ; this soon makes them

strong, and they learn to use their wings and to fly
high to find their food. Some times fragments of
those insects are found in the nests of falcons."
According to Galen's classification, the air is warm
and moist ; so that the cold of the air is owing to
the intenseness of winds which rise. The air is not
without beings which inhabit it. Balinas cr-U^L
(tjAolJb)* (Pliny) says, " Since in these two ele-
ments, viz., earth and water, are beings and inhabit-
ants, the two upper elements, i.e., air and fire, must
also have beings and inhabitants."
I have found in some anecdotes of er-Rashid,
that he went out hunting one day in the country
near el-Mausil, with a white falcon on his hand.

* This author is in the Royal Library at Paris. I shall have an

opportunity of inserting the leading points of the contents of this
curious and very philosophical book in another volume. M. De
Sacy supposes, that the word is a corruption of Apollonius ; this,
however, seems not to be well founded. There are many instances
in which the Arabs put an \ at the beginning of foreign names; but
perhaps, none where they omit it. Dr. Nicolls found this author
quoted in a MS. of the Bodl. Library (see Catal. Bill. Bodl).
In a geographical work in the British Museum, which was

composed under Mo'tadhed, he has the surname ^vcjJJ the

Roman, and is said to have constructed talismans. It seems that
the fame of the Latin naturalist penetrated to the Arabs, but as
they had no translation of his works, they connected marvels with
his name, and put it on the head of their own compositions.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 425

The bird became uneasy on his hand, and he let

it off: it rose in the air till it disappeared from
his eyes. After he had despaired of seeing it
again, he perceived it with an insect, which was
like a serpent, or a fish, with wings like the fins of
a fish. Er-Rashid had it put on a plate; and, when
he had returned from his sport, he called learned
men, and asked them whether they were aware of
a being living in the air. " O, Commander of
the Faithful," answered Mokatil JJUU, " a tradition
of thy ancestor 'Abdullah Ben el-'Abbas informs
us, that the air is inhabited by people f\ of different
forms; and nearer to us than these people live
white insects, which breed in the air, being kept
aloof by the thicker atmosphere. They grow to
the shape of a serpent, or a fish, with wings ; they
have, however, no feathers. These insects are
caught by the white falcons, which live in Arme-
nia." The Khalif produced the plate, showed the
insect, and made rich presents to Mokatil.
Some good observers have told me in Egypt
and other countries, that they have seen white ser-
pents in the air, which moved from one place to
another with a celerity that was equal to lightning;
that they fell sometimes upon an animal on the
earth and killed it; that they are sometimes heard
flying by night ; and that their locomotion in
the air is accompanied with a noise like that which
is produced when a new cloth is unfolded. Persons
 426 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD,
who have no knowledge of this subject, or other
women (superstitious and ignorant persons), are
frequently heard saying, that this sound proceeds
from witches, who fly on wings of quills through
the air. Various opinions have been stated on these
topics ; and such proofs have been adduced of the
existence of animals in the two (upper) elements,
as leave no doubt that animals are generated and
grown in the two light elements, which are air and
fire, as there are generated and grown in the two
denser elements, earth and water.
El-Mas'fidi says, the sages and kings have
described the falcons, and dilated on their praise.
The Khakan, or king of the Turks, says, " The
falcon is courageous and well-behaved." Kisra
Anusharwan praises this bird in these words: " He
is active and watchful, and he seizes the opportunity
when he can." The Csesar says, " The falcon is a
noble king ; when he is in need he takes, and when
it is expedient he relinquishes." The philosophers
speak thus of the falcon: " You may expect that a
falcon will pursue his prey with great velocity,
attack it powerfully, and fly very high, if he have
long legs and a wide chest ; for this is a sign of
strength, and that he is light and quick. You will
observe in birds of prey, that their strength is in
proportion to the width of their chest, whereas
their velocity and skill in turning round (in vertical
motion) are in proportion to the length of their
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 427

legs and the compactness of their bodies ; for the

strength of the falcon is reduced if the wings are
short, and the body thin (delicate) ; but if they are
too long he is rendered weak and soon fatigued.
Birds of prey cannot overtake any other birds than
such as have short legs, and you will find that the
strength of woodcocks, quails,, and partridges, is
in an inverse proportion to the length of their
legs.
Arsijanis says, the falcon is a rapacious bird,
but he is not provided with any sort of protection
by nature; his strength consists in the slenderness
(of the hind part of his body and the length) of his
feet; and although he is the weakest of all birds in
body, he is the most courageous, for he possesses a
degree of heat which is not found in other birds.
We found that his chest consists of a tendinous
texture, and is not swelled with flesh. The words
of Arsijanis are confirmed by Galen. The former
author says further, that the falcon builds his nest
on trees of thorns, which he puts together at differ-
ent intervals; and he protects himself by these
means against heat and cold. If he is breeding he
builds for himself a house (nest), with a roof that
shuts out rain and snow, that he may be comfort-
able and protected against cold.
Adham Ben Mohriz j^sz ^j f&&\ says, that
the first who amused himself with birds of prey was
el-Hareth Ben Mo'awiyah Ben Thaur, who was the
428 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

father of Kindah ^
»«>*r. He went out one day sporting, and laid
snares for sparrows (small birds). An akdar bird
^^n fell upon one of the sparrows, which had already
been caught in the snares. Akdar ^\ has the same
meaning as Sakr* jLa, and is also called the Ajdal
J<>c».3!. He ate the sparrow although he was him-
self caught. The king, surprised at his devouring
the sparrow, although his wings were broken, shut
him up in a large cage, and he saw that he was
quiet, and that he did not make any efforts to
escape. If food was given to him he ate it ; if he
saw meat he jumped on the hands of his master;
and he became so tame that he did what was said to
him, that he ate from the hand, and was carried
unconfined. One day he saw a dove ; he flew
after it, from the hand of his master, and caught
it. The king ordered therefore to use the falcon
for hunting. One day when the king was going
with the falcon and saw a hare, the falcon flew upon
the hare and took it. The king used it therefore for
sporting and killing birds and hares. Since this
time falcons have been employed amongst the
Arabs, and their use became more general.
Arsijanis y^JUzv^l the philosopher, relates res-

* This is a species of hawk. Baron v. Hammer- Purgstall

(Falkner-Klee) renders this name in German by Sakerfalke.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 429

pecting the hawks ^/jMyLM, in his book which the

Byzantine emperor, who had the name Nisban(?)
^UMU (^U*A*), sent to el-Mahdi as a present from
his country, that is to say, the Byzantine dominions,
one day a hawk ^M-* descended upon a water-fowl
and caught it ; then he rose in the air and repeated
the same movements several times. The king said,
" This is a sporting bird; he has shown his skill in
flying down on the water-fowl, and this makes him
fit for sporting; and he has shown us his quickness
in rising in the air, which speaks for his agility."
He was surprised when he saw how well he could
turn round (in vertical motion), and was the first
who used hawks ^/jfc^-* for sporting.

Sa'id Ben 'Ofair ( j*s) j>*£ ^^t «V~> relates,

on the authority of Hashim Ben Khadij ^U
^.«Xi. QJ.J QM*U), that Constantine, the king of
Amariyah, went out sporting with a falcon, and
came as far as the strait of the Pont us, which joins
this sea with the Mediterranean. He crossed it,
and went to the plains between the strait and the
sea. Seeing a hawk persecuting a water-fowl, he
admired him for his quickness, violence, and cou-
rage, in pursuing his prey, and he ordered him to be
caught and tamed ; and he was the first who used
kawks. Observing that the meadow was extensive,
and covered with flowers of different colours, he
said, this is a strong place, between the sea and a
430 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

river (the strait), and fit for a town: and this in-
duced him to build Constantinople.
We shall relate the history of Constantine, the
son of Helena,, who made the Christian religion vic-
torious, inthe chapter which treats on the history
of the Byzantines. This is one version of the his-
tory of the construction of Constantinople.
Ibn 'Ofair relates, upon the authority of Abu
Yezid el-Fehri cs^\ Jo ^j #\ (V?.?Ji Joj ^\)9 that
it was the usage with the Lodriks A^jJlH, of Spain,
that the king had hawks flying over the army, and
over the cavalcade, whenever he went out on an
expedition, or in procession. The birds were
taught to fly sometimes high and sometimes low;
so they went on till he took his quarters ; then they
sat round him. One day one of their kings set
out ; the hawks were with him, in the described
manner, and one of them pursued and caught some
birds which flew up. This induced the king to dress
them for sporting; and he was the first who used
them for this purpose in the Maghrib and in Spain.
El-Mas'udi says, it is the account of many
persons who are well- versed in this subject, that the
inhabitants of the Maghrib were the first who
amused themselves with vultures ^1>J^. When
the Byzantines (Romans) observed the robust con-
stitution oftheir body and the abundance of their
excrements l^-ob!? their wise men said no bird
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 431

is more fit for mischief than this. It is related that

the emperor sent a vulture to the Kisra, and wrote
him, that he was more efficient than the falcon
uaM, with the sport of which he was so delighted.
The Kisra ordered him to be set against a wild buck
csvk, and the bird got the better of him, notwith-
standing his resistance. The Kisra returned, full
of joy, from this sight. When he hungered him
for sporting, the bird fell upon a boy, and killed
him. The Kisra said, " The emperor deprives us
of our children without an army." The Kisra pre-
sented the emperor in return with an eagle, and
wrote to him that he had killed wild bucks, and
similar animals ; but he did not mention that the
vulture had killed a boy. The emperor admired
the eagle, which was like a hyena *x$3; but as he
was not on his guard, several boys were torn to
pieces by the bird. The emperor said, " The
Kisra takes us for his game; but, since we have
made a game of him, it does no harm."
In speaking of the sea of Jorjan and its islands,
we went beyond our limits, and treated on the
different sorts of birds of prey ; we shall give a
summary account of the falcons, and how many
different species of birds of prey there exist, in the
chapter on the Byzantine kings. Now we return
to our account of Bab el-Abwab, and the nations
which live in the neighbourhood of this wall, and of
the Caucasus.
432 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

We have already stated, that the population of

Haidan is one of the worst nations near Bab el-
Abwab ; their king is a Mohammedan, and con-
siders himself as descended from Kahlan. His
children and his household are the only Moslims
in all his dominions. The name of the present
[332 A.H.] king is Salman* j,UL* (^IxXA-j) ; and
I believe this is the title of every king of this
country.
- O ,-
Between the kingdom of Khaidan

(^U/^ (Hai'dan) and Bab el-Abwab, is a Moham-

medan population of Arabian origin f who speak
only Arabic. They live in villages situated in
forests, jungles, valleys, and on large rivers. They
have been there since the time when the country
was conquered by them. Although their country
is on the frontier of the kingdom of Haidan, they
are independent ; for it is inaccessible on account
of its forests and rivers. The distance from the
town of Bab el-Abwab to this country, is only
three miles. The inhabitants of Bab el-Abwab
call them sometimes to their aid.
On the frontiers of the kingdom of Haidan,

* This, observes M. Klaproth, is probably a fault instead of

ioi Shamgal, which is, to this day, the title of the prince of
Kormik, who resides at Tarkhu.
f These Arabs live to this day in the neighbourhood of
Sharwan as nomades. See Klaproth.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 433

towards the Caucasus and the wall, is a king called

Birzoban j,L^j, he is a Moslim, and the name of
his country is el-Karaj g^tfi. The inhabitants are
armed with clubs. Birzoban is the title of every
king who rules over this country.
Next to the Birzoban is a nation called
Ghumik <— **$ (<— 5u*e). They are Christians, and
have no king, but chieftains, who are on friendly
terms with el-Lan. Next to them, towards the
wall and the mountain is the kingdom of Zarikeran

6b^d;!> which means " coat of mail manufactory,"

for most of the inhabitants are employed in making
coats of mail, stirrups, bridles, swords, and similar
instruments of iron. They have various religions;
some are Moslims, others are Jews and Christians.
Their country is very rough and inaccessible to the
neighbouring nations. Beyond them are the do-
minions of Filan Shah *U> ^^/J, who is a Christian;
and, as we have already stated, he is descended from
Behram Gur. He has the name of king of the
Serir (throne), for Yezdejerd, the last of the Sasa-
nian kings,, sent, when he took flight, his throne of
gold and his treasures, with one of the descendants
of Behram Gur, to this country, and there they
were preserved till his death; for Yezdejerd went to
Khorasan, where he was killed during the khalifat
of 'Othman, as we have related in this book and in
our other works. They remained in this coun-
2 F
434 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

try; he made himself master of it, and his succes-

sors have therefore the name Sahib es-Serir* to this
day. The capital of this king is called Khomikhf
£j**- Twelve thousand villages obey him, and
it is in his choice to make any of their inhabitants
slaves. His country is rough, and therefore well
protected against any invasion ; it occupies a valley
of the Caucasus. He some times overruns the
country of the Khazar, for they live in plains, and
he in mountains.
Next to this kingdom comes the kingdom of el-
Lan, the king of which has the name of el-Ker-
kendaj ^\^S^\ (^jarjJft), which is a general
title for all kings of this country, as Filan-Shah is
the title of all kings of es-Serir. The capital of
el-Lan is Ma's oax^ (<_,***>), which means " obser-
vation of religion," 2wL»x He has several magnifi-
cent palaces, besides his residence in the capital, in
which he occasionally resides. He is related to the
king of es-Serir, one having married the sister of
the other. The kings of el-Lan embraced, after the
rise of the Islam, during the 'Abbaside dynasty, the

* Serir is evidently the name of the nation, who are probably

the same as the Serri of Pliny, (lib. vi., cap. 5,) who wrote
nearly six hundred years before Yezdejerd. As Serlr happens
to mean throne in Arabic, the above fable was invented.

f Klaproth's MS. reads Homraj ; he identifies therefore this

town with Humry, in the territory of the Uzmei of the Kaitak,
now called Kavah Kend.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 435

Christian religion ; previously they were Pagans ;

and after 320 A. H., they returned to their former
faith, giving up Christianity, and expelling the
bishops and priests who had been sent to them by
the Byzantine emperor.
Between the kingdom of el-Lan and the Cau-
casus is a fortress, and a bridge over a large river.
The fortress has the name of Kal'ah Bab el-Lan (the
citadel of the Alan gate or pass), and was built by a
king of the first Persian dynasty, called Isfendiar. He
placed there a garrison, to prevent the Alans from
entering the Caucasus ; for no other road leads
there but that which goes over this bridge, which is
commanded by the castle. It is built on live rock^
which renders it impregnable, and it is impossible
to cross the bridge, if opposed by the garrison.
This castle, which stands on the summit of the
rock, has a spring of fresh water in its centre.
This is one of the most famous fortresses on earth,
both for its strength and for the historical recol-
lections which are connected with it, and related by
Persian poets, who describe its construction by
Isfendiar.
Isfendiar had many wars with various nations
of the eastern countries: he marched to the country
of the Turks, and destroyed the city of es-Safr
^ju^JI, which was very extensive, fortified by nature,
and considered as impregnable ; so that it had be-
come proverbial with the Persians. The exploits
2 F 2
436 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

of Isfendiar, and the details which we have given,

are related in the book y^X**!! i^UT (^xCuJl or
LtAxJI or (5V&JJ1), which has been translated by
Ibn el-Mokaffa' into Arabic. When Moslemah
Ben 'Abd el-Melik Ben Merwan penetrated to those
countries, he settled some Arabs in this fortress,
after he had made peace with the nations, whose
posterity defend the place to this day. Sometimes
they receive their provisions from the plains which
are near Tiflis. This town is five long days' jour-
ney distant from this fortress. One man can op-
pose all the unbelieving kings, in this castle, so
advantageous is its commanding position, it being
(as it were) suspended in the air, over the bridge
and valley.
The king of the Alans * musters thirty thousand
brave and stong horsemen: this force gives him
the supremacy over other kings. The cultivation
of his kingdom is uninterrupted, so that when the
cock crows, he is answered in the whole of his
dominions, the country being all covered with inha-
bitants and cultivation.
Next to the Alans live a nation called Kashak
^S: their country extends from the Caucasus to
the Mediterranean ^\ ^sr. They are a great
nation, and follow the Magian religion. They are,
among all the nations whom we have mentioned,

* One copy reads, the king of es-Serir.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 437

the cleanest, and the most handsome in their ap-

pearance, both men and women. They have good
persons, are slender round the waist,, have well-
shaped hips, and are of a comely form. The Kashak
women are celebrated for their charms. They dress
in white, in Greek brocade ^^ ^UjjJJ, in cloth
of scarlet ^^k&JLJ! colour, and other sorts of
cloth, as gilt brocade. In their country various
sorts of cloths are manufactured of hemp and other
materials: one sort is called et-Talli cloth ^XkJI
(jUl): it is finer than damask (silk) <j^.j«x!!, and
stouter than (our) hemp cloth JulT (<xT). One piece
of this sort of cloth costs about ten dinars; and is
exported to the neighbouring Moslim countries.
The same cloth is exported from other nations, who
live near the Kashak ; but the best comes from them.
The Alans are much stronger than this nation.,
and they cannot maintain their independency,
except by fortifying themselves against the Alans
in the citadel which they have erected on the sea
coast. There is some controversy respecting the
sea on which they live ; some take it for the
Mediterranean, whilst others consider it to be the
Pontus. I have only to observe, that their sea is
not far from the country of Trebizond, and that a
constant navigation and trade are kept up between
them and this city.
The reason why they are too weak to oppose
438 EL-MASJUDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the Alans is, that their power is not concentrated

under one king. If they were united, neither the
Alans nor any other nation would have power over
them. The word kashak is Persian, and means
pride &*jil\ and arrogance c^X^St, for a person who
has these two qualities is called JiS in Persian.
Next to this nation comes another, the country
of which is called the Seven Lands * ^taXj £x*JI,
and lies on the sea. They form a large and power-
ful nation, who are in possession of an extensive
country. I know nothing respecting their religion
and government. On the Seven Lands border a
large nation,, who are separated from the Kashak
by a great river which falls into the Mediterranean,
or into the sea Mayotis. On this river live nu-
merous hordes, of a nation of the name of Irem
-j\ (fttl)' They are Pagans, and strange looking
people. There is a curious story related of fish
which come every year to this country. They cut
flesh off from them. When they come back the
next year, the flesh has grown again, and they cut it
off from the other side. This story is well known
amongst the unbelievers of that country f.

* The German name for Transylvania — Siebenbiirgen — has

nearly the same meaning, but is not as ancient as el-Mas'udi.
f Klaproth remarks, that the inhabitants of the coast of the
Caspian, on the mouth of the Korr, cut the eggs out from the
belly of the fish for caviar, and throw the fish back into the
water.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 439

Not far from this country is another between

four high and inaccessible mountains, which include
a plain of nearly one hundred miles. In the centre
of this plain is a circle, as exact as if it had been
marked out with compasses J^9 in solid stone.
The circuit is formed by a complete ring hewn in
stone, which is fifty miles in circumference. The
pieces [of rock by which this ring is formed] go
vertically down like a wall which is raised from be-
low upwards, two miles high.* These rocks render
it impossible to go within the inclosure. By night,
you see many lights in it in different places ; and
by day, you discover villages, cultivated grounds,
rivers which water those villages, men, and cattle f;
but every thing appears little, on account of the
height from which you look down. Nobody knows
what nation they are, for they are unable to climb
'r

f A similar story is related in Abul-ghazi Khan, who fol-

lowed Mongolish traditions. It seems, therefore, to be a widely
spread tradition of Central Asia. Perhaps such places were se-
cluded from the world to give to them, and those who inhabit them,
through remoteness, a degree of sacredness. Any one who has
passed the dreary and solitary plains extending many miles round
Stonehenge, a sacred place of the Druids, near Salisbury, must be
struck with this idea. Perhaps a comparison might be drawn,
and even an affinity and connexion might be discovered, between
those Tatar places of worship and the sacred forests of the
Druids.
440 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

up (the surrounding mountains from within), and no

one who ascends to the top (from without) can go
down to them.
Behind these four mountains on the sea coast
is another ring near the precipice ; in it are forests
and jungles, which are inhabited by a sort of mon-
keys who have an erect stature and round face ; they
are exceedingly like men, but they are all covered
with hair. Sometimes it happens that they are
caught. They show very great intelligence and
docility; but they are deprived of speech, by which
they could express themselves, although they un-
derstand* what is spoken. But they express them-
selves bysigns. Sometimes they are brought to the
kings of those nations, and they are taught to stand
by them and to taste what is on their table ; for the
monkeys have the peculiar quality of knowing if
poison is in food or drink. Some part of the food
is given to the monkey who smells it, and, if he
eats of it, the king eats: but, if not, he knows
that it contains poison. The same is the practice
of most Chinese and Hindu sovereigns. We have
given in this book an account of the Chinese
embassies which came to el-Mahdi ; and we related
what they said of the use which their kings make of
monkeys for tasting their food. We have also

* One copy reads that they do not understand what is spoken.

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 441

mentioned the tale of the monkeys in Yemen, and

of the plate of iron on which Solaiman Ben Dawud
wrote a treaty to the monkeys of Yemen; and of
the governor of Mo'awiyah Ben Abi Sofyan, who
wrote a document respecting them: and we have
given the description of the great monkey who had
a table on his neck.
There are no monkeys on earth who are so clever
and mischievous as this species. Monkeys live in
warm climates, as in Nubia, and in the most northern
part of Abyssinia, on the banks of the upper course
of the Nile. They are called Nubian monkeys, and
are of a diminutive size, have little faces, and their
body is as black as pitch, as the Nubians themselves
are. This is the species which the monkey men
j^jjXH have. They mount on a spear and go
through their exercises on the top of it. Another
species of monkeys are in the northern regions,
forests, and jungles, in the country of the Sclavo-
nians and of other nations, of which we have said,
that they approach in their appearance, to the figure
of man. Monkeys are also found on the coasts of
the straits of el-Zanij, in the Chinese sea, and in
the dominions of the Maharaj, who, as we have al-
ready said, is king of the islands opposite the king-
dom of China, being situated between the kingdom
of el-Ballahra and China. The monkeys of those
countries are very numerous, and famous for the
perfection of their figure. From thence monkeys
 442 EL-MAS'UDIJS MEADOWS OP GOLD,

and serpents were brought to el-Moktader, They

were in long chains, and some of the monkeys had
beards and long whiskers ; some were young, and
others old. The present was accompanied by many
other curiosities of the sea ; they were brought by
Ahmed Ben Hilal j^fc ^j <x^!, who was then
governor of 'Oman. These monkeys are very well
known to the sailors of Siraf and 'Oman, who
trade with the countries of Kolah and ez-Zanij ;
they are also acquainted with the way of hunting
the crocodiles (alligators), which live at the bottom
of the water. El-Jahit believes they are only found
in the Nile of Egypt, and in the river Mihran of
es-Sind. We have related what is said on this sub-
ject, and where crocodiles are found, in the previous
pages of this book. In many places of Yemen, the
traveller is not able to fight his way through the
monkeys, they are so numerous; so, for instance,
in the valley of Nakhlah aXis? <ss\j, which is between
el-Jenned and Zabid, which is now [332 A.H.] under
Ibrahim Ben Ziyad *L>) ^j ft*jri> the governor
of el-Harmali JU^J.1. This valley is one day's
journey, or more, from Zabid. It is well cultivated,
and has abundance of flowing water and musa trees
^JU. It is surrounded by two mountains. The
monkeys form there two corps; each is lead by a
Hazr j,yfc (jj&\ which means a male monkey, who
is distinguished by his superior size and virility,
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 443

and who is the leader of the rest. A she ape gives

birth to a dozen young monkeys at once, as the
sow brings forth many 'pigs. Some of the young
monkeys are nursed and carried by the mother just
as women carry their children, and the male takes
care of the rest. They have parties and meetings,
which are numerously attended. There you may hear
them speechify, and discuss matters. The female
monkeys chatter like women, when they are alone.
If a man hears their conversation and does not see
them, in those mountains, in musa and other trees,
and by night, he has no suspicion but that they are
human beings. The monkeys of Yemen are the
wildest, most mischievous, and have the greatest
docility. The Yemenites call the monkeys ^yi-
The male and female animal have long ringlets of
hair flowing over their shoulders, which are as black
as possible. When they meet, they sit according to
their rank, after their leader; and they imitate man
in all their doings.
In the valleys, plains, and mountains at Marib,
which is between the country of San'a and the castle
of Kahlan ^^T **Xi', the monkeys are so numerous,
that they may be compared with clouds.
Kahlan ^%r is one of the fortresses of Yemen,
where now As'ad Ben Ya'fur jy.*.* ^> <x**~t
(yL*j), the king of Yemen, lives; separated from
society, only with his court. This king is a rem-
444 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,
nant of the Himyarite sovereigns, and has an army
of about fifty thousand men, infantry and cavalry,
in pay. They receive their pay every month at a
fixed time, which is called XJ^JM*. They assemble
here, and then they return into the Mikhalif of that
country: Mikhalif means fortresses £&xM cjl^L^OL^t-
This prince had wars in Yemen with the Kar-
matians, and the Lord of the Zanj J, who was 'Ali
Ben el-Fadhl >UM ^ JL*, after 270 A.H.- 'Ali
acted a great part in Yemen until he was killed:
then Yemen surrendered to As'ad.
The monkeys are in several places of Yemen,
and in other regions of the earth, which we forbear
to mention; for we have explained the reason why

* JyS means to encamp and to quarter. They were pro-

bably drawn up in review when they received their pay :
XJyJi would therefore mean here, the being drawn up.

•f1 o&sS plural cjUJl^j means, with other Arabic authors,

a district of Yemen, of which there were seventy-two or seventy-
three. Some of the names of these districts are found in Johann-
sen (Hist. Jemanae, p. 34) ; but the list of all of them is in Ibn
Khordadbeh's Geography (MS. of the Bodleian Library). This
passage of el-Mas'udl's leads us to suppose that in every such
district was a fortress, inhabited, as one may presume, by one of
the Abna ^Uj^J or chiefs of the Persian expedition, which con-
quered the country under Anusharwan, and introduced a sort of
feudal system as it would appear.
The MSS. read S^U and S
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 445

they live in some quarters of the world, whilst they

are not met with in others, in our Akhbar ez-
zeinan, where we have also given an account of the
nisnas* ^UwJM, and the 'irbid J^^xM, which are a
sort of animals like serpents, in the Hajrf j.ar of
Yemamah: the singular is, according to the opinion
of some lexicographers, ^^. El-Motawakel asked,
in the beginning of his Khalifat, Honain Ben Ishak
to bring him, amongst other species of animals,
some nisnas: only two specimens were brought for
him to Serrmenray ; but he did not think to send
for an 'irbad; perhaps because this animal perishes
if it is removed from Yemamah,, at a certain dis-
tance from this province, in the cage in which it is
carried. The people of Yemamah use it against
serpents, scorpions, and other vermin, as the people
of Sijistan make use of the urchins Jolo for this
purpose. In ancient times no urchin was killed
in that country. This town was built by Alex-
ander, in an open and sandy country, and it is sur-
rounded by sand hills, which are supported by
wood arid reeds. There are a number of vipers,

* A kind of ape or satyr, which are said to inhabit the desert

of el- Ahkaf.
f This town is to be distinguished from el-Hijr, which is the
Petra of ancient geographers : there is for the rest a passage in
Pliny, lib. iv., cap. 32, where this town of Yemamah is to be
understood under Petra.
446 EL-MAS'tTDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

and several species of serpents ; so that if they had

not many urchins, the inhabitants would be over-
come by them. In the same situation are the
Egyptians, in upper Egypt, and elsewhere. They
have a little animal, which they call el-'iras u^-ty^l •
it is larger than a locust and smaller than a weazel,
of a red colour, with a white belly ; and, if it was
not for this reptile, the Egyptians would be over-
come by basilisks ^UA!!, which are a sort of great
serpents. When the basilisk forms a ring round
this little animal, it emits an air, by which the
basilisk bursts. This air is peculiar to this little
animal. The east has several peculiarities in land
and sea, in animals, vegetation, and such as are
caused by the destructive effects of the hot season.
The same can be said of the west, the Tayammon
(J<yM, i.e., the south, and the Jari i^y*, which means
the north. We have given an account of the nature
of the quarters of the world, and it would be a di-
gression from the plan of our work to enter into
details on those subjects in this chapter.
We will therefore return to the account of the
nations which live in the neighbourhood of Bab
el-Abwab, the wall, the Caucasus, the country of
the Khazar, and the Alans. On the frontiers of
the Khazar towards the west, live four Turkish
nations, which derive their origin from the same
forefather. Some of them are settled, whilst
others are nomads. They are all brave and can
 'AND MINES OF GEMS. 447

resist any nation . Each of them has its own king,

whose dominions have an extent of several days,
and they are contiguous to each other. Some of
them are on the Pontus. They extend their pre-
datory excursions as far as Rome ***•,; XijtX-o
which is in the direction towards Spain. They are
victorious over all the nations who live there.
Between the king of the Khazar and the lord of
el-Lan a friendship exists. They are immediate
neighbours of the former. The o
first of these
nations has the name Bajna Us? (<£s? or tf^sr).
^0^0

The second is called Bajkord <^x==:, the next

following nation is called Bajinak JU^ (Uar^v-
a/arot), and is the bravest of the four. The fourth
is called Nukerodah (Novgorod?) *<^Ty. Their
kings have sovereign power*, they had wars with
the Byzantines after the year 320 A.H. (932 A.D.)
or in that yearf. The Byzantines have, oir"the~~
frontiers towards these four nations, a large Greek
city which is called Walender^j^ (£$OuJj or «\jjj),
which has a great population (garrison), and is
protected by the sea on one side, and by mountains
on the other. The inhabitants (garrison) of this
town defended the country against the invasions of

f Compare Cedrenus ad annum .934.

_5^j
448 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the before mentioned four Turkish nations, and

they were unable to penetrate into the country of
the Byzantines, being precluded by mountains, the
sea, and this town. These four nations have been
at war with each other, on account of a dispute
respecting a Moslim merchant of Ardobil, who,
although he enjoyed the protection of hospitality of
one of these nations, was injured by another. This
gave rise to disunion. The Byzantines of Walen-
der took advantage of it, invaded their country
whilst they were disunited ; they took many of
their children prisoners, and plundered their pro-
perty. When they heard of this, as they were
occupied in their war, they united under one com-
mander, proclaimed a mutual amnesty, remitting
blood revenge ; and the whole nation, about six
thousand horse strong, at once repaired to the
town of Walender, and this without being called
out, and without collecting the men. If they had
called out their men, they would have mustered
about one hundred thousand horsemen. When
Romanus who is the present emperor of the Byzan-
tines, that is to say, in 332 A.H., had received
intelligence, he sent against them twelve thousand
(Arabic) horsemen* who had embraced the Chris-

* The Taghlebites, some of the Rabi'ah, and other tribes of

Syria and Mesopotamia, used to serve in the army of the Byzan-
tine emperors.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 449

tian religion, with spears in the Arabic costume

(Sj, and fifty thousand Byzantines. - They
o .-
came in
eight days* to the town of Walender^ja^, encamped
beyond the town, and took (partly) their quarters
in the houses of the inhabitants. The Turks had
already killed a vast number of the population of
Walender, but they defended themselves with their
walls till this reinforcement reached them. When
the four kings had oberved that their enemies had
received the aid of those (Arabs) who had turned
Christians, and of the Byzantines, they sent unto
their own country, which lies towards the country
of the Khazar, Alans, Bab el-Abwab, and others,
and collected the Moslim population j* who did not
enlist except in wars against unbelievers.
When the two armies had drawn up in battle
array, the Christian Arabs advanced in front of the
ranks of the Byzantines; and, on the side of the
Turks, the merchants who were in their army pro-
ceeded from the ranks, and invited them to the
Mohammedan religion, promising to bring them
into the Moslim territory, if they would take quar-
ter from the Turks. They refused to accept these

* One copy reads eighteen days.

f One copy reads, they collected Moslim merchants who were
resident in their country, in that of the Khazar, Bab el-Abwab, of
the Alans, or any other country, and that portion of the four
Turkish nations who had embraced the Islam.

2 G
450 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

terms, and they fought a general battle, in which

the Christian Arabs and Byzantines were superior
to the Turks; for their number was many times
greater than that of their enemies. They remained
that night at their posts. The four Turkish kings
held a council, in which the king of the Bajinak
said, " Give me the command to-morrow morning."
They agreed to give it to him; and the next morn-
ing they posted many close bodies of troops
(squares), of a thousand men each, on the extremity
of the right wing, and on the extremity of the left
wing. When the soldiers were drawn up, the
bodies of troops (squares)* of the extremity of the
right wing advanced, and fell upon the centre of
the enemy, fighting their way to the place of the
squares which had been posted at the extremity of
the left wing, and the latter advancing upon the
right wing, fell equally upon the centre of the enemy,
and fought their way to the right wing: an uninter-
rupted shooting (of arrows, stones, &c.) ensued, and
these bodies of troops ground the enemy like a mill-
stone, following each other; but the centre, and the
right and left wings of the Turks stood quiet, whilst
the squares were in action. They fought thus: the
squares of the Turks who went out from the extre-

(j~*$S means the squares or close bodies, as they were

in the Roman order of battle. But here it seems to mean light
cavalry in contracjjstinction to the troops of the line.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 451

mity of the right wing opened their operations by

shooting on the left wing of the Byzantines: they
passed their (own) right wing, keeping up the shooting
and came to the centre. The squares which came
from the extremity of the left wing began to shoot
on the side of the right wing of the enemy, proceeded
to the left wing, and continued to shoot, advancing
to the centre where the squares (of both sides) met,
grinding the enemy, as we have said. When the
Christian (Arabs) and the Byzantines saw their
.state, and the breaking up of their ranks under the
uninterrupted shower of arrows which came from
their enemies, they charged the loose troops in front
of the army. Thus they came close on the line of
the Turks, which stood firm to receive them. The
squares opened before them, and the Turks fell all
at once en masse upon them ; this had the effect of
putting the Byzantines to flight. The Turkish line
[not the loose troops (or squares) of their battle
array] charged, after this attack, the line of the
enemy without intermission ; and, at the same time,
the squares fought them from the right and left.
They fell under the sword, and were in the greatest
difficulty ; the cries of men and horses were terrible ;
and about six thousand Byzantines and Christian
(Arabs) were killed, so that they could almost
ascend to the walls of the town over their carcases.
The town was taken, the sword made several
2 G 2 made pri-
days' ravages ; and the inhabitants were
452 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS of GOLD,

soners. After three days, the Turks proceeded

towards Constantinople. They passed a number of
cultivated districts, meadows, and estates, spreading
slaughter and taking prisoners, till they came to the
walls of Constantinople. There they staid for
about forty days, and sold the captive women
and children for linen, cloths of brocade, and
silk. They put the men to the sword, none
received quarter ; sometimes they did not spare even
women and children. They made predatory excur-
sions all over these countries, and as far as [the
country of the Sclavonians and Rome. At present
their invasion extends even to*] the frontiers of
Spain, France, and Galicia. The predatory incur-
sions of the above-mentioned Turkish nations con-
tinue to this day to infest Constantinople, and the
above-mentioned kingdoms.
We return to the account of the Caucasus, the
wall, and Bab el-Abwab, having given a concise
account of the nations who live in those countries.
One of these nations lives on the frontiers of the
Alans, and has the name el-Abkhaz jLs?5N. They
are Christians, and form a monarchy: the present
king has the name et-Tobili ^X^LM (Theophilus?)f.

* These words are left out in some MSS. and by Klaproth; and
it is very likely that they are interpolated.
f The MS. of Ley den reads thus : " They have at present
their own king, but they are, nevertheless, under the supremacy
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 453

The dominions of this Tobili are called Mesjid of

Dul-Karnain (Alexander). The Abkhaz and Kha-
zarians used to pay tribute to the governor of the
frontiers of Tiflis, since the time when this city
was subjected by the Mohammedans, who settled
there (a military colony), which continued up to
the reign of el-Mot awakel. There was a king in
these frontiers, of the name of Ishak Ben Isma'il,
who had subjected, with the Moslims whom he
had under his command, the nations of that neigh-
bourhood. They acknowledged their submission to
him by paying the capitation tak. His power was
in the ascendant (and he considered himself as an
independent prince), until el-Motawakel sent an
army against the frontier of Tiflis, which took the
country by force, after some battles. Ishak was
killed; for he had made himself independent in
that country. It would be too long to relate his
whole history, which is pretty well known in

of the king of the Alans. Their country extends as far as the

Caucasus. Next to them live the Khazarians £j iV^U? wno are
a great nation and profess the Christian religion. They are also
called el-Hazran • J jV^* They have at present a king of the
name of Tobl'a ju/,yj, whose dominions occupy the place called
Mesjid Dul-Karnain. The Abkhaz and Khazarians used to pay
tribute to the governor of the frontiers of Tiflis," etc.
Klaproth observes, that the Hazran occupied a part of Min-
grelia and Guria. which is still called Kadzaro by the Turks.
454 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,
those countries and elsewhere, amongst persons
possessed of a knowledge of history. He pretended
to be a KoraTshite and of the Omaiyde family ; but
it is not true. Since that time the Moslims have
lost their power on the frontiers of Tiflis, and have
never recovered it. The neighbouring kingdoms
refused their submission, and they encroached upon
the principal estates (villages) of Tiflis. You
are obliged to pass through those unbelieving-
nations if you wish to go to the most distant Mo-
hammedan dominions about Tiflis, since they live
all round this Moslim province, the inhabitants of
which are a people of great strength and bravery;
but they are surrounded by the said kingdoms.
Beyond the Kharzan (j_>V^ (Hazaran), is the
country of the Samsaha l^ua^!, who are Chris-
tians, mixed, however, with Pagans : they have no
king. Next to the Samsahians, between the fron-
tier of Tiflis and the fortress Bab el-Lan, which we
have described, is the kingdom of the Senarians
x>^UxaJ! (Xj^U*a!l): their king has the name Ke-

reskus u»j£»jS' (^^fj.r). They are Christians,

and believe that they are of Arabic origin, and
a portion of the 'Oka'il* tribe (which belongs to the

* One copy reads

^ic <>, and another copy reads

 AND MINES OF GEMS. 455

confederation) of the Modhar tribes (which have

the same origin as the other) Nizar tribes. They
have lived there from ancient times, and have
subjected many nations of the Caucasus. I have
seen in the country of Marib, in Yemen, several
men of the 'Ok ail tribe, variously accoutred, and
did not find any difference between them and the
manners of their brethren on the Caucasus. This
tends to strengthen their assertion. They have
many horses and great wealth, and there are no
people in all Yemen of the tribe of Nizar Ben
Ma'add besides the 'Ok ail family, except the ac-
counts which are given of the children of Anmar
j{f\ Ben Nizar Ben Ma'add, of their immigration into
Yemen, of the interview which Jarir Ben 'Abdullah
el-Bajaliy ^X-rsOJ <*MUxc ^i jj.j^- had with the Pro-
phet, and the history of the Bajilah ^X^s:. The
Sinarians believe that they had lived with the 'Okail
in the country of Marib, and that they sepa-
rated from the 'Oka'il, who still live in Yemen, in
ancient times, under several circumstances which
are related in history.
Next to the kingdom of the Sinarians lives a na-
tion called Shakin * ($£& who are Christians, inter-
spersed with Moslims who are mostly merchants,

* This is the country of Shakhi, which lies north of the Korr

and Karabagh. (Klaproth.)
456 EL-MAS'lJDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

or employed in other trades ^3^. Their king

is at present, when we publish this book, Ader Ben
Samah Ben Homayir (^»U>) jj\$ ^j *«v* ^j j£\-
Next to them is the kingdom of Ka'ilah XXo.
The population of the capital consists of Moslims,
whilst the villages, and estates about the town, are
inhabited by Christians. Their present king is
<j"
A'anbasah x*»j^\ (**»*) The Lame. He gives
shelter to robbers, vagabonds, and highwaymen.
Next comes the kingdom of the Mukanians
3USb>U. We have already mentioned this country,
saying that it has been conquered, and now forms
part of the dominions of Sharwan-Shah. But it is
to be distinguished from a country on the coast of
the sea of the Khazar, which has the same name.
Mohammed Ben Yezid who is at present known as
Sharwan-Shah sli {Jsj*** had been King Layidan-
Shah *L3» j,J«X)^, and his ancestors had the same
title; for, at that time 'Ali Ben el-Haithem had the
title of King Sharwan-Shah. But when 'AH was
dead, Mohammed made himself master of (the
dominions and title of) Sharwan-Shah and other
countries, as we have related, after he had killed
his uncles, and occupied the said kingdoms. He
is in possession of a fortress, called the fortress of
Tiar ^Uj, which is situated on the Caucasus, and
the strongest known on earth, excepting a fortress
in Paris not far from Siraf, on the sea coast, in a
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 457

place called ez-Zirobad Jo^yi, which belongs to

'Abdullah Ben Tmarah. This fortress has the name
ofed-Dikdan ^JjXjjJl.
There are many fortresses on earth of which
strange stories are related, which have been collected
by Abu-1-Hosa'in el-Medaini, in a monograph on
this subject, which he has entitled, "The book of
the Fortresses" £&*tt ^UT. In this book are select
stories respecting fortresses, some of which we have
given in our Akhbar ez-zeman.
Ei-Mas'udi says, this is a view of the account of
the town Bab el-Abwab, the wall, Caucasus, and
the inhabitants of these countries. We have given
a detailed narration of their manners and modes in
warfare, and of the stratagems of their kings, in our
Akhbar ez-zeman. The accounts which we have
given of them, and the descriptions of their kingdoms,
dwell on objects which are palpable (i. e., the pre-
sent state), and not on abstractions (or the history
of past times), and which anybody who chooses to
visit the countries which we have described may see*.
'Oba'id Allah Ben Khordadbeh gives in his book
which has the title of, "The Roads and the King-
doms," the distances of places by the road (not as
 458 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

the crow flies), but he does not give any account of

the kings and kingdoms. There is no use in show-
ing merely the distances and roads, for this regards
only sending couriers* and despatching parcels and
letters. The same author mentions how great the
revenue of the villages of elTrak was. Such
account, however, cannot be correct, for the
revenue is always sinking and rising, disminishing
and increasing, according to circumstances f ; and he

states, that the mount el-'Arij gj*$\ which is

between Mekka and Medina coheres with the
mountains of Syria, so that it is connected with the
mount of el-Akra' at Antiochia, which is again in
connexion with the mount el-Kam -\&J. This is a
curious notice, and shows that he knew, that the
various parts of the earth are connected, and no
where interrupted nor separated, except, that in some
places there are low, in others high, countries. His

* The MS. of Ley den leaves the reading of this word doubt-
ful, and others write _ .X5, instead of „ ^o. The reader may
refer, respecting Ibn Khordadbeh, to the note to page 331. Here
is confirmed what has been said there partly as conjecture, without
being aware of this passage, namely, that Ibn Khordadbeh 's work
was intended as a road and post book. Perhaps it was even the
official directory.
t I published the whole of this account of the land-tax of
Ibn Khordadbeh, from the MS. of Oxford, with the accounts of
some other authors on the same subject, in the Asiatic Journal
of 1839.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 459

book may be considered as the best work in its way.

Of equal merit is his book on the chronology and
history of the nations before the Islam.
Ahmad Ben et-Taib, the companion of el-Mo'-
tadhed Billah, wrote a book on the same subject, in
which he gives an account of the whole world ; but
what he says, is, for the most part, contrary to
truth ; and I believe that it is a pseudonym work
to which his name is prefixed, for he was possessed
of much more knowledge than what this book be-
speaks; and if it is genuine, we must consider that
God, the Almighty, gives, by his infinite wisdom,
absolute power and mercy to his servants — to
those success in their labours to whom he thinks
best.
One of the Persian kings built the town of Bab
el-Abwab, of the wall of which we have said, that it
extends over land, sea, and mountains, and several
fortresses: he settled military colonies there, and he
defined the ranks of the kings. He wrote to the
king of the Khazar, el-Lan, and Turks, and to the
kings of other nations, who ruled over Berda'ah er-
Rum, el-Bailakan, Aderbijan, Zanjan ^U^, (sic, or
y^j), Abhar ^\ (^^0* Kazwin, Hamadan, ed-
Dainawar, Nohawand, and other places which were
under the dependency of el-Kufah and el- Basrah
(after the Arabic conquests),, and form part of el-
'Irak. God may keep the said nations within their
limits, particularly since the Moslim power has been
460 EL-MAS'UOI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD,

so reduced, and is in such a decline that the Byzan-

tines are victorious over the Moslims; the pilgrim-
age to Mekka is in a bad state; holy warfare
is neglected; the highways are unsafe, and the
roads bad ; every chief makes himself the independ-
ent master of the provinces in which he is, as was
the case under the kings of the Satrapies, after the
death of Alexander, until Ardeshir Ben Babek Ben
Sasan united the empire. He restored order, he
rendered religious service safe, and promoted the
cultivation of the country (by paying attention to
irrigation, and thus it continued) until God sent his
prophet, through whom he dispelled the darkness of
wrong religions, and destroyed the services ordained
by false creeds. The Islam was victorious till at
present, but now, that is to say, in 332 A.H., under
the Khalifat of Abu Ishak Ibrahim el-Mottaki Lilian
its pillars give way, and its foundations are sinking.
God is the helper in human affairs.
There are many curious accounts connected
with Bab el-Abwab, and the various fabrics which
have been raised by Kisra Ben Kobad Ben Fairuz,
that is to say*, Kisra Anusharwan: as the town
of stone 2,lilXijjco near a place called el-Masit

* The MS. of Ley den reads, " Who was the father of Anu-
sharwan." Ifthis reading is adopted, the word " Ben " before
" Kobad " is to be left out. This alteration, however, is not con-
firmed byany MS.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 461

(kjuJU)- The wall which he raised in the

country of Sharwan and which is called the wall of
clay, and the wall of stone which has the name el-
Bermeki u£*riJ!; other accounts refer to the coun-
try of Berda'ah Xc<^j. We will not enter into fur-
ther details, having spoken on this subject in our
former works.
The river el-Koru ^\ (jj£fy (Korr or Cyrus)
rises in the country of Khazaran in the kingdom of
Jerir jjj^ ; it takes its course through the country
of Abkhaz* to the province of Tiflis, which forms
the Moslim frontier ; in the middle of this province
it is divided and runs to the Solawerdians Xj^LJI,
(XjJ^UJJ or XjjjUJ!) (Shulawerdi) who are a
brave and strange nation of Armenian origin,
as we have said. From these the hatchets called
Xj^ *U*J1 (we) i^UL, \f&> have their name ; which
are in use with the Siabihah X^L**]! (Xx^UiJ!)
and other Barbarian corps p^U^ JJ^.. This river,
which has the name el-Korr^Xl!, passes through Bar-
daj TT^JJ a place of the province of Berda'ah, and
a few miles distant from this capital ; then it receives
near es-Sinarah iT,l,Ldt (sJlyaJJ) the river es-Ras
u*y (ur^l^)> which runs near Trebizond. And
after these two rivers are united, they fall into the
sea of the Khazar.

* The MSS. read . .Ur*\ and ,^\A\.

462 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD,

The river er-Ras comes from the dominions of

Babek el-Khorrami ^j^ joL, which are called the

country of Badin ^jj«Xf, and belong to Aderbijan,
and from a mount, which has the name of Jebel
Abi Miisa, in el-Gharat* ci»^U!i: on this moun-
tain live several nations, belonging to er-Ran, in
Armenia. It passes the town Warthan ^lij^
(^ydjj), and it comes to the place where it falls
into the Korr, near the village called Sinarah, as
we have said.
The river Isfedrtid j^JujU, which means the
White River, by the way of the transposition of the
words, according to the genius of each of the two
languages, the Persian and the Arabicf, passes
through the country of ed-Dailem, and washes the
castle which has the name Kal'ah of Salar ^^U-
(»&*)) which is the name of Ibn Aswar the Dai-
lemite ^JbAJJ j\y»*\ (jj^^ wno *s one °f the kings of
ed-Dailem, who has at present [that is to say, in
the date when we write this book] rendered himself

* Some copies read er-Ran.

-j-
literally, " According to the putting before and behind between
the two languages, namely, the Persian and the Arabic." That
is to say, the Persians put the adjective before the substantive,
and say the white river ; whilst the Arabs observe the reverse
order, saying the river the white.
 AND MINES OF GEMS. 463

master of Aderbijan. Then this river takes its

course from ed-Dailem to el-Jil J/Jj [from Jil is
derived Jilan j,3U>], and there it receives another
river from the country of ed-Dailem, which is called
Shahanrud ^5l£l£ (^.j^jfcLi) , that is to say, the
King of Rivers : it is so called on account of the
purity, white colour, limpidness, and abundance of
its waters. These two united rivers fall into the

sea of the Dai'lem, the Khazar, and other nations

who live on its coasts. The majority of the popu-
lation on the banks of these rivers form the Dailem
and the Jil, who have conquered and subjected a
great part of the country.
Having given an account of the Caucasus, the
nations who live on it, and round it, of Bab el-
Abwab, and the Khazar, we will proceed to speak
of the kings of the Assyrians, who are considered
as the first monarchs in astronomical tables (observa-
tions) and chronology ; then follow the kings of
el-Mausil and of Ninive ; then the kings of Babel,,
who are the cultivators of the earth, who have dug
canals, planted trees, converted waste lands into
fields, and made roads. These are followed by the
first series of Persian kings, who are the Jahan
wl£lj^ (..jljfclJ^), which means Lords, down to
Feridun : then follow the Askan ^IsCJ, the last of
whom was Dara Ben Dara, which is the same as
Darius: the are the Soki'm
464 EL-MASJUDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD.

(Kaianians). After them follow the kings of the

Satrapies, who are the Ashghan ^UliSM. Then
comes the second series of Persian (kings), that is
to say, the Sasanians : then the Greeks : then
follows the Roman empire. We shall add the
kings of the Arabs (or Maghrib) who followed
them. We shall also give an historical account of
the Sudan, of Egypt, Alexandria, and of other places
of the earth, if it is the will of God ; for there is no
strength but in God.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

LONDON : HARRISON AND Co., PRINTERS, ST. MARTIN'S LANE.

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