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Chapter One
1. See the accompanying Mathematica notebook.

2. AC{D, B} = ACDB + ACBD, A{C, B}D = ACBD + ABCD, C{D, A}B = CDAB +
CADB, and {C, A}DB = CADB+ACDB. Therefore −AC{D, B}+A{C, B}D−C{D, A}B+
{C, A}DB = −ACDB + ABCD − CDAB + ACDB = ABCD − CDAB = [AB, CD]

3. Recall that (∆A)2 = hA2 i − hAi2 and |Sx ; +i = √12 |+i + √12 |−i (1.4.17a). Since both
parts of the problem
h deal withi Sy , recall also that Sy h= h̄2 [−i|+ih−| +i i|−ih+|]. Therefore

2 1
2
Sy |Sx ; +i = h̄2 √i2 |−i − √i2 |+i and Sy2 |Sx ; +i = h̄2 √ |+i + √1 |−i . Thus hS 2 i = h̄
2 2 y 2

2
and hSy i = 0, so (∆Sy )2 = h̄2 . This would seem to be a problem because (∆Sx )2 = 0
h the left side ofithe inequality statement is zero. However [Sx , Sy ] = ih̄Sz and Sz |Sx ; +i =
and
h̄ √1 |+i √1 |−i
2 2
− 2
so hSz i = 0 and both sides of the uncertainty inequality are zero.
h i
h̄ 2 h̄ 2 h̄ 2
√1 |+i √1 |−i so hS 2 i = and (∆Sz )2 =




For second part, Sz2 |Sx ; +i = 2 2
+
2 z 2 2
h̄ 4


and the left side of the uncertainty side needs [Sz , Sy ] = −ih̄Sx
inequality is 2 . The right
1 2 h̄ 2


so is 4 h̄ 2 and the uncertainty relation is satisfied by the equality.
P
4. (a) Tr(X) = a0 Tr(1)P + ` Tr(σ` )a` = 2aP
0 since Tr(σ` ) = 0. AlsoP
1
Tr(σk X) = a0 Tr(σk ) + ` Tr(σk σ` )a` = 2 ` Tr(σk σ` + σ` σk )a` = ` δk` Tr(1)a` = 2ak . So,
a0 = 21 Tr(X) and ak = 12 Tr(σk X). (b) Just do the algebra to find a0 = (X11 + X22 )/2,
a1 = (X12 + X21 )/2, a2 = i(−X21 + X12 )/2, and a3 = (X11 − X22 )/2.

5. Since det(σ · a) = −a2z − (a2x + a2y ) = −|a|2 , the cognoscenti realize that this problem
really has to do with rotation operators. From this result, and (3.2.44), we write
      
iσ · n̂φ φ φ
det exp ± = cos ± i sin
2 2 2

and multiplying out determinants makes it clear that det(σ · a0 ) = det(σ · a). Similarly, use
(3.2.44) to explicitly write out the matrix σ · a0 and equate the elements to those of σ · a.
With n̂ in the z-direction, it is clear that we have just performed a rotation (of the spin
vector) through the angle φ.
P P P
6. (a) Tr(XY ) ≡ a ha|XY |ai = a b ha|X|bihb|Y P P |ai by insertingP the identity operator.
Then commute and reverse, so Tr(XY ) = b a hb|Y |aiha|X|bi = b hb|Y X|bi = Tr(Y X).
(b) XY |αi = X[Y |αi] is dual to hα|(XY )† , but Y |αi ≡ |βi is dual to hα|Y † ≡ hβ| and X|βi
is dual to hβ|X † so
P that X[Y |αi] is dualP to hα|Y † X † . Therefore (XY )† = Y † X † .
(c) exp[if (A)] = a exp[ifP (A)]|aiha| = aP exp[if (a)]|aiha|
(d) a ψa∗ (x0 )ψa (x00 ) = a hx0 |ai∗ hx00 |ai = a hx00 |aiha|x0 i = hx00 |x0 i = δ(x00 − x0 )
P
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7. For basis kets |ai i, matrix elements of X ≡ |αihβ| are Xij = hai |αihβ|aj i = hai |αihaj |βi∗ .
For spin-1/2 in the√| ± zi basis, h+|Sz = h̄/2i = 1, h−|Sz = h̄/2i = 0, and, using (1.4.17a),
h±|Sx = h̄/2i = 1/ 2. Therefore
 
. 1 1 1
|Sz = h̄/2ihSx = h̄/2| = √
2 0 0

8. A[|ii + |ji] = ai |ii + aj |ji =

6 [|ii + |ji] so in general it is not an eigenvector, unless ai = aj .
That is, |ii + |ji is not an eigenvector of A unless the eigenvalues are degenerate.

9. Since the product is over a complete set, the operator a0 (A − a0 ) will always encounter
Q
a state |ai i such that a0 = ai in which case the result is zero. Hence for any state |αi
Y Y X XY X
(A − a0 )|αi = (A − a0 ) |ai ihai |αi = (ai − a0 )|ai ihai |αi = 0=0
a0 a0 i i a0 i

If the product instead is over all a0 =

6 aj then the only surviving term in the sum is
Y
(aj − a0 )|ai ihai |αi
a0

and dividing by the factors (aj − a0 ) just gives the projection of |αi on the direction |a0 i. For
the operator A ≡ Sz and {|a0 i} ≡ {|+i, |−i}, we have
  
Y
0 h̄ h̄
(A − a ) = Sz − Sz +
a0
2 2
Y A − a0 Sz + h̄/2 h̄
and 00 0
= for a00 = +
a0 6=a00
a −a h̄ 2
Sz − h̄/2 h̄
or = for a00 = −
−h̄ 2
It is trivial to see that the first operator is the null operator. For the second and third, you
can work these out explicitly using (1.3.35) and (1.3.36), for example
 
Sz + h̄/2 1 h̄ 1
= Sz + 1 = [(|+ih+|) − (|−ih−|) + (|+ih+|) + (|−ih−|)] = |+ih+|
h̄ h̄ 2 2

which is just the projection operator for the state |+i.

10. I don’t see any way to do this problem other than by brute force, and neither did the
previous solutions manual. So, make use of h+|+i = 1 = h−|−i andh+|−i = 0 = h−|+i and
carry through six independent calculations of [Si , Sj ] (along with [Si , Sj ] = −[Sj , Si ]) and
the six for {Si , Sj } (along with {Si , Sj } = +{Sj , Si }).
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11. From the figure n̂ = î cos α sin β + ĵ sin α sin β + k̂ cos β so we need to find the matrix
representation of the operator S · n̂ = Sx cos α sin β + Sy sin α sin β + Sz cos β. This means we
need the matrix representations of Sx , Sy , and Sz . Get these from the prescription (1.3.19)
and the operators represented as outer products in (1.4.18) and (1.3.36), along with the
association (1.3.39a) to define which element is which. Thus
     
. h̄ 0 1 . h̄ 0 −i . h̄ 1 0
Sx = Sy = Sz =
2 1 0 2 i 0 2 0 −1

We therefore need to find the (normalized) eigenvector for the matrix

e−iα sin β
   
cos β cos α sin β − i sin α sin β cos β
=
cos α sin β + i sin α sin β − cos β eiα sin β − cos β

with eigenvalue +1. If the upper and lower elements of the eigenvector are a and b, respec-
tively, then we have the equations |a|2 + |b|2 = 1 and

a cos β + be−iα sin β = a

aeiα sin β − b cos β = b

Choose the phase so that a is real and positive. Work with the first equation. (The two
equations should be equivalent, since we picked a valid eigenvalue. You should check.) Then

a2 (1 − cos β)2 |b|2 sin2 β = (1 − a2 ) sin2 β

=
4a2 sin4 (β/2) (1 − a2 )4 sin2 (β/2) cos2 (β/2)
=
a2 [sin2 (β/2) + cos2 (β/2)] cos2 (β/2)
=
a =
cos(β/2)
1 − cos β 2 sin2 (β/2)
and so b = aeiα = cos(β/2)eiα
sin β 2 sin(β/2) cos(β/2)
iα
= e sin(β/2)

which agrees with the answer given in the problem.

12. Use simple matrix techniques for this problem. The matrix representation for H is
 
. a a
H=
a −a
√
Eigenvalues E satisfy (a − E)(−a − E) − a2 = −2a2 + E 2 = 0 or E = ±a 2. Let x1 and x2
√ √ (1) (1)
be the two elements of the eigenvector. For E = +a 2 ≡ E (1) , (1 − 2)x1 + x2 = 0, and
√ √ (2) (2)
for E = −a 2 ≡ E (2) , (1 + 2)x1 + x2 = 0. So the eigenstates are represented by
   
(1) . (1) √ 1 (2) . (2) √ −1
|E i = N and |E i = N
2−1 2+1
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2 √ 2 √
where N (1) = 1/(4 − 2 2) and N (2) = 1/(4 + 2 2).

13. It is of course possible to solve this using simple matrix techniques. For example, the
characteristic equation and eigenvalues are
2
0 = (H11 − λ)(H22 − λ) − H12
" 2 #1/2
H11 + H22 H11 − H22 2
λ = ± + H12 ≡ λ±
2 2

You can go ahead and solve for the eigenvectors, but it is tedious and messy. However, there
is a strong hint given that you can make use of spin algebra to solve this problem, another
two-state system. The Hamiltonian can be rewritten as
.
H = A1 + Bσz + Cσx

where A ≡ (H11 + H22 )/2, B ≡ (H11 − H22 )/2, and C ≡ H12 . The eigenvalues of the first
term are both A, and the eigenvalues for the√sum of the second and third terms are those
of ±(2/h̄) times a spin vector multiplied
√ by B 2 + C 2 . In other words, the eigenvalues of
the full Hamiltonian are just A ± B + C 2 in full agreement with what we got with usual
2

matrix techniques, above. From the hint (or Problem 9) the eigenvectors must be
β β β β
|λ+ i = cos |1i + sin |2i and |λ− i = − sin |1i + cos |2i
2 2 2 2
where α = 0, tan β = C/B = 2H12 /(H11 − H22 ), and we do β → π − β to “flip the spin.”

14. Using the result of Problem 9, the probability of measuring +h̄/2 is

i 2 1 r 1 + cos γ r 1 − cos γ 2 1 + sin γ
 h " #
1 1 γ γ
√ h+| + √ h−| cos |+i + sin |−i = + =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

The results for γ = 0 (i.e. |+i), γ = π/2 (i.e. |Sx +i), and γ = π (i.e. |−i) are 1/2, 1, and
1/2, as expected. Now h(Sx − hSx i)2 i = hSx2 i − hSx i2 , but Sx2 = h̄2 /4 from Problem 8 and
h γ γ i h̄ h γ γ i
hSx i = cos h+| + sin h−| [|+ih−| + |−ih+|] cos |+i + sin |−i
2 2 2 2 2
h̄ h γ γ ih γ γ i γ γ h̄
= cos h−| + sin h+| cos |+i + sin |−i = h̄ cos sin = sin γ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
so h(Sx − hSx i)2 i = h̄2 (1 − sin2 γ)/4 = h̄2 cos2 γ/4 = h̄2 /4, 0, h̄2 4 for γ = 0, π/2, π.

15. All atoms are in the state |+i after emerging from the first apparatus. The second
apparatus projects out the state |Sn +i. That is, it acts as the projection operator
  
β β β β
|Sn +ihSn + | = cos |+i + sin |−i cos h+| + sin h−|
2 2 2 2
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and the third apparatus projects out |−i. Therefore, the probability of measuring −h̄/2
after the third apparatus is
β β 1
P (β) = |h+|Sn +ihSn + |−i|2 = cos2 sin2 = sin2 β
2 2 4
The maximum transmission is for β = 90◦ , when 25% of the atoms make it through.
√
16. The characteristic equation is −λ3 − 2(−λ)(1/ 2)2 = λ(1 − λ2 ) = 0 so the eigenvalues
are λ = 0, ±1 and there is no degeneracy. The eigenvectors corresponding to these are
     
−1 1 1
1 1 √  1 √ 
√  0  2 − 2
2 2 2
1 1 1

The matrix algebra is not hard, but I did this with matlab using

M=[[0 1 0];[1 0 1];[0 1 0]]/sqrt(2)

[V,D]=eig(M)

These are the eigenvectors corresponding to the a spin-one system, for a measurement in
the x-direction in terms of a basis defined in the z-direction. I’m not sure if there is enough
information in Chapter One, though, in order to deduce this.

17. The answer is yes. The identity operator is 1 = a0 ,b0 |a0 , b0 iha0 , b0 | so
P

X X X
AB = AB1 = AB |a0 , b0 iha0 , b0 | = A b0 |a0 , b0 iha0 , b0 | = b0 a0 |a0 , b0 iha0 , b0 | = BA
a0 ,b0 a0 ,b0 a0 ,b0

Completeness is powerful. It is important to note that the sum must be over both a0 and b0
in order to span the complete set of sets.

18. Since AB = −BA and AB|a, bi = ab|a, bi = BA|a, bi, we must have ab = −ba where
both a and b are real numbers. This can only be satisfied if a = 0 or b = 0 or both.

19. Assume there is no degeneracy and look for an inconsistency with our assumptions. If
|ni is a nondegenerate energy eigenstate with eigenvalue En , then it is the only state with this
energy. Since [H.A1 ] = 0, we must have HA1 |ni = A1 H|ni = En A1 |ni. That is, A1 |ni is an
eigenstate of energy with eigenvalue En . Since H and A1 commute, though, they may have
simultaneous eigenstates. Therefore, A1 |ni = a1 |ni since there is only one energy eigenstate.

Similarly, A2 |ni is also an eigenstate of energy with eigenvalue En , and A2 |ni = a2 |ni. But
A1 A2 |ni = a2 A1 |ni = a2 a1 |ni and A2 A1 |ni = a1 a2 |ni, where a1 and a2 are real numbers.
This cannot be true, in general, if A1 A2 6= A2 A1 so our assumption of “no degeneracy” must
be wrong. There is an out, though, if a1 = 0 or a2 = 0, since one operator acts on zero.
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The example given is from a “central forces” Hamiltonian. (See Chapter Three.) The Hamil-
tonian commutes with the orbital angular momentum operators Lx and Ly , but [Lx , Ly ] 6= 0.
Therefore, in general, there is a degeneracy in these problems. The degeneracy is avoided,
though for S-states, where the quantum numbers of Lx and Ly are both necessarily zero.

20. The positivity postulate says that hγ|γi ≥ 0, and we apply this to |γi ≡ |αi + λ|βi. The
text shows how to apply this to prove the Schwarz Innequality hα|αihβ|βi ≥ |hα|βi|2 , from
which one derives the generalized uncertainty relation (1.4.53), namely
1
h(∆A)2 (∆B)2 i ≥ |h[A, B]i|2
4
Note that [∆A, ∆B] = [A − hAi, B − hBi] = [A, B]. Taking ∆A|αi = λ∆B|αi with λ∗ = −λ,
as suggested, so hα|∆A = −λhα|∆B, for a particular state |αi. Then

hα|[A, B]|αi = hα|∆A∆B − ∆B∆A|αi = −2λhα|(∆B)2 |αi

and the equality is clearly satisfied in (1.4.53). We are now asked to verify this relationship
for a state |αi that is a gaussian wave packet when expressed as a wave function hx0 |αi. Use

hx0 |∆x|αi = hx0 |x|αi − hxihx0 |αi = (x0 − hxi)hx0 |αi

h̄ d 0
and hx0 |∆p|αi = hx0 |p|αi − hpihx0 |αi = 0
hx |αi − hpihx0 |αi
i dx
ihpix0 (x0 − hxi)2
 
0 2 −1/4
with hx |αi = (2πd ) exp −
h̄ 4d2
 
h̄ d 0 h̄ 1 0
to get 0
hx |αi = hpi − 2
(x − hxi) hx0 |αi
i dx i 2d
h̄
and so hx0 |∆p|αi = i 2 (x0 − hxi)hx0 |αi = λhx0 |∆x|αi
2d
where λ is a purely imaginary number. The conjecture is satisfied.

It is very simple to show that this condition is satisfied for the ground state of the harmonic
oscillator. Refer to (2.3.24) and (2.3.25). Clearly hxi = 0 = hpi for any eigenstate |ni, and
x|0i is proportional to p|0i, with a proportionality constant that is purely imaginary.

21. Have Sx2 = h̄2 /4 = Sy2 = Sz2 , also [Sx , Sy ] = ih̄Sz , all from Problem 8. Now hSx i = hSy i =
0 for the |+i state. Then h(∆Sx )2 i = h̄2 /4 = h(∆Sy )2 i, and h(∆Sx )2 h(∆Sy )2 = h̄4 /16. Also
|h[Sx , Sy ]i|2 /4 = h̄2 |hSz i|2 /4 = h̄4 /16 and the generalized uncertainty principle is satisfied by
the equality. On the other hand, for the |Sx +i state, h(∆Sx )2 i = 0 and hSz i = 0, and again
the generalized uncertainty principle is satisfied with an equality.