Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College

Wireless & Mobile Communication

(KEC-076)
UNIT-2
SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION

By

Dr. Prashant Mani Tripathi

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering Department
 SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION
• Spread-Spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical,
electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular bandwidth is
deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider
bandwidth.
• To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy, they spread the
original spectrum needed for each station.
• If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss such
that Bss >> B.
• After the signal is created by the source, the
spreading process uses a spreading code
and spreads the bandwidth.

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SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION
• It is a wideband modulation Technique.
• Spread spectrum transmission offers the following three main advantages
over fixed frequency transmission:
(a) Spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to noise and interference.
The process of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out noise and
interference, causing them to recede into the background.
(b) Spread spectrum signals are difficult to intercept.
(c) Spread spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many
types of conventional transmissions with minimal interference.
These signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications,
and vice versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.
 Features of SSM
Spread spectrum techniques meet the following objectives:

1. Operation with a low-energy spectral density

2. Multiple access capability without external control

3. Security (difficult for unauthorized receivers to observe the message)

4. Anti-jamming capability

5. Multipath protection, and

6. Ranging.
There are two types of Spread Spectrum Systems:
1. Averaging system
2. Avoidance system
• Averaging system: In this system, interference reduction takes place
because the interference can be averaged over a large time interval.
Example: A Direct Sequence (DS) system
• Avoidance system: In this system, reduction of interference occurs
because the signal is made to avoid the interference for a large fraction
of time.
Example: Frequency Hopping (FH), time hopping (TH), and chirping
systems.

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Pseudo-Noise Codes with properties and Code Generation
• In DS spread spectrum system, a unique code is used to spread and de spread the
signal. This is Direct Sequence or PN code.

Figure (a). XOR logic in spread spectrum methods and (b) spreading by multiplication
A unique code is used to spread and despread the signal using the logic shown in Figure (a). XOR logic in spread
spectrum methods and (b) spreading by multiplication
 Pseudo-Noise Codes with properties and Code Generation
• Assume that the clock rate is provided for generating each bit of a PN
code (with one clock cycle, one bit of PN code comes out).
• The bit rate of a PN code is called the chip rate (1/ tchip ), which is 10
times or more than the data bit rate.
• The smallest time increment in the sequences of certain period or
duration is tchip and is known as a time chip .
• The total period consists of Nc time chips.
• The chip rate decides the final transmission spectrum of the DSSS
system.
 Operation related to PN code or Sequence
1. Autocorrelation Property of DSSS- Matching of a signal is done
with itself

Auto and Cross-correlation

Equations

The autocorrelation should be maximal for the DS or PN

codes so that correct PN signal can be identified at the
receiver from the numerous coexisting signals.
 2. Properties of Pseudo-noise Codes
Randomness of PN sequence is tested by following code properties observed over on full period.
• Balance property - In every period, the number of +1’s differs from that of 0 ’s by exactly one digit
(balance property). Hence, Nc is an odd number.
Example: 0001 0011 0101 111 – seven 0s and eight 1s meet balance condition
• Run length property - In every period, half of the runs of the same sign have length one, one-fourth
have length two, one-eighth have length three, and so forth. In addition, the number of positive runs
equals that of negative runs (run property).
Example: 000 1 00 11 0 1 0 1111
• Shift and add property- the modulo2 sum of an n sequence and any of it’s cyclic version is another
cyclic version. Exp: 0011101
• Autocorrelation property- The autocorrelation of a periodic sequence is two valued, periodic and
binary valued. Exp: 000100110101111/100010011010111.
1
Ra(τ) = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 − 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑁𝑐
𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑠
 3. Aperiodic and Periodic Sequences
• An aperiodic sequence is one that does not repeat itself in a periodic
fashion. It is usually assumed that the sequence has a value of zero
outside its stated interval. An ideal aperiodic sequence of Nc chips has
the autocorrelation to be Nc for no shift and 0 or 1 with a shift of one
or more bits, also called Barker sequences ie. 1,2,3,4,5,7,11 & 13.

• A periodic sequence is a sequence of plus or minus 1’s that repeats

itself exactly with a specified period. Periodic sequences are made
longer by more shift registers, so it appears as random to the users.
4.Popular Periodic code Sequences in SS
transmission
• Maximum length sequences

• Walsh- Hadamard sequences

• Gold codes/sequences

• Kasami codes etc.

 MAXIMAL LENGTH PSEUDO RANDOM CODE
GENERATOR:
• PN code is generated in a maximal length shift register, which is nothing but a linear feedback
shift register (LFSR).
• An m-sequence generator using n memory elements, such as flip-flops (shift register). If we
keep on clocking such a sequence generator, the sequence will repeat, but after 2p -1 bits. The
number of 1-s in the complete sequence and the number of 0-s will differ by one. That is, if
p= 8, there will be 128 one-s and 127 zero-s in one complete cycle of the sequence.
• If the period of an m-sequence is Nc chips, Nc = (2p –1), where ‘n’ is the number of stages in
the code generator. The short length sequences are Nc = 7,15,31,63,127,255,…….
• The autocorrelation function of an m-sequence is periodic in nature and it assumes only two
values, viz. 1 and (-1/N) when the shift parameter (τ) is an integral multiple of chip duration.
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• Further, the auto-correlation of an m sequence is -1 except for relative shifts of (0 ± 1)
chips. This behavior of the auto correlation function is somewhat similar to that of
thermal noise as the auto correlation shows the degree of correspondence between the
code and its phase-shifted version. Hence, the m-sequences are also known as, pseudo-
noise or PN sequences.
• Another interesting property of an m-sequence is that, the sequence, when added
(modulo-2) with a cyclically shifted version of itself, results in another shifted version of
the original sequence.
Several properties of PN sequences are used in the design of DS systems.
• Some features of maximal length pseudo random periodic sequences (m-sequence or PN
sequence) are noted below:
a) Over one period of the sequence, the number of ‘+1’ differs from the number of ‘-1’ by
exactly one.
b) Also, the number of positive runs equals the number of negative runs. c) Half of the runs
of bits in every period of the same sign (i.e. +1 or -1) are of length 1, one fourth of the runs
of bits are of length 2, one eighth of the runs of bits are of length 3 and so on. The
autocorrelation of a periodic sequence is two-valued.
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 MAXIMAL LENGTH PSEUDO RANDOM
CODE GENERATOR:

• The Linear feedback shift register (LFSR) can be implemented in two ways:
1. Fibonacci Implementation : it consists of a simple shift register in which a binary
weighted modulo-2 sum of taps is fed back to the input [Fig.b].
2. Galois Implementation: it consists of a shift register, the contents of which are
modified at every step by a binary weighted value of the output stage[Fig.c].

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Maximum Length Sequences
Primitive Polynomial-----

ML sequence operators (a) Typical PN code generator with three shift register stages and its
application for data spreading (b) Fibonacci implementation of LFSR ( linear feedback shift
register) (c) Galois implementation of LFSR
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
• The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also expands
the bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is different.
• In DSSS, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code.
In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips,
where the chip rate is n times that of the data bit.
• Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each
and every bit of the user data is multiplied by a secret code, called
as chipping code.
• This chipping code is nothing but the spreading code which is
multiplied with the original message and transmitted.
• The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message. 17
In the figure, the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000.
If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N. This means that the
required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the
original signal.

The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can also
provide immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.
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DSSS TRANSMITTER & RECEIVER

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 Receiver Process
The received spread spectrum signal for a single user can be
represented as

Carrier demodulation and despreading of SSM signal to get original data

• Detection of signal and despreading operations can be either by active

method or passive method.
• Active method: Time and frequency domain, RAKE receiver.
• Passive method: Only frequency domain.
 Receiver Process

• m(t)- data sequence

• p(t)- PN spreading sequence
• fc- carrier frequency
• θ- carrier phase angle at t = 0.
• The data waveform is a time sequence of nonoverlapping rectangular pulses, each of which has an
amplitude equal to +1 or -1.
• Each symbol in m(t) represents a data symbol and has duration Tm
• p(t)- a chip, is usually rectangular with an amplitude equal to +1 or -1, and has a duration of Tc .
Receiver Process
 Receiver Process

Fig: Spectra of desired received signal with

interference: (a) wideband filter output and
(b) correlator output after despreading.
Example
• Draw the waveform of different stages of DSSS modulator and
demodulator for input data bits1 followed by 0. The PN sequence
during these two bits is (010100011010111001100001).

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Waveforms for Example
 Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
• The technique uses M different carrier frequencies
that are modulated by the source signal.
• At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier
frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates
another carrier frequency.
• Although the modulation is done using one carrier
frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the
long run.
• The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is
BFHSS >> B.

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The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period and
passes it to the frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that
frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier signal.
For Example M is 8 and k is 3. The pseudorandom code generator will create eight different 3-
bit patterns. These are mapped to eight different frequencies in the frequency table.
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• The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, all, 100. Note that the pattern is
pseudorandom it is repeated after eight hoppings. This means that at hopping period 1, the
pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 kHz, the source signal modulates this carrier
frequency.

• The second k-bit pattern selected is 111, which selects the 900-kHz carrier; the eighth
pattern is 100, the frequency is 600 kHz. After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats, starting
from 101 again.

• If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and receiver can
have privacy. If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, he can only access a
small piece of data because he does not know the spreading sequence to quickly adapt
herself to the next hop. The scheme has also an anti-jamming effect. A malicious sender
may be able to send noise to jam the signal for one hopping period (randomly), but not for
the whole period.
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FHSS TRANSMITTER

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FHSS RECEIVER

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Slow frequency hopping and Fast frequency hopping.
Slow frequency hopping Fast frequency hopping
In slow frequency hopping, multiple
In fast frequency hopping, multiple hops are
symbols are transmitted in one frequency
required to transmit one symbol.
hop.
One or more symbols are transmitted over One symbol is transmitted over multiple
the same carrier frequency. carriers in different hops.
Symbol rate is equal to chip rate. Hop rate is higher than symbol rate.
Hop rate is lower than symbol rate. Hop rate is higher than symbol rate.

A jammer can’t detect this signal because

A jammer can detect this signal if carrier
one symbol is transmitted using more than
frequency in one hop is known.
one carrier frequencies.

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Advantages of FHSS
• FHSS offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency transmission:
1.FHSS signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference because the
signal hops to a different frequency band.
2.Signals are difficult to intercept if the frequency-hopping pattern is not
known.
3.Jamming is also difficult if the pattern is unknown; a malicious individual
may only jam the signal for a single hopping period if the spreading
sequence is unknown.
4.FHSS transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of
conventional transmissions with minimal mutual interference. FHSS signals
add minimal interference to narrowband communications, and vice versa.

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Data and Time-frequency Plane
(Example)

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TIME HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM

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TIME HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM

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• In a typical time hopping signal is divided into frames, which in turn are subdivided into
M time slots.
• As the message is transmitted only one time slot in the frame is modulated with
information (any modulation).
• This time slot is chosen using PN generator.
• All of the message bits gathered in the previous frame are then transmitted in a burst
during the time slot selected by the PN generator.
• If we let: Tf = frame duration, k = number of message bits in one frame and Tf = k*tm ,
then the width of each time slot in a frame is Tf/M and the width of each bit in the time
slot is Tf/kM or just tm/M .
• Thus, the transmitted signal bandwidth is 2M times the message bandwidth.

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 HYBRID SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUE
• The use of hybrid techniques attempt to capitalize upon the advantages of a particular method
while avoiding the disadvantages.
• DS, suffers heavily from the near–far effect, which makes this technique hard to apply to systems
without the ability of power control, but its implementation is inexpensive.
• The PN code generators are easy to implement and the spreading operation itself can be simply
performed by XOR ports.
• FH effectively suppresses the near–far effect and reduces the need for power control. However,
implementation of the (fast) hopping frequency synthesizer required for a reasonable spreading
gain is more problematic in terms of higher silicon cost and increased power consumption.
• Selection of SFH/FFH also has its own pros and cones.
• Solutions are: PN/FH, PN/TH, FH/TH, and PN/FH/TH.
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Applications of Spread Spectrum
• A specific example of the use of spread spectrum technology is the North American Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Digital Cellular (IS-95) standard.
• The CDMA employed in this standard uses a spread spectrum signal with 1.23-MHz
spreading bandwidth.
• Since in a CDMA system every user is a source of interference to other users, control of
the transmitted power has to be employed (due to near-far problem). Such control is
provided by sophisticated algorithms built into control stations.
• The standard also recommends use of forward error-correction coding with interleaving,
speech activity detection and variable-rate speech encoding.
• Walsh code is used to provide 64 orthogonal sequences, giving rise to a set of 64
orthogonal ‘code channels’.
• The spread signal is sent over the air interface with QPSK modulation with Root Raised
Cosine (RRC) pulse shaping.
• Other examples of using spread spectrum technology in commercial applications include
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satellite communications, wireless LANs based on IEEE 802.11 standard etc.
RAKE receiver
• RAKE receiver, used specially in CDMA cellular systems, can combine multipath
components, which are time-delayed versions of the original signal transmission.

• This combining is done in order to improve the signal to noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver.

• RAKE receiver attempts to collect the time shifted versions of the original signal by
providing a separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath signals.

• This can be done due to multipath components are practically uncorrelated from another
when their relative propagation delay exceeds a chip period.

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 Rake Receiver Configuration

Choosing weighting coefficients based on the actual outputs of the correlators yields better RAKE performance.

Figure: An M-branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation. Each correlator detects a time shifted version of
the original CDMA transmission, and each finger of the RAKE correlates to a portion of the signal which is delayed
by at least one chip in time from the other fingers.
Near Far Problem
Near Far Problem
Power Control

(a) Open loop (b) Closed loop

THANK YOU!!

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