Neuroscience and Brain Development

Human brain development is a protracted process that begins in the third gestational week
(GW) with the differentiation of the neural progenitor cells and extends at least through late
adolescence, arguably throughout the lifespan. The processes that contribute to brain
development range from the molecular events of gene expression to environmental input.
Critically, these very different levels and kinds of processes interact to support the ongoing
series of events that define brain development. Both gene expression and environmental input
are essential for normal brain development, and disruption of either can fundamentally alter
neural outcomes. But neither genes nor input is prescriptive or determinative of outcome. But
neither genes nor input is prescriptive or determinative of outcome. Rather brain development is
aptly characterized as a complex series of dynamic and adaptive processes that operate
throughout the course of development to promote the emergence and differentiation of new
neural structures and functions. These processes operate within highly constrained and
genetically organized, but constantly changing contexts that, over time, support the emergence
of the complex and dynamic structure of the human brain (Waddington 1939; Morange 2001;
Stiles 2008).

Fig.1

Human embryo at Carnegie Stage 23, the

end of the embryonic period (GW8). It is 30
mm long. Image from the Kyoto Collection
reproduced with permission of Prof Kohei
Shiota, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto
University, and obtained with permission of
Dr. Mark Hill, University of New South Wales,

http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embry
o.htmFull it

Brain development continues for an extended period postnatally. The brain increases in size by
four-fold during the preschool period, reaching approximately 90% of adult volume by age 6
(Reiss et al. 1996; Iwasaki et al. 1997; Courchesne et al. 2000; Kennedy and Dehay 2001; Paus
et al. 2001; Kennedy et al. 2002; Lenroot and Giedd 2006). But structural changes in both the
major gray and white matter compartments continue through childhood and adolescence, and
these changes in structure parallel changes in functional organization that are also reflected in
behavior. During the early postnatal period, level of connectivity throughout the developing brain
far exceeds that of adults (Innocenti and Price 2005.
This exuberant connectivity is gradually pruned back via competitive processes that are
influenced by the experience of the organism. These early experience dependent processes
underlie the well-documented plasticity and capacity for adaptation that is the hallmark of early
brain development.

Genes and Gene Products

Genes are the material substance that is passed intergenerationally from parent to offspring.
Genes are contained in the nucleotide sequences of DNA that are found in the nucleus of every
cell in the body. The expression of a gene has one result: the production of a protein molecule.
These molecular products of gene expression are essential for all aspects of development.
Genes provide a template for making proteins and it is the proteins that are the active agents in
biological development. Thus, while genes contain information that is essential for the
development and functioning of the biological organism, genes are basically inert molecules.
Genes cannot participate directly in biological processes. They do not directly create blue eyes,
disease proclivity, intelligence or behavior. Rather, there is an indirect relationship between the
information in a gene and a developmental outcome. The information in the gene sequences
must be extracted, recoded and translated into proteins. It is the proteins that enter into the
complex, interactive signaling cascades that usually involve many gene products as well as
influences from the environment. A particular gene product is thus one of many essential
elements that interact to support and guide the complex process of brain development.

The Organization of the Mature Brain The human brain is arguably the most complex of all
biological systems. The mature brain is composed of more than 100 billion neurons
(Pakkenberg and Gundersen 1997). Neurons are the information processing cells in the brain
(see Fig. 2). There are many different kinds of neurons that vary in their size and shape as well
as in their function. Neurons make connections with other neurons to form the information
processing networks that are responsible for all of our thoughts, sensations,
feelings and actions. Since each neuron can make connections with more than
1,000 other neurons, the adult brain is estimated to have more than 60 trillion
neuronal connections. The point of connection between two neurons is
called a synapse.

Schematic drawing of a neuron. Each neuron a single large

axon. At the distal tip of the axon is a growth cone that serves to
guide the axon to targeted brain regions. Once the axon
reaches the target site, synapses, or points of connection, form
between the axon and the target neuron. The synapse allows
electrochemical signals to be transmitted to the target neuron. Each
neuron also has a complex arbor of dendrites that receive
information from other neurons. Image in the public domain uploaded from:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com mons/7/72/Neuron-figure-
notext.svg. Original image from Nicolas Rougier

The mature human brain has a characteristic pattern of folds (the

sulci) and ridges (the gyri). The enfolding of the mature brain is
thought to be an adaptation to the dramatic growth in the size of the
brain during the course of evolution. The folding of brain tissue allowed large brains to fit in
comparatively small cranial vaults that had to remain small to accommodate the birth process
(see Fig. 3a). The largest and most important brain information processing networks involve the
neocortex and the subcortical nuclei that relay information to and from the neocortex. The
neocortex is a 2-5 mm thick layer of cells that lies on the surface of the brain (the word cortex
comes from the Latin term meaning bark, as in the bark of a tree). In the cross-section of the
brain shown in Fig. 3b the neocortex is the thin, dark gray strip that follows the brain surface.
The subcortical nuclei are clusters of neurons that serve as both signal relay centers
communicating between the neocortex and the rest of the body, and as relays among different
areas of the cortex. They are located deep in the brain below the cortex and are thus referred to
as "subcortical" nuclei. Because both the neocortex and the subcortical nuclei contain the cell
bodies of neurons they are gray in appearance, thus giving rise to the term "gray matter".
 Two views of the human brain. a. Lateral
view (rostral end is left, caudal is right) shows an apparently uniform
surface marked by gyri and sulcal folds (Right hemisphere of J. Piłsudski's
brain, lateral view, image in the public
domain). b. Coronal cross-section (cut
at approximately the level of the dotted
line in A) stained for cell bodies that
mark neurons. The neocortex is the
thin mantel layer (dark purple) on
the surface of the brain. The white areas
are connecting fiber pathways. Image
reproduced with permission from http://www.brains.rad.msu.edu which is
supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation. Images obtained with permission
from Wiki Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.

Populations of neurons are connected to one another by fibers that extend from cell bodies of
the individual neurons. There are two kinds of connecting fibers, dendrites and axons (see Fig.
2). Dendrites are arrays of short fibers that look like the branches of a tree; collections of
dendrites are often referred to as dendritic arbors. They extend only a short distance away from
the neuron cell body. Their main function is to receive the electrochemical input signals from
other neurons. Axons are long connecting fibers that extend over long distances and make
connections with other neurons, often at the dendrites. Axons act a little like telephone wires in
that they are responsible for sending electrochemical signals to neurons located in distant
locations. Bundles of individual axons from many different neurons within one region of the brain
form fiber tracts that extend to, and make connections with, groups of neurons in individual
axons from many different neurons within one region of the brain form fiber tracts that extend to,
and make connections with, groups of neurons in other regions of the brain forming the
information processing networks. Axons are wrapped in a fatty substance called myelin that, like
insulation on a telephone wire, makes the transmission of electrochemical signals between
regions efficient. Myelin is white in appearance, thus fiber pathways of brain are often referred
to as "white matter", or "white matter pathways".

At the very center of the brain are a series of interconnected cavities that form the ventricular
system of the brain (see Fig. 2b). The ventricular system is filled with a fluid called cerebral
spinal fluid that is completely recycled several times per day. The ventricular system has a
number of important functions including cushioning and protection of the brain, removal of waste
material, and transport of hormones and other substances (Brodal 2010). During brain
development the walls of the ventricles are the site of most neuron production.

Although the neocortex of the brain may appear to be relatively uniform in structure (lateral
view), it is actually parcellated into structurally and functionally distinct areas. The areas differ in
the kinds of neurons they contain, the kinds of input they receive, and in the types of
connections they make with other brain areas. These structural differences result in functional
differences creating brain areas that are specialized for carrying out different kinds of processes.

How does brain development affect the behavior of young people?

 The part of the brain that regulates our impulses continues maturing until 20s. This
means that young people may have difficulties with impulse control. For example, a
young person may feel angry about something that happened at school, and display that
 anger through shouting at their teacher, instead of regulating their emotions and
behaving in more appropriate way.
 Caring, responsive relationships. A child’s relationship with the adults in their life are the
most important influences on their brain development. Loving relationships with
responsive, dependable adults are essential to a child’s healthy development. These
relationships begin at home, with parents, and family.
 The relationships young people have with their peers also takes on increased
importance during adolescence. Adolescents begin to spend more time with their peers,
and these relationships play an increasing role in their emerging sense of self, their well-
being and behavior. This means that peer pressure and risk-taking behavior can become
issues for schools in peer groups of older children.
The greater significance of their peers can also increase anxiety in young people. The opinions
and actions of other young people will matter much more to them, and anxiety around how they
are perceived and how others treat them can be more common.
But not all are negative in peer relationships, peer relationships also have its positive influences
in adolescents.
 Building confidence
 Learning to take turns
 Practicing communication
 Trying new things
 Developing resilience

 In a review article published online Aug. 22, 2017 in trends in Neuroscience, Children’s
National Health System researchers discuss the role of environmental stimuli on the
development of myelin – the fatty insulation that surrounds the extensions that connect
cells throughout the nervous system and make up a large part of the brain’s white
matter. Positive influences, such as exposure to a large vocabulary and novel objects,
can boost the growth of myelin. Conversely, negative influences, such as neglect and
social isolation, can harm it, potentially altering the course of brain development.